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and special occasions, rather than customary mealtimes, because it required freshly killed meat and close attention during cooking. It was easy to ruin the meatâs taste with a smoky fire or negligence to rotate it at regular intervals. Thus, elite families, who were able to afford quality meat, appointed this task to servants or invested in technology like automatic turning devices. With further technological advances, cooking came to accommodate new opportunities. By the 1860s, working families were able to afford low-priced stove models that became sufficiently available. However, the key element of observation during roasting became difficult and dangerous to do with the coal oven. Hence, traditional roasting disappeared as kitchens became no longer equipped for this custom and soon thereafter, "baking" came to be "roasting".
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246:. If a pan is used, the juice can be retained for use in gravy, Yorkshire pudding, etc. During oven roasting, hot air circulates around the meat, cooking all sides evenly. There are several plans for roasting meat: low-temperature cooking, high-temperature cooking, and a combination of both. Each method can be suitable, depending on the food and the tastes of the people.
675:
ingredients, cooking methods, and serving temperatures. The distinct characteristics of roasts for the roast course were at first loosely observed, or perhaps more accurately, the "rules" were in a formative stage for several decades. By the early 18th century, though, certain ingredients and cooking methods were increasingly confined to the roast stage of the meal.
875:), when the church forbade consumption of meat and fowl but not fish. Until the 16th century, white meats (milk, cream, butter, and cheese) and eggs were additionally forbidden in Lent. Beginning in the 17th century, white meats were allowed in Lent. Beginning in the 19th century, eggs were also allowed in Lent.
682:
In the 17th century, large cuts of roasted butcherâs meat and furred game were sometimes served in the roast course; sauced and stuffed meats and pies were also served alongside the roasts; but in the 18th and 19th centuries, all such dishes were served only in the entrĂ©e or entremets courses, always
262:âto be finished cooking before the juices escape. A reason for high temperature roasting is to brown the outside of the food, similar to browning food in a pan before pot roasting or stewing it. Fast cooking gives more variety of flavor, because the outside is brown while the center is much less done.
348:
Before the invention and widespread use of stoves, food was primarily cooked over open flames from a hearth. To roast meat, racks with skewers, or, if accessible, complicated gear arrangements, would be utilized to turn the piece(s). In the past, this method was often associated with the upper class
250:
A low-temperature oven, 95 to 160 °C (200 to 320 °F), is best when cooking with large cuts of meat, turkey and whole chickens. This is not technically roasting temperature, but it is called slow-roasting. The benefit of slow-roasting an item is less moisture loss and a more tender product.
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On lean days, fish replaced meat and fowl in every stage of the meal other than dessert. In the roast course, whole fish replaced meat-day roasts, but the fish were poached or fried, not roasted. The fish were substitutions or counterparts to the roasts served on meat days, corresponding to their
306:
to reduce the loss of moisture by evaporation. In recent times, plastic oven bags have become popular for roasts. These cut cooking times and reduce the loss of moisture during roasting, but reduce flavor development from
Maillard browning, somewhat more like (boiled or steamed) stew or pot roast.
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The salient feature of lean-day fish in the roast course, whether poached or fried, was that they were served âdryâ, placed on a napkin and not served in a sauce or ragoĂ»t. In contrast, poached and fried fish served as entrĂ©es, hors dâĆuvre, or relevĂ©s, were always served in a sauce or ragoĂ»t.
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In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, meat and fowl for the roast course on meat days included all sorts of domestic fowl, feathered game, and small furred game, ingredients that were less commonly included in entrées and entremets. Goose, gosling, and domestic duck were not fashionable in any
352:
Roasting can be applied to a wide variety of meat. In general, it works best for cooking whole chickens, turkey, and leaner cuts of lamb, pork, and beef. The aim is to highlight the flavor of the meat itself rather than a sauce or stew, as it is done in braising or other moist-heat methods. Many
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The objective in any case is to retain as much moisture as possible, while providing the texture and color. As meat cooks, the structure and especially the collagen breaks down, allowing juice to come out of the meat. So meat is juiciest at about medium rare while the juice is coming out. During
265:
The combination method uses high heat just at either the beginning or the end of the cooking process, with most of the cooking at a low temperature. This method produces the golden-brown texture and crust, but maintains more of the moisture than simply cooking at a high temperature, although the
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Roast meats have typically been high-status foods, due in part to the expense and scarcity of meat and in part to the expense of the extra fuel needed for roasting, compared to the fuel used for boiling foods in a pot. For that reason, roast meats were the centerpiece of high-status meals for
674:
While cookbooks and dictionaries of the 17th and 18th centuries rarely discuss the type of dishes appropriate to each stage of the meal with any specificity, roasts and the dishes of the other stages of the meal can be distinguished from each other by certain characteristics, such as their
686:
Roasted fowl and small game in
Classical Service were spit-roasted and nicely browned, served "dry" and not in a sauce or ragoût. Sauces in the roast course might be served alongside the roasted fowl or game, but the roasts were not prepared or served in the sauce like
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The meat and fowl considered appropriate for roasting included domestic fowl, feathered game, small furred game, suckling pig, and, less commonly, lamb. Roasts were rarely of other butcherâs meat, large furred game, or organ meats.
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Other dishes were often served alongside the roasts, including sauced and stuffed meats and meat pies. The roasts themselves might be accompanied by a sauce, but the sauce was served separately from the roast itself.
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Red meats such as beef, lamb, and venison, and certain game birds are often roasted to be "medium rare" "rare", meaning that the center of the roast is still red. Roasting is a preferred method of cooking for most
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Additionally, poached fish in the roast course were prepared with the scales still on the fish, if they were attractive, unlike whole fish served as relevés, which were always served without scales.
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In general, in either case, the meat is removed from the heat before it has finished cooking and left to sit for a few minutes, while the inside cooks further from the residual heat content, known as
251:
More of the collagen that makes meat tough is dissolved in slow cooking. At true roasting temperatures, 200 °C (390 °F) or more, the water inside the muscle is lost at a high rate.
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indicate cooking methods but not ingredients. The menus, though, give some idea of both the ingredients and the cooking methods that were characteristic of each stage of the meal.
420:. Although there is a growing fashion in some restaurants to serve "rose pork", temperature monitoring of the center of the roast is the only sure way to avoid foodborne disease.
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course; turkeys and wild ducks were preferred in their place. Organ meats were often roasted, but they were served in the entrée and entremets courses, not in the roast course.
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Roasting fish is done with whole fish, and will work well with snapper, or any medium-sized, whole round fish such as trout, ocean perch and black sea bass will work.
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method that uses dry heat where hot air covers the food, cooking it evenly on all sides with temperatures of at least 150 °C (300 °F) from an open flame,
77:
on the surface of the food. Roasting uses indirect, diffused heat (as in an oven), and is suitable for slower cooking of meat in a larger, whole piece.
904:
325:. Roasting originally meant cooking meat or a bird on or in front of a fire, as with a grill or spit. It is one of the oldest forms of cooking known.
1419:
Hyman, Philip; Hyman, Mary (1992). "Les livres de cuisine et le commerce des recettes en France aux 15e et 16e siĂšcles". In Carole
Lambert (ed.).
361:. Tying holds them together during roasting, keeping any stuffing inside, and keeps the roast in a round profile, which promotes even cooking. A
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643:. One notable difference is that the roast fowl and meats in the MĂ©nagier were often followed by roast fish, a practice not evident in the
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in a sauce. By the 18th century, only fowl, feathered game, and small furred game were considered appropriate for the roast course.
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For roasting, the food may be placed on a rack, in a roasting pan or, to ensure even application of heat, may be rotated on a
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and then turning down to low is also beneficial when a dark crust and caramelized flavor is desired for the finished product.
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in force from the Middle Ages to the 19th century, the ingredients for every stage of the meal varied between "meat days" (
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In the United States and
Britain, a mix of vegetables and meat roasted together in the same pan are known as a traybake.
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Tomasik, Timothy J. (May 2016). "Cuisine by the Cut of One's
Trousers: Cookbook Marketing in Early Modern France".
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Between the mid-16th and mid-17th century, the stages of the meal underwent several significant changes. Notably,
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Traditionally recognized roasting methods consist only of baking and cooking over or near an open fire.
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are organizing words, "describing the structure of a meal rather than the food itself". The terms
583:(1542), in a collection of menus at the end of the book, the meal is presented in four stages: the
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Larousse
Gastronomique: The New American Edition of the World's Greatest Culinary Encyclopedia
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A 3 kilograms (6.6 lb) top round roast of beef, tied and ready to be browned and roasted
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558:(c. 1300), which includes twenty-nine recipes for various roasts, placed under the heading "
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572:(1393), which also includes menus with roasts in the second and third stages of the meal.
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Among the earliest texts in
Western Europe to include recipes for roast meats and fowl is
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differ from roasting because of the lower temperature and controlled smoke application.
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93:. Meats and vegetables prepared in this way are described as "roasted", e.g., roasted
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Cooking at high temperatures is beneficial if the cut is tender enoughâas in
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Until the late 19th century, roasting by dry heat in an oven was called
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product will not be as moist as low-temperature cooking the whole time.
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871:, literally "fat days"), when all foods were allowed, and "lean days" (
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is normally not technically a roast, since a grill (gridiron) is used.
259:
243:
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139: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1285:(INFLIBNET Centre ed.). New Delhi: Roasting and Smoking of Foods.
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Putting Meat on the
American Table: Taste, Technology, Transformation
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The Most
Excellent Book of Cookery, Livre fort excellent de cuysine
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Failure to Cook These Foods
Properly May Cause Foodborne Illness
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roasts are tied with string prior to roasting, often using the
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The word "menus" appropriately describes this section of the
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579:(c. 1536), more widely known from a later edition titled
3651:
1366:
Arranging the Meal: A History of Table Service in France
1061:
2243:
1299:
Brereton, Georgine E.; Ferrier, Janet M., eds. (1981).
577:
Petit traicté auquel verrez la maniere de faire cuisine
1481:"Recipe: Traybakes pack big flavor into one-pan meals"
1323:"Cooking Meat? Check the New Recommended Temperatures"
1121:
1049:
949:
937:
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1037:
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26:"Roasted" redirects here. For the form of humor, see
1349:, Public Health Dept. of Kern County, 12 August 2015
753:
1414:. The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 5â7.
1013:
728:
Untrussed (untied) and trussed chicken for roasting
695:position in the meal but not their cooking method.
651:
The roast in the "Classical Order" of table service
539:
Roasts in the context of the meal in Western Europe
89:, that has been cooked in this fashion is called a
1001:
913:
1372:]. Translated by Johnson, Julie E. Berkeley:
826:
65:, or other heat source. Roasting can enhance the
4670:
663:became the second stage, followed by the roast,
19:"Roast" redirects here. For other meanings, see
1298:
1079:
989:
290:roasting, meats and vegetables are frequently
85:can be roasted. Any piece of meat, especially
3667:
2259:
1616:
1252:
1115:
515:lend themselves to roasting as well. Roasted
392:and are typically composed of heat-resistant
851:Nouveau Dictionnaire de lâAcadĂ©mie françoise
633:is very similar to that of the menus in the
689:roasted fowl and meats in the entrée course
659:became the first stage of the meal and the
307:They are particularly popular for turkeys.
3674:
3660:
2266:
2252:
1623:
1609:
1418:
1091:
595:(meat or fowl "roasted" in dry heat), and
435:, a roast of meat may be referred to as a
1547:"Roast Chestnuts: A Perfect Winter Snack"
1479:
1031:
199:Learn how and when to remove this message
1545:Siavetti, Stephanie (16 December 2017).
1544:
1467:
1441:
1423:. Paris, MontrĂ©al: Champion-SlatkinâLes
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1294:. New York: Doubleday. pp. 36â38.
1289:
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1043:
967:
955:
591:(foods boiled or simmered "in pots"),
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1604:
1501:The Art of Cookery in the Middle Ages
4653:
2214:
1392:"Hock Locks and Other Accoutrements"
1390:
995:
838:
519:are also a popular snack in winter.
137:adding citations to reliable sources
108:
2230:
1468:Lang, Jennifer Harvey, ed. (1988).
1425:Presses de l'Université de Montréal
897:An Illustrated Guide to Beef Roasts
744:with scallops (France) to be cooked
50:Tudor style roasting meat on a spit
13:
1278:
14:
4695:
4608:Lists of food and beverage topics
1596:
1256:; Tomasik, Timothy, eds. (2014).
629:The arrangement of dishes in the
16:Cooking method using dry air heat
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810:Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
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113:
2022:Indirect grilling/Plank cooking
639:, written 150 years before the
599:(departure from the table).
581:Livre fort excellent de cuisine
124:needs additional citations for
1374:University of California Press
961:
889:
827:Notes, references, and sources
1:
3293:Countries by meat consumption
1522:Scully, Terence, ed. (1988).
1282:Roasting and Smoking of Foods
882:
442:
3580:Non-vegetarian food in India
3298:Countries by meat production
1290:Ashley, Clifford W. (1944).
971:Video: Classic-Tying a Roast
439:, or a leg, if it is a leg.
7:
4620:Outline of food preparation
3303:Food and drink prohibitions
1864:Bain-marie (Double boiling)
1080:Brereton & Ferrier 1981
749:
530:
317:prepared on a rotating spit
10:
4700:
2342:
2150:List of cooking appliances
1642:List of cooking techniques
1528:University of Ottawa Press
1524:The Viandier of Taillevent
1245:
1118:, pp. 210â27, 238â48.
1082:, pp. 174â81, 225â30.
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3345:Psychology of eating meat
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1639:
1451:W.W. Norton & Company
1397:. USDA FSIS. October 2009
1226:, pp. 14â17, 43, 65.
1116:Albala & Tomasik 2014
587:(entrance to the table),
455:Some vegetables, such as
4020:Eating utensil etiquette
3418:Beef hormone controversy
2273:
1499:Scully, Terence (1995).
1410:Horowitz, Roger (2006).
1292:The Ashley Book of Knots
1214:, pp. 15â20, 64â65.
831:
83:root and bulb vegetables
2155:List of cooking vessels
1725:Grilling (charbroiling)
1580:10.1484/J.FOOD.5.115341
1449:. New York and London:
1421:Du manuscrit Ă la table
907:6 February 2009 at the
800:Low-temperature cooking
522:
343:
39:Slow-roasting pig on a
3908:Service à la française
3443:Water holding capacity
1730:Roasting (traditional)
1474:Crown Publishers, Inc.
1092:Hyman & Hyman 1992
452:
408:, and certain cuts of
318:
279:
235:
51:
43:
21:Roast (disambiguation)
3783:Apéritif and digestif
3428:Feed conversion ratio
3330:Ethics of eating meat
1166:, pp. 59, 61â65.
895:Blaisdell S. (2002).
548:Early use of the term
450:
313:
277:
214:
49:
38:
4684:Culinary terminology
4454:Online food ordering
3481:Environmental impact
1447:The Language of Food
1362:Flandrin, Jean-Louis
1301:Le Menagier de Paris
645:Livre fort excellent
631:Livre fort excellent
569:Le MĂ©nagier de Paris
294:on the surface with
133:improve this article
4067:Korean table d'hĂŽte
3878:Conveyor belt sushi
1106:, pp. 239â244.
863:In accordance with
372:used to secure the
278:Whole roast chicken
4679:Cooking techniques
4459:Virtual restaurant
4282:Blue-plate special
3913:Service Ă la russe
3893:Full-course dinner
3605:Warmed-over flavor
3373:Semi-vegetarianism
2027:Stir frying (chao)
1487:, 22 February 2022
1178:, pp. 11, 21.
1154:, pp. 62, 64.
1070:, pp. 81â112.
901:Cook's Illustrated
865:church regulations
453:
451:Roasted vegetables
319:
284:carry over cooking
280:
236:
52:
44:
4666:
4665:
4231:Instant breakfast
4211:Emergency rations
3959:Food presentation
3928:Table reservation
3649:
3648:
3316:
3315:
2241:
2240:
2170:Food preservation
2094:Burying in ground
1987:Carryover cooking
1975:
1974:
1887:
1886:
1748:
1747:
1694:Roasting (modern)
1553:. Huffington Post
1505:The Boydell Press
1260:. Totnes, Devon:
1238:, pp. 38â43.
1202:, pp. 13â20.
1190:, pp. 17â19.
1142:, pp. 65â66.
1094:, pp. 66â68.
958:, pp. 36â38.
854:, 1718, p. II:50.
796:(roasted chicken)
636:MĂ©nagier de Paris
566:" also appear in
376:(hind legs) of a
233:Yorkshire pudding
209:
208:
201:
183:
75:Maillard browning
4691:
4656:
4655:
4646:
4645:
4615:Meal preparation
4287:Combination meal
4196:Convenience food
3845:Meal replacement
3707:Second breakfast
3676:
3669:
3662:
3653:
3652:
3638:
3637:
3628:
3627:
3600:Roadkill cuisine
3395:Meat alternative
3390:Plant-based diet
3308:Meat substitutes
3203:
3202:
2354:
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2268:
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2209:
2208:
2203:Drink portal
2201:
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2165:Food preparation
2053:Pressure cooking
1896:
1895:
1757:
1756:
1653:
1652:
1625:
1618:
1611:
1602:
1601:
1591:
1574:(2â3): 223â247.
1568:Food and History
1562:
1560:
1558:
1541:
1518:
1495:
1494:
1492:
1476:
1464:
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1370:LâOrdre des mets
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593:services de rost
457:brussels sprouts
204:
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4041:Regional styles
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3630:Food portal
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3536:Case-ready meat
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3486:Factory farming
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2439:Lamb and mutton
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2193:Food portal
2185:
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2160:Outdoor cooking
2138:
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2068:Thermal cooking
2058:Pressure frying
2031:
1971:
1950:
1883:
1874:Double steaming
1852:
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1668:Hot salt frying
1644:
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1485:The Independent
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1305:Clarendon Press
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1046:, pp. 6â7.
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978:on 25 July 2014
966:
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946:, pp. 5â7.
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909:Wayback Machine
894:
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784:Coffee roasting
780:or pot roasting
762:
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604:entree de table
585:entree de table
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3641:Category: Meat
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3383:Pollotarianism
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2002:Caramelization
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1597:External links
1595:
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1537:978-0776601748
1536:
1519:
1513:
1503:. Woodbridge:
1496:
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28:Roast (comedy)
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4308:
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4300:
4298:
4295:
4293:
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4288:
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4280:
4278:
4275:
4274:
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4263:
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4254:
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4232:
4229:
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4209:
4207:
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4199:
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4156:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4130:Pu pu platter
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4072:Bandeja paisa
4070:
4068:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4045:
4043:
4039:
4033:
4032:Waiting staff
4030:
4028:
4025:
4021:
4018:
4017:
4016:
4015:Table manners
4013:
4011:
4008:
4007:
4005:
4001:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3987:
3985:
3984:Table setting
3982:
3980:
3977:
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3972:
3970:
3967:
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3879:
3876:
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3869:
3866:
3865:
3863:
3861:
3860:Table service
3857:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
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3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3795:
3791:
3789:
3788:Hors d'oeuvre
3786:
3784:
3781:
3780:
3778:
3776:
3769:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
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3700:
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3657:
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3642:
3633:
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3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3564:
3561:
3560:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3548:Cultured meat
3546:
3542:
3539:
3538:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3523:
3521:
3515:
3507:
3504:
3503:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
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3487:
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3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3458:
3456:
3454:
3453:Meat industry
3450:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
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3413:
3411:
3407:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3375:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3368:Vegetarianism
3366:
3365:
3363:
3359:
3351:
3348:
3347:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3340:Animal rights
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3327:
3325:
3319:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3290:
3288:
3284:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3246:
3243:
3242:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3212:
3210:
3208:
3204:
3201:
3199:List articles
3197:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3100:Luncheon meat
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
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3007:
3005:
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2909:
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2900:
2897:
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2881:
2879:
2877:
2873:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
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2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
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2789:
2787:
2784:
2783:
2781:
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2773:
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2755:
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2740:
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2735:
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2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2697:Pacific saury
2695:
2693:
2692:Orange roughy
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
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2648:
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2578:
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2560:
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2555:
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2550:
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2540:
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2528:
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2523:
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2518:
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2500:
2498:
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2427:
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2422:
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2415:
2412:
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2405:
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2400:
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2257:
2255:
2250:
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2246:
2236:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2212:
2204:
2194:
2189:
2182:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2147:
2145:
2141:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2081:
2079:
2075:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2040:
2038:
2034:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1962:Gentle frying
1960:
1959:
1957:
1953:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1901:
1897:
1894:
1890:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1861:
1859:
1857:Indirect heat
1855:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1803:
1799:
1793:
1790:
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1780:
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1775:
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1770:
1768:
1765:
1764:
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1758:
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1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1717:
1715:
1711:
1705:
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1700:
1697:
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1690:
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1684:
1680:
1674:
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1669:
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1664:
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1654:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1626:
1621:
1619:
1614:
1612:
1607:
1606:
1603:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1564:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1539:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1520:
1516:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1497:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1475:
1471:
1466:
1462:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1443:Jurafsky, Dan
1440:
1436:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1417:
1413:
1408:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1345:
1344:
1339:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1297:
1293:
1288:
1284:
1283:
1277:
1273:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1250:
1237:
1236:Flandrin 2007
1232:
1225:
1224:Flandrin 2007
1220:
1213:
1212:Flandrin 2007
1208:
1201:
1200:Flandrin 2007
1196:
1189:
1188:Flandrin 2007
1184:
1177:
1176:Flandrin 2007
1172:
1165:
1164:Flandrin 2007
1160:
1153:
1152:Flandrin 2007
1148:
1141:
1140:Flandrin 2007
1136:
1130:, p. 22.
1129:
1128:Jurafsky 2014
1124:
1117:
1112:
1105:
1100:
1093:
1088:
1081:
1076:
1069:
1064:
1058:, p. 12.
1057:
1056:Flandrin 2007
1052:
1045:
1040:
1033:
1028:
1021:
1020:Siavetti 2017
1016:
1009:
1004:
997:
992:
977:
973:
972:
964:
957:
952:
945:
944:Horowitz 2006
940:
933:
932:Larousse 1988
928:
921:
916:
910:
906:
902:
898:
892:
888:
874:
873:jours maigres
870:
866:
860:
853:
852:
847:
841:
837:
821:
818:
816:
813:
811:
808:
806:
803:
801:
798:
795:
792:
790:
787:
785:
782:
779:
776:
774:
771:
770:
765:
754:
743:
736:
731:
724:
719:
712:
707:
706:
700:
696:
692:
690:
684:
680:
676:
672:
670:
666:
662:
658:
648:
646:
642:
641:Petit traicté
638:
637:
632:
627:
623:
619:
617:
613:
609:
605:
600:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
575:In the later
573:
571:
570:
565:
561:
557:
556:
545:
536:
528:
520:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
471:/aubergines,
470:
466:
462:
458:
449:
440:
438:
434:
430:
426:
421:
419:
415:
411:
407:
401:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
368:
364:
360:
359:packer's knot
356:
350:
341:
339:
335:
331:
326:
324:
316:
312:
308:
305:
301:
297:
293:
287:
285:
276:
269:
264:
261:
257:
253:
249:
248:
247:
245:
241:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
213:
203:
200:
192:
181:
178:
174:
171:
167:
164:
160:
157:
153:
150: â
149:
145:
144:Find sources:
138:
134:
128:
127:
122:This section
120:
116:
111:
110:
102:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
48:
42:
37:
33:
29:
22:
4520:Soup kitchen
4510:Picnic table
4411:Soup kitchen
4327:Tasting menu
4322:Table d'hĂŽte
4246:Packed lunch
4221:Field ration
4186:Airline meal
3979:Serving size
3974:PiÚce montée
3937:Presentation
3923:Small plates
3809:
3794:Amuse-bouche
3792:
3717:Coffee break
3690:Common meals
3570:Mystery meat
3526:Arachnophagy
3466:Branch house
3433:Preservation
3410:Meat science
3361:Alternatives
3350:Meat paradox
3272:Smoked foods
3149:
2911:Grasshoppers
2856:Sea cucumber
2851:Shrimp/prawn
2036:Device-based
1980:Mixed medium
1833:Slow cooking
1729:
1693:
1663:Dry roasting
1571:
1567:
1555:. Retrieved
1550:
1523:
1500:
1489:, retrieved
1484:
1472:. New York:
1469:
1446:
1420:
1411:
1399:. Retrieved
1369:
1365:
1351:, retrieved
1342:
1330:. Retrieved
1327:www.usda.gov
1326:
1300:
1291:
1281:
1257:
1231:
1219:
1207:
1195:
1183:
1171:
1159:
1147:
1135:
1123:
1111:
1104:Tomasik 2016
1099:
1087:
1075:
1063:
1051:
1039:
1027:
1015:
1008:Failure 2015
1003:
991:
980:, retrieved
976:the original
970:
968:Epicurious,
963:
951:
939:
927:
920:Cooking 2011
915:
900:
891:
872:
868:
859:
850:
845:
840:
820:Roasting pan
789:Dry roasting
740:Roasting of
697:
693:
685:
681:
677:
673:
654:
644:
640:
634:
630:
628:
624:
620:
615:
611:
607:
603:
601:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
574:
567:
564:Rost de char
563:
559:
553:
551:
544:centuries.
542:
534:
526:
475:/courgette,
454:
436:
422:
402:
389:
370:accoutrement
351:
347:
327:
322:
320:
288:
281:
256:filet mignon
237:
217:Sunday roast
195:
186:
176:
169:
162:
155:
143:
131:Please help
126:verification
123:
90:
54:
53:
32:
4630:Tea culture
4525:Street food
4485:Dining room
4331:Degustation
4312:School meal
4297:Free refill
4226:Frozen meal
4150:SmörgÄsbord
4125:Plate lunch
3949:Dining room
3888:Finger food
3873:smörgÄsbord
3815:Main course
3553:Entomophagy
3541:Meat diaper
3531:Cannibalism
3207:Meat dishes
2989:Charcuterie
2952:preparation
2936:Mopane worm
2926:Mezcal worm
2235:WikiProject
2175:Food safety
2063:Slow cooker
2048:Microwaving
1941:Stir frying
1926:Deep frying
1720:Charbroiler
1332:11 February
1254:Albala, Ken
1068:Scully 1988
1044:Scully 1995
956:Ashley 1944
555:Le Viandier
493:cauliflower
97:or roasted
4673:Categories
4515:Restaurant
4490:Food truck
4421:Tableround
4376:Commercium
4341:Value menu
4336:Value meal
4307:Kids' meal
4302:Happy hour
4292:Free lunch
4277:Ă la carte
4270:meal deals
4251:Space food
4241:Ninja diet
4140:Rijsttafel
4077:DastarkhÄn
4010:Dress code
3989:Tablecloth
3969:Nyotaimori
3771:Components
3610:White meat
3585:Pink slime
3563:Artificial
3438:Tenderness
3323:psychology
3321:Ethics and
3155:Salt-cured
2861:Sea urchin
2429:Guinea pig
2109:Fermenting
2043:Air frying
1992:Barbecuing
1931:Pan frying
1911:Blackening
1838:Smothering
1782:Parboiling
1735:Rotisserie
1682:Convection
1656:Conduction
1634:techniques
1526:. Ottawa:
1514:0851156118
1314:0198157487
1303:. Oxford:
883:References
869:jours gras
815:Roast beef
805:Pan frying
602:The terms
443:Vegetables
380:such as a
365:lock is a
334:Barbecuing
260:strip loin
244:rotisserie
229:vegetables
221:roast beef
189:April 2021
159:newspapers
148:"Roasting"
41:rotisserie
4625:Salumeria
4480:Cafeteria
4426:Tea party
4381:Dining in
4216:Fast food
4058:Cicchetti
4053:Antipasto
3994:Tableware
3944:Al fresco
3830:Entremets
3825:Side dish
3712:Elevenses
3702:Breakfast
3501:Slaughter
3423:Drip loss
3145:Rillettes
3105:Marinated
3043:Forcemeat
3029:Fermented
2969:Barbecued
2941:Palm grub
2772:Shellfish
2742:Swordfish
2677:Mahi Mahi
2507:Crocodile
2482:Alligator
2361:Livestock
2291:Cassowary
2017:Fricassee
2007:Deglazing
1899:High heat
1892:Fat-based
1869:Sous-vide
1828:Simmering
1792:Reduction
1777:Decoction
1767:Blanching
1760:High heat
1713:Radiation
1588:1780-3187
1364:(2007) .
996:Hock 2009
665:entremets
517:chestnuts
497:asparagus
487:/swedes,
485:rutabagas
469:eggplants
433:Australia
355:reef knot
81:and most
4648:Category
4561:Cookbook
4535:Traiteur
4436:Catering
4406:Sittning
4371:Barbecue
4256:Take-out
3737:Merienda
3595:Red meat
3590:Raw meat
3519:subjects
3400:Veganism
3267:Meatball
3130:Pemmican
3115:Meatloaf
3110:Meatball
2950:Cuts and
2931:Silkworm
2921:Mealworm
2899:Crickets
2811:Crayfish
2791:Calamari
2687:Milkfish
2672:Mackerel
2667:Kingfish
2642:Flounder
2542:Pangolin
2527:Kangaroo
2512:Elephant
2497:Bushmeat
2227:Cookbook
2211:Category
2143:See also
2119:Pickling
2077:Non-heat
1997:Braising
1967:Sweating
1955:Low heat
1946:Sautéing
1916:Browning
1879:Steaming
1843:Steeping
1823:Poaching
1818:Infusion
1813:Creaming
1808:Coddling
1801:Low heat
1787:Shocking
1740:Toasting
1704:Barbecue
1551:HuffPost
1491:15 March
1445:(2014).
1401:30 April
1279:Arvind.
905:Archived
846:MĂ©nagier
778:Braising
750:See also
612:potaiges
589:potaiges
531:Traybake
513:plantain
489:parsnips
473:zucchini
461:potatoes
390:roasting
330:Grilling
315:Shawarma
225:potatoes
87:red meat
69:through
55:Roasting
4658:Commons
4586:outline
4581:Cuisine
4566:Cooking
4544:Related
4500:Kitchen
4396:Potluck
4359:Banquet
4201:Dosirak
4170:Zakuski
4120:Okazuya
4105:Kaiseki
4096:Izakaya
4086:Yum cha
4082:Dim sum
4063:Banchan
3964:Garnish
3903:RodĂzio
3898:Platter
3840:Savoury
3835:Dessert
3775:courses
3762:Siu yeh
3558:Marbled
3517:Related
3496:Packing
3471:Butcher
3335:Carnism
3277:Sausage
3252:Seafood
3220:Chicken
3190:Tartare
3185:Tandoor
3165:Sausage
3150:Roasted
3135:Poached
3125:Pickled
3048:Cretons
3038:supreme
2979:Braised
2974:Biltong
2876:Insects
2841:Scallop
2831:Octopus
2821:Lobster
2816:Dolphin
2786:Abalone
2778:seafood
2762:Walleye
2747:Tilapia
2722:Sardine
2712:Pollock
2662:Herring
2657:Halibut
2652:Haddock
2647:Grouper
2632:Crappie
2622:Catfish
2602:Anchovy
2572:Venison
2389:Buffalo
2379:Beefalo
2316:Ostrich
2296:Chicken
2283:Poultry
2219:Commons
2134:Souring
2129:Salting
2114:Juicing
2089:Brining
1906:Basting
1848:Stewing
1772:Boiling
1699:Smoking
1673:Searing
1632:Cooking
1353:18 July
1246:Sources
703:Gallery
669:dessert
505:peppers
481:turnips
477:pumpkin
465:carrots
429:Ireland
425:Britain
406:poultry
388:during
382:chicken
357:or the
338:smoking
268:Searing
173:scholar
105:Methods
95:chicken
59:cooking
4598:Eating
4530:Tavern
4391:Picnic
4236:JĆ«bako
4206:Ekiben
4179:Packed
4165:Tiffin
4145:Sadhya
4100:Sakana
4003:Dining
3868:Buffet
3805:Entrée
3752:Supper
3747:Dinner
3742:Tiffin
3722:Brunch
3639:
3491:Jobber
3476:Cutter
3461:Broker
3262:Steaks
3180:Stewed
3170:Smoked
3160:Salumi
3140:Potted
3090:Kidney
3070:Ground
3065:Frozen
3034:Fillet
3014:Cutlet
3004:Corned
2999:Confit
2984:Burger
2915:locust
2894:Cicada
2836:Oyster
2826:Mussel
2796:Chiton
2776:other
2717:Salmon
2682:Marlin
2567:Turtle
2557:Rabbit
2532:Monkey
2522:Iguana
2464:Ć»ubroĆ
2419:Snails
2414:Donkey
2369:Alpaca
2336:Turkey
2321:Pigeon
2104:Drying
2099:Curing
2012:Flambé
1921:Frying
1689:Baking
1586:
1557:3 July
1534:
1511:
1457:
1431:
1380:
1311:
1268:
982:28 May
742:burbot
667:, and
661:entrée
657:potage
501:squash
431:, and
386:turkey
323:baking
296:butter
292:basted
231:, and
175:
168:
161:
154:
146:
99:squash
67:flavor
4593:Drink
4416:Supra
4401:Seder
4386:Iftar
4266:Menus
4191:Bento
4160:Thali
4155:Tapas
4027:Toast
3850:Snack
3820:Salad
3810:Roast
3757:Iftar
3727:Lunch
3697:Suhur
3683:Meals
3575:Offal
3286:Other
3175:Steak
3120:Offal
3095:Liver
3085:Kebab
3080:Jerky
3060:Fried
3019:Dried
3009:Cured
2964:Bacon
2904:Flour
2866:Whale
2752:Trout
2727:Shark
2702:Perch
2562:Snake
2537:Mouse
2444:Llama
2434:Horse
2394:Camel
2384:Bison
2326:Quail
2311:Goose
2124:Purée
2084:Aging
1395:(PDF)
1368:[
1347:(PDF)
832:Notes
794:Hendl
773:Asado
437:joint
416:, or
398:metal
394:nylon
302:, or
180:JSTOR
166:books
91:roast
79:Meats
57:is a
4603:Food
4571:Chef
4556:Cook
4505:Mess
4475:Café
4115:Meze
4091:Fika
4048:Anju
3883:Dish
3800:Soup
3773:and
3257:Veal
3240:Pork
3235:Lamb
3230:Goat
3225:Fish
3215:Beef
3053:Pùté
2994:Chop
2959:Aged
2884:Ants
2846:Seal
2806:Crab
2801:Clam
2757:Tuna
2737:Swai
2732:Sole
2707:Pike
2617:Carp
2612:Bass
2607:Basa
2594:Fish
2582:Wolf
2552:Hare
2502:Boar
2492:Bear
2474:Game
2454:Veal
2449:Pork
2424:Frog
2404:Goat
2374:Beef
2331:Rhea
2301:Duck
2275:Meat
1584:ISSN
1559:2021
1532:ISBN
1509:ISBN
1493:2022
1455:ISBN
1429:ISBN
1403:2024
1378:ISBN
1355:2016
1334:2023
1309:ISBN
1266:ISBN
984:2009
616:rost
614:and
606:and
523:Fish
511:and
418:lamb
414:pork
410:beef
378:bird
374:hock
367:food
363:hock
344:Meat
336:and
300:lard
240:spit
152:news
73:and
63:oven
4495:Inn
4438:and
4268:and
3732:Tea
3245:Ham
3075:Ham
3024:Dum
2774:and
2637:Eel
2627:Cod
2577:Dog
2547:Rat
2517:Fox
2487:Bat
2459:Yak
2409:Dog
2399:Cat
2306:Emu
1753:Wet
1649:Dry
1576:doi
509:yam
503:,
423:In
396:or
384:or
304:oil
258:or
242:or
135:by
4675::
4329:/
4098:/
4084:/
4065:/
1582:.
1572:14
1570:.
1549:.
1530:.
1507:.
1483:,
1453:.
1427:.
1376:.
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1307:.
1264:.
903:.
899:.
691:.
671:.
647:.
507:,
499:,
495:,
491:,
483:,
479:,
467:,
463:,
459:,
427:,
412:,
400:.
298:,
286:.
227:,
223:,
215:A
101:.
3675:e
3668:t
3661:v
3036:/
2917:)
2913:(
2267:e
2260:t
2253:v
1624:e
1617:t
1610:v
1590:.
1578::
1561:.
1540:.
1517:.
1463:.
1437:.
1405:.
1386:.
1336:.
1317:.
1274:.
1034:.
1022:.
1010:.
998:.
922:.
202:)
196:(
191:)
187:(
177:·
170:·
163:·
156:·
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30:.
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