Sasanian Empire - Knowledge

4441: 3659: 3876: 5961: 6557: 3009: 5013: 4038: 5037: 2314: 120: 2913: 6627:" or Mother of God. While the teaching of the Council of Ephesus was accepted within the Roman Empire, the Sasanian church disagreed with the condemnation of Nestorius' teachings. When Nestorius was deposed as patriarch, a number of his followers fled to the Sasanian Empire. Persian emperors used this opportunity to strengthen Nestorius' position within the Sasanian church (which made up the vast majority of the Christians in the predominantly Zoroastrian Persian Empire) by eliminating the most important pro-Roman clergymen in Persia and making sure that their places were taken by Nestorians. This was to assure that these Christians would be loyal to the Persian Empire, and not to the Roman. 12282: 5822: 5276: 5590: 3433: 2482: 108: 4781: 3519: 661: 4669: 5578: 4489: 7091: 3983: 5570: 5174: 2425: 2462:). The city, well protected by high mountains and easily defensible due to the narrow passes that approached it, became the center of Ardashir's efforts to gain more power. It was surrounded by a high, circular wall, probably copied from that of Darabgerd. Ardashir's palace was on the north side of the city; remains of it are extant. After establishing his rule over Pars, Ardashir rapidly extended his territory, demanding fealty from the local princes of Fars, and gaining control over the neighbouring provinces of 14055: 4696:, continued as Persia's principal western enemy, and main enemy in general. Hostilities between the two empires became more frequent. The Sassanids, similar to the Roman Empire, were in a constant state of conflict with neighboring kingdoms and nomadic hordes. Although the threat of nomadic incursions could never be fully resolved, the Sassanids generally dealt much more successfully with these matters than did the Romans, due to their policy of making coordinated campaigns against threatening nomads. 3241: 2605: 2401: 3946: 3710: 6466: 5304:, "suggest that the king was at the center of the world and the sun and moon revolved around him." In effect he was the "king of the four corners of the world", which was an old Mesopotamian idea. The king saw all other rulers, such as the Romans, Turks, and Chinese, as being beneath him. The king wore colorful clothes, makeup, a heavy crown, while his beard was decorated with gold. The early Sasanian kings considered themselves of divine descent; they called themselves "bay" (divine). 4607:. The development of siege weapons was a useful weapon during conflicts with Rome, in which success hinged upon the ability to seize cities and other fortified points; conversely, the Sassanids also developed a number of techniques for defending their own cities from attack. The Sassanid army was much like the preceding Parthian army, although some of the Sassanid's heavy cavalry were equipped with lances, while Parthian armies were heavily equipped with bows. The Roman historian 3319: 2720: 4575: 2828: 2478:. This expansion quickly came to the attention of Artabanus IV, the Parthian king, who initially ordered the governor of Khuzestan to wage war against Ardashir in 224, but Ardashir was victorious in the ensuing battles. In a second attempt to destroy Ardashir, Artabanus himself met Ardashir in battle at Hormozgan, where the former met his death. Following the death of the Parthian ruler, Ardashir went on to invade the western provinces of the now defunct Parthian Empire. 5558: 4905: 3122: 4337:, praised the "excellent administration of the Sasanian kings, their well-ordered policy, their care for their subjects, and the prosperity of their domains". In normal times, the monarchical office was hereditary, but might be transferred by the king to a younger son; in two instances the supreme power was held by queens. When no direct heir was available, the nobles and prelates chose a ruler, but their choice was restricted to members of the royal family. 16315: 12576: 73: 16325: 13280: 7125: 89: 6228: 7615: 1890: 2824:, leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia. Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius's force, to the former's disadvantage: the rugged Armenian terrain was favourable to Roman infantry, but not to Sassanid cavalry. Local aid gave Galerius the advantage of surprise over the Persian forces, and, in two successive battles, Galerius secured victories over Narseh. 7016: 5883: 4548:. Because controlling the Persian Gulf was an economic necessity, the Sasanian navy worked to keep it safe from piracy, prevent Roman encroachment, and keep the Arab tribes from getting hostile. However, it is believed by many historians that the naval force could not have been a strong one, as the men serving in the navy were those who were confined in prisons. The leader of the navy bore the title of 3027: 3759:(602–610) in 602, however, Khosrow II used the murder of his benefactor as a pretext to begin a new invasion, which benefited from continuing civil war in the Byzantine Empire and met little effective resistance. Khosrow's generals systematically subdued the heavily fortified frontier cities of Byzantine Mesopotamia and Armenia, laying the foundations for unprecedented expansion. The Persians overran 5834: 4563: 6182:

parallel celebrations for Nowruz and other Zoroastrian celebrations would often occur within days of each other, in defiance of the new official calendar dates, causing much confusion and friction between the laity and the ruling class. A compromise on this by the Sassanids was later introduced, by linking the parallel celebrations as a 6-day celebration/feast. This was done for all except Nowruz.

7688: 4777:, a Sassanid vassal kingdom, was established to form a buffer zone between the empire's heartland and the Bedouin tribes. The dissolution of the Kingdom of Al-Hirah by Khosrau II in 602 contributed greatly to decisive Sassanid defeats suffered against Bedouin Arabs later in the century. These defeats resulted in a sudden takeover of the Sassanid empire by Bedouin tribes under the Islamic banner. 12346: 5445:(property) and were liable to the same legal treatment as nonhuman property (for example, they could be sold at will, rented, owned jointly, inherited, given as security for a loan, etc.), Sasanian courts did not treat them completely as objects; for example, slaves were allowed to testify in court in cases concerning them, rather than only permitted to be represented by their owners. 4986:) were given high titles at the Chinese court. On at least two occasions, the last possibly in 670, Chinese troops were sent with Peroz in order to restore him to the Sassanid throne. Narsieh later attained the position of a commander of the Chinese imperial guards, and his descendants lived in China as respected princes, Sassanian refugees fleeing from the Arab conquest to 4294:(chief priest). The mowbed's job was to deal with estates and other things relating to legal matters. Sasanian rule was characterized by considerable centralization, ambitious urban planning, agricultural development, and technological improvements. Below the king, a powerful bureaucracy carried out much of the affairs of government; the head of the bureaucracy was the 5151:, which was kept in a treasure chamber. The king of India gave Borzuya permission to read the Kalila, provided that he did not make a copy of it. Borzuya accepted the condition but each day memorized a chapter of the book. When he returned to his room he would record what he had memorized that day, thus creating a copy of the book, which he sent to Iran. In Iran, 6735:

Greek was commonplace among the Romans/Byzantines, the rivals of the Sasanians. Parthian soon disappeared as an administrative language too, but was continued to be spoken and written in the eastern part of the Sasanian Empire, the homeland of the Parthians. Furthermore, many of the Parthian aristocrats who had entered into Sasanian service after the fall of the

5255:, and others. Many of these prisoners were experienced workers, who were used to build things such as cities, bridges, and dams. This allowed the Sasanians to become familiar with Roman technology. The impact these foreigners made on the economy was significant, as many of them were Christians, and the spread of the religion accelerated throughout the empire. 4596:. The first cavalry force, composed of elite noblemen trained since youth for military service, was supported by light cavalry, infantry and archers. Mercenaries and tribal people of the empire, including the Turks, Kushans, Sarmatians, Khazars, Georgians, and Armenians were included in these first cavalry units. The second cavalry involved the use of the 6070:. Gushnasp had accused Ardashir I of having forsaken tradition by usurping the throne, and that while his actions "may have been good for the World" they were "bad for the faith". Tansar refuted these charges in his letter to Gushnasp by proclaiming that not all of the old ways had been good, and that Ardashir was more virtuous than his predecessors. The 3194:. Both were physically and diplomatically powerful, opportunistic, practiced religious tolerance and provided freedom for the rise of religious minorities. Yazdegerd stopped the persecution against the Christians and punished nobles and priests who persecuted them. His reign marked a relatively peaceful era with the Romans, and he even took the young 4006:, arrived in Persian territory. According to Howard-Johnston, years of warfare had exhausted both the Byzantines and the Persians. The Sassanids were further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation, religious unrest, rigid social stratification, the increasing power of the provincial landholders, and a rapid turnover of rulers, facilitating the 5639:. Much of what later became known as Muslim culture, including architecture and writing, was originally drawn from Persian culture. At its peak, the Sasanian Empire stretched from western Anatolia to northwest India (today Pakistan), but its influence was felt far beyond these political boundaries. Sasanian motifs found their way into the art of 3553:(527–565) paid Khosrow I 440,000 pieces of gold as a part of the "eternal peace" treaty of 532. In 540, Khosrow broke the treaty and invaded Syria, sacking Antioch and extorting large sums of money from a number of other cities. Further successes followed: in 541 Lazica defected to the Persian side, and in 542 a major Byzantine offensive in 3611:, which was taken by the Persians. Capitalizing on this success, the Persians then ravaged Syria, causing Justin II to agree to make annual payments in exchange for a five-year truce on the Mesopotamian front, although the war continued elsewhere. In 576 Khosrow I led his last campaign, an offensive into Anatolia which sacked 4617:

that fell upon them could lodge only where they could see a little through tiny openings opposite the pupil of the eye, or where through the tip of their nose they were able to get a little breath. Of these, some who were armed with pikes, stood so motionless that you would have thought them held fast by clamps of bronze.

5791:, or arches built across each corner of the square, thereby converting it into an octagon on which it is simple to place the dome. The dome chamber in the palace of Firuzabad is the earliest surviving example of the use of the squinch, suggesting that this architectural technique was probably invented in Persia. 3647:

construction of new buildings. He rebuilt the canals and restocked the farms destroyed in the wars. He built strong fortifications at the passes and placed subject tribes in carefully chosen towns on the frontiers to act as guardians against invaders. He was tolerant of all religions, though he decreed that

3205:(421–438), one of the most well-known Sasanian kings and the hero of many myths. These myths persisted even after the destruction of the Sasanian Empire by the Arabs. Bahram gained the crown after Yazdegerd's sudden death (or assassination), which occurred when the grandees opposed the king with the help of 4692:. The Sassanids, who succeeded the Parthians, were recognized as one of the leading world powers alongside its neighboring rival the Byzantine Empire, or Eastern Roman Empire, for a period of more than 400 years. Following the division of the Roman Empire in 395, the Byzantine Empire, with its capital at 3401:, son of Bamdad, who demanded that the rich should divide their wives and their wealth with the poor. By adopting the doctrine of the Mazdakites, his intention evidently was to break the influence of the magnates and the growing aristocracy. These reforms led to his being deposed and imprisoned in the 4523:

as "armed like gladiators" and "obey orders like so many horse-boys". The Dailamite people also served as infantry and were Iranian people who lived mainly within Gilan, Iranian Azerbaijan and Mazandaran. They are reported as having fought with weapons such as daggers, swords and javelins and reputed

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shortly afterward. Thus the Muslims were able to seize a powerful financial resource, leaving the Sassanid government strapped for funds. A number of Sassanid governors attempted to combine their forces to throw back the invaders, but the effort was crippled by the lack of a strong central authority,

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The Sassanids never mounted a truly effective resistance to the pressure applied by the initial Arab armies. Yazdegerd was a boy at the mercy of his advisers and incapable of uniting a vast country crumbling into small feudal kingdoms, despite the fact that the Byzantines, under similar pressure from

3844:(610–641) drew on all his diminished and devastated empire's remaining resources, reorganised his armies, and mounted a remarkable, risky counter-offensive. Between 622 and 627, he campaigned against the Persians in Anatolia and the Caucasus, winning a string of victories against Persian forces under 6074:

included some attacks on the religious practices and orientation of the Parthians, who did not follow an orthodox Zoroastrian tradition but rather a heterodox one, and so attempted to justify Ardashir's rebellion against them by arguing that Zoroastrianism had 'decayed' after Alexander's invasion, a

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He first led his small but disciplined army south against the Arabs, whom he defeated, securing the southern areas of the empire. He then began his first campaign against the Romans in the west, where Persian forces won a series of battles but were unable to make territorial gains due to the failure

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there had been no intercalation. Thus with a quarter-day being lost each year, the Zoroastrian holy year had slowly slipped backwards, with Nowruz eventually ending up in July. A great council was therefore convened and it was decided that Nowruz be moved back to the original position it had during

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and took it upon himself to help establish numerous Bahram fires throughout Iran in the place of the 'bagins / ayazans' (monuments and temples containing images and idols of cult-deities) that had proliferated during the Parthian era. In expressing his doctrinal orthodoxy, Kartir also encouraged an

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and bridges, well patrolled, enabled state post and merchant caravans to link Ctesiphon with all provinces; and harbors were built in the Persian Gulf to quicken trade with India. Sasanian merchants ranged far and wide and gradually ousted Romans from the lucrative Indian Ocean trade routes. Recent

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is one of the greatest examples of Sasanian irrigation systems, and many of these things can still be found in Iran. The mountains of the Sasanian state were used for lumbering by the nomads of the region, and the centralized nature of the Sasanian state allowed it to impose taxes on the nomads and

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and the poor. He was also an adherent of the mainstream Zoroastrian religion, diversions from which had cost Kavad I his throne and freedom. Jamasp's reign soon ended, however, when Kavad I, at the head of a large army granted to him by the Hephthalite king, returned to the empire's capital. Jamasp

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At the beginning of the 5th century, the Hephthalites (White Huns), along with other nomadic groups, attacked Iran. At first Bahram V and Yazdegerd II inflicted decisive defeats against them and drove them back eastward. The Huns returned at the end of the 5th century and defeated Peroz I (457–484)

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as a legitimizing and unifying ideal. This period saw the construction of many grand monuments, public works, and patronized cultural and educational institutions. The Sasanian Empire's cultural influence extended far beyond the physical territory that it controlled, impacting regions as distant as

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Khosrau I further extended the already vast trade network. The Sasanian state now tended toward monopolistic control of trade, with luxury goods assuming a far greater role in the trade than heretofore, and the great activity in building of ports, caravanserais, bridges and the like, was linked to

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The unique characteristic of Sasanian architecture was its distinctive use of space. The Sasanian architect conceived his building in terms of masses and surfaces; hence the use of massive walls of brick decorated with molded or carved stucco. Stucco wall decorations appear at Bishapur, but better

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Studies on Sasanian remains show over 100 types of crowns being worn by Sasanian kings. The various Sasanian crowns demonstrate the cultural, economic, social and historical situation in each period. The crowns also show the character traits of each king in this era. Different symbols and signs on

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The most common slaves in the Sasanian Empire were the household servants, who worked in private estates and at the fire-temples. Usage of a woman slave in a home was common, and her master had outright control over her and could even produce children with her if he wanted to. Slaves also received

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All the companies were clad in iron, and all parts of their bodies were covered with thick plates, so fitted that the stiff-joints conformed with those of their limbs; and the forms of human faces were so skillfully fitted to their heads, that since their entire body was covered with metal, arrows

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Balash (484–488) was a mild and generous monarch, and showed care towards his subjects, including the Christians. However, he proved unpopular among the nobility and clergy who had him deposed after just four years in 488. Sukhra, who had played a key role in Balash's deposition, appointed Peroz's

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met with less success. In 230, Ardashir raided deep into Roman territory, and a Roman counter-offensive two years later ended inconclusively. Ardashīr began leading campaigns into Greater Khurasan as early as 233, extending his power to Khwarazm in the north and Sistan in the south while capturing

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still spoke Parthian, such as the seven Parthian clans, who possessed much power within the empire. Sometimes one of the members of the clans would even protest against Sasanian rule. The Sasanian Empire appears to have stopped using the Parthian language in their official inscriptions during the

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appeared in the inscriptions of the early Sasanian kings. However, by the time Narseh (r. 293–302) was ruling, Greek was no longer in use, perhaps due to the disappearance of Greek or the efforts of the anti-Hellenic Zoroastrian clergy to remove it once and for all. This was probably also because

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on the calendar year by year. This confusion apparently caused much distress among ordinary people, and while the Sassanids tried to enforce the observance of these great celebrations on the new official dates, much of the populace continued to observe them on the older, traditional dates, and so

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captives from warfare or raiding or slaves imported from outside the Empire by traders) or domestic (e.g., hereditary slaves, children sold into slavery by their fathers, or criminals enslaved as punishment). Some cases suggest that a criminal's family might also be condemned to servitude. At the

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followed. Over a period of four years and five successive kings, the Sassanid Empire weakened considerably. The power of the central authority passed into the hands of the generals. It would take several years for a strong king to emerge from a series of coups, and the Sassanids never had time to

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Following Hormizd II's death, northern Arabs started to ravage and plunder the western cities of the empire, even attacking the province of Fars, the birthplace of the Sassanid kings. Meanwhile, Persian nobles killed Hormizd II's eldest son, blinded the second, and imprisoned the third (who later

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Khosrow I's reign witnessed the rise of the dihqans (literally, village lords), the petty landholding nobility who were the backbone of later Sassanid provincial administration and the tax collection system. Khosrow I built infrastructure, embellishing his capital and founding new towns with the

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period, Hellenistic art was being interpreted freely by the peoples of the Near East. Throughout the Sasanian period, there was reaction against it. Sasanian art revived forms and traditions native to Persia, and in the Islamic period, these reached the shores of the Mediterranean. According to

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Culturally, the Sassanids implemented a system of social stratification. This system was supported by Zoroastrianism, which was established as the state religion. Other religions appear to have been largely tolerated, although this claim has been debated. Sassanid emperors consciously sought to

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Shnirelman, V.A.(2001), 'The value of the Past: Myths, Identity and Politics in Transcaucasia', Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology. p. 79: "Yet, even at the time of Caucasian Albania and later on, as well, the region was greatly affected by Iran and Persian enjoyed even more success than the

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Like their predecessors the Parthians, the Sassanid Empire carried out active foreign relations with China, and ambassadors from Persia frequently traveled to China. Chinese documents report on sixteen Sassanid embassies to China from 455 to 555. Commercially, land and sea trade with China was

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took control of the Yemenite throne and created an independent nation. After Abraha's death one of his sons, Ma'd-Karib, went into exile while his half-brother took the throne. After being denied by Justinian, Ma'd-Karib sought help from Khosrau, who sent a small fleet and army under commander

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The impact of Heraclius's victories, the devastation of the richest territories of the Sassanid Empire, and the humiliating destruction of high-profile targets such as Ganzak and Dastagerd fatally undermined Khosrau's prestige and his support among the Persian aristocracy. In early 628, he was

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Sasanian art exported its forms and motifs eastward into India, Turkestan and China, westward into Syria, Asia Minor, Constantinople, the Balkans, Egypt and Spain. Probably its influence helped to change the emphasis in Greek art from classic representation to Byzantine ornament, and in Latin

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Persia and northwestern India, the latter that made up formerly part of the Kushans, engaged in cultural as well as political exchange during this period, as certain Sassanid practices spread into the Kushan territories. In particular, the Kushans were influenced by the Sassanid conception of

4377:. Indeed, the extensive domains of the Surens, Karens and Varazes, had become part of the original Sassanid state as semi-independent states. Thus, the noble families that attended at the court of the Sassanid empire continued to be ruling lines in their own right, although subordinate to the 6704:

leadership based in Mesopotamia. Jewish communities suffered only occasional persecution. They enjoyed a relative freedom of religion, and were granted privileges denied to other religious minorities. Shapur I (Shabur Malka in Aramaic) was a particular friend to the Jews. His friendship with

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introduced in the Parthian period. During the Sasanian period, these reached massive proportions, particularly at Ctesiphon. There, the arch of the great vaulted hall, attributed to the reign of Shapur I (241–272), has a span of more than 80 feet (24 m) and reaches a height of 118 feet

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Horsemen in the Sassanid cavalry lacked a stirrup. Instead, they used a war saddle which had a cantle at the back and two guard clamps which curved across the top of the rider's thighs. This allowed the horsemen to stay in the saddle at all times during the battle, especially during violent

4265:, the symbol of the national religion. This symbol is explicit on Sassanid coins where the reigning monarch, with his crown and regalia of office, appears on the obverse, backed by the sacred fire, the symbol of the national religion, on the coin's reverse. Sassanid queens had the title of 5477:

Owners could also voluntarily manumit their slaves, in which case the former slave became a subject of the Sasanian King of Kings and could not lawfully be re-enslaved later. Manumissions were recorded, which suggests that a freedman who was challenged would be able to document their free

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In general, mass slavery was never practiced by the Iranians, and in many cases the situation and lives of semi-slaves (prisoners of war) were, in fact, better than those of the commoner. In Persia, the term "slave" was also used for debtors who had to use some of their time to serve in a

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for permission to travel to India to obtain the plant. After a fruitless search, he was led to an ascetic who revealed the secret of the plant to him: The "plant" was word, the "mountain" learning, and the "dead" the ignorant. He told Borzuya of a book, the remedy of ignorance, called the

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Uniquely in comparison to Western slave systems, Sasanian slavery recognized partial manumission (relevant in the case of a jointly owned slave, only some of whose owners were willing to manumit). In case of a slave who was, e.g., one-half manumitted, the slave would serve in alternating

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time of the manuscript's composition, Iranian slavery was hereditary on the mother's side (so that a child of a free man and a slave woman would be a slave), although the author reports that in earlier Persian history it may have been the opposite, being inherited from the father's side.

3183:(388–399) also failed to achieve anything important for the empire. During this time Armenia was divided by a treaty between the Roman and Sasanian empires. The Sasanians reestablished their rule over Greater Armenia, while the Byzantine Empire held a small portion of western Armenia. 6363:. It is likely therefore that soon after this, the Sassanids made the decision to impose Persian as the sole official language within Iran, and forbade the use of written Parthian. This had important consequences for Zoroastrianism, given that all secondary literature, including the 3619:, but ended in disaster: defeated outside Melitene, the Persians suffered heavy losses as they fled across the Euphrates under Byzantine attack. Taking advantage of Persian disarray, the Byzantines raided deep into Khosrow's territory, even mounting amphibious attacks across the 5727:

past, the Sasanians were no mere imitators. The art of this period reveals an astonishing virility, in certain respects anticipating key features of Islamic art. Sasanian art combined elements of traditional Persian art with Hellenistic elements and influences. The conquest of

3573:. A five-year truce agreed to in 545 was interrupted in 547 when Lazica again switched sides and eventually expelled its Persian garrison with Byzantine help; the war resumed but remained confined to Lazica, which was retained by the Byzantines when peace was concluded in 562. 3515:, and in 532 an "eternal peace" was concluded. Kavad succeeded in restoring order in the interior and fought with general success against the Eastern Romans, founded several cities, some of which were named after him, and began to regulate taxation and internal administration. 6124:, Kartir was made the 'absolute authority' over the 'order of priests' at the Sassanid court and throughout the empire's regions too, with the implication that all regional Zoroastrian clergies would now for the first time be subordinated to the Persian Zoroastrian clerics of 3642:

to control the sea trade with the east. Later, the south Arabian kingdom renounced Sassanid overlordship, and another Persian expedition was sent in 598 that successfully annexed southern Arabia as a Sassanid province, which lasted until the time of troubles after Khosrow II.

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When the king went out in public, he was hidden behind a curtain, and had some of his men in front of him, whose duty was to keep the masses away from him and to clear the way. When one came to the king, one was expected to prostrate oneself before him, also known as

2397:, became involved in a power struggle with his elder brother Shapur. Sources reveal that Shapur was killed when the roof of a building collapsed on him. By 208, over the protests of his other brothers, who were put to death, Ardashir declared himself ruler of Pars. 5300:(king). His health and welfare was of high importance—accordingly, the phrase "May you be immortal" was used to reply to him. The Sasanian coins which appeared from the 6th-century and afterwards depict a moon and sun, which, in the words of the Iranian historian 5258:

Unlike the amount of information about the settled people of the Sasanian Empire, there is little about the nomadic/unsettled ones. It is known that they were called "Kurds" by the Sasanians, and that they regularly served the Sasanian military, particularly the

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The Armenian defeat in the Battle of Avarayr in 451 proved a pyrrhic victory for the Persians. Though the Armenians lost their commander, Vartan Mamikonian, and most of their soldiers, Persian losses were proportionately heavy, and Armenia was allowed to remain

3534:, also known as Anushirvan ("with the immortal soul"; ruled 531–579), ascended to the throne. He is the most celebrated of the Sassanid rulers. Khosrow I is most famous for his reforms in the aging governing body of Sassanids. He introduced a rational system of 10818: 7113:, India, where they were allowed greater freedom to observe their customs and preserve their faith. The descendants of those Zoroastrians would play a small but significant role in the development of India. Today there are over 70,000 Zoroastrians in India. 5749:

With the accession of the , Persia regained much of that power and stability to which she had been so long a stranger ... The improvement in the fine arts at home indicates returning prosperity, and a degree of security unknown since the fall of the

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This cultural interchange did not, however, spread Sassanid religious practices or attitudes to the Kushans. Lower-level cultural interchanges also took place between India and Persia during this period. For example, Persians imported the early form of

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The Sasanian nobility was a mixture of old Parthian clans, Persian aristocratic families, and noble families from subjected territories. Many new noble families had risen after the dissolution of the Parthian dynasty, while several of the once-dominant

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among the common-folk (marriage within the family; between siblings, cousins). At various stages during his long career at court, Kartir also oversaw the periodic persecution of the non-Zoroastrians in Iran, and secured the execution of the prophet

2513:, which probably allowed Ardashir to consolidate his authority in the south with little or no interference from the Parthians. Ardashir was aided by the geography of the province of Fars, which was separated from the rest of Iran. Crowned in 224 at 6440:, along with much secondary Zoroastrian literature, was recorded in writing during the Sassanid era for the first time. Many of these Zoroastrian texts were original works from the Sassanid period. Perhaps the most important of these works was the 5988:—a process of Greco-Persian religious and cultural synthesisation which had continued into the Parthian era. However, under the Sassanids, an orthodox Zoroastrianism was revived and the religion would undergo numerous and important developments. 2858:

The conditions of the peace were heavy: Persia would give up territory to Rome, making the Tigris the boundary between the two empires. Further terms specified that Armenia was returned to Roman domination, with the fort of Ziatha as its border;

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The relationship between priests and warriors was important, because the concept of Ērānshahr had been revived by the priests. Disagreements between the priests and the warriors led to fragmentation within the empire, which led to its downfall.

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The Sassanids ceded five provinces west of the Tigris, and agreed not to interfere in the affairs of Armenia and Georgia. In the aftermath of this defeat, Narseh gave up the throne and died a year later, leaving the Sassanid throne to his son,

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were obliged to accept his suzerainty. These were the western Kushans which controlled Afghanistan while the eastern Kushans were active in India. Although the Kushan empire declined at the end of the 3rd century, to be replaced by the Indian

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rather than Greek. Another reason for a separation between Eastern and Western Christianity was strong pressure from the Sasanian authorities to sever connections with Rome, since the Sasanian Empire was often at war with the Roman Empire.

3542:, which his father had begun, and he tried in every way to increase the welfare and the revenues of his empire. Previous great feudal lords fielded their own military equipment, followers, and retainers. Khosrow I developed a new force of 4885:

Justinian was ultimately responsible for Sassanian maritime presence in Yemen. By not providing the Yemenite Arabs support, Khosrau was able to help Ma'd-Karib and subsequently established Yemen as a principality of the Sassanian Empire.

3682:(590–628) placed on the throne. However, this change of ruler failed to placate Bahram, who defeated Khosrow, forcing him to flee to Byzantine territory, and seized the throne for himself as Bahram VI. Khosrow asked the Byzantine Emperor 2863:

would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia:

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was affected by the methods of Persian warfare. In a modified form, the Roman Imperial autocracy imitated the royal ceremonies of the Sasanian court at Ctesiphon, and those in turn had an influence on the ceremonial traditions of the

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that many of the Sassanid heavy cavalry did not carry spears, relying on their bows as their primary weapons. Conversely the Taq-i Bustan reliefs and Al-Tabari's famed list of equipment required for dihqan knights included the lance.

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in 450. During his eastern campaign, Yazdegerd II grew suspicious of the Christians in the army and expelled them all from the governing body and army. He then persecuted the Christians in his land, and, to a much lesser extent, the

4954:

and shared a common interest in preserving and protecting that trade. They cooperated in guarding the trade routes through central Asia, and both built outposts in border areas to keep caravans safe from nomadic tribes and bandits.

3918:, while his Avar and Slavic allies invaded from the western side. Attempts to ferry the Persian forces across the Bosphorus to aid their allies (the Slavic forces being by far the most capable in siege warfare) were blocked by the 2393:. Papak and his eldest son Shapur managed to expand their power over all of Pars. Subsequent events are unclear due to the elusive nature of the sources. It is certain that following the death of Papak, Ardashir, the governor of 3424:

stepped down from his position and returned the throne to his brother. No further mention of Jamasp is made after the restoration of Kavad I, but it is widely believed that he was treated favourably at the court of his brother.

6496:

were therefore finally able to record all surviving ancient Avestan texts in written form. As a result of this development, the Sasanian Avesta was then compiled into 21 nasks (divisions) to correspond with the 21 words of the

4861:

of southern Arabia. The local Arab leader was able to resist the attack but appealed to the Sassanians for aid, while the Axumites subsequently turned towards the Byzantines for help. The Axumites sent another force across the

5513:

There was a major school, called the Grand School, in the capital. In the beginning, only 50 students were allowed to study at the Grand School. In less than 100 years, enrollment at the Grand School was over 30,000 students.

3686:(582–602) for assistance against Bahram, offering to cede the western Caucasus to the Byzantines. To cement the alliance, Khosrow also married Maurice's daughter Miriam. Under the command of Khosrow and the Byzantine generals 5617:, seven of their professors went to Persia and found refuge at Khosrau's court. In his treaty of 533 with Justinian, the Sasanian king stipulated that the Greek sages should be allowed to return and be free from persecution. 3638:, and they marched against the capital San'a'l, which was occupied. Saif, son of Mard-Karib, who had accompanied the expedition, became King sometime between 575 and 577. Thus, the Sassanids were able to establish a base in 2966:. Shapur therefore marched east toward Transoxiana to meet the eastern nomads, leaving his local commanders to mount nuisance raids on the Romans. He crushed the Central Asian tribes, and annexed the area as a new province. 5928:

It was also a time of increased metallurgical production, so Iran earned a reputation as the "armory of Asia". Most of the Sasanian mining centers were at the fringes of the Empire – in Armenia, the Caucasus and above all,

2943:: the crown was placed upon his mother's stomach. During his youth the empire was controlled by his mother and the nobles. Upon coming of age, Shapur II assumed power and quickly proved to be an active and effective ruler. 5700:

days. The two dozen Sasanian textiles that have survived are among the most highly valued fabrics in existence. Even in their own day, Sasanian textiles were admired and imitated from Egypt to the Far East; and during the

4524:

to have been recognized by Romans for their skills and hardiness in close-quarter combat. One account of Dailamites recounted their participation in an invasion of Yemen where 800 of them were led by the Dailamite officer

5522:

On a lower level, Sasanian society was divided into Azatan (freemen). The Azatan formed a large low-aristocracy of low-level administrators, mostly living on small estates. The Azatan provided the cavalry backbone of the

6659:

became the first independent Christian state in the world in 301. While a number of Assyrian territories had almost become fully Christianized even earlier during the 3rd century, they never became independent nations.

5873:

were famously known for their production of silk, and rivaled the Chinese factories. The Sasanians showed great toleration to the inhabitants of the countryside, which allowed the latter to stockpile in case of famine.

4966:

in Inner Asia, there is also what looks like a collaboration between China and the Sassanids to defuse Turkic advances. Documents from Mt. Mogh talk about the presence of a Chinese general in the service of the king of

6446:—the mythical Zoroastrian story of Creation. Other older works, some from remote antiquity, were possibly translated from different Iranian languages into Middle Persian during this period. For example, two works, the 6104:-centred Zoroastrian orthodoxy across the Sassanid Empire. His power and influence grew so much that he became the only 'commoner' to later be allowed to have his own rock inscriptions carved in the royal fashion (at 6323:

The early Sassanids ruled against the use of cult images in worship, and so statues and idols were removed from many temples and, where possible, sacred fires were installed instead. This policy extended even to the

2855:, taking Ctesiphon. Narseh had previously sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the return of his wives and children. Peace negotiations began in the spring of 299, with both Diocletian and Galerius presiding. 9883:, pp. 1640–1645 – Excerpt: "Persians never practiced mass slavery, and in many cases the situations and lives of semi-slaves (prisoners of war) were in fact better than the common citizens of Persia." (p. 1642) 5787:. Many of the palaces contain an inner audience hall consisting, as at Firuzabad, of a chamber surmounted by a dome. The Persians solved the problem of constructing a circular dome on a square building by employing 5696:, chair covers, canopies, tents and rugs were woven with patience and masterly skill, and were dyed in warm tints of yellow, blue and green. Great colorful carpets had been an appendage of wealth in the East since 4811:

in 634. Shortly thereafter, the Persian army defeated them and drove them out. The Sassanids built numerous fortifications in the Caucasus region to halt these attacks, such as the imposing fortifications built in

3066:. These invaders initially issued coins based on Sasanian designs. Various coins minted in Bactria and based on Sasanian designs are extant, often with busts imitating Sassanian kings Shapur II (r. 309 to 379) and 7102:

The collapse of the Sasanian Empire led to Islam slowly replacing Zoroastrianism as the primary religion of Iran. A large number of Zoroastrians chose to emigrate to escape Islamic persecution. According to the

4440: 6630:

Most of the Christians in the Sasanian empire lived on the western edge of the empire, predominantly in Mesopotamia, but there were also important extant communities in the more northern territories, namely

5493:

The master of a slave was allowed to free the person when he wanted to, which, no matter what faith the slave believed in, was considered a good deed. A slave could also be freed if his/her master died.

11807:

Stokvis A.M.H.J., Manuel d'Histoire, de Généalogie et de Chronologie de tous les Etats du Globe depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à nos jours, Leiden, 1888–1893 (ré-édition en 1966 par B.M.Israel)

3463:

on the Tigris. In 504, an invasion of Armenia by the western Huns from the Caucasus led to an armistice, the return of Amida to Roman control and a peace treaty in 506. In 521/522 Kavad lost control of

5898:

archeological discovery has shown the interesting fact that Sasanians used special labels (commercial labels) on goods as a way of promoting their brands and distinguish between different qualities.

5196:

and centralized government. In Sassanid theory, the ideal society could maintain stability and justice, and the necessary instrument for this was a strong monarch. Thus, the Sasanians aimed to be an

3005:, trapped on the east bank of the Tigris, had to hand over all the provinces the Persians had ceded to Rome in 298, as well as Nisibis and Singara, to secure safe passage for his army out of Persia. 5676:

were colored; so were many features of the palaces; but only traces of such painting remain. The literature, however, makes it clear that the art of painting flourished in Sasanian times. Painting,

3840:

had actually exhausted the Persian army and treasuries. In an effort to rebuild the national treasuries, Khosrau overtaxed the population. Thus, while his empire was on the verge of total defeat,

3721:

The new peace arrangement allowed the two empires to focus on military matters elsewhere: Khosrow focused on the Sassanid Empire's eastern frontier while Maurice restored Byzantine control of the

3345:

by a Hephthalite army near Balkh. His army was completely destroyed, and his body was never found. Four of his sons and brothers had also died. The main Sasanian cities of the eastern region of

6166:

The Persians had long known of the Egyptian calendar, with its 365 days divided into 12 months. However, the traditional Zoroastrian calendar had 12 months of 30 days each. During the reign of

3419:(496–498) was installed on the Sasanian throne upon the deposition of Kavad I by members of the nobility. He was a good and kind king; he reduced taxes in order to improve the condition of the 6174:

and had a practical as well as religious use. However, they were still kept apart from the 'religious year', so as not to disturb the long-held observances of the older Zoroastrian calendar.

5995:, the holy books of Zoroastrianism. Sassanid religious policies contributed to the flourishing of numerous religious reform movements, most importantly those founded by the religious leaders 2529:, "Queen of Queens", but her relationship with Ardashir has not been fully established), bringing the 400-year-old Parthian Empire to an end, and beginning four centuries of Sassanid rule. 5130:, later made its way into the Arabic literature and Europe. The details of Burzoe's legendary journey to India and his daring acquisition of the Panchatantra are written in full detail in 3109:, who lived in relative freedom and gained many advantages during his reign. At the time of his death, the Persian Empire was stronger than ever, with its enemies to the east pacified and 14817: 5486:

To free a slave (irrespective of his or her faith) was considered a good deed. Slaves had some rights including keeping gifts from the owner and at least three days of rest in the month.

10808: 8155:

Repaying its debt, Sasanian art exported its forms and motives eastward into India, Turkestan, and China, westward into Syria, Asia Minor, Constantinople, the Balkans, Egypt, and Spain.

6052:(high priest) of the Iranian Zoroastrians to aid him in acquiring legitimization for the new dynasty. This Tansar did by writing to the nominal and vassal kings in different regions of 5849:

Due to the majority of the inhabitants being of peasant stock, the Sasanian economy relied on farming and agriculture, Khuzestan and Iraq being the most important provinces for it. The

4641:

knightly caste required a small estate, and the Asawaran (Azatan) knightly caste received that from the throne, and in return, were the throne's most notable defenders in time of war.

3922:, and the siege ended in failure. In 627–628, Heraclius mounted a winter invasion of Mesopotamia, and, despite the departure of his Khazar allies, defeated a Persian army commanded by 4064:

right; bismillah and three pellets in margin; c/m: winged creature right / Fire altar with ribbons and attendants; star and crescent flanking flames; date to left, mint name to right.

2532:

In the next few years, local rebellions occurred throughout the empire. Nonetheless, Ardashir I further expanded his new empire to the east and northwest, conquering the provinces of

9595: 5356:

Sassanid society was immensely complex, with separate systems of social organization governing numerous different groups within the empire. Historians believe society comprised four

5332:, who was in charge of the king's safety, controlled the entrance of the kings palace, presented visitors to the king, and was allowed military commands or used as a negotiator. The 7495:. Persia occupies Byzantine Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt and the Transcaucasus, before being driven to withdraw to pre-war frontiers by Byzantine counter-offensive 2816:

on the Euphrates in 296, he was eventually decisively defeated by them. Galerius had been reinforced, probably in the spring of 298, by a new contingent collected from the empire's

7116:

The Zoroastrians still use a variant of the religious calendar instituted under the Sasanians. That calendar still marks the number of years since the accession of Yazdegerd III.

7044:

of medieval and modern Europe. The origin of the formalities of European diplomacy is attributed to the diplomatic relations between the Persian governments and the Roman Empire.

2735:

and founded many cities, some settled in part by emigrants from the Roman territories, including Christians who could exercise their faith freely under Sassanid rule. Two cities,

5925:. There were also goods in transit from China (paper, silk) and India (spices), which Sasanian customs imposed taxes upon, and which were re-exported from the Empire to Europe. 4030:

in a series of lightning battles. Redeployed to the Syrian front against the Byzantines in June 634, Khalid's successor in Iraq failed him, and the Muslims were defeated in the

119: 4750:

In general, over the span of the centuries, in the west, Sassanid territory abutted that of the large and stable Roman state, but to the east, its nearest neighbors were the

3748:

and sent him to Iran to repel the Hephthalites. Smbat, with the aid of a Persian prince named Datoyean, repelled the Hephthalites from Persia, and plundered their domains in

14807: 11201:, in William Bayne Fisher; Ilya Gershevitch; Ehsan Yarshater; R. N. Frye; J. A. Boyle; Peter Jackson; Laurence Lockhart; Peter Avery; Gavin Hambly; Charles Melville (eds.), 6177:

Some difficulties arose with the introduction of the first calendar reform, particularly the pushing forward of important Zoroastrian festivals such as Hamaspat-maedaya and

5490:

wages and were able to have their own families whether they were female or male. Harming a slave was considered a crime, and not even the king himself was allowed to do it.

3546:, or "knights", paid and equipped by the central government and the bureaucracy, tying the army and bureaucracy more closely to the central government than to local lords. 3580:(565–578), who resolved to stop subsidies to Arab chieftains to restrain them from raiding Byzantine territory in Syria. A year earlier, the Sassanid governor of Armenia, 4124:, where they contributed greatly to spreading the Persian culture and language in those regions and to the establishment of the first native Iranian Islamic dynasty, the 9231: 8700:

Problems of Chronology in Gandhāran Art: Proceedings of the First International Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Project, University of Oxford, 23rd–24th March, 2017

6754:, was widely used in the Sasanian Empire (from Antioch to Mesopotamia), although Imperial Aramaic began to be replaced by Middle Persian as the administrative language. 5624:, which had been founded in the 5th century, became "the greatest intellectual center of the time", drawing students and teachers from every quarter of the known world. 4080:, and then advanced on Ctesiphon, which fell after a prolonged siege. Yazdegerd fled eastward from Ctesiphon, leaving behind him most of the empire's vast treasury. The 11346: 3627:

in Armenia in 577, and fighting resumed in Mesopotamia. The Armenian revolt came to an end with a general amnesty, which brought Armenia back into the Sassanid Empire.

2135:

One of the high points in Iranian civilization, the Sasanian dynasty's rule was characterized by a complex and centralized government bureaucracy, and also revitalized

597: 583: 569: 555: 541: 527: 513: 488: 474: 460: 446: 432: 6311:

eventually became, by custom, a place of pilgrimage by foot for newly enthroned Kings after their coronation. It is likely that, during the Sassanid era, these three

5632:

translations of Greek works in medicine and philosophy. The medical lore of India, Persia, Syria and Greece mingled there to produce a flourishing school of therapy.

3334:

in 483. Following this victory, the Huns invaded and plundered parts of eastern Iran continually for two years. They exacted heavy tribute for some years thereafter.

6030:-oriented Zoroastrian tradition would play an important part in influencing and lending legitimization to the state until its collapse in the mid-7th century. After 5655:

however, was the true heir to Sasanian art, whose concepts it was to assimilate while at the same time instilling fresh life and renewed vigor into it. According to

5204:. This can be credited to, among other things, the Sasanians founding and re-founding a number of cities, which is talked about in the surviving Middle Persian text 5972:, Zoroastrianism had fragmented into regional variations which also saw the rise of local cult-deities, some from Iranian religious tradition but others drawn from 6588:(Syriac Orthodox Church). Although these churches originally maintained ties with Christian churches in the Roman Empire, they were quite different from them: the 5605:, translated into Pahlavi, taught at Gundishapur, and read them himself. During his reign, many historical annals were compiled, of which the sole survivor is the 4353:, along with several other families, the Varazes and Andigans, held positions of great honor. Alongside these Iranian and non-Iranian noble families, the kings of 3630:

Around 570, "Ma 'd-Karib", half-brother of the King of Yemen, requested Khosrow I's intervention. Khosrow I sent a fleet and a small army under a commander called

17954: 6213:

in the early 6th century. Much emphasis seems to have been placed during this period on the importance of spring and on its connection with the resurrection and

3475:

In 527, a Roman offensive against Nisibis was repulsed and Roman efforts to fortify positions near the frontier were thwarted. In 530, Kavad sent an army under

2770:

community and gave them a respite from the oppressive laws enacted against them. Later kings reversed Shapur's policy of religious tolerance. When Shapur's son

3303:

in 451. The Armenians, however, remained primarily Christian. In his later years, he was engaged yet again with the Kidarites right up until his death in 457.

6488:

one, but rather than the inadequacy of that script for recording spoken Middle Persian, the Avestan alphabet had 46 letters, and was well suited to recording

2688:

and Valerian was captured by Shapur, remaining his prisoner for the rest of his life. Shapur celebrated his victory by carving the impressive rock reliefs in

4089:. The empire, with its military command structure non-existent, its non-noble troop levies decimated, its financial resources effectively destroyed, and the 2234: 3607:

Nisibis in 573. However, dissension among the Byzantine generals not only led to an abandonment of the siege, but they in turn were besieged in the city of

13060: 12060: 5783:(36 m). This magnificent structure fascinated architects in the centuries that followed and has been considered one of the most important examples of 5397:

ruled over all the nobles. The royal princes, petty rulers, great landlords and priests, together constituted a privileged stratum, and were identified as

4326: 4159:) was also adopted. Caliph Umar is said to have occasionally set up a commission to survey the taxes, to judge if they were more than the land could bear. 3856:(whose competition to claim the glory of personally defeating the Byzantine emperor contributed to their failure), sacking the great Zoroastrian temple at 3658: 5455:

Excessive cruelty towards slaves could result in the owners' being brought to court; a court case involving a slave whose owner tried to drown him in the

4135:; however, many Iranian cities resisted and fought against the invaders several times. Islamic caliphates repeatedly suppressed revolts in cities such as 11636: 6963:

were also spoken in the Sasanian Empire, once again due to the capture of Roman soldiers but this must have been negligible. Semitic languages including

6170:, an effort was made to introduce a more accurate Zoroastrian calendar for the year, so 5 extra days were added to it. These 5 extra days were named the 5778:). In addition to local traditions, Parthian architecture influenced Sasanian architectural characteristics. All are characterized by the barrel-vaulted 4873:

should cut out the Persians from Indian trade by maritime trade with the Indians. The Ethiopians never met this request because an Axumite general named

15976: 14829: 13653: 4511:

Those serving in the infantry were fitted with shields and lances. To make the size of their army larger, the Sassanids added soldiers provided by the

4284: 2789:

was also amenable to the wishes of the Zoroastrian priesthood. During his reign, the Sassanid capital Ctesiphon was sacked by the Romans under Emperor

12248: 9431: 4519:

to their own. The Medes provided the Sassanid army with high-quality javelin throwers, slingers and heavy infantry. Iranian infantry are described by

16082: 12623: 6895:, into Atropatene, Armenia, and other places in the Caucasus, the places gained a larger, although small, Iranian population. Parthian was spoken in 6770:

and its surrounding regions. However, there were several different Persian dialects during that time. Besides Persian, the unattested predecessor of

5914:

testify to the importance of trade with India, but the silk trade with China was mainly in the hands of Sasanian vassals and the Iranian people, the

4310: 3278:

At the beginning of his reign in 441, Yazdegerd II assembled an army of soldiers from various nations, including his Indian allies, and attacked the

12175: 7076:, the Jewish wife of Yazdegerd I, significantly contributed to the close relations between the Jews of the empire and the government in Ctesiphon. 4650: 3255:(438–457) was in some ways a moderate ruler, but, in contrast to Yazdegerd I, he practised a harsh policy towards minority religions, particularly 11392:

McDonough, Scott (2011). "The Legs of the Throne: Kings, Elites, and Subjects in Sasanian Iran". In Arnason, Johann P.; Raaflaub, Kurt A. (eds.).

4901:

important to both the Sassanid and Chinese Empires. Large numbers of Sassanid coins have been found in southern China, confirming maritime trade.

15496: 15487: 15231: 14743: 6398: 5906:, Central Asia and South Russia, in the time of Khosrau, although competition with the Byzantines was at times intense. Sassanian settlements in 5142:

In Indian books, Borzuya read that on a mountain in that land there grows a plant which when sprinkled over the dead revives them. Borzuya asked

3397:(d. 1030), Sukhra was Kavad's maternal uncle. Kavad I (488–531) was an energetic and reformist ruler. He gave his support to the sect founded by 3165: 14728: 6332:. However, only cult-statues were removed. The Sassanids continued to use images to represent the deities of Zoroastrianism, including that of 6253: 6018:. Shapur II, on the other hand, tolerated religious groups except Christians, whom he only persecuted in the wake of Constantine's conversion. 5267:

nomads. This way of handling the nomads continued into the Islamic period, where the service of the Dailamites and Gilanis continued unabated.

16712: 17879: 4500:

formed the bulk of the Sassanid infantry, and were often recruited from the peasant population. Each unit was headed by an officer called a "

4131:

The abrupt fall of the Sassanid Empire was completed in a period of just five years, and most of its territory was absorbed into the Islamic

3307:(457–459), the younger son of Yazdegerd II, then ascended to the throne. During his short rule, he continually fought with his elder brother 2659:(244), leading to Gordian's murder by his own troops and enabling Shapur to conclude a highly advantageous peace treaty with the new emperor 107: 15019: 13829: 11420: 9599: 6766:), it was only a minority spoken-language in the vast Sasanian Empire; it only formed the majority of Pars, while it was widespread around 6215: 6171: 4611:'s description of Shapur II's clibanarii cavalry manifestly shows how heavily equipped it was, and how only a portion were spear equipped: 12050: 5239:

Many of these cities, both new and old, were populated not only by native ethnic groups, such as the Iranians or Syriacs, but also by the

14797: 13648: 12110: 10038: 6100:, a very powerful and influential Persian cleric, served under several Sassanid Kings and actively campaigned for the establishment of a 5842: 5205: 4253:

The Sassanids established an empire roughly within the frontiers achieved by the Parthian Arsacids, with the capital at Ctesiphon in the

839: 12122: 11895: 10486: 3875: 3596:

family, touching off a revolt which led to the massacre of the Persian governor and his guard in 571, while rebellion also broke out in

2993:, started his second campaign against the Romans in 359 and soon succeeded in retaking Singara and Amida. In response the Roman emperor 15165: 14681: 11099: 11074: 6063: 6006:

The relationship between the Sassanid kings and the religions practiced in their empire became complex and varied. For instance, while

5960: 4274: 11815: 5232:. During the Sasanian period, many cities with the name "Iran-khwarrah" were established. This was because Sasanians wanted to revive 4978:, son of Yazdegerd III, escaped along with a few Persian nobles and took refuge in the Chinese imperial court. Both Peroz and his son 3678:, dismissed and humiliated by Hormizd, rose in revolt in 589. The following year, Hormizd was overthrown by a palace coup and his son 12270: 12207: 9117: 6193:, although this inconsistency with the original spring-equinox date for Nowruz had possibly occurred during the Parthian period too. 5185: 4918: 4700: 3966:(628), who immediately brought an end to the war, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories. In 629, Heraclius restored the 3819: 1918: 343: 5200:

empire, at which they were quite successful. During the late Sasanian period, Mesopotamia had the largest population density in the

4390:

from Iranian families held the most powerful positions in the imperial administration, including governorships of border provinces (

13704: 13053: 10654: 7633: 3600:. Justin II took advantage of the Armenian revolt to stop his yearly payments to Khosrow I for the defense of the Caucasus passes. 2640: 8643:

Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia

6864:

merchants are believed to have added to the population as well. Iranians had also begun to settle in the province, along with the

5921:

The main exports of the Sasanians were silk; woolen and golden textiles; carpets and rugs; hides; and leather and pearls from the

17884: 14716: 13265: 12473: 12297: 11443: 11104: 11079: 9704: 7628: 7132: 7060:

was composed between the third and sixth centuries in Sasanian Persia and major Jewish academies of learning were established in

5740:

into Western Asia. Though the East accepted the outward form of this art, it never really assimilated its spirit. Already in the

2580:

to Ardashir, although based on numismatic evidence it is more likely that these actually submitted to Ardashir's son, the future

1812: 253: 3164:. Throughout this era, Sasanian religious policy differed dramatically from king to king. Despite a series of weak leaders, the 17929: 15341: 15192: 14955: 6393:

service was lengthened during the Sassanid era "to increase its impressiveness". This appears to have been done by joining the

5073:

kingship, which spread through the trade of Sassanid silverware and textiles depicting emperors hunting or dispensing justice.

4926:

On different occasions, Sassanid kings sent their most talented Persian musicians and dancers to the Chinese imperial court at

3687: 3337:

These attacks brought instability and chaos to the kingdom. Peroz tried again to drive out the Hephthalites, but on the way to

3957:, the first woman and one of the last rulers on the throne of the Sasanian Empire, she reigned from 17 June 629 to 16 June 630 3132:

and poetry. "Bahram and the Indian princess in the black pavilion." Depiction of a Khamsa (Quintet) by the great Persian poet

3008: 2835:

During the second encounter, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife. Galerius advanced into

2252:, the empire is known as the Sasanian Empire in historical and academic sources. This term is also recorded in English as the 17909: 17665: 17047: 15687: 15517: 15462: 15331: 15197: 14095: 13860: 12616: 12199: 11979: 11669: 11611: 11559:

The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World: The Seventh Monarchy: History of the Sassanian or New Persian Empire

11549: 11491: 11382: 11188: 11168: 11113: 11088: 11063: 10964: 10799: 9946: 9922: 9579: 9016: 8280: 7986: 6688:, in the far easternmost territories. A very large Jewish community flourished under Sasanian rule, with thriving centers at 5941:: when God was creating the world, he tripped over the Pamirs, dropping his jar of minerals, which spread across the region. 3157: 11220: 5208:(the provincial capitals of Iran). Ardashir I himself built and re-built many cities, which he named after himself, such as 4037: 17944: 17889: 17864: 14849: 14839: 10923:

The Iranian Expanse: Transforming Royal Identity Through Architecture, Landscape, and the Built Environment, 550 BCE–642 CE

6186: 5826: 17571: 10530: 10121: 6556: 6414:, which derived from the extended yasna. This was developed for the celebration of the seven holy days of obligation (the 4958:

Politically, there is evidence of several Sassanid and Chinese efforts in forging alliances against the common enemy, the

4882:

to depose the new king of Yemen. After capturing the capital city San'a'l, Ma'd-Karib's son, Saif, was put on the throne.

4034:

in 634. However, the Arab threat did not stop there and reemerged shortly via the disciplined armies of Khalid ibn Walid.

16047: 15997: 15723: 15257: 13395: 13046: 12679: 4708: 3342: 627: 11521: 11262: 9444: 8014: 6911:

languages were spoken further east in places which were not always controlled by the Sasanians. To the further south in

6806:, were spoken about in the same regions. Furthermore, some other languages and dialects were spoken in the two regions. 5854:

inhabitants of the mountains. During the reign of Khosrau I, further land was brought under centralized administration.

5012: 3674:(579–590) took the throne. The war with the Byzantines continued to rage intensely but inconclusively until the general 17717: 16717: 15272: 15261: 15206: 15154: 15009: 14812: 12278: 11776: 11735: 11699: 11648: 11432: 11409: 11042: 11019: 10987: 10934: 10884: 10778: 10496: 10021: 9994: 9970: 9508: 9454: 9411: 8708: 8651: 8624: 8128: 5036: 4308:). Within this bureaucracy the Zoroastrian priesthood was immensely powerful. The head of the Magi priestly class, the 12134: 11198: 16361: 15702: 15646: 15626: 15442: 15417: 15313: 15237: 15139: 14769: 14611: 13122: 11954: 11939: 11922: 11629: 11593: 11576: 11531: 11510: 11468: 11322: 11290: 11272: 11230: 11210: 11147: 10908: 10863: 10760: 10346: 9830:

common among ancient Iranian, Indian and Romans with one extra Iranian element (from Yashna xix/17). cf. Frye, p. 54.

9498: 8526: 7540: 7446: 4504:", which meant "commander of the infantry" and their main task was to guard the baggage train, serve as pages to the 3823: 3161: 356: 15536: 4396:). Most of these positions were patrimonial, and many were passed down through a single family for generations. The 17894: 16167: 15733: 13822: 13786: 12609: 11716: 5326:. Both of these groups were enlisted from royal families of the Sasanian Empire, and were under the command of the 4766:, which later became a center of learning and trade, also assisted in defending the eastern provinces from attack. 4744: 4673: 4544:

was an important constituent of the Sasanian military from the time that Ardashir I conquered the Arab side of the

3001:. He failed to take the capital, however, and was killed while trying to retreat to Roman territory. His successor 5422:

Some of the laws governing the ownership and treatment of slaves can be found in the legal compilation called the

5069:

in the 4th century, it is clear that the Sassanids remained relevant in India's northwest throughout this period.

17924: 17919: 17343: 15677: 15217: 15053: 15048: 14787: 14414: 12431: 12302: 12102: 11463:(in Persian), Trans. by Mahshid Mirfakhraie, Tehrān: Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies, p. 341, 7638: 7136: 7069: 6484:

in written form (including in its original language/phonology) for the first time. The alphabet was based on the

5609:(Deeds of Ardashir), a mixture of history and romance that served as the basis of the Iranian national epic, the 4866:

and this time successfully killed the Arab leader and replaced him with an Axumite man to be king of the region.

4835:, a 200 km-long defensive structure probably aimed to protect the empire from northern peoples, such as the 4747:. Over the following centuries, half the Byzantine Empire and the entire Sasanian Empire came under Muslim rule. 4435: 3508: 2289: 1279: 16505: 14054: 11137: 4711:

had considerably weakened it further. Consequently, they were vulnerable to the sudden emergence of the Islamic

4707:, ended with both rivalling sides having drastically exhausted their human and material resources. Furthermore, 4272:

On a smaller scale, the territory might also be ruled by a number of petty rulers from a noble family, known as

2912: 2313: 17939: 17904: 16282: 16107: 15987: 15971: 15457: 15392: 15293: 15242: 15014: 14965: 14950: 14854: 14844: 14824: 14616: 14275: 13699: 13683: 12410: 12219: 12036: 10926: 8815: 8739: 8094: 8071: 7247: 6944: 6924: 5606: 3110: 2589: 1846: 1021: 479: 15915: 14686: 14626: 12815: 12097: 8516: 6856:

population of the province into "Chaldeans" (Aramaic-speakers) and "Mesenian Arabs". Nomadic Arabs along with

5807:

in Mesopotamia. The panels show animal figures set in roundels, human busts, and geometric and floral motifs.

17781: 16141: 15582: 15565: 15472: 15447: 15303: 15211: 15201: 13938: 13725: 12463: 12458: 12395: 12263: 11602:

Payne, Richard (2015b). "The Reinvention of Iran: The Sasanian Empire and the Huns". In Maas, Michael (ed.).

9181: 7395: 6833: 6636: 4704: 4366: 3975: 3907: 3880: 3698:

in 591. When Khosrow was subsequently restored to power he kept his promise, handing over control of western

3597: 3469: 3413:(Zamaspes) became king in 496. Kavad, however, quickly escaped and was given refuge by the Hephthalite king. 3206: 3198:(408–450) under his guardianship. Yazdegerd also married a Jewish princess, who bore him a son called Narsi. 2860: 1911: 6081:

would later help to oversee the formation of a single 'Zoroastrian church' under the control of the Persian

5754:

Surviving palaces illustrate the splendor in which the Sasanian monarchs lived. Examples include palaces at

17874: 17869: 17854: 17776: 17660: 16145: 15981: 15697: 15437: 15427: 15175: 15031: 14631: 14019: 13735: 13470: 13013: 12453: 12415: 12162: 10750: 9401: 8087:

Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London, 21–26 August 2006, Volumes 1–3

7663: 7590:

flees eastward from one district to another, until at last he is killed by a local miller for his purse at

4405: 4049: 3373:, quickly raised a new force and stopped the Hephthalites from achieving further success. Peroz's brother, 2897: 2628: 2533: 2089:

in 224, Ardashir's dynasty replaced that of the Arsacids and promptly set out to restore the legacy of the

15911: 12172: 12088: 10791:

Prokop und die Perser. Untersuchungen zu den Römisch-Sasanidischen Kontakten in der ausgehenden Spätantike

9291: 7072:. Several individuals of the Imperial family such as Ifra Hormizd the Queen mother of Shapur II and Queen 4167:

It is believed that the following dynasties and noble families have ancestors among the Sassanian rulers:

3299:. In order to reestablish Zoroastrianism in Armenia, he crushed an uprising of Armenian Christians at the 2065:

Upon succeeding the Parthians, the Sasanian dynasty re-established the Iranian nation as a major power in

17934: 17786: 16823: 15936: 15930: 15881: 15692: 15522: 15401: 15026: 13815: 13791: 13673: 13668: 13603: 13279: 12545: 12194: 11988: 11917:, vol. XII: The Imperial Crisis and Recovery (A.D. 193–324), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 11583: 11312: 6844:

may also have been spoken in the province but there are no references explicitly naming the language. In

6822: 6762:

Although Middle Persian was the native language of the Sasanians (who, however, were not originally from

6612: 6547: 6328:

regions of the empire during some periods. Hormizd I allegedly destroyed statues erected for the dead in

4848: 3827: 3225:, extending his influence into Central Asia, where his portrait survived for centuries on the coinage of 1883: 1871: 710: 11661:

Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran

6154:—a clerical title that was to be considered higher than that of the eastern-Iranian (Parthian) title of 3168:

established during Shapur II's reign remained strong, and the empire continued to function effectively.

16151: 15612: 15477: 14945: 14723: 14621: 13943: 13902: 13796: 13405: 12330: 10945: 10855: 9914: 5589: 5470:, he or she could pay his or her price and attain freedom; i.e., as long as the owner was compensated, 4724: 4362: 4330:), who was also head of farmers, were, below the emperor, the most powerful men of the Sassanid state. 4007: 3370: 2958:

These campaigns were halted by nomadic raids along the eastern borders of the empire, which threatened

2187:, which, in turn, ensured the spread of Iranian culture, knowledge, and ideas throughout the expanding 2047: 2043: 1841: 1802: 12238: 10844:

Brunner, Christopher (1983). "Geographical and Administrative divisions: Settlements and Economy". In

7552: 5709:

the crowns—the moon, stars, eagle and palm, each illustrate the wearer's religious faith and beliefs.

4077: 88: 17859: 17744: 16892: 16456: 16255: 15846: 15616: 15397: 15323: 15185: 15160: 15083: 14834: 14733: 14676: 14088: 14039: 13979: 13480: 13295: 12478: 12468: 12400: 12187: 10900:

History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian, Volume 2

7918:

Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.".

7556: 6931:

was populated by an Iranian group which closely resembled the Persians while, farther to the east in

6551: 5684:, and other forms of decoration shared their designs with Sasanian textile art. Silks, embroideries, 5426:, a collection of rulings by Sasanian judges. Principles that can be inferred from the laws include: 4931: 3831: 2998: 2627:

and the western portion of the Kushan Empire, while leading several campaigns against Rome. Invading

2573: 2176: 2160: 1783: 1687: 946: 369: 17: 13994: 10586: 7273:

under the patronage of Yazdegerd. Christians are permitted to publicly worship and to build churches

6600:

Christianity was recognized by Yazdegerd I in 409 as an allowable faith within the Sasanian Empire.

6281:(the first Zoroastrian King), was too holy for the Persian magi to end veneration of it completely. 2947:

of repeated sieges of the key frontier city of Nisibis, and Roman success in retaking the cities of

2381:, was originally the ruler of a region called Khir. However, by 200, Papak had managed to overthrow 17914: 17849: 17702: 17677: 17527: 17186: 17181: 15966: 15756: 15636: 15587: 15559: 15422: 14960: 14874: 14603: 14009: 13922: 13435: 13077: 12579: 12550: 12256: 11178: 9827: 9663:

The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion, Pia Brancaccio, Brill, 2010

9596:"The Rise and Spread of Islam, The Arab Empire of the Umayyads – Weakness of the Adversary Empires" 6763: 6604: 6372: 6244: 6125: 6101: 6027: 5893:

Persian industry under the Sasanians developed from domestic to urban forms. Guilds were numerous.

5821: 5720:

and Parthian interlude, and believed that it was their destiny to restore the greatness of Persia.

5713: 5423: 5221: 5007: 4804: 4780: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4373:, who are mentioned as holding positions of honor amongst the nobles, appeared at the court of the 4081: 3869: 3456: 2974: 2612: 2568:

to the Sassanid possessions. Later Sassanid inscriptions also claim the submission of the kings of

2390: 2269: 1904: 1866: 1861: 1851: 640: 12243: 9540: 3798:

was on the verge of collapse. This remarkable peak of expansion was paralleled by a blossoming of

3694:, the new combined Byzantine-Persian army raised a rebellion against Bahram, defeating him at the 3518: 3432: 17949: 17769: 17650: 17191: 17144: 17087: 16786: 16730: 16478: 16197: 16171: 16162: 16032: 15992: 15596: 15532: 15492: 15227: 15078: 14935: 14894: 14152: 13896: 13745: 13678: 13572: 13425: 13343: 13338: 12764: 7516: 7085: 7032: 6639:, and the Persian part of Armenia. Other important communities were to be found on the island of 6541: 6039: 5275: 4728: 4658: 4508:(a higher rank), storm fortification walls, undertake entrenchment projects, and excavate mines. 3927: 3271:

reaffirmed Armenia's right to profess Christianity freely. This was to be later confirmed by the

2506: 2082: 2008: 1429: 1185: 766: 623: 617: 47: 12143: 12077: 12065: 12045: 10838:

Diwan. Studies in the History and Culture of the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean

10281: 7598:), ending the dynasty. Yazdegerd is given a burial by the Assyrian bishop Mar Gregory. His son, 5976:

tradition too. Greek paganism and religious ideas had spread and mixed with Zoroastrianism when

5320:. On other occasions, the king was protected by a discrete group of palace guards, known as the 3733:

in central Iran. The Hephthalites issued numerous coins imitating the coinage of Khosrow II. In

2716:, suffering the capture of his harem and the loss of all the Roman territories he had occupied. 2481: 2366:

and subsequent rise of the Sassanian Empire in mystery. The Sassanian Empire was established in

17899: 17791: 17692: 17687: 17375: 17323: 17243: 17176: 17080: 17065: 16958: 16725: 16679: 16520: 16407: 16287: 15926: 15667: 15622: 15346: 15308: 15036: 14792: 13776: 13628: 13387: 12448: 12441: 12385: 12107: 10042: 9875:

Farazmand, Ali (1998) "Persian/Iranian Administrative Tradition", in Jay M. Shafritz (Editor),

8272: 8262: 7881: 7352: 6585: 6239:

Reflecting the regional rivalry and bias the Sassanids are believed to have held against their

5621: 5544: 5508: 5316: 4720: 4627: 4449: 4093:

knightly caste destroyed piecemeal, was now utterly helpless in the face of the Arab invaders.

3861: 3703: 3604: 2078: 2055: 1746: 1249: 723: 562: 12119: 12071: 10809:"Das Königtum der Sasaniden – Strukturen und Probleme. Bemerkungen aus althistorischer Sicht." 10259:

Conflict and Cooperation: Zoroastrian Subalterns and Muslim Elites in Medieval Iranian Society

9984: 8641: 7853: 6196:

Further calendar reforms occurred during the later Sassanid era. Ever since the reforms under

3888: 3282:, but peace was soon restored after some small-scale fighting. He then gathered his forces in 17722: 17682: 17495: 17370: 16434: 16424: 16383: 16354: 15575: 15527: 15502: 15222: 14970: 14748: 14666: 14283: 14240: 13445: 12931: 12360: 12157: 11947:

East Rome, Sasanian Persia and the End of Antiquity: Historiographical and Historical Studies

11725: 10874: 10011: 9664: 8698: 7698: 7391: 6983:

The influence of the Sasanian Empire continued long after it fell. The empire had achieved a

6620: 5552: 5193: 4909: 4638: 4597: 4147:. The local population was initially under little pressure to convert to Islam, remaining as 4090: 4057: 3191: 3102: 2673: 2168: 1127: 1047: 985: 660: 243: 17610: 10273: 9986:

The Origins of Higher Learning: Knowledge networks and the early development of universities

7570: 7371: 6355:. However, the last time Parthian was used for a royal inscription came during the reign of 4086: 3623:. Khosrow sued for peace, but he decided to continue the war after a victory by his general 757: 17815: 17645: 17615: 17490: 17421: 17392: 17311: 16645: 16483: 16473: 16126: 16028: 15921: 15861: 15836: 15815: 15795: 15768: 15570: 15512: 15407: 15170: 15135: 14899: 14081: 13663: 13623: 13102: 12323: 11824: 8975: 7794: 7653: 7348: 6908: 6880:, the majority of the people were Aramaic-speaking Nestorian Christians, notably including 6814: 6799: 6603:

The major break with mainstream Christianity came in 431, due to the pronouncements of the

6512:(Book of Kings), was composed during the Sasanian era. This text is the basis of the later 6113: 5784: 5664:

Christian art from wooden ceilings to brick or stone vaults and domes and buttressed walls.

4895: 4832: 4668: 4608: 4520: 4342: 4031: 3930:. He then marched down the Tigris, devastating the country and sacking Khosrau's palace at 3849: 3807: 3771: 3512: 3300: 3148:'s first coronation, there was a largely peaceful period with the Romans (by this time the 2413: 2086: 2059: 1856: 382: 317: 17595: 12204: 10276:

History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750

9121: 6408:

ceremony. Furthermore, it is believed that another longer service developed, known as the

6150:(the predecessor and brother of Bahram I) Kartir was awarded the new Zoroastrian title of 5577: 4333:

The Sassanian rulers always considered the advice of their ministers. A Muslim historian,

3603:

The Armenians were welcomed as allies, and an army was sent into Sassanid territory which

2042:, it endured for over four centuries, from 224 to 651, making it the second longest-lived 8: 17507: 17387: 17353: 17255: 17075: 17070: 16882: 16601: 16537: 16412: 16397: 15866: 15555: 15288: 15180: 14779: 14774: 14738: 14671: 14520: 14208: 13750: 13658: 13633: 13440: 13415: 12967: 12912: 12826: 12733: 12711: 11787: 11336:

Commutatio et contentio. Studies in the Late Roman, Sasanian, and Early Islamic Near East

10827:

Commutatio et contentio. Studies in the Late Roman, Sasanian, and Early Islamic Near East

10749:

Blockley, R.C. (1998), "Warfare and Diplomacy", in Averil Cameron; Peter Garnsey (eds.),

10165: 8268: 7380: 6964: 6589: 6433:

While the very earliest Zoroastrians eschewed writing as a form of demonic practice, the

6185:

A further problem occurred as Nowruz had shifted in position during this period from the

5977: 5733: 5625: 5452:

as a pious offering, in which case they and their descendants would become temple-slaves.

5057: 5022: 4488: 4345:

remained of high importance. At the court of Ardashir I, the old Arsacid families of the

4266: 4187: 3695: 3585: 1589: 1459: 888: 684: 72: 17223: 17213: 12158:

Ctesiphon; The capital of the Parthian and the Sassanid empires, on Iran Chamber Society

11331: 10822: 6232: 5991:

Sassanid Zoroastrianism developed clear distinctions from the practices laid out in the

3857: 3565:

entered Lazica at the invitation of its king, captured the main Byzantine stronghold at

17620: 17600: 17583: 17534: 17399: 17208: 17159: 17092: 17010: 16951: 16946: 16941: 16897: 16867: 16759: 16657: 16525: 16500: 16230: 16192: 16137: 16132: 16037: 15952: 15592: 15452: 15412: 15252: 15247: 15145: 15130: 14889: 14691: 14512: 14481: 14374: 14131: 13740: 13709: 13608: 13455: 13372: 12675: 11705: 11564: 10851:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

9526:

The Cambridge History of Iran Volume 3 (1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

9180:

Compareti, Matteo (2009). "Chinese-Iranian relations xv. The last Sasanians in China".

7935: 7576: 7562: 7266: 7188: 7024: 6826: 6818: 6706: 6537: 6318: 5724: 5548: 5406:

The Sasanian caste system outlived the empire, continuing in the early Islamic period.

4836: 4712: 4677: 4654: 3914:

in 626. The Sassanids, led by Shahrbaraz, attacked the city on the eastern side of the

3741: 3608: 3480: 3460: 3451:

The second golden era began after the second reign of Kavad I. With the support of the

3402: 3129: 2760: 2681: 2490: 2180: 2051: 1792: 1579: 1199: 670: 506: 238: 199: 11881: 11746: 11451: 11359: 11301:

The Eastern Frontier: Limits of Empire in Late Antique and Early Medieval Central Asia

10274: 6809:

In the Sasanian territories in the Caucasus, numerous languages were spoken including

6492:

in written form in the way the language actually sounded and was uttered. The Persian

6378: 5597:

The Sasanian kings were patrons of letters and philosophy. Khosrau I had the works of

2096:

At its greatest territorial extent, the Sasanian Empire encompassed all of modern-day

17729: 17625: 17561: 17556: 17485: 17382: 17097: 17025: 17020: 16862: 16791: 16774: 16769: 16764: 16564: 16515: 16324: 16240: 16157: 16063: 16053: 15962: 15871: 15856: 15851: 15820: 15810: 15800: 15790: 15777: 15632: 15336: 15150: 15088: 15063: 15043: 14993: 14913: 14761: 14390: 14382: 14307: 14259: 14029: 13953: 13730: 13587: 13582: 13567: 13502: 13420: 13377: 13097: 13092: 12958: 12948: 12519: 12239:

Christianity in Ancient Iran: Aba & The Church in Persia, on Iran Chamber Society

11975: 11950: 11935: 11918: 11772: 11731: 11695: 11665: 11644: 11625: 11607: 11589: 11572: 11545: 11527: 11506: 11487: 11464: 11428: 11405: 11378: 11318: 11286: 11268: 11226: 11206: 11184: 11164: 11143: 11109: 11084: 11059: 11038: 11015: 10983: 10960: 10930: 10918: 10904: 10880: 10859: 10795: 10774: 10756: 10738: 10492: 10342: 10017: 9990: 9966: 9942: 9918: 9575: 9504: 9450: 9407: 8811: 8704: 8647: 8620: 8522: 8276: 8236: 8124: 8090: 8067: 7982: 7893: 7499: 7435: 7337: 7318: 7310: 7243: 6960: 6932: 6904: 6861: 6853: 6787: 6779: 6751: 6731: 6697: 6632: 6459: 6454: 6344: 6202: 5442: 5280: 5113: 4987: 4858: 4463:

of the empire. Ardashir restored the Achaemenid military organizations, retained the

4261:(King of Kings), becoming the central overlords and also assumed guardianship of the 4101: 4073: 4041: 3934:. He was prevented from attacking Ctesiphon by the destruction of the bridges on the 3683: 3539: 3268: 3260: 3097:

were punished, and Christians were persecuted. The latter was a reaction against the

3075: 2656: 2644: 2616: 2451: 2277: 2214: 2105: 2090: 1619: 1519: 1509: 1219: 1209: 1167: 1067: 1011: 576: 451: 12167: 12151: 11709: 11124: 11035:

King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE – 651 CE)

10612: 9256: 8167: 7532:

628: A devastating plague kills half of the population in Western Persia, including

7090: 6371:, having a profound impact in orienting Zoroastrianism towards the influence of the 5857:

Two trade routes were used during the Sasanian period: one in the north, the famous

2885: 2808:

embarked on another war with the Romans. After an early success against the Emperor

17578: 17365: 17360: 17316: 17303: 17233: 17201: 17196: 17060: 17055: 17037: 16998: 16931: 16914: 16855: 16845: 16840: 16781: 16737: 16707: 16667: 16650: 16633: 16596: 16347: 16211: 16202: 16112: 16102: 16058: 15898: 15886: 15840: 15785: 15602: 15467: 15298: 15267: 15112: 15093: 14802: 14422: 13917: 13870: 13807: 13643: 13638: 13542: 13537: 13532: 13522: 13517: 13507: 13323: 13180: 13165: 13149: 13144: 13139: 13117: 13008: 12540: 12509: 12370: 11397: 11342: 11330:

Howard-Johnston, James: "The Sasanian's Strategic Dilemma". In: Henning Börm &

10730: 10063: 7927: 7643: 7580: 7492: 7473: 7469: 7424: 7417: 7403: 7399: 7387: 7376: 7363: 7359: 7184: 6968: 6900: 6896: 6876:

may also have been deported to Meshan, either as captives or recruited sailors. In

6841: 6783: 6747: 6581: 6489: 6485: 6477: 6269: 6058: 5816: 5644: 4681: 4588:

The cavalry used during the Sassanid Empire were two types of heavy cavalry units:

4445: 4198: 4019: 3982: 3795: 3749: 3730: 3558: 3554: 3346: 3279: 3153: 3149: 3098: 3085:

Shapur II pursued a harsh religious policy. Under his reign, the collection of the

3002: 2994: 2708:(260), but withdrew in disarray after defeats at the hands of the Romans and their 2685: 2541: 2498: 2467: 2245: 2153: 2149: 2039: 1938: 1649: 1339: 1309: 12228: 11799:

Speck, Paul (1984), "Ikonoklasmus und die Anfänge der Makedonischen Renaissance",

11242: 10998: 10560: 9071: 9056: 9020: 7817: 7306:

440: War with the Byzantine Empire; the Romans give some payments to the Sasanians

7291:

424: Council of Dad-Ishu declares the Eastern Church independent of Constantinople

6243:

predecessors, it was probably during the Sassanid era that the two great fires in

6014:

himself, religious minorities at times were suppressed under later kings, such as

5569: 5173: 3774:

decisively defeated a major counter-attack led in person by the Byzantine emperor

2896:. Unrest spread throughout the land, and while the new king suppressed revolts in 2424: 17796: 17764: 17637: 17605: 17588: 17544: 17539: 17517: 17512: 17470: 17463: 17438: 17298: 17293: 17134: 17015: 16909: 16904: 16872: 16697: 16687: 16581: 16569: 16554: 16510: 16392: 16378: 16245: 16182: 16117: 16092: 16077: 16016: 15805: 15657: 15547: 15369: 15068: 15004: 14908: 14756: 14658: 14430: 14406: 14323: 14315: 14291: 14176: 14118: 13927: 13577: 13552: 13547: 13527: 13465: 13460: 13450: 13430: 13400: 13352: 13348: 13318: 13025: 12994: 12989: 12979: 12689: 12494: 12375: 12281: 12223: 12211: 12179: 12138: 12126: 12114: 12092: 12054: 12011: 11992: 11659: 11481: 11372: 11239: 11219:

Frye, R.N. (2005), "The Sassanians", in Iorwerth Eiddon; Stephen Edwards (eds.),

11030: 11009: 10977: 10898: 10849: 10845: 9295: 8614: 8148: 7439: 7229: 7150: 7004: 6984: 6956: 6955:, Greek and Syriac were spoken by Roman/Byzantine prisoners of war. Furthermore, 6936: 6928: 6920: 6881: 6791: 6736: 6593: 6448: 6337: 6240: 6206: 5934: 5915: 5755: 5737: 5636: 5629: 5225: 5217: 5104:

During Khosrau I's reign, many books were brought from India and translated into

4991: 4854: 4663: 4296: 4172: 4125: 3899: 3745: 3581: 3488: 3378: 3264: 3031: 2660: 2494: 2463: 2459: 2405: 2363: 2300: 2184: 2035: 1529: 1479: 1379: 1349: 1289: 1229: 1117: 1087: 1057: 852: 697: 649: 590: 520: 493: 437: 78: 17218: 11757: 10734: 8287:

Historians have also referred to the Sassanian Empire as the Neo-Persian Empire.

7218:

296–298: War with Rome – Persia cedes five provinces east of the Tigris to Rome.

6469:

The Sasanians developed an accurate, phonetic alphabet to write down the sacred

5938: 5902:

trade and urbanization. The Persians dominated international trade, both in the

5861:, and one less prominent route on the southern Sasanian coast. The factories of 5635:

Artistically, the Sasanian period witnessed some of the highest achievements of

17739: 17734: 17697: 17672: 17655: 17566: 17551: 17522: 17480: 17328: 17288: 17283: 17238: 17164: 17124: 17114: 17104: 16919: 16798: 16692: 16559: 16441: 16087: 15607: 15432: 14920: 14884: 14547: 14465: 14398: 14224: 14044: 14004: 13984: 13890: 13557: 12963: 12535: 12499: 12405: 12390: 12380: 12335: 12318: 11477: 11401: 11308: 10973: 10538: 10125: 9880: 9645: 7726: 7658: 7505: 7270: 7194: 7158: 7105: 7053: 6972: 6795: 6767: 6723: 6689: 6569: 6434: 6368: 6352: 6348: 6248: 6139: 6109: 6035: 5996: 5981: 5973: 5969: 5950: 5894: 5850: 5729: 5673: 5536: 5467: 5301: 5156: 5105: 5003: 4821: 4808: 4784: 4693: 4512: 4423: 4350: 4346: 4305: 4216: 4140: 3935: 3919: 3911: 3903: 3652: 3648: 3366: 3272: 3240: 3133: 2900:

and Kushan, he was unable to control the nobles and was subsequently killed by

2836: 2775: 2748: 2689: 2604: 2486: 2322: 2308: 2204: 2172: 2141: 2136: 2109: 2077:, a ruler who rose to power as Parthia weakened amidst internal strife and the 2066: 1639: 1319: 1299: 1239: 875: 786: 534: 304: 190: 170: 12233: 11680: 10676: 6075:

decay which had continued under the Parthians and so needed to be 'restored'.

4100:

and some of the Persian nobles fled further inland to the eastern province of

3945: 3709: 2400: 2058:, which marked the beginning of a monumental societal shift by initiating the 17843: 17820: 17707: 17502: 17475: 17448: 17426: 17404: 17171: 17154: 17139: 16983: 16936: 16924: 16850: 16742: 16616: 16611: 16586: 16468: 16318: 16222: 16207: 16177: 16122: 16002: 15957: 15906: 15876: 14579: 14473: 14438: 14160: 13357: 13205: 13112: 12871: 12867: 12700: 12436: 11899:. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 202–249. 11890: 11811: 11371:

Martindale, John Robert; Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin; Morris, J., eds. (1992).

10742: 8201: 8022: 7897: 7587: 7566: 7546: 7458: 6873: 6524: 6508: 6465: 6259: 6117: 5763: 5524: 5264: 5109: 5061: 4963: 4751: 4716: 4604: 4541: 4468: 4226: 4209: 3995: 3803: 3691: 3675: 3566: 3382: 3195: 3179:(383–388), neither of whom demonstrated their predecessor's skill in ruling. 2755:, to him) and sent many Manichaean missionaries abroad. He also befriended a 2732: 2697: 2569: 1718: 1707: 1449: 1369: 1329: 776: 736: 465: 287: 17248: 17228: 12588: 7242:

359–363: Second war with Rome. Rome cedes Northern and Eastern Mesopotamia,

6655:. Some of these areas were the earliest to be Christianized; the kingdom of 4408:

province, were allowed a golden throne. In military campaigns, the regional

2952: 2623:

Ardashir I's son Shapur I continued the expansion of the empire, conquering

17712: 17453: 17443: 17409: 17338: 17333: 17260: 17050: 17032: 16993: 16988: 16968: 16963: 16835: 16828: 16818: 16813: 16808: 16702: 16640: 16621: 16606: 16542: 16250: 16235: 16187: 16096: 15641: 15507: 14930: 14879: 14587: 14571: 14555: 14497: 13362: 13175: 13107: 13004: 12365: 12131: 11964:

Le Christianisme dans l'empire Perse, sous la Dynastie Sassanide (224–632).

11767:

Schindel, Nikolaus (2013c). "Sasanian Coinage". In Potts, Daniel T. (ed.).

7782: 7682: 7648: 7595: 7300: 7233: 7124: 7073: 7000: 6988: 6810: 6522:. Another important Zoroastrian text from the Sasanian period includes the 6499: 5964:

Seal of a Sassanian nobleman holding a flower, c. 3rd–early 4th century AD.

5922: 5903: 5804: 5796: 5716:. The Sasanians saw themselves as successors of the Achaemenids, after the 5669: 5640: 5540: 5463: 5456: 5431: 5357: 5252: 5209: 5148: 5118: 5066: 5045: 5041: 4959: 4947: 4935: 4689: 4567: 4545: 4501: 4121: 4117: 4026:'s chosen companions-in-arms and leader of the Arab army, moved to capture 3939: 3853: 3726: 3639: 3452: 3377:, was elected as shah by the Iranian magnates, most notably Sukhra and the 3318: 3256: 3252: 3245: 3222: 3214: 3055: 2731:

Shapur had intensive development plans. He ordered the construction of the

2549: 2510: 2417: 2188: 2164: 2125: 2113: 2070: 1836: 1765: 1728: 1696: 1659: 1629: 1549: 1389: 955: 12791: 12601: 10184:

The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

6263:

respectively—were promoted to rival, and even eclipse, the sacred fire in

6021: 4807:

frequently assaulted the northern provinces of the empire. They plundered

4699:

The last of the many and frequent wars with the Byzantines, the climactic

4600:. In fact, it was their specialty to deploy elephants as cavalry support. 4574: 4528:. Vahriz would eventually defeat the Arab forces in Yemen and its capital 4257:

province. In administering this empire, Sassanid rulers took the title of

3468:, whose rulers switched their allegiance to the Romans; an attempt by the 3290:. After a number of battles he crushed them and drove them out beyond the 2827: 2793:, and most of Armenia, after half a century of Persian rule, was ceded to 2389:. Papak's mother, Rodhagh, was the daughter of the provincial governor of 17431: 17416: 17265: 16978: 16887: 16877: 16803: 16451: 16446: 16328: 16292: 16043: 15728: 15651: 15482: 13948: 13855: 13781: 13771: 13562: 13494: 13367: 13255: 13069: 12833: 12721: 12671: 12633: 12556: 12504: 12183: 11156: 10944:

Chaumont, M. L.; Schippmann, K. (1988). "Balāš, Sasanian king of kings".

10199:, "Manichaeism in the Early Sasanian Empire", (Brill, 1993), pp. 5–9 8144: 7736: 7620: 7276:

416–420: Persecution of Christians as Yazdegerd revokes his earlier order

7259: 7198: 7061: 6948: 6775: 6727: 6616: 6427: 6333: 6105: 6010:

tolerated and encouraged a variety of religions and seems to have been a

5930: 5887: 5866: 5717: 5712:

The Sasanian dynasty, like the Achaemenid, originated in the province of

5702: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5585:. The mythical bird was used as the royal emblem in the Sasanian period. 5557: 5471: 5449: 5416: 5336:

was also allowed in some cases to serve as the royal executioner. During

5310: 5240: 5201: 5184:. The city developed into a rich commercial metropolis. It may have been 4943: 4939: 4788: 4759: 4755: 4688:

The Sassanids, like the Parthians, were in constant hostilities with the

4183: 3799: 3620: 3550: 3492: 3304: 3187: 3172: 3079: 3059: 3013: 2986: 2978: 2959: 2821: 2752: 2744: 2724: 2719: 2648: 2522: 2437: 2433: 2224: 2200: 2145: 2027: 1894: 1539: 1499: 1259: 1137: 330: 213: 11053: 8946: 8944: 8942: 6884:, while the Persians, Jews and Arabs formed a minority in the province. 6437: 4715:, whose forces invaded both empires only a few years after the war. The 3655:, and was not unduly disturbed when one of his sons became a Christian. 3569:, and established another protectorate over the country, commencing the 3121: 2985:. Cultural expansion followed this victory, and Sasanian art penetrated 17458: 17275: 17149: 17109: 17042: 15682: 15073: 14595: 14563: 14489: 14457: 14267: 13964: 13932: 13865: 13313: 13308: 10894: 7939: 7526: 7515:

invades Sasanian Mesopotamia. Decisive defeat of Persian forces at the

7465: 7454: 7450: 7431: 7366:

pays 1,000 pounds of gold to the Sasanian Empire The Sasanians capture

7143: 7036: 7031:

Sasanian culture and military structure had a significant influence on

6857: 6803: 6442: 6384: 6197: 6167: 6129: 6067: 6031: 5985: 5858: 5693: 5292: 5152: 5094: 5083: 5018: 4593: 4589: 4516: 4464: 4456: 4237: 4202: 4113: 4097: 4061: 4045: 3967: 3954: 3845: 3837: 3836:

While successful at its first stage (from 602 to 622), the campaign of

3791: 3783: 3767: 3714: 3679: 3671: 3624: 3593: 3484: 3230: 3176: 3067: 2928: 2893: 2831:

Rome and satellite kingdom of Armenia around 300, after Narseh's defeat

2801: 2794: 2713: 2701: 2429: 2409: 2371: 2318: 2129: 2074: 1755: 1669: 1489: 1469: 1439: 1399: 1359: 1191: 1157: 1077: 1031: 676: 548: 272: 132: 13038: 11542:

Sassanian Armies: the Iranian Empire Early 3rd to Mid-7th Centuries AD

11238: 9957: 9955: 9077: 6836:, several languages were spoken; Persian in the north and east, while 6568:

with a knife in his hands. A ram is depicted to the right of Abraham.

3171:

After Shapur II died in 379, the empire passed on to his half-brother

2450:(king), he moved his capital further to the south of Pars and founded 17348: 17119: 17003: 16973: 16754: 16628: 16419: 14808:

International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–)

14528: 14505: 14299: 14232: 14200: 13880: 13875: 13850: 13618: 13303: 13190: 13127: 12883: 12853: 12216: 12103:

A Review of Sassanid Images and Inscriptions, on Iran Chamber Society

11868: 11374:

The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Volume III: A.D. 527–641

11264:

The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363–630 AD)

10704:

The Colossal Statue of Shapur I in the Context of Sasanian Sculptures

10256: 9653:. Institute for Research in Humanities Kyoto University. p. 129. 8939: 7768: 7599: 7512: 7480: 7410: 7341: 7314: 7222: 7065: 6916: 6888: 6877: 6771: 6624: 6608: 6514: 6416: 6278: 6274: 6147: 6015: 6011: 5800: 5771: 5767: 5677: 5610: 5602: 5562: 5403:, or grandees. This social system appears to have been fairly rigid. 5260: 5213: 5192:

In contrast to Parthian society, the Sassanids renewed emphasis on a

5181: 5177: 5143: 5135: 4975: 4951: 4904: 4529: 4358: 4254: 4136: 4132: 4109: 3986:

Extent of the Sasanian Empire in 632 with modern borders superimposed

3971: 3963: 3931: 3915: 3841: 3779: 3775: 3663: 3577: 3570: 3562: 3531: 3523: 3406: 3394: 3287: 3180: 3051: 3043: 3017: 2990: 2970: 2963: 2936: 2917: 2881: 2865: 2786: 2652: 2514: 2339:

Bearded facing head, wearing diadem and Parthian-style tiara, legend

2228: 1599: 1569: 1559: 1269: 1107: 965: 220: 154: 11932:

The Roman Eastern frontier and the Persian Wars (AD 226–363). Part 1

11505:(1. Auflage ed.). Gutenberg: Computus Druck Satz & Verlag. 11394:

The Roman Empire in Context: Historical and Comparative Perspectives

11317:, London: Faber and Faber, pp. 9–11, 23, 27, 75, 87, 103, 453, 11139:

The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part I, 226–363 AD)

11136:

Dodgeon, Michael H.; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002),

10718: 10451:

Sasanian Iran, 224–651 AD: portrait of a late antique empire – p. 20

8116: 7931: 7880:

Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006).

6319:

Iconoclasm and the elevation of Persian over other Iranian languages

3311:, who had the support of the nobility, and with the Hephthalites in 16749: 16532: 16490: 16429: 15718: 15058: 14940: 14192: 14034: 13974: 13912: 13907: 13755: 13410: 13333: 13328: 13235: 13220: 13215: 13170: 12877: 12862: 12858: 12842: 12808: 12796: 12784: 12759: 12514: 11730:. London and New York: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 1–336. 10789: 9952: 8514: 7533: 7522: 7282: 7174: 6912: 6685: 6677: 6669: 6652: 6519: 6410: 6379:

Developments in Zoroastrian literature and liturgy by the Sasanians

6360: 6343:

In the early Sassanid period royal inscriptions often consisted of

6161: 6143: 6121: 6007: 5870: 5759: 5399: 5341: 5328: 5197: 5131: 5089: 5053: 4968: 4913: 4831:

On the eastern side of the Caspian Sea, the Sassanians erected the

4817: 4792: 4774: 4763: 4532:

making it a Sasanian vassal until the invasion of Persia by Arabs.

4386: 4370: 4241: 4233: 4060:, governor". Dated AH 56 = 675/6 AD. Sasanian style bust imitating 4023: 4015: 3998:, acceded to the throne. The same year, the first raiders from the 3923: 3535: 3504: 3472:

in 524/525 to do likewise triggered a war between Rome and Persia.

3350: 3283: 3218: 3210: 3202: 3125: 3094: 2997:

struck deep into Persian territory and defeated Shapur's forces at

2982: 2877: 2873: 2848: 2840: 2817: 2809: 2782: 2771: 2740: 2736: 2705: 2693: 2684:

ended in disaster when the Roman army was defeated and besieged at

2636: 2593: 2581: 2557: 2545: 2526: 2505:

At that time the Arsacid dynasty was divided between supporters of

2489:

of Persian emperor Shapur I (on horseback) capturing Roman emperor

2386: 2238: 2117: 1419: 1409: 975: 862: 246: 227: 11052:

Daryaee, Touraj (2018). "Introduction". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.).

10711:

Die Kolossal-Statue Šāpūrs I. im Kontext der sasanidischen Plastik

10095: 10093: 8668: 8518:

Galienus conquests:Google Books on Roman Eastern Frontier (part 1)

8196: 8194: 6227: 4684:, according to Shapur's own statement, "with our own hand", in 260 3990:

In early 632, a grandson of Khosrau I, who had lived in hiding in

3883:

by the combined Sassanid, Avar, and Slavic forces depicted on the

3752:, where Smbat is said to have killed their king in single combat. 2069:, and also continued to compete extensively with the neighbouring 16662: 16591: 16547: 16402: 16261: 14184: 14014: 13999: 13512: 13240: 13230: 13195: 13185: 12936: 12901: 12895: 12889: 12779: 12747: 12726: 11283:

Byzantium in the Seventh Century: the Transformation of a Culture

7486: 7367: 7333: 7110: 7020: 7015: 6837: 6693: 6681: 6656: 6648: 6644: 6561: 6329: 6264: 6210: 5838: 5803:(late Sasanian or early Islamic in date), and from Ctesiphon and 5788: 5741: 5705:, they were favored for clothing the relics of Christian saints. 5697: 5685: 5681: 5582: 5322: 5233: 5123: 5108:. Some of these later found their way into the literature of the 4979: 4927: 4863: 4813: 4770: 4583: 4505: 4414: 4392: 4316: 4144: 3991: 3974:

in a majestic ceremony. Kavadh died within months, and chaos and

3892: 3865: 3722: 3699: 3616: 3589: 3476: 3437: 3420: 3390: 3323: 3312: 3308: 3234: 3226: 3145: 3137: 3047: 3035: 2948: 2901: 2869: 2844: 2756: 2709: 2677: 2665: 2624: 2561: 2382: 2367: 1609: 1097: 928: 918: 908: 826: 799: 206: 146: 94: 16463: 11913:

Christensen, A (1939), "Sassanid Persia", in Cook, S. A. (ed.),

9496: 8081: 8079: 7472:

and cedes Persian Armenia and the western half of Iberia to the

5882: 5841:

in a beaded surround, 6th–7th century. Used in the reliquary of

3455:, Kavad launched a campaign against the Romans. In 502, he took 2939:, the unborn child of one of Hormizd II's wives who was crowned 16495: 16370: 16067: 15387: 14216: 14024: 13989: 13969: 13958: 13260: 13210: 13132: 12562: 12082: 11163:, vol. 4: The Age of Faith, New York: Simon and Schuster, 10511:

The fire, the star and the cross by Aptin Khanbaghi (2006) p. 6

10271: 10090: 9289: 8874: 8872: 8870: 8191: 7212: 7165: 7095: 7057: 7003:, the Sasanian period is regarded as one of the high points of 6940: 6849: 6845: 6741: 6647:), the southern coast of the Persian Gulf, and the area of the 6481: 6476:

Of great importance for Zoroastrianism was the creation of the

6470: 6422: 6394: 6356: 6325: 6288:

of the Zoroastrian world were given specific associations. The

6235:, one of three main Zoroastrian temples in the Sassanian Empire 6190: 6178: 6097: 6086: 6078: 6048: 6043: 6000: 5992: 5689: 5614: 5345: 5337: 5229: 4879: 4874: 4828:) that to a large extent, have remained intact up to this day. 4825: 4800: 4550: 4525: 4497: 4334: 4301: 4221: 4191: 4176: 4155:. In addition, the old Sassanid "land tax" (known in Arabic as 4148: 3884: 3756: 3631: 3543: 3500: 3496: 3465: 3416: 3410: 3398: 3374: 3362: 3327: 3156:) engaged in just two brief wars with the Sasanian Empire, the 3090: 3086: 3026: 3021: 2852: 2805: 2779: 2632: 2577: 2537: 2475: 2273: 2121: 995: 898: 14073: 10423: 10421: 9877:

International Encyclopedia of Public Policy and Administration

6480:

by the Sassanids, which enabled the accurate rendering of the

5833: 5116:. A notable example of this was the translation of the Indian 4664:

Frequent warfare with the Romans and to a lesser extent others

4578:

Sassanian silver plate showing lance combat between two nobles

4562: 3233:). Bahram deposed the vassal king of the Iranian-held area of 2989:, reaching as far as China. Shapur, along with the nomad King 17129: 14925: 13885: 13613: 13250: 13245: 13225: 12742: 11880: 11243:"The reforms of Chosroes Anushirvan ('Of the Immortal soul')" 10176: 9572:

Expanding Realism: The Historical Dimension of World Politics

8076: 7041: 6992: 6952: 6892: 6869: 6673: 6640: 6565: 6404: 6389: 6026:

From the very beginning of Sassanid rule in 224, an orthodox

5911: 5598: 5390: 5248: 5244: 5159:

and, at Borzuya's request, named the first chapter after him.

5078: 4870: 4637:

The amount of money involved in maintaining a warrior of the

4290: 4236:(9th–11th century) a family descended from the Sogdian ruler 4152: 4096:

Upon hearing of the defeat in Nihawānd, Yazdegerd along with

4053: 4003: 3950: 3787: 3760: 3612: 3354: 3338: 3071: 3063: 2813: 2790: 2598: 2585: 2565: 2553: 2394: 2378: 2351: 2304: 2249: 1953: 803: 10836:". In: Carsten Binder, Henning Börm, Andreas Luther (eds.): 10752:

The Cambridge Ancient History: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425

10460:

The Iranians: Persia, Islam and the soul of a nation – p. 33

10318: 9893: 9891: 9889: 9739: 9737: 9735: 9733: 9731: 8867: 8564:, 25, 2–5 translated by Dodgeon-Greatrex-Lieu (2002), I, 126 7756: 7720: 7708: 7692: 7687: 6056:

to accept Ardashir I as their new King, most notably in the

5459:

is recorded, though without stating the outcome of the case.

4400:

of greatest seniority were permitted a silver throne, while

3221:. In 427, he crushed an invasion in the east by the nomadic 2977:

and took control of large territories in areas now known as

2208: 53: 14705: 14168: 14104: 13200: 12738: 11690:

Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017). "East Iran in Late Antiquity".

10418: 10306: 8993: 8058: 8056: 7837: 7835: 7591: 7239:

337–350: First war with Rome with relatively little success

6996: 6899:

along with other Iranian dialects and languages, while the

6865: 6493: 6364: 6293: 6082: 6053: 5907: 5862: 5779: 5775: 5284: 4676:

showing an equestrian combat of Shapur I and Roman emperor

4354: 4262: 4105: 4069: 4027: 4014:

the newly expansive Arabs, were no longer a threat. Caliph

3999: 3635: 3358: 3291: 3106: 2935:

escaped into Roman territory). The throne was reserved for

2767: 2471: 2446: 2362:

Conflicting accounts shroud the details of the fall of the

2101: 2097: 1992: 1989: 1983: 1974: 1962: 1959: 1944: 816: 16339: 12345: 11222:

The Cambridge Ancient History – XII – The Crisis of Empire

10834:

A Threat or a Blessing? The Sasanians and the Roman Empire

10362: 10360: 10358: 10189: 9399: 8956: 7250:

including fifteen fortresses as well as Nisibis to Persia.

5040:

Foreign dignitary drinking wine, on ceiling of Cave 1, at

3503:

and Dorotheus, but in 531 a Persian army accompanied by a

3341:

his army was trapped by the Huns in the desert. Peroz was

3042:

From around 370, however, towards the end of the reign of

2851:, Turkey) before 1 October 298. He then advanced down the 15683:

Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO)

11377:. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. 11037:. UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. 10225: 10122:"Sassanids Used Commercial Labels: Iranian Archeologists" 9886: 9845: 9833: 9781: 9779: 9766: 9764: 9749: 9728: 7056:

are associated with the Sassanian Empire. The Babylonian

6580:

Christians in the Sasanian Empire belonged mainly to the

6315:

became central places for pilgrimage among Zoroastrians.

6304:

in Parthia with the lowest estate, farmers and herdsmen.

5044:, possibly depicting the Sasanian embassy to Indian king 4869:

In 531, Emperor Justinian suggested that the Axumites of

4212:(9th–10th century) from Mihr Gushnasp, a Sasanian prince. 3296: 2597:

lands from Gorgan to Abarshahr, Marw, and as far east as

2264:. Historians have referred to the Sasanian Empire as the 12074:

The Sassanians by Iraj Bashiri, University of Minnesota.

11727:

Sasanian Persia: Between Rome and the Steppes of Eurasia

11523:

A History of the Jews in Babylonia: The Age of Shapur II

11360:"Class system iii. In the Parthian and Sasanian Periods" 10339:

Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China

9798: 9796: 9794: 9378: 8855: 8053: 7981:, London & New York: Routledge Curzon, p. 120, 7861: 7832: 6927:

was spoken if it was not likely Middle Persian as well.

6284:

It was therefore during the Sassanid era that the three

5052:

Following the conquest of Iran and neighboring regions,

3459:

in Armenia, but lost it soon afterwards. In 503 he took

2268:, since it was the second Iranian empire that rose from 2156:. It also helped shape European and Asian medieval art. 11814:; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (November 2004), 11503:

Das frühe Sasanidenreich und Rom: eine Forschungskritik

10433: 10406: 10394: 10382: 10355: 10247:, Vol. I, (University of Wisconsin Press, 1980), 96–97. 10186:, (Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 879–880. 9118:"Iran Chamber Society: The Sassanid Empire, 224–642 AD" 8929: 8927: 8925: 8923: 8224:

Ruzgaran: tarikh-i Iran az aghz ta saqut saltnat Pahlvi

7294:

428: Persian zone of Armenia annexed to Sasanian Empire

7183:

252–261: War with Rome. Decisive victory of Persian at

6840:

was spoken in the rest of the place. Furthermore, late

6022:

Tansar and his justification for Ardashir I's rebellion

4950:

dynasties. Both empires benefited from trade along the

4853:

In 522, before Khosrau's reign, a group of monophysite

4603:

Unlike the Parthians, the Sassanids developed advanced

4455:

The active army of the Sassanid Empire originated from

4426:

traditions and to obliterate Greek cultural influence.

3778:. Thereafter, the Persian advance continued unchecked. 3487:, and, though superior in numbers, was defeated at the 2663:, by which he secured the immediate payment of 500,000 11873:

Ruzgaran:Tarikh-i Iran Az Aghz ta Saqut Saltnat Pahlvi

11692:

ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity

11582:

Southern, Pat (2001), "Beyond the Eastern Frontiers",

11011:

From Oxus to Euphrates: The World of Late Antique Iran

9776: 9761: 9478: 9304: 7762: 7228:

325: Shapur II defeats many Arab tribes and makes the

6209:. This change probably took place during the reign of 3938:

and conducted further raids before withdrawing up the

2843:, winning successive victories, most prominently near 2497:(kneeling), suing for peace, following the victory at 2294: 2218: 2199:

Officially, the empire was known as the Empire of the

11425:

The Oxford Handbook of Warfare in the Classical World

11370: 10215: 10213: 10211: 10209: 10207: 10205: 9862: 9860: 9791: 9500:

Why Europe?: The Medieval Origins of Its Special Path

9474:. New York: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd. pp. 46–47. 9300:"The Near East in Late Antiquity The Sasanian Empire" 9089: 8981: 8908: 8884: 7347:

491: Armenian revolt. Armenian Church repudiates the

7255:

387: Armenia partitioned into Roman and Persian zones

4644: 3286:

in 443 and launched a prolonged campaign against the

3089:, the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, was completed, 2696:, as well as a monumental inscription in Persian and 2517:

as the sole ruler of Persia, Ardashir took the title

1995: 1986: 1980: 1971: 1965: 1956: 1950: 1941: 13837: 12085:

The Near East in Late Antiquity: The Sasanian Empire

11199:"The Political History of Iran under the Sassanians" 9142:

Martindale, Jones & Morris (1992), pp. 1363–1364

8920: 8896: 8787: 7714: 7702: 7610: 7109:, one group of those refugees landed in what is now 6919:

during the Parthian period, much later the place of

6774:

along with one of its dialects, Tati, was spoken in

5573:

Horse head, gilded silver, 4th century, Sasanian art

4773:

tribes occasionally raided the Sassanid empire. The

4404:

of the most strategic border provinces, such as the

2672:

Shapur soon resumed the war, defeated the Romans at

2241:

says "I am the lord of the Empire of the Iranians".

2093:

by expanding the newly acquired Sasanian dominions.

39: 11756:Schindel, Nikolaus (2013b). "Kawād I ii. Coinage". 11205:, vol. 3, Part 1, Cambridge University Press, 11135: 10876:

Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices

10706:. Publisher: Persian Heritage Foundation, New York. 7958: 6709:produced many advantages for the Jewish community. 6668:Some of the recent excavations have discovered the 6458:(Exploits of Zarter) were probably translated from 6336:, in the tradition that was established during the 5593:

A Sasanian silver plate depicting a royal lion hunt

5180:, the facade of the Sasanian palace in the capital 4680:in which the Roman emperor is seized following the 3592:, and he put to death an influential member of the 2962:, a strategically critical area for control of the 1977: 1947: 11864:vol. 3 p. 1 Cambridge 1983, pp. 568–592. 11423:. In Campbell, Brian; Tritle, Lawrence A. (eds.). 10943: 10202: 9857: 9813: 9811: 8950: 8364: 7946: 7355:becomes dominant Christian sect in Sasanian Empire 4412:could be regarded as field marshals, while lesser 2955:after they had previously fallen to the Persians. 2820:holdings. Narseh did not advance from Armenia and 2354:, wearing diadem and Parthian-style tiara, legend 11972:Les langues Iraniennes (translated by Joyce Blau) 11338:, Wellem Verlag, Düsseldorf 2010, pp. 37–70. 10336: 10107: 10105: 9682:, (C.H. Beck'sche Verlagbuchhandlung, 1984), 298. 9574:. Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc. p. 170. 9017:"Iranologie History of Iran Chapter V: Sasanians" 8805: 6089:texts, which he himself approved and authorised. 6085:, alongside the establishment of a single set of 5438:Slave-owners had the right to the slaves' income. 4566:A Sassanid king posing as an armored cavalryman, 4282:. The districts of the provinces were ruled by a 3105:. Shapur II, like Shapur I, was amicable towards 17841: 11810: 11745:Schindel, Nikolaus (2013a). "Kawād I i. Reign". 11641:Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity 11606:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 282–299. 11441: 11396:. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 290–321. 11097: 11028: 11007: 8808:Faith in History: Armenians Rebuilding Community 8493: 8491: 7976: 7879: 6273:. The Adur Burzen-Mehr, linked (in legend) with 6162:Zoroastrian calendar reforms under the Sasanians 5530: 4974:Following the invasion of Iran by Muslim Arabs, 4651:Roman relations with the Parthians and Sassanids 4626:The Byzantine emperor Maurikios also emphasizes 3666:illustration of Hormizd IV seated on his throne. 3491:. In the same year, a second Persian army under 2743:, are named after him. He particularly favoured 2233:); the term is first attested in the trilingual 14744:December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum 12200:Iranologie History of Iran Chapter V: Sasanians 12098:Google Books on Roman Eastern Frontier (part 1) 11944: 11450:, vol. 7, Cosa Mesa: Mazda, archived from 11261:Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002), 10979:Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire 9808: 9621: 9619: 9617: 9472:Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire 9167: 8845: 8843: 8696: 8042: 8040: 5430:Sources of slaves were both foreign (e.g., non- 5093:) from India. In exchange, Persians introduced 4072:defeated a larger Persian force led by General 3729:had been raiding the Sassanid Empire as far as 3479:to attack the important Roman frontier city of 3436:Plate of a Sasanian king hunting rams, perhaps 2774:acceded to the throne, he was pressured by the 2647:and regained the lost territories. The emperor 2521:, or "King of Kings" (the inscriptions mention 17955:States and territories established in the 220s 14830:2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests 14729:March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum 12078:The Art of Sassanians, on Iran Chamber Society 12037:Sasanika: the History and Culture of Sasanians 11694:. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 1–256. 11643:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–538. 11055:Sasanian Iran in the Context of Late Antiquity 10903:. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 10657:. britannica.com. 11 September 2001. p. 2 10488:Cultural Identity in the Ancient Mediterranean 10257:Front Cover Jamsheed Kairshasp Choksy (1997). 10102: 10036: 9941:, 224 pp., Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995, 9826:These four are the three common Indo-European 9719: 9352: 9014: 8596: 8594: 8515:Michael H. Dodgeon; Samuel N. C. Lieu (1991). 7329:483: Edict of Toleration granted to Christians 4320:, the head of traders and merchants syndicate 4128:, which sought to revive Sassanid traditions. 3766:In 613, outside Antioch, the Persian generals 3576:In 565, Justinian I died and was succeeded by 3427: 16355: 14612:Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911) 14089: 13823: 13054: 12617: 12593: 12264: 12013:Early Sassanian inscriptions, seals and coins 12009: 11994:Early Sassanian inscriptions, seals and coins 11987: 11639:. In Mass, Michael; Di Cosmo, Nicola (eds.). 11637:"Sasanian Iran and its northeastern frontier" 11500: 11072: 11029:Daryaee, Touraj; Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017). 11008:Daryaee, Touraj; Rezakhani, Khodadad (2016). 9965:, 224 pp., Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995, 9442: 9010: 9008: 8810:. Smithsonian Institution Press. p. 40. 8488: 7882:"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires" 7730: 6987:that would become a driving force behind the 6387:have speculated that it is possible that the 4758:. The construction of fortifications such as 4705:siege of the Byzantine capital Constantinople 3813: 3315:. He was killed by his brother Peroz in 459. 3116: 2907: 2704:. He exploited his success by advancing into 2615:, 1521, pen and black ink on a chalk sketch, 1912: 405:3,500,000 km (1,400,000 sq mi) 17812:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 15688:Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO) 12234:Iransaga: Persian arts through the centuries 11678: 11657: 11604:The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Attila 11585:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine 11260: 11180:Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War 10713:. Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz, Germany. 10324: 9982: 9647:Across the Hindukush of the First Millennium 9614: 9598:. Occawlonline.pearsoned.com. Archived from 9569: 9503:. University of Chicago Press. p. 106. 9446:Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war 9057:"Richard Frye "The History of Ancient Iran"" 8999: 8962: 8840: 8722: 8720: 8697:Rienjang, Wannaporn; Stewart, Peter (2018). 8085:International Congress of Byzantine Studies 8037: 7867: 6619:in accordance with which he refused to call 4467:model, and employed new types of armour and 4104:. Yazdegerd was assassinated by a miller in 3790:by 621. The Sassanid dream of restoring the 3584:of the Suren family, built a fire temple at 2676:(253), and then probably took and plundered 124:The Sasanian Empire at its greatest extent, 27:Last pre-Islamic Iranian empire (224–651 AD) 14798:2009 Iranian presidential election protests 13649:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire 12631: 12025:(Original from the New York Public Library) 11912: 11817:East-West Orientation of Historical Empires 11427:. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–783. 11098:Daryaee, Touraj; Nicholson, Oliver (2018). 10719:"The restoration of the Cross at Jerusalem" 10537:. Payvand. 7 September 2004. Archived from 10341:. Manchester University Press. p. 67. 10064:Iranian cultural heritage news agency (CHN) 9674: 9672: 9497:Michael Mitterauer; Gerald Chapple (2010). 8619:(Vol.3 ed.). Hermes Pub. p. 257. 8591: 8123:. Oxford University Press. pp. 80–81. 7676: 6592:of the Nestorian and Jacobite Churches was 5448:Slaves were often given to the Zoroastrian 4908:Persian ambassador at the Chinese court of 3898:In response, Khosrau, in coordination with 3755:After Maurice was overthrown and killed by 2016: 16362: 16348: 15304:Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament) 15166:Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran 14682:1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election 14096: 14082: 13830: 13816: 13061: 13047: 12668:Late Chalcolithic 4-5 / Early Jezirah 1-3 12624: 12610: 12271: 12257: 12229:Richard Frye "The History of Ancient Iran" 12006:(Original from the Bavarian State Library) 11840: 10959:, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 10272:Ahmad Hasan Dani; B. A. Litvinsky (1994). 9112: 9110: 9108: 9106: 9104: 9102: 9005: 8676:Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society 8660: 8381: 8379: 8304: 8001: 7994: 7164:The collection of texts known as the Zend 6676:and Jewish religious sites in the empire. 5933:. The extraordinary mineral wealth of the 5296:(king of kings), also simply known as the 4151:subjects of the Muslim state and paying a 3794:boundaries was almost complete, while the 3062:, who would follow up with an invasion of 2785:to kill Mani and persecute his followers. 2680:. Roman counter-attacks under the emperor 2404:1840 illustration of a Sasanian relief at 1919: 1905: 118: 112:The Sasanian Empire in the mid 5th-century 106: 14813:Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015) 11867: 11766: 11755: 11744: 11689: 11458: 11418: 11391: 11073:Daryaee, Touraj; Canepa, Matthew (2018). 10819:"Herrscher und Eliten in der Spätantike." 10245:History of the Byzantine Empire, 324–1453 10124:. Payvand. 21 August 2009. Archived from 10013:Khazaria in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries 9933: 9931: 9691: 9523: 9395: 9393: 9336: 9334: 9332: 9330: 9328: 9219:The Caliphs and Their Non-Muslim Subjects 9179: 9078:Richard Frye. The History of Ancient Iran 8878: 8861: 8849: 8834: 8781: 8717: 8573: 8548: 8469: 8445: 8322: 7917: 7602:, and many others go into exile in China. 7583:; Yazdegerd III becomes a hunted fugitive 7344:the right to profess Christianity freely. 7336:defeated and killed by Hephthalites. The 5613:. When Justinian I closed the schools of 5279:Plate of a Sasanian king, located in the 4919:Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang 4791:, built in 240–270 AD during the time of 4314:, along with the commander-in-chief, the 3175:(379–383; son of Hormizd II) and his son 3078:on the obverse, and with attendants to a 2766:This friendship was advantageous for the 2651:'s (238–244) subsequent advance down the 2385:and appoint himself the new ruler of the 14632:Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020) 11969: 11857:vol. 1. Cambridge 2010, pp. 98–152. 11785: 11759:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XVI, Fasc. 2 11748:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XVI, Fasc. 2 11679:Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2017). "Kārin". 11581: 11351:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 1 10947:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 6 10748: 9669: 9643: 9528:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 9428:History of Civilizations of Central Asia 8933: 8669:"Notes on the Evolution of Alchon Coins" 8612: 8585: 8421: 8397: 8237:"Ērān, Ērānšahr – Encyclopaedia Iranica" 8047: 7770:egō... tou Arianōn ethnous despotēs eimi 7634:List of Zoroastrian states and dynasties 7413:, "with the immortal soul" (Anushirvan). 7205:271–301: A period of dynastic struggles. 7123: 7089: 7014: 6978: 6555: 6464: 6383:Some scholars of Zoroastrianism such as 6226: 5959: 5881: 5832: 5820: 5588: 5576: 5568: 5556: 5290:The head of the Sasanian Empire was the 5274: 5172: 5168: 5056:extended his authority northwest of the 5035: 5011: 4990:. The emperor of China at this time was 4903: 4779: 4667: 4573: 4561: 4487: 4439: 4036: 3981: 3944: 3874: 3708: 3657: 3517: 3483:. The army was met by the Roman general 3431: 3317: 3239: 3120: 3007: 2911: 2826: 2718: 2603: 2480: 2423: 2399: 2312: 17636: 15418:Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) 13068: 12205:History of Iran on Iran Chamber Society 11966:Paris: Librairie Victor Lecoffre, 1904. 11930:Michael H. Dodgeon, Samuel N. C. Lieu. 11539: 11519: 11421:"Military and Society in Sasanian Iran" 11307: 11176: 11105:The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity 11080:The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity 11051: 10996: 10972: 10843: 10439: 10427: 10412: 10400: 10388: 10366: 10312: 10261:. Columbia University Press. p. 5. 10009: 9983:Lowe, Roy; Yasuhara, Yoshihito (2016). 9897: 9839: 9785: 9770: 9755: 9743: 9484: 9469: 9384: 9310: 9099: 9051: 9049: 9047: 8987: 8726: 8475: 8376: 8334: 8310: 8292: 8066:p. 22 Jewish Publication Society, 1979 7964: 7855:First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913–1936 7841: 7629:List of Sasanian revolts and civil wars 7406:pays tribute 11,000 lbs gold/year. 7133:List of monarchs of the Sasanian Empire 6943:, non-Iranian languages and an unknown 6375:region, the homeland of the Sassanids. 4997: 4889: 4085:and the governors were defeated at the 4068:In 637, a Muslim army under the Caliph 628:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 344:Climactic Roman–Sasanian War of 602–628 177: 14: 17842: 14956:History of democracy in classical Iran 11601: 11476: 11364:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. V, Fasc. 6 11341: 11280: 10954: 10917: 10768: 10716: 10636: 10634: 9928: 9802: 9390: 9325: 9150: 9148: 8914: 8890: 8799: 8793: 8666: 8639: 8260: 8143: 8114: 7952: 7468:regains the throne with help from the 6680:were competitors of Zoroastrianism in 6560:Sasanian-era cornelian gem, depicting 6092: 5462:If a non-Zoroastrian slave, such as a 5314:. The king's guards were known as the 4916:in 526–539 CE, with explanatory text. 3393:as the new shah of Iran. According to 3237:and made it a province of the empire. 3050:to invaders from the north: first the 2432:receiving the ring of kingship by the 16343: 15754: 15678:Defense Industries Organization (DIO) 15463:Iran and the World Trade Organization 15367: 15110: 14991: 14116: 14077: 13811: 13042: 13024: 13003: 12993: 12911: 12882: 12814: 12790: 12605: 12592: 12252: 12195:The Sassanian Empire: Further Reading 11878: 11798: 11792:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition 11723: 11634: 11357: 10872: 10829:. Düsseldorf: Wellem, pp. 159ff. 10484: 10231: 10219: 9851: 9400:Kaveh Farrokh; Angus McBride (2005). 9161: 8902: 8168:"Transoxiana 04: Sasanians in Africa" 7551:636: Decisive Sasanian defeat at the 7498:610: Arabs defeat a Sasanian army at 7402:receives Lazica and Persarmenia; the 7035:. The structure and character of the 6991:of the newly established religion of 6947:were spoken. In major cities such as 6817:(notably in Lazica), Middle Persian, 6757: 6717: 6528:(Judgments of the Spirit of Wisdom). 6133:obscure Zoroastrian concept known as 5877: 4731:deprived the Byzantine Empire of its 2751:(who dedicated one of his books, the 2609:The Humiliation of Valerian by Shapur 17880:Ancient history of Georgia (country) 14850:2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 14840:2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 12152:Sasanians in Africa in Transoxiana 4 11664:. London and New York: I.B. Tauris. 11298: 11218: 11196: 10997:Daryaee, Touraj (2009). "Šāpur II". 10893: 10879:. Psychology Press. pp. 1–252. 10787: 10642:Justinian and the later Roman Empire 10531:"Parsi population in India declines" 10469: 10372: 9911:Social Justice in the Ancient World 9538: 9136: 9093: 9044: 8968: 8760: 8600: 8457: 8409: 8385: 8370: 8358: 8346: 8298: 7715: 7703: 7326:482–483: Armenian and Iberian revolt 7313:fought in 451 against the Christian 7047: 6945:Middle Northwestern Iranian language 6925:Middle Southwestern Iranian language 6222: 5827:Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System 5581:A Sasanian silver plate featuring a 4429: 3530:After the reign of Kavad I, his son 3201:Yazdegerd I's successor was his son 3046:, the Sasanians lost the control of 2973:regained the upper hand against the 2183:was gradually absorbed into nascent 2012: 40: 16083:Chicago Persian antiquities dispute 15724:Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone 15698:National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) 15497:UN Security Council Resolution 1747 15232:UN Security Council Resolution 1747 11769:The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran 11122: 11108:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 11083:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 10840:. Duisburg: Wellem, pp. 615ff. 10631: 9963:Social Justice in the Ancient World 9939:Social Justice in the Ancient World 9145: 9090:Martindale, Jones & Morris 1992 7818:"Ctesiphon – Encyclopaedia Iranica" 7731: 6292:in Pars became associated with the 5186:the most populous city of the world 4971:at the time of the Arab invasions. 3962:overthrown and murdered by his son 3070:(r. 383 to 388), adding the Alchon 2295:Origins and early history (205–310) 24: 14622:Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–) 14065:* indicates short living provinces 12191:programme (available as .ram file) 11905: 11855:The New Cambridge History of Islam 11803:, Rudolf Halbelt, pp. 175–210 11569:Mad, Hakhamanishi, Ashkani, Sasani 11155: 9449:. Osprey Publishing. p. 237. 9403:Sassanian elite cavalry AD 224–642 9154:Haldon (1997), 46; Baynes (1912), 8606: 8254: 6872:. Other Indian groups such as the 6722:During the early Sasanian period, 6700:, and with its own semiautonomous 6663: 5048:(610–642), photograph and drawing. 4645:Relations with neighboring regimes 4474: 4240:, who was in turn a descendant of 25: 17966: 15693:Iran Electronics Industries (IEI) 15314:Supreme National Security Council 15140:Persian Constitutional Revolution 14770:Interim Government of Iran (1981) 14677:Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–) 14667:Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975) 12217:Livius articles on ancient Persia 12030: 11974:(in French), Paris: Klincksieck, 11442:Khaleghi-Motlagh, Djalal (1996), 11014:. H&S Media. pp. 1–126. 10472:History of the later Roman empire 9705:"Borzūya – Encyclopaedia Iranica" 9541:"History of Iran: Sassanian Army" 9406:. Osprey Publishing. p. 23. 9120:. Iranchamber.com. Archived from 8202:"Iransaga: The art of Sassanians" 7886:Journal of World-Systems Research 7569:with heavy casualties during the 5955: 5837:Sasanian silk twill textile of a 5628:were received there, and brought 5351: 5348:), the king would hold a speech. 5126:. This translation, known as the 4709:social conflict within the Empire 4701:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 3820:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 3361:were now under Hephthalite rule. 3016:coin based on the coin design of 2356:"son of the divinity Papak, king" 16323: 16314: 16313: 15289:Assembly (or Council) of Experts 14053: 13787:Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary 13278: 12575: 12574: 12344: 12280: 12147:The continuation of Sassanid Art 10669: 10647: 10605: 10579: 10553: 10523: 10514: 10505: 10478: 10463: 10454: 10445: 10330: 10297: 10288: 10265: 10250: 10237: 10158: 10149: 10140: 10114: 10077: 10068: 10057: 10037:Jona Lendering (31 March 2006). 10030: 10003: 9976: 9903: 9869: 9820: 9697: 9685: 9657: 9637: 9628: 9588: 9563: 9554: 9532: 9517: 9490: 9463: 9436: 9019:. Iranologie.com. Archived from 7787: 7686: 7613: 6506:An important literary text, the 5243:Roman prisoners of war, such as 4842: 4120:. Some of the nobles settled in 3025: 2584:. In the west, assaults against 1937: 1888: 659: 595: 581: 567: 553: 539: 525: 511: 486: 472: 458: 444: 430: 87: 71: 15488:Military equipment manufactured 15054:Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests 14818:United States withdrawal (2018) 14739:Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981) 14103: 12432:Military of the Sasanian Empire 11658:Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2008). 10982:. I.B. Tauris. pp. 1–240. 10695: 10679:. Chinapage.com. 11 August 2000 10087:, vol. I, 3rd ed., pp. 381–383. 9524:Yarshater, Ehsan (1983). "15". 9420: 9361: 9343: 9316: 9283: 9280:Stokvis A.M.H.J., pp. 112, 129. 9274: 9249: 9224: 9212: 9207:Arabs and others in Early Islam 9199: 9190: 9173: 9083: 9035: 8828: 8775: 8772:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 37–51 8766: 8754: 8732: 8690: 8633: 8579: 8567: 8554: 8542: 8508: 8463: 8451: 8439: 8427: 8415: 8403: 8391: 8352: 8340: 8328: 8316: 8229: 8216: 8182: 8160: 8137: 8108: 8099: 8007: 7775: 7749: 7639:Military of the Sasanian Empire 7161:is revived as official religion 7137:Timeline of the Sasanian Empire 6531: 6128:. To some extent Kartir was an 5829:, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 5723:In reviving the glories of the 5122:by one of Khosrau's ministers, 5027: 4962:. Upon the rise of the nomadic 4754:and nomadic tribes such as the 4436:Military of the Sasanian Empire 3442: 3190:(399–421) is often compared to 2922: 2639:, but in 243 the Roman general 2290:Timeline of the Sasanian Empire 2036:last pre-Islamic Iranian empire 17885:Ancient history of Afghanistan 16048:modern / contemporary 15294:Expediency Discernment Council 14617:1908 bombardment of the Majlis 14606:Caucasus (18th–20th centuries) 14130: 13344:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) 13339:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) 12168:Pirooz in China, By Frank Wong 12016:, London: Trübner, p. 137 11997:, London: Trübner, p. 137 11945:Howard-Johnston, J.D. (2006), 11483:Iraq After The Muslim Conquest 11459:Mackenzie, David Neil (2005), 11225:, Cambridge University Press, 11102:. In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). 11077:. In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). 10927:University of California Press 10755:, Cambridge University Press, 10099:Tafazzoli & Khromov, p. 48 8951:Chaumont & Schippmann 1988 7970: 7911: 7873: 7847: 7810: 7508:by Avars, Persians, and Slavs. 5736:had inaugurated the spread of 5607:Karnamak-i Artaxshir-i Papakan 5389:At the center of the Sasanian 4857:led an attack on the dominant 4162: 3881:Siege of Constantinople in 626 13: 1: 17930:Ancient history of Azerbaijan 15262:state-sponsorship allegations 14992: 13726:Ancient Mesopotamian religion 13123:Tigris–Euphrates river system 11915:The Cambridge Ancient History 11862:The Cambridge History of Iran 11801:Varia 1 (Poikila Byzantina 4) 11501:Mosig-Walburg, Karin (2023). 11314:A History of the Arab Peoples 11203:The Cambridge History of Iran 10723:The English Historical Review 10587:"Byzantine–Iranian Relations" 8261:Fattah, Hala Mundhir (2009). 7803: 7479:593: Attempted usurpation of 7187:and Capture of Roman emperor 7119: 6868:, who had been deported from 6584:(Church of the East) and the 5531:Arts, science, and literature 5270: 4769:In south and central Arabia, 4324:and minister of agriculture ( 4248: 3824:Sasanian civil war of 628–632 3763:and captured Antioch in 611. 3734: 3217:, the daughter of the Jewish 3144:From Shapur II's death until 2669:and further annual payments. 2326: 2235:Great Inscription of Shapur I 2046:after the directly preceding 1036: 1000: 880: 867: 844: 831: 808: 791: 741: 728: 715: 702: 689: 125: 17910:Empires and kingdoms of Iran 15719:Asaluyeh industrial corridor 15111: 15020:twin towns and sister cities 14326:Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224) 14203:Mannai (10th–7th century BC) 14179:Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC) 11949:, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 11853:. In: Chase Robinson (ed.), 11786:Shahbazi, A. Shapur (2005). 11461:A Concise Pahalvi Dictionary 11033:. In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). 10794:, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 10041:. Livius.org. Archived from 9961:K. D. Irani, Morris Silver, 9937:K. D. Irani, Morris Silver, 9909:K. D. Irani, Morris Silver, 8703:. Archaeopress. p. 23. 8089:p. 29. Ashgate Pub Co, 2006 7979:A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary 7769: 7763: 7757: 7721: 7709: 7693: 7664:Women in the Sasanian Empire 7440:Sasanian-appointed governors 7434:abolish the monarchy of the 7394:: The Sasanian Empire keeps 7068:that became cornerstones of 7010: 6576:. Created 4th–5th century AD 6367:, was then recorded only in 6300:in Media with warriors, and 5795:examples are preserved from 5517: 5502: 5060:. The previously autonomous 4418:could command a field army. 3910:on the Byzantine capital of 3445: 488–496, 498–531 2804:(who ruled briefly in 293), 2444:Once Ardashir was appointed 2229: 2219: 2209: 54: 7: 17945:Countries in ancient Africa 17890:Ancient history of Pakistan 17865:States in medieval Anatolia 16369: 15998:Water supply and sanitation 15755: 15729:Kish Island Free Trade Zone 15368: 14788:KDPI insurgency (1989–1996) 14163:civilization (3100–2700 BC) 14117: 13792:Chicago Assyrian Dictionary 13674:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations 13669:Indus-Mesopotamia relations 11851:The Late Sasanian Near East 11771:. Oxford University Press. 10773:. New York: Gorgias Press. 10535:Payvand's Iran News .. 9680:The History of Ancient Iran 9426:Vadim Mikhaĭlovich Masson, 7606: 7504:626: Unsuccessful siege of 7449:and other Sasanian nobles, 7098:" a wood engraving, c. 1873 7079: 6829:, Koine Greek, and others. 6712: 6613:patriarch of Constantinople 6548:Christianisation of Armenia 5944: 5441:While slaves were formally 4795:, the second Sassanid ruler 4483: 4278:, overseen directly by the 3828:Fall of the Sasanian Empire 3511:defeated Belisarius at the 3428:Second Golden Era (498–622) 3365:, a member of the Parthian 3030:and "Alchono" (αλχοννο) in 2317:Initial coinage of founder 10: 17971: 15478:Economy of the Middle East 14855:2021–2022 Iranian protests 14845:2019–2020 Iranian protests 14825:2017–2018 Iranian protests 14286:Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17) 13903:Garamig ud Nodardashiragan 13797:Chicago Hittite Dictionary 12163:Islamic Conquest of Persia 11934:. Routledge. London, 1994 11841:Wiesehöfer, Josef (1996), 11402:10.1002/9781444390186.ch13 10856:Cambridge University Press 10717:Baynes, Norman H. (1912), 10337:Samuel N. C. Lieu (1985). 9915:Greenwood Publishing Group 9430:, Vol.II, (UNESCO, 1996), 8806:Susan Paul Pattie (1997). 7447:Rebellion of Bahram Chobin 7309:449–451: Armenian revolt. 7130: 7083: 7052:Important developments in 6887:Due to invasions from the 6802:(also known as Tabari) in 6545: 6535: 5948: 5937:led to a legend among the 5814: 5810: 5766:, and the capital city of 5534: 5506: 5497: 5409: 5163: 5001: 4893: 4846: 4648: 4581: 4557: 4433: 4008:Islamic conquest of Persia 3817: 3814:Decline and fall (622–651) 3409:, and his younger brother 3371:Seven Great Houses of Iran 3117:Intermediate Era (379–498) 3074:and the name "Alchono" in 2908:First Golden Era (309–379) 2904:on a hunting trip in 309. 2341:"The divine Ardaxir, king" 2298: 2287: 2283: 2048:Arsacid dynasty of Parthia 17805: 17757: 17274: 16678: 16377: 16309: 16275: 16221: 16024: 16015: 15945: 15897: 15829: 15776: 15767: 15763: 15750: 15711: 15703:National Development Fund 15666: 15623:Telecommunications and IT 15617:Anglo-Persian Oil Company 15546: 15443:Foreign direct investment 15388:Bonyad (charitable trust) 15380: 15376: 15363: 15322: 15281: 15123: 15119: 15106: 15000: 14987: 14867: 14734:1979 Khuzestan insurgency 14724:Interim Government (1979) 14703: 14651: 14644: 14540: 14450: 14367: 14358: 14335: 14252: 14145: 14138: 14129: 14125: 14112: 14062: 14051: 13846: 13764: 13718: 13692: 13596: 13493: 13386: 13294: 13287: 13276: 13158: 13085: 13076: 13021: 13000: 12988: 12985: 12978: 12975: 12957: 12947: 12930: 12923: 12921: 12887: 12875: 12866: 12857: 12852: 12824: 12807: 12778: 12763: 12758: 12737: 12732: 12720: 12710: 12698: 12688: 12670: 12667: 12657: 12652: 12647: 12640: 12599: 12594:Links to related articles 12572: 12528: 12487: 12479:Muslim conquest of Persia 12459:Hephthalite–Sasanian Wars 12424: 12353: 12342: 12311: 12293: 11635:Potts, Daniel T. (2018). 11567:, and Bahman Firuzmandi, 11561:, IndyPublish.com, 2005 . 11419:McDonough, Scott (2013). 11161:The Story of Civilization 10955:Daniel, Elton L. (2001), 10735:10.1093/ehr/XXVII.CVI.287 9373:Cambridge History of Iran 8119:. In Onians, John (ed.). 8117:"West Asia 300 BC–AD 600" 7977:MacKenzie, D. N. (2005), 7557:Muslim conquest of Persia 7438:. Direct control through 7430:580: The Sasanians under 7383:for 1,000 pounds of gold. 6915:, which saw an influx of 6891:and their sub-group, the 6615:, for teaching a view of 6552:Armenian Apostolic Church 6062:, which was addressed to 5155:translated the book into 4922:, 11th century Song copy. 4733:territories in the Levant 4050:Mu'awiya I ibn Abi Sufyan 3942:into north-western Iran. 3832:Muslim conquest of Persia 3634:to the area near present 2643:defeated the Persians at 2325:Artaxerxes (Ardaxsir) V. 2161:Muslim conquest of Persia 2073:. It had been founded by 409: 401: 396: 392: 379: 366: 353: 340: 327: 314: 310: 300: 296: 281: 266: 262: 252: 237: 183: 166: 139: 117: 105: 67: 62: 34: 15453:International oil bourse 15218:Ministry of Intelligence 14803:Syrian civil war (2011–) 14627:1921 Persian coup d'état 12649:Northwestern Mesopotamia 12551:Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom 12210:10 November 2006 at the 12125:10 November 2016 at the 12113:10 November 2016 at the 12091:14 December 2006 at the 12053:10 November 2016 at the 11970:Oranskij, I. M. (1977), 11724:Sauer, Eberhard (2017). 11624:, Elmiv Farhangi, 2001. 10769:Bonner, Michael (2020). 10520:A. Khanbaghi (2006) p. 9 10485:Gruen, Erich S. (2011). 9989:. Taylor & Francis. 9470:Daryaee, Touraj (2009). 9294:14 December 2006 at the 9221:. A. S. Tritton, p. 139. 8499:Constantine and Eusebius 8483:Constantine and Eusebius 8222:Abdolhossein Zarinkoob: 7669: 7457:but loses the throne to 6607:. The Council condemned 6605:First Council of Ephesus 6525:Dadestan-e Menog-e Khrad 5424:Matigan-i Hazar Datistan 5008:Hind (Sasanian province) 4805:Western Turkic Khaganate 4175:(642–760) descendant of 4082:Arabs captured Ctesiphon 4002:tribes, newly united by 3870:Western Turkic Khaganate 3786:in 619, and the rest of 3128:is a great favourite in 2975:Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom 2969:In the east around 325, 2847:, and securing Nisibis ( 2733:first dam bridge in Iran 2613:Hans Holbein the Younger 2044:Persian imperial dynasty 17895:History of Central Asia 15977:scientists and scholars 15483:Milad Tower and complex 15273:Women's rights movement 15268:White Revolution (1963) 14936:Peoples of the Caucasus 14278:Armenia (321 BC–AD 428) 14171:dynasties (2700–540 BC) 13897:Eran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd 12546:Roman–Iranian relations 12137:22 October 2006 at the 11896:Encyclopædia Britannica 11871:, Abdolhossein (1999), 11845:, New York: I.B. Taurus 11544:, Stockport: Montvert, 11540:Nicolle, David (1996), 11520:Neusner, Jacob (1969), 11358:Shaki, Mansour (1992). 11177:Farrokh, Kaveh (2007), 11058:. Brill. pp. 1–3. 10832:Börm, Henning (2016). " 10771:The Last Empire of Iran 10709:G. Reza Garosi (2009), 10702:G. Reza Garosi (2012): 10243:Alexander A. Vasiliev, 10085:History of Architecture 10010:Zhivkov, Boris (2015). 8742:. Penelope.uchicago.edu 8667:Tandon, Pankaj (2013). 8613:Braarvig, Jens (2000). 8503:The Roman Empire at Bay 8264:A Brief History of Iraq 8204:. Artarena.force9.co.uk 8115:Eiland, Murray (2004). 7553:Battle of al-Qādisiyyah 7529:and becomes Shahanshah. 7511:627: Byzantine Emperor 7086:Zoroastrianism in India 7019:A Sasanian fortress in 6999:and the regions of the 6542:Maphrianate of the East 6426:) and was dedicated to 6042:, he sought the aid of 5340:(Iranian new year) and 5206:Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr 4849:Abyssinian–Persian wars 4659:Byzantine-Sassanid Wars 4535: 4108:in late 651. His sons, 3651:should be the official 3538:based upon a survey of 3209:, the Arabic dynast of 3113:under Persian control. 3101:of the Roman Empire by 2194: 2083:Artabanus IV of Parthia 711:Shulaveri–Shomu culture 17925:7th century in Armenia 17920:6th century in Armenia 16288:Anti-Iranian sentiment 16283:Science and technology 16108:Intellectual movements 15988:International rankings 15972:Intellectual movements 15458:International rankings 14951:Heads of state of Iran 14757:Nojeh coup plot (1980) 14318:Empire (247 BC–AD 224) 14155:culture (3400–2000 BC) 13629:Babylonian mathematics 12809:Middle Hittite Kingdom 12474:Revolts and civil wars 12178:1 January 2009 at the 12010:Edward Thomas (1868), 11879:Meyer, Eduard (1911). 11622:Kholaseh Tarikhe Honar 10817:Börm, Henning (2010). 10807:Börm, Henning (2008). 10788:Börm, Henning (2007), 10491:. Getty Publications. 10470:Bury, John B. (1923), 9443:Kaveh Farrokh (2007). 9196:Zarinkoob, pp. 305–317 8646:. Brill. p. 159. 8640:Neelis, Jason (2010). 8064:The Jews of Arab Lands 7920:Social Science History 7858:. Brill. 1993. p. 179. 7491:603–628: War with the 7485:595–602: Rebellion of 7423:572–591: War with the 7416:541–562: War with the 7386:526–532: War with the 7358:502–506: War with the 7353:Nestorian Christianity 7288:421–422: War with Rome 7180:241–244: War with Rome 7155:229–232: War with Rome 7149:224: Overthrow of the 7128: 7099: 7028: 6838:Eastern Middle Aramaic 6577: 6572:(Pahlavi) inscription 6473: 6236: 6146:. During the reign of 5965: 5890: 5846: 5830: 5774:province (present-day 5752: 5666: 5622:Academy of Gundishapur 5594: 5586: 5574: 5566: 5565:'s image at the center 5545:Academy of Gundishapur 5509:Academy of Gondishapur 5287: 5189: 5161: 5049: 5033: 4923: 4796: 4725:entire Sasanian Empire 4685: 4620: 4579: 4571: 4493: 4452: 4450:Sasanian defense lines 4225:family descended from 4065: 4048:. Coin of the time of 3987: 3958: 3895: 3718: 3667: 3527: 3499:by Roman forces under 3448: 3330: 3248: 3213:. Bahram's mother was 3141: 3039: 2931: 2832: 2728: 2620: 2502: 2441: 2421: 2359: 2244:More commonly, as the 2056:early Muslim conquests 1250:Masmughans of Damavand 724:Zayandeh River Culture 616:This article contains 563:Masmughans of Damavand 36:Empire of the Iranians 17940:651 disestablishments 17905:History of the Levant 17782:Medieval great powers 15576:Shetab Banking System 15566:Banking and insurance 15528:Tehran Stock Exchange 15448:Intellectual property 14793:PJAK conflict (2004–) 14566:Turcomans (1378–1508) 14558:Turcomans (1374–1468) 14507:Ilkhanate (1256–1335) 14310:Pontus (281 BC–AD 62) 12932:Neo-Babylonian Empire 12765:Old Babylonian Empire 12680:Early Dynastic period 12469:Aksumite–Persian wars 12042:Sasanian rock reliefs 11717:registration required 11682:Encyclopaedia Iranica 11486:. Gorgias Press LLC. 11299:Haug, Robert (2019). 11281:Haldon, John (1997), 11183:, Osprey Publishing, 11129:Encyclopaedia Iranica 11031:"The Sasanian Empire" 11000:Encyclopaedia Iranica 10617:Encyclopaedia Iranica 10591:Encyclopaedia Iranica 10565:Encyclopaedia Iranica 10197:Numen, Vol. 40, No. 1 10074:Parviz Marzban, p. 36 10016:. Brill. p. 78. 9644:Kuwayama, S. (2002). 9570:George Liska (1998). 9261:Encyclopaedia Iranica 9236:Encyclopaedia Iranica 9183:Encyclopaedia Iranica 9092:, pp. 559, 639; 8241:www.iranicaonline.org 8188:Sarfaraz, pp. 329–330 7764:aryānšahr xwadāy ahēm 7699:Inscriptional Pahlavi 7127: 7093: 7018: 6979:Legacy and importance 6790:, which later became 6621:Mary, mother of Jesus 6559: 6468: 6230: 6066:, the vassal king of 6034:had deposed the last 5963: 5885: 5836: 5824: 5747: 5668:Sasanian carvings at 5661: 5620:Under Khosrau I, the 5592: 5580: 5572: 5560: 5553:Sasanian architecture 5278: 5176: 5169:Urbanism and nomadism 5140: 5039: 5015: 4910:Emperor Yuan of Liang 4907: 4783: 4703:, which included the 4671: 4613: 4582:Further information: 4577: 4565: 4491: 4443: 4219:(9th–10th century) a 4058:Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad 4040: 3985: 3948: 3878: 3712: 3661: 3521: 3435: 3321: 3243: 3166:administrative system 3124: 3103:Constantine the Great 3011: 2915: 2830: 2722: 2607: 2484: 2427: 2403: 2316: 2299:Further information: 1128:Indo-Parthian Kingdom 1082:3rd-century BC–132 BC 1048:Kingdom of Cappadocia 1004: 6th century BC 986:Neo-Babylonian Empire 167:Common languages 17792:European colonialism 17777:Ancient great powers 15537:Technology start-ups 15438:Environmental issues 15428:Economic Reform Plan 15342:Provincial governors 15032:Environmental issues 14780:Iran Air Flight 655 14521:Jalayirid Sultanate 14393:Caliphate (750–1258) 14235:Kingdom (652–625 BC) 13624:Babylonian astronomy 13103:Mesopotamian Marshes 12659:Southern Mesopotamia 12654:Northern Mesopotamia 12464:Göktürk–Persian wars 12222:14 June 2017 at the 12173:The Sassanian Empire 12066:Encyclopædia Iranica 12044:, Photos from Iran, 11710:10.3366/j.ctt1g04zr8 11448:Encyclopedia Iranica 11100:"Qobad I (MP Kawād)" 10873:Boyce, Mary (1984). 10858:. pp. 747–778. 10128:on 29 September 2007 9168:Howard-Johnston 2006 9015:Khodadad Rezakhani. 8616:Buddhist Manuscripts 8436:, Dorling Kindersley 8170:. Transoxiana.com.ar 7795:Zoroastrian calendar 7654:Sasanian family tree 7349:Council of Chalcedon 7005:Iranian civilization 6815:Kartvelian languages 6452:(Assyrian Tree) and 6142:during the reign of 5785:Persian architecture 5637:Iranian civilization 5626:Nestorian Christians 5466:slave, converted to 4998:Relations with India 4896:Iran-China relations 4890:Relations with China 4833:Great Wall of Gorgan 4609:Ammianus Marcellinus 4521:Ammianus Marcellinus 4492:Sasanian army helmet 4343:Seven Parthian clans 4032:Battle of the Bridge 3513:Battle of Callinicum 3301:Battle of Vartanantz 3020:, adding the Alchon 2631:, Shapur I captured 2485:Rock-face relief at 2087:Battle of Hormozdgan 2060:Islamization of Iran 318:Battle of Hormozdgan 17875:History of Dagestan 17870:History of Abkhazia 17855:Ancient Mesopotamia 17787:Modern great powers 15937:Freedom of religion 15523:Supreme Audit Court 15402:Automotive industry 15049:Iranian Balochistan 14775:1987 Mecca incident 14672:Iran crisis of 1946 14661:dynasty (1925–1979) 14590:Dynasty (1751–1794) 14531:dynasty (1338–1357) 14523:dynasty (1335–1432) 14515:dynasty (1314–1393) 14500:dynasty (1244–1381) 14484:dynasty (1077–1231) 14468:dynasty (1011–1215) 14385:Caliphate (661–750) 14377:Caliphate (632–661) 14345:Empire (AD 224–651) 14262:Empire (550–330 BC) 14243:Empire (626–539 BC) 14227:Empire (678–549 BC) 14211:Empire (911–609 BC) 13705:Destruction by ISIL 13659:Sumerian literature 13634:Akkadian literature 13070:Ancient Mesopotamia 12913:Neo-Assyrian Empire 12827:Bronze Age Collapse 12760:Old Hittite Kingdom 12734:Old Assyrian period 12712:Third Dynasty of Ur 11849:Wiesehöfer, Josef: 11762:. pp. 141–143. 11751:. pp. 136–141. 11565:Sarfaraz, Ali Akbar 11557:Rawlinson, George, 11366:. pp. 652–658. 11197:Frye, R.N. (1993), 10957:The History of Iran 10950:. pp. 574–580. 10814:90, pp. 423ff. 10541:on 16 February 2007 10430:, pp. 772–773. 10379:Albanian language". 10315:, pp. 116–117. 10234:, pp. 123–125. 10045:on 10 November 2016 9854:, pp. 652–658. 9828:social tripartition 9707:. Iranicaonline.org 9158:; Speck (1984), 178 9124:on 10 November 2006 9096:, pp. 101–102. 8953:, pp. 574–580. 8881:, pp. 136–141. 8603:, pp. 137, 138 8434:World History Atlas 8325:, pp. 194, 198 8269:Infobase Publishing 8062:Norman A. Stillman 8025:on 21 November 2001 7820:. Iranicaonline.org 7758:ērānšahr xwadāy hēm 7208:283: War with Rome. 6985:Persian renaissance 6590:liturgical language 6093:Influence of Kartir 5978:Alexander the Great 5825:The remains of the 5734:Alexander the Great 5058:Indian subcontinent 5023:Peroz II Kushanshah 4775:Kingdom of Al-Hirah 4729:Byzantine–Arab Wars 4269:(Queen of Queens). 4267:Banbishnan banbishn 4070:Umar ibn al-Khattāb 3889:Moldovița Monastery 3740:, Khosrow recalled 3696:Battle of Blarathon 3343:defeated and killed 3136:, mid-16th-century 2700:in the vicinity of 2527:Banbishnan banbishn 2377:Ardashir's father, 2163:, the influence of 1784:Contemporary period 1688:Early modern period 1590:Jalayirid Sultanate 1460:Khwarazmian dynasty 889:Neo-Assyrian Empire 767:Kura–Araxes culture 685:Baradostian culture 383:Rashidun annexation 17935:224 establishments 16068:Persian New Year ( 15473:Main economic laws 15044:Iranian Azerbaijan 14946:Monarchs of Persia 14890:Persianate society 14598:Empire (1789–1925) 14582:Empire (1736–1796) 14574:Empire (1501–1736) 14550:Empire (1370–1507) 14476:Empire (1037–1194) 14441:dynasty (934–1062) 14433:dynasty (931–1090) 14425:dynasty (861–1003) 14294:Empire (312–63 BC) 14195:(c.1595–c.1155 BC) 13741:Mesopotamian myths 12769:Southern Akkadians 12676:Jemdet Nasr period 12449:Roman–Persian Wars 12331:Seven Great Houses 11860:Yarshater, Ehsan: 11788:"Sasanian dynasty" 11478:Morony, Michael G. 10895:Bury, John Bagnell 10821:In: Henning Börm, 10280:. UNESCO. p. 9560:Nicolle, pp. 15–18 9205:Bashear, Suliman, 9041:Zarinkoob, p. 229. 9023:on 6 February 2014 8400:, pp. 235–236 8361:, pp. 466–467 8349:, pp. 465–466 8121:Atlas of World Art 7844:, pp. 99–100. 7716:𐭠𐭩𐭫𐭠𐭭𐭱𐭲𐭥𐭩 7704:𐭠𐭩𐭥𐭠𐭭𐭱𐭲𐭥𐭩 7571:Battle of Nihawānd 7545:632–644: Reign of 7409:531–579: Reign of 7299:438–457: Reign of 7281:420–438: Reign of 7269:formalised at the 7267:Church of the East 7258:399–420: Reign of 7221:309–379: Reign of 7173:241–271: Reign of 7142:224–241: Reign of 7129: 7100: 7070:Jewish scholarship 7033:Roman civilization 7029: 6823:Caucasian Albanian 6758:Regional languages 6718:Official languages 6578: 6564:advancing towards 6538:Church of the East 6474: 6237: 5980:had conquered the 5966: 5891: 5878:Industry and trade 5847: 5831: 5595: 5587: 5575: 5567: 5549:Pahlavi literature 5288: 5190: 5050: 5034: 4938:dynasties, and to 4924: 4797: 4713:Rashidun Caliphate 4686: 4655:Roman-Persian Wars 4580: 4572: 4494: 4453: 4327:wastaryoshan-salar 4087:Battle of Nihawānd 4066: 3988: 3959: 3896: 3742:Smbat IV Bagratuni 3719: 3668: 3540:landed possessions 3528: 3449: 3403:Castle of Oblivion 3331: 3259:. However, at the 3249: 3142: 3130:Persian literature 3040: 2932: 2833: 2729: 2621: 2503: 2442: 2422: 2360: 2330: 205/6–223/4 2266:Neo-Persian Empire 2116:), as well as the 2081:. After defeating 2079:Roman–Persian Wars 2052:Rashidun Caliphate 2038:. Named after the 2013:𐭠𐭩𐭥𐭠𐭭𐭱𐭲𐭥𐭩 1803:Interim Government 1793:Iranian Revolution 1580:Muzaffarid dynasty 1284:864 – 14th century 1274:791 – 11th century 1200:Rashidun Caliphate 1022:Kingdom of Armenia 671:Prehistoric period 618:special characters 507:Rashidun Caliphate 480:Kingdom of Armenia 41:𐭠𐭩𐭥𐭠𐭭𐭱𐭲𐭥𐭩 17837: 17836: 17831: 17830: 17753: 17752: 17718:Polish–Lithuanian 16893:Gurjara-Pratihara 16337: 16336: 16305: 16304: 16301: 16300: 16271: 16270: 16178:Opium consumption 16011: 16010: 15847:Ethnic minorities 15821:Iranian languages 15746: 15745: 15742: 15741: 15359: 15358: 15355: 15354: 15238:Political parties 15176:Children's rights 15161:Foreign relations 15155:2009 presidential 15102: 15101: 15064:Iranian Kurdistan 14983: 14982: 14979: 14978: 14863: 14862: 14835:COVID-19 pandemic 14694:Revolution (1979) 14640: 14639: 14460:Empire (977–1186) 14417:dynasty (864–928) 14409:dynasty (821–873) 14401:dynasty (819–999) 14354: 14353: 14270:(c.323 BC–AD 226) 14071: 14070: 13838:Provinces of the 13805: 13804: 13756:Ziggurat (Temple) 13731:Sumerian religion 13489: 13488: 13436:Middle Babylonian 13378:Kish civilization 13274: 13273: 13098:Lower Mesopotamia 13093:Upper Mesopotamia 13036: 13035: 13031: 13030: 12959:Macedonian Empire 12949:Achaemenid Empire 12822:c. 1200–1150 BCE 12805:c. 1400–1200 BCE 12776:c. 1600–1400 BCE 12756:c. 1800–1600 BCE 12718:c. 2000–1800 BCE 12708:c. 2100–2000 BCE 12696:c. 2200–2100 BCE 12686:c. 2350–2200 BCE 12665:c. 3500–2350 BCE 12586: 12585: 12425:Military and wars 12144:Islamic Metalwork 11981:978-2-252-01991-7 11671:978-1-84511-645-3 11613:978-1-107-63388-9 11551:978-1-874101-08-6 11493:978-1-59333-315-7 11444:"Derafš-e Kāvīān" 11384:978-0-521-20160-5 11190:978-1-84603-108-3 11170:978-0-671-21988-8 11123:Daryaee, Touraj. 11115:978-0-19-866277-8 11090:978-0-19-866277-8 11065:978-90-04-46066-9 10966:978-0-313-30731-7 10801:978-3-515-09052-0 10677:"Pirooz in China" 10655:"All about Oscar" 10325:Pourshariati 2008 10303:Zarinkoob, p. 207 10294:Zarinkoob, p. 272 10182:Ehsan Yarshater. 10170:www.metmuseum.org 10039:"Sasanian crowns" 9947:978-0-313-29144-9 9923:978-0-313-29144-9 9900:, pp. 58–59. 9866:Zarinkoob, p. 201 9842:, pp. 43–47. 9758:, pp. 40–41. 9746:, pp. 39–40. 9678:Richard N. Frye, 9634:Farrokh 2007, 237 9625:Frye Ancient Iran 9581:978-0-8476-8680-3 9539:Shahbazi, A. Sh. 9387:, pp. 45–51. 9000:Pourshariati 2008 8963:Pourshariati 2008 8501:, p. 18; Potter, 8282:978-0-8160-5767-2 8015:"A Brief History" 7988:978-0-19-713559-4 7868:Pourshariati 2008 7565:defeat a massive 7517:battle of Nineveh 7436:Kingdom of Iberia 7362:. In the end the 7338:Treaty of Nvarsak 7319:Vardan Mamikonian 7311:Battle of Avarayr 7048:In Jewish history 6921:Sistanian Persian 6752:Achaemenid Empire 6633:Caucasian Albania 6574:ZNH mwdly l'styny 6455:Ayadgar-i Zareran 6223:Three Great Fires 6114:Ka'ba-ye Zartosht 5281:Azerbaijan Museum 5218:Ardashir-Khwarrah 5128:Kalīlag ud Dimnag 5114:Arabic literature 5087:(Middle Persian: 4639:Asawaran (Azatan) 4430:Sasanian military 4201:(1100–1382) from 4091:Asawaran (Azatan) 4076:at the plains of 4074:Rostam Farrokhzad 4042:Umayyad Caliphate 3928:Battle of Nineveh 3725:. Circa 600, the 3670:After Khosrow I, 3507:contingent under 3269:Vardan Mamikonian 3265:Armenian subjects 3261:Battle of Avarayr 2629:Roman Mesopotamia 2617:Kunstmuseum Basel 2452:Ardashir-Khwarrah 2278:Achaemenid Empire 2106:Arabian Peninsula 2104:and parts of the 2091:Achaemenid Empire 2050:. It fell to the 1929: 1928: 1821: 1820: 1774: 1773: 1737: 1736: 1678: 1677: 1620:Afrasiyab dynasty 1520:Khorshidi dynasty 1510:Pishkinid dynasty 1400:Ghaznavid dynasty 1220:Abbasid Caliphate 1210:Umayyad Caliphate 1176: 1175: 1172:550s–11th century 1068:Kingdom of Pontus 1012:Achaemenid Empire 976:Anshanite Kingdom 937: 936: 840:Oxus Civilization 748: 747: 624:rendering support 611: 610: 607: 606: 603: 602: 577:Qarinvand dynasty 499: 498: 452:Kingdom of Iberia 292: 277: 230: 223: 216: 209: 202: 195: 175: 159: 151: 98:(imperial emblem) 16:(Redirected from 17962: 17860:Ancient Anatolia 17634: 17633: 17299:Austro-Hungarian 16999:Chagatai Khanate 16364: 16357: 16350: 16341: 16340: 16327: 16317: 16316: 16168:National symbols 16022: 16021: 15837:Iranian citizens 15774: 15773: 15765: 15764: 15752: 15751: 15734:Research centers 15423:Economic history 15378: 15377: 15365: 15364: 15299:Guardian Council 15121: 15120: 15108: 15107: 14989: 14988: 14966:Electric history 14961:Military history 14875:Ancient Persians 14783: 14782:shootdown (1988) 14765: 14752: 14749:Iranian Embassy 14719: 14708: 14706:Islamic Republic 14695: 14687:1953 coup d'état 14662: 14649: 14648: 14607: 14604:Khanates of the 14599: 14591: 14583: 14575: 14567: 14559: 14551: 14532: 14524: 14516: 14508: 14501: 14493: 14485: 14477: 14469: 14461: 14442: 14434: 14426: 14418: 14410: 14402: 14394: 14386: 14378: 14365: 14364: 14346: 14327: 14319: 14311: 14303: 14295: 14287: 14279: 14271: 14263: 14244: 14236: 14228: 14220: 14212: 14204: 14196: 14188: 14180: 14172: 14164: 14156: 14143: 14142: 14127: 14126: 14114: 14113: 14098: 14091: 14084: 14075: 14074: 14066: 14057: 13832: 13825: 13818: 13809: 13808: 13654:Sumerian cuisine 13644:Warfare in Sumer 13639:Economy of Sumer 13292: 13291: 13282: 13166:Fertile Crescent 13150:Sinjar Mountains 13145:Hamrin Mountains 13140:Zagros Mountains 13118:Taurus Mountains 13083: 13082: 13063: 13056: 13049: 13040: 13039: 13009:Byzantine Empire 12884:Middle Babylonia 12850:c. 1150–911 BCE 12643: 12642: 12626: 12619: 12612: 12603: 12602: 12590: 12589: 12578: 12577: 12510:Banu al-Munajjim 12348: 12298:List of monarchs 12285: 12284: 12273: 12266: 12259: 12250: 12249: 12132:Sassanid textile 12061:Sasanian dynasty 12024: 12023: 12021: 12005: 12004: 12002: 11984: 11959: 11927: 11900: 11888: 11875: 11846: 11837: 11836: 11835: 11829: 11823:, archived from 11822: 11804: 11795: 11782: 11763: 11752: 11741: 11720: 11713: 11686: 11675: 11654: 11620:Parviz Marzban, 11617: 11598: 11571:, Marlik, 1996. 11554: 11536: 11516: 11497: 11473: 11455: 11454:on 7 April 2008. 11438: 11415: 11388: 11367: 11354: 11332:Josef Wiesehöfer 11327: 11304: 11295: 11277: 11257: 11255: 11253: 11235: 11215: 11193: 11173: 11152: 11132: 11119: 11094: 11069: 11048: 11025: 11004: 10993: 10969: 10951: 10940: 10914: 10890: 10869: 10846:Yarshater, Ehsan 10823:Josef Wiesehöfer 10804: 10784: 10765: 10745: 10729:(106): 287–299, 10689: 10688: 10686: 10684: 10673: 10667: 10666: 10664: 10662: 10651: 10645: 10638: 10629: 10628: 10626: 10624: 10609: 10603: 10602: 10600: 10598: 10583: 10577: 10576: 10574: 10572: 10557: 10551: 10550: 10548: 10546: 10527: 10521: 10518: 10512: 10509: 10503: 10502: 10482: 10476: 10475: 10467: 10461: 10458: 10452: 10449: 10443: 10437: 10431: 10425: 10416: 10410: 10404: 10398: 10392: 10386: 10380: 10376: 10370: 10364: 10353: 10352: 10334: 10328: 10322: 10316: 10310: 10304: 10301: 10295: 10292: 10286: 10285: 10279: 10269: 10263: 10262: 10254: 10248: 10241: 10235: 10229: 10223: 10217: 10200: 10195:Manfred Hutter. 10193: 10187: 10180: 10174: 10173: 10162: 10156: 10155:Sarfaraz, p. 353 10153: 10147: 10144: 10138: 10137: 10135: 10133: 10118: 10112: 10109: 10100: 10097: 10088: 10081: 10075: 10072: 10066: 10061: 10055: 10054: 10052: 10050: 10034: 10028: 10027: 10007: 10001: 10000: 9980: 9974: 9959: 9950: 9935: 9926: 9907: 9901: 9895: 9884: 9873: 9867: 9864: 9855: 9849: 9843: 9837: 9831: 9824: 9818: 9815: 9806: 9800: 9789: 9783: 9774: 9768: 9759: 9753: 9747: 9741: 9726: 9723: 9717: 9716: 9714: 9712: 9701: 9695: 9689: 9683: 9676: 9667: 9661: 9655: 9654: 9652: 9641: 9635: 9632: 9626: 9623: 9612: 9611: 9609: 9607: 9592: 9586: 9585: 9567: 9561: 9558: 9552: 9551: 9549: 9547: 9536: 9530: 9529: 9521: 9515: 9514: 9494: 9488: 9482: 9476: 9475: 9467: 9461: 9460: 9440: 9434: 9424: 9418: 9417: 9397: 9388: 9382: 9376: 9365: 9359: 9356: 9350: 9347: 9341: 9338: 9323: 9322:Sarfaraz, p. 344 9320: 9314: 9308: 9302: 9287: 9281: 9278: 9272: 9271: 9269: 9267: 9253: 9247: 9246: 9244: 9242: 9228: 9222: 9216: 9210: 9203: 9197: 9194: 9188: 9187: 9177: 9171: 9165: 9159: 9152: 9143: 9140: 9134: 9133: 9131: 9129: 9114: 9097: 9087: 9081: 9075: 9069: 9068: 9066: 9064: 9053: 9042: 9039: 9033: 9032: 9030: 9028: 9012: 9003: 8997: 8991: 8985: 8979: 8972: 8966: 8960: 8954: 8948: 8937: 8931: 8918: 8912: 8906: 8900: 8894: 8888: 8882: 8876: 8865: 8859: 8853: 8847: 8838: 8832: 8826: 8825: 8803: 8797: 8791: 8785: 8779: 8773: 8770: 8764: 8758: 8752: 8751: 8749: 8747: 8736: 8730: 8724: 8715: 8714: 8694: 8688: 8687: 8685: 8683: 8673: 8664: 8658: 8657: 8637: 8631: 8630: 8610: 8604: 8598: 8589: 8583: 8577: 8571: 8565: 8558: 8552: 8546: 8540: 8539: 8537: 8535: 8512: 8506: 8495: 8486: 8479: 8473: 8467: 8461: 8455: 8449: 8443: 8437: 8431: 8425: 8419: 8413: 8407: 8401: 8395: 8389: 8383: 8374: 8368: 8362: 8356: 8350: 8344: 8338: 8332: 8326: 8320: 8314: 8308: 8302: 8296: 8290: 8289: 8258: 8252: 8251: 8249: 8247: 8233: 8227: 8220: 8214: 8213: 8211: 8209: 8198: 8189: 8186: 8180: 8179: 8177: 8175: 8164: 8158: 8157: 8150:The Age of Faith 8141: 8135: 8134: 8112: 8106: 8103: 8097: 8083: 8074: 8060: 8051: 8044: 8035: 8034: 8032: 8030: 8021:. Archived from 8011: 8005: 7998: 7992: 7991: 7974: 7968: 7962: 7956: 7950: 7944: 7943: 7915: 7909: 7908: 7906: 7904: 7877: 7871: 7865: 7859: 7851: 7845: 7839: 7830: 7829: 7827: 7825: 7814: 7797: 7791: 7785: 7779: 7773: 7772: 7766: 7760: 7755:Middle Persian: 7753: 7747: 7734: 7733: 7724: 7718: 7717: 7712: 7706: 7705: 7696: 7690: 7680: 7644:Romans in Persia 7623: 7618: 7617: 7616: 7493:Byzantine Empire 7474:Byzantine Empire 7470:Byzantine Empire 7425:Byzantine Empire 7418:Byzantine Empire 7404:Byzantine Empire 7400:Byzantine Empire 7388:Byzantine Empire 7377:Byzantine Empire 7364:Byzantine Empire 7360:Byzantine Empire 6582:Nestorian Church 6478:Avestan alphabet 6302:Adur Burzen-Mehr 6270:Adur Burzen-Mehr 6072:Letter of Tansar 6059:Letter of Tansar 5817:Sasanian economy 5645:Byzantine Empire 5031: 5029: 4824:, now a part of 4682:Battle of Edessa 4465:Parthian cavalry 4446:Walls of Derbent 4217:Kamkarian family 4199:shahs of Shirwan 4190:, descendant of 4020:Khalid ibn Walid 3908:launched a siege 3796:Byzantine Empire 3750:eastern Khorasan 3739: 3736: 3704:Caucasian Iberia 3557:was defeated at 3522:Plate depicting 3495:was defeated at 3446: 3444: 3280:Byzantine Empire 3186:Bahram IV's son 3158:first in 421–422 3154:Byzantine Empire 3099:Christianization 3082:on the reverse. 3058:and finally the 3038:. Dated 400–440. 3029: 2926: 2924: 2861:Caucasian Iberia 2655:was defeated at 2560:. He also added 2350:Bearded head of 2331: 2328: 2254:Sassanian Empire 2248:was named after 2232: 2222: 2212: 2033: 2030: 2024: 2021: 2018: 2014: 2002: 2001: 1998: 1997: 1994: 1991: 1988: 1985: 1982: 1979: 1976: 1973: 1968: 1967: 1964: 1961: 1958: 1955: 1952: 1949: 1946: 1943: 1921: 1914: 1907: 1893: 1892: 1891: 1862:Military history 1852:Economic history 1830:Related articles 1813:Islamic Republic 1789: 1788: 1752: 1751: 1693: 1692: 1650:Kar-Kiya dynasty 1570:Chobanid dynasty 1560:Ilkhanate Empire 1340:Sallarid dynasty 1310:Saffarid dynasty 1196: 1195: 1041: 1038: 1006:–11th century AD 1005: 1002: 966:Scythian Kingdom 952: 951: 882: 869: 846: 833: 810: 793: 763: 762: 743: 730: 717: 704: 691: 681: 680: 663: 653: 635: 634: 599: 598: 585: 584: 571: 570: 557: 556: 543: 542: 529: 528: 515: 514: 503: 502: 490: 489: 476: 475: 462: 461: 448: 447: 434: 433: 427: 426: 411: 410: 290: 275: 226: 219: 212: 205: 198: 193: 173: 157: 149: 130: 127: 122: 110: 91: 82:(royal standard) 75: 57: 51: 43: 42: 32: 31: 21: 17970: 17969: 17965: 17964: 17963: 17961: 17960: 17959: 17915:Ancient Armenia 17850:Sasanian Empire 17840: 17839: 17838: 17833: 17832: 17827: 17816:American Empire 17801: 17797:African empires 17749: 17632: 17324:Central African 17270: 17088:Romano-Germanic 16674: 16408:Middle Assyrian 16381: 16373: 16368: 16338: 16333: 16297: 16267: 16246:Rap and hip-hop 16217: 16198:Public holidays 16183:Persian gardens 16172:Imperial Anthem 16163:National Jewels 16118:Iranian studies 16007: 15941: 15893: 15825: 15786:Persian (Farsi) 15759: 15738: 15707: 15669: 15662: 15597:Pharmaceuticals 15542: 15533:Venture capital 15508:Rial (currency) 15493:Nuclear program 15372: 15351: 15318: 15277: 15228:Nuclear program 15193:Judicial system 15115: 15098: 15069:Iranian plateau 14996: 14975: 14859: 14781: 14763: 14750: 14718:History (1979–) 14717: 14709: 14704: 14699: 14693: 14660: 14636: 14605: 14597: 14589: 14581: 14573: 14565: 14557: 14549: 14536: 14530: 14522: 14514: 14506: 14499: 14491: 14483: 14475: 14467: 14459: 14446: 14440: 14432: 14424: 14416: 14408: 14400: 14392: 14384: 14376: 14360: 14350: 14344: 14331: 14325: 14317: 14309: 14301: 14293: 14285: 14277: 14269: 14261: 14248: 14242: 14241:Neo-Babylonian 14234: 14226: 14219:(860 BC–590 BC) 14218: 14210: 14202: 14194: 14187:(c.2300–675 BC) 14186: 14178: 14170: 14162: 14154: 14134: 14121: 14108: 14102: 14072: 14067: 14064: 14058: 14049: 13995:Nodardashiragan 13842: 13840:Sasanian Empire 13836: 13806: 13801: 13760: 13714: 13688: 13597:Culture/society 13592: 13485: 13481:Muslim conquest 13451:Fall of Babylon 13382: 13283: 13270: 13154: 13072: 13067: 13037: 13032: 13026:Sassanid Empire 12995:Parthian Empire 12990:Seleucid Empire 12980:Seleucid Empire 12899: 12893: 12870: 12861: 12690:Akkadian Empire 12636: 12630: 12595: 12587: 12582: 12568: 12524: 12483: 12420: 12349: 12340: 12307: 12289: 12287:Sasanian Empire 12279: 12277: 12244:iranchamber.com 12224:Wayback Machine 12212:Wayback Machine 12180:Wayback Machine 12139:Wayback Machine 12127:Wayback Machine 12115:Wayback Machine 12108:Sassanid crowns 12093:Wayback Machine 12055:Wayback Machine 12033: 12028: 12019: 12017: 12000: 11998: 11982: 11957: 11925: 11908: 11906:Further reading 11903: 11833: 11831: 11827: 11820: 11779: 11738: 11714: 11702: 11672: 11651: 11614: 11596: 11552: 11534: 11513: 11494: 11471: 11435: 11412: 11385: 11325: 11309:Hourani, Albert 11293: 11275: 11251: 11249: 11233: 11213: 11191: 11171: 11150: 11116: 11091: 11066: 11045: 11022: 10990: 10974:Daryaee, Touraj 10967: 10937: 10919:Canepa, Matthew 10911: 10887: 10866: 10802: 10781: 10763: 10698: 10693: 10692: 10682: 10680: 10675: 10674: 10670: 10660: 10658: 10653: 10652: 10648: 10640:John W Barker, 10639: 10632: 10622: 10620: 10611: 10610: 10606: 10596: 10594: 10585: 10584: 10580: 10570: 10568: 10559: 10558: 10554: 10544: 10542: 10529: 10528: 10524: 10519: 10515: 10510: 10506: 10499: 10483: 10479: 10468: 10464: 10459: 10455: 10450: 10446: 10438: 10434: 10426: 10419: 10411: 10407: 10399: 10395: 10387: 10383: 10377: 10373: 10365: 10356: 10349: 10335: 10331: 10323: 10319: 10311: 10307: 10302: 10298: 10293: 10289: 10270: 10266: 10255: 10251: 10242: 10238: 10230: 10226: 10218: 10203: 10194: 10190: 10181: 10177: 10164: 10163: 10159: 10154: 10150: 10145: 10141: 10131: 10129: 10120: 10119: 10115: 10110: 10103: 10098: 10091: 10082: 10078: 10073: 10069: 10062: 10058: 10048: 10046: 10035: 10031: 10024: 10008: 10004: 9997: 9981: 9977: 9960: 9953: 9936: 9929: 9908: 9904: 9896: 9887: 9879:. Boulder, CO: 9874: 9870: 9865: 9858: 9850: 9846: 9838: 9834: 9825: 9821: 9816: 9809: 9801: 9792: 9784: 9777: 9769: 9762: 9754: 9750: 9742: 9729: 9724: 9720: 9710: 9708: 9703: 9702: 9698: 9690: 9686: 9677: 9670: 9662: 9658: 9650: 9642: 9638: 9633: 9629: 9624: 9615: 9605: 9603: 9602:on 15 July 2011 9594: 9593: 9589: 9582: 9568: 9564: 9559: 9555: 9545: 9543: 9537: 9533: 9522: 9518: 9511: 9495: 9491: 9483: 9479: 9468: 9464: 9457: 9441: 9437: 9425: 9421: 9414: 9398: 9391: 9383: 9379: 9366: 9362: 9357: 9353: 9348: 9344: 9339: 9326: 9321: 9317: 9309: 9305: 9298:Guitty Azarpay 9296:Wayback Machine 9288: 9284: 9279: 9275: 9265: 9263: 9255: 9254: 9250: 9240: 9238: 9230: 9229: 9225: 9217: 9213: 9204: 9200: 9195: 9191: 9178: 9174: 9166: 9162: 9153: 9146: 9141: 9137: 9127: 9125: 9116: 9115: 9100: 9088: 9084: 9076: 9072: 9062: 9060: 9055: 9054: 9045: 9040: 9036: 9026: 9024: 9013: 9006: 8998: 8994: 8986: 8982: 8973: 8969: 8961: 8957: 8949: 8940: 8932: 8921: 8913: 8909: 8901: 8897: 8889: 8885: 8877: 8868: 8860: 8856: 8848: 8841: 8833: 8829: 8818: 8804: 8800: 8792: 8788: 8780: 8776: 8771: 8767: 8759: 8755: 8745: 8743: 8738: 8737: 8733: 8725: 8718: 8711: 8695: 8691: 8681: 8679: 8671: 8665: 8661: 8654: 8638: 8634: 8627: 8611: 8607: 8599: 8592: 8584: 8580: 8572: 8568: 8559: 8555: 8547: 8543: 8533: 8531: 8529: 8513: 8509: 8496: 8489: 8480: 8476: 8468: 8464: 8456: 8452: 8444: 8440: 8432: 8428: 8420: 8416: 8408: 8404: 8396: 8392: 8384: 8377: 8369: 8365: 8357: 8353: 8345: 8341: 8333: 8329: 8321: 8317: 8309: 8305: 8297: 8293: 8283: 8259: 8255: 8245: 8243: 8235: 8234: 8230: 8221: 8217: 8207: 8205: 8200: 8199: 8192: 8187: 8183: 8173: 8171: 8166: 8165: 8161: 8153:. p. 150. 8142: 8138: 8131: 8113: 8109: 8105:Hourani, p. 87. 8104: 8100: 8084: 8077: 8061: 8054: 8045: 8038: 8028: 8026: 8019:Culture of Iran 8013: 8012: 8008: 8002:Wiesehöfer 1996 7999: 7995: 7989: 7975: 7971: 7963: 7959: 7951: 7947: 7932:10.2307/1170959 7926:(3/4). p. 122. 7916: 7912: 7902: 7900: 7878: 7874: 7866: 7862: 7852: 7848: 7840: 7833: 7823: 7821: 7816: 7815: 7811: 7806: 7801: 7800: 7792: 7788: 7780: 7776: 7754: 7750: 7681: 7677: 7672: 7619: 7614: 7612: 7609: 7375: 7230:Lakhmid kingdom 7211:293: Revolt of 7151:Parthian Empire 7139: 7131:Main articles: 7122: 7088: 7082: 7050: 7013: 6981: 6971:were spoken in 6951:and Ctesiphon, 6760: 6737:Parthian Empire 6720: 6715: 6666: 6664:Other religions 6586:Jacobite Church 6554: 6544: 6536:Main articles: 6534: 6449:Drakht-i Asurig 6381: 6321: 6225: 6205:period—back to 6164: 6095: 6024: 5958: 5953: 5947: 5935:Pamir Mountains 5880: 5819: 5813: 5738:Hellenistic art 5643:and China, the 5555: 5533: 5520: 5511: 5505: 5500: 5412: 5354: 5273: 5226:Vahman-Ardashir 5171: 5166: 5026: 5010: 5002:Main articles: 5000: 4992:Gaozong of Tang 4988:settle in China 4912:in his capital 4898: 4892: 4851: 4845: 4762:or the city of 4666: 4661: 4647: 4586: 4560: 4538: 4486: 4477: 4475:Role of priests 4438: 4432: 4322:Ho Tokhshan Bod 4311:mowbedan mowbed 4297:wuzurg framadar 4251: 4173:Dabuyid dynasty 4165: 4126:Samanid dynasty 4044:coin imitating 3979:recover fully. 3920:Byzantine fleet 3860:, and securing 3834: 3818:Main articles: 3816: 3746:Persian Armenia 3737: 3582:Chihor-Vishnasp 3561:. Also in 541, 3441: 3430: 3251:Bahram V's son 3119: 3076:Bactrian script 3032:Bactrian script 2921: 2910: 2661:Philip the Arab 2495:Philip the Arab 2493:(standing) and 2428:Rock relief of 2420:and his forces. 2364:Parthian Empire 2344: 2333: 2329: 2311: 2301:Kings of Persis 2297: 2292: 2286: 2280:was the first. 2262:Sassanid Empire 2197: 2185:Islamic culture 2124:, and parts of 2031: 2025: 2022: 2019: 1970: 1940: 1936: 1933:Sasanian Empire 1925: 1895:Iran portal 1889: 1887: 1886: 1878: 1877: 1876: 1867:Women's history 1831: 1823: 1822: 1786: 1776: 1775: 1749: 1739: 1738: 1690: 1680: 1679: 1530:Qutlugh-Khanids 1480:Atabegs of Yazd 1380:Rawadid dynasty 1350:Ziyarid dynasty 1290:Tahirid dynasty 1188: 1186:Medieval period 1178: 1177: 1162:6th century–785 1148:Sasanian Empire 1118:Kings of Persis 1088:Parthian Empire 1058:Seleucid Empire 1039: 1003: 949: 947:Imperial period 939: 938: 853:Akkadian Empire 800:Lullubi Kingdom 760: 750: 749: 698:Zarzian culture 673: 651: 644: 633: 632: 631: 622:Without proper 596: 591:Tokhara Yabghus 582: 568: 554: 540: 526: 521:Dabuyid dynasty 512: 494:Kings of Persis 487: 473: 459: 445: 438:Parthian Empire 431: 385: 372: 370:Muslim conquest 359: 346: 333: 320: 284: 283:• 632–651 269: 268:• 224–241 233: 178:Other languages 176: 162: 135: 128: 113: 101: 100: 99: 97: 92: 84: 83: 81: 79:Derafsh Kaviani 76: 58: 52: 45: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 17968: 17958: 17957: 17952: 17950:Former empires 17947: 17942: 17937: 17932: 17927: 17922: 17917: 17912: 17907: 17902: 17897: 17892: 17887: 17882: 17877: 17872: 17867: 17862: 17857: 17852: 17835: 17834: 17829: 17828: 17826: 17825: 17824: 17823: 17818: 17809: 17807: 17803: 17802: 17800: 17799: 17794: 17789: 17784: 17779: 17774: 17773: 17772: 17761: 17759: 17755: 17754: 17751: 17750: 17748: 17747: 17742: 17737: 17732: 17727: 17726: 17725: 17715: 17710: 17705: 17700: 17695: 17690: 17685: 17680: 17675: 17670: 17669: 17668: 17663: 17653: 17648: 17642: 17640: 17631: 17630: 17629: 17628: 17623: 17618: 17613: 17608: 17598: 17593: 17592: 17591: 17581: 17576: 17575: 17574: 17569: 17564: 17554: 17549: 17548: 17547: 17542: 17532: 17531: 17530: 17525: 17520: 17515: 17510: 17500: 17499: 17498: 17493: 17483: 17478: 17473: 17468: 17467: 17466: 17461: 17456: 17451: 17446: 17436: 17435: 17434: 17429: 17419: 17414: 17413: 17412: 17407: 17397: 17396: 17395: 17390: 17380: 17379: 17378: 17373: 17363: 17358: 17357: 17356: 17351: 17346: 17341: 17336: 17326: 17321: 17320: 17319: 17314: 17306: 17301: 17296: 17291: 17286: 17280: 17278: 17272: 17271: 17269: 17268: 17263: 17258: 17253: 17252: 17251: 17246: 17241: 17236: 17231: 17226: 17221: 17211: 17206: 17205: 17204: 17199: 17194: 17189: 17184: 17179: 17169: 17168: 17167: 17162: 17157: 17152: 17142: 17137: 17132: 17127: 17122: 17117: 17112: 17107: 17102: 17101: 17100: 17095: 17085: 17084: 17083: 17078: 17073: 17068: 17063: 17058: 17045: 17040: 17035: 17030: 17029: 17028: 17023: 17018: 17008: 17007: 17006: 17001: 16996: 16991: 16981: 16976: 16971: 16966: 16961: 16956: 16955: 16954: 16949: 16944: 16939: 16929: 16928: 16927: 16922: 16917: 16912: 16902: 16901: 16900: 16895: 16890: 16880: 16875: 16870: 16865: 16860: 16859: 16858: 16853: 16848: 16838: 16833: 16832: 16831: 16826: 16821: 16816: 16811: 16806: 16796: 16795: 16794: 16789: 16779: 16778: 16777: 16772: 16767: 16762: 16752: 16747: 16746: 16745: 16735: 16734: 16733: 16728: 16720: 16715: 16710: 16705: 16700: 16695: 16690: 16684: 16682: 16680:Post-classical 16676: 16675: 16673: 16672: 16671: 16670: 16660: 16655: 16654: 16653: 16648: 16638: 16637: 16636: 16626: 16625: 16624: 16619: 16614: 16609: 16604: 16599: 16589: 16584: 16579: 16578: 16577: 16572: 16567: 16562: 16552: 16551: 16550: 16545: 16535: 16530: 16529: 16528: 16523: 16518: 16513: 16508: 16498: 16493: 16488: 16487: 16486: 16481: 16479:Middle Kingdom 16476: 16466: 16461: 16460: 16459: 16454: 16449: 16439: 16438: 16437: 16435:Neo-Babylonian 16432: 16427: 16425:Old Babylonian 16417: 16416: 16415: 16410: 16400: 16395: 16389: 16387: 16375: 16374: 16367: 16366: 16359: 16352: 16344: 16335: 16334: 16332: 16331: 16321: 16310: 16307: 16306: 16303: 16302: 16299: 16298: 16296: 16295: 16290: 16285: 16279: 16277: 16273: 16272: 16269: 16268: 16266: 16265: 16258: 16253: 16248: 16243: 16238: 16233: 16227: 16225: 16219: 16218: 16216: 16215: 16205: 16200: 16195: 16190: 16185: 16180: 16175: 16165: 16160: 16155: 16149: 16135: 16130: 16120: 16115: 16110: 16105: 16100: 16090: 16085: 16080: 16075: 16061: 16056: 16051: 16041: 16035: 16025: 16019: 16013: 16012: 16009: 16008: 16006: 16005: 16000: 15995: 15990: 15985: 15979: 15974: 15969: 15960: 15955: 15949: 15947: 15943: 15942: 15940: 15939: 15934: 15924: 15919: 15909: 15903: 15901: 15895: 15894: 15892: 15891: 15890: 15889: 15884: 15879: 15874: 15869: 15864: 15859: 15854: 15844: 15833: 15831: 15827: 15826: 15824: 15823: 15818: 15813: 15808: 15803: 15798: 15793: 15788: 15782: 15780: 15771: 15761: 15760: 15748: 15747: 15744: 15743: 15740: 15739: 15737: 15736: 15731: 15726: 15721: 15715: 15713: 15709: 15708: 15706: 15705: 15700: 15695: 15690: 15685: 15680: 15674: 15672: 15664: 15663: 15661: 15660: 15655: 15649: 15644: 15639: 15630: 15620: 15610: 15605: 15600: 15590: 15585: 15580: 15579: 15578: 15573: 15563: 15552: 15550: 15544: 15543: 15541: 15540: 15530: 15525: 15520: 15515: 15510: 15505: 15500: 15490: 15485: 15480: 15475: 15470: 15465: 15460: 15455: 15450: 15445: 15440: 15435: 15430: 15425: 15420: 15415: 15410: 15405: 15395: 15390: 15384: 15382: 15374: 15373: 15361: 15360: 15357: 15356: 15353: 15352: 15350: 15349: 15347:Supreme Leader 15344: 15339: 15334: 15328: 15326: 15320: 15319: 15317: 15316: 15311: 15309:Local councils 15306: 15301: 15296: 15291: 15285: 15283: 15279: 15278: 15276: 15275: 15270: 15265: 15255: 15250: 15245: 15240: 15235: 15225: 15220: 15215: 15209: 15204: 15195: 15190: 15189: 15188: 15186:Women's rights 15183: 15178: 15168: 15163: 15158: 15148: 15143: 15133: 15127: 15125: 15117: 15116: 15104: 15103: 15100: 15099: 15097: 15096: 15091: 15086: 15081: 15076: 15071: 15066: 15061: 15056: 15051: 15046: 15041: 15040: 15039: 15037:Climate change 15029: 15024: 15023: 15022: 15017: 15007: 15001: 14998: 14997: 14985: 14984: 14981: 14980: 14977: 14976: 14974: 14973: 14968: 14963: 14958: 14953: 14948: 14943: 14938: 14933: 14928: 14923: 14921:Jiroft culture 14918: 14917: 14916: 14909:Iranic peoples 14906: 14905: 14904: 14903: 14902: 14897: 14885:Persianization 14882: 14877: 14871: 14869: 14865: 14864: 14861: 14860: 14858: 14857: 14852: 14847: 14842: 14837: 14832: 14827: 14822: 14821: 14820: 14810: 14805: 14800: 14795: 14790: 14785: 14777: 14772: 14767: 14759: 14754: 14746: 14741: 14736: 14731: 14726: 14721: 14713: 14711: 14701: 14700: 14698: 14697: 14689: 14684: 14679: 14674: 14669: 14664: 14655: 14653: 14646: 14642: 14641: 14638: 14637: 14635: 14634: 14629: 14624: 14619: 14614: 14609: 14601: 14593: 14585: 14577: 14569: 14561: 14553: 14544: 14542: 14538: 14537: 14535: 14534: 14526: 14518: 14510: 14503: 14495: 14492:(1135/36-1225) 14487: 14479: 14471: 14463: 14454: 14452: 14448: 14447: 14445: 14444: 14436: 14428: 14420: 14412: 14404: 14396: 14388: 14380: 14371: 14369: 14362: 14356: 14355: 14352: 14351: 14349: 14348: 14339: 14337: 14333: 14332: 14330: 14329: 14321: 14313: 14305: 14302:(c.295–220 BC) 14297: 14289: 14281: 14273: 14265: 14256: 14254: 14250: 14249: 14247: 14246: 14238: 14230: 14222: 14214: 14206: 14198: 14190: 14182: 14174: 14166: 14161:Proto-Elamite 14158: 14149: 14147: 14140: 14136: 14135: 14123: 14122: 14110: 14109: 14101: 14100: 14093: 14086: 14078: 14069: 14068: 14063: 14060: 14059: 14052: 14050: 14048: 14047: 14042: 14037: 14032: 14027: 14022: 14017: 14012: 14007: 14005:Padishkhwargar 14002: 13997: 13992: 13987: 13982: 13977: 13972: 13967: 13962: 13956: 13951: 13946: 13941: 13936: 13930: 13925: 13920: 13915: 13910: 13905: 13900: 13894: 13888: 13883: 13878: 13873: 13868: 13863: 13858: 13853: 13847: 13844: 13843: 13835: 13834: 13827: 13820: 13812: 13803: 13802: 13800: 13799: 13794: 13789: 13784: 13779: 13777:Assyriologists 13774: 13768: 13766: 13762: 13761: 13759: 13758: 13753: 13748: 13743: 13738: 13733: 13728: 13722: 13720: 13716: 13715: 13713: 13712: 13707: 13702: 13696: 13694: 13690: 13689: 13687: 13686: 13684:List of rulers 13681: 13676: 13671: 13666: 13661: 13656: 13651: 13646: 13641: 13636: 13631: 13626: 13621: 13616: 13611: 13606: 13600: 13598: 13594: 13593: 13591: 13590: 13585: 13580: 13575: 13573:Proto-Armenian 13570: 13565: 13560: 13558:Middle Persian 13555: 13550: 13545: 13540: 13535: 13530: 13525: 13520: 13515: 13510: 13505: 13499: 13497: 13491: 13490: 13487: 13486: 13484: 13483: 13478: 13473: 13468: 13463: 13458: 13453: 13448: 13446:Neo-Babylonian 13443: 13438: 13433: 13428: 13426:Old Babylonian 13423: 13418: 13413: 13408: 13403: 13398: 13396:Early Dynastic 13392: 13390: 13384: 13383: 13381: 13380: 13375: 13370: 13365: 13360: 13355: 13346: 13341: 13336: 13331: 13326: 13321: 13316: 13311: 13306: 13300: 13298: 13289: 13285: 13284: 13277: 13275: 13272: 13271: 13269: 13268: 13263: 13258: 13253: 13248: 13243: 13238: 13233: 13228: 13223: 13218: 13213: 13208: 13203: 13198: 13193: 13188: 13183: 13178: 13173: 13168: 13162: 13160: 13156: 13155: 13153: 13152: 13147: 13142: 13137: 13136: 13135: 13130: 13120: 13115: 13110: 13105: 13100: 13095: 13089: 13087: 13080: 13074: 13073: 13066: 13065: 13058: 13051: 13043: 13034: 13033: 13029: 13028: 13023: 13019: 13018: 13002: 13001:63 BCE–224 CE 12998: 12997: 12992: 12987: 12983: 12982: 12977: 12973: 12972: 12964:Ancient Greeks 12956: 12952: 12951: 12946: 12942: 12941: 12929: 12925: 12924: 12922: 12920: 12916: 12915: 12910: 12906: 12905: 12886: 12881: 12874: 12865: 12856: 12851: 12847: 12846: 12839: 12823: 12819: 12818: 12816:Middle Assyria 12813: 12811: 12806: 12802: 12801: 12789: 12777: 12773: 12772: 12762: 12757: 12753: 12752: 12736: 12731: 12719: 12715: 12714: 12709: 12705: 12704: 12697: 12693: 12692: 12687: 12683: 12682: 12669: 12666: 12662: 12661: 12656: 12651: 12646: 12641: 12638: 12637: 12629: 12628: 12621: 12614: 12606: 12600: 12597: 12596: 12584: 12583: 12573: 12570: 12569: 12567: 12566: 12553: 12548: 12543: 12538: 12532: 12530: 12526: 12525: 12523: 12522: 12517: 12512: 12507: 12502: 12497: 12491: 12489: 12485: 12484: 12482: 12481: 12476: 12471: 12466: 12461: 12456: 12451: 12446: 12445: 12444: 12439: 12428: 12426: 12422: 12421: 12419: 12418: 12413: 12408: 12403: 12398: 12393: 12388: 12383: 12378: 12373: 12368: 12363: 12357: 12355: 12351: 12350: 12343: 12341: 12339: 12338: 12333: 12328: 12327: 12326: 12319:House of Sasan 12315: 12313: 12309: 12308: 12306: 12305: 12300: 12294: 12291: 12290: 12276: 12275: 12268: 12261: 12253: 12247: 12246: 12241: 12236: 12231: 12226: 12214: 12202: 12197: 12192: 12170: 12165: 12160: 12155: 12149: 12141: 12129: 12120:Sassanid coins 12117: 12105: 12100: 12095: 12080: 12075: 12072:The Sassanians 12069: 12058: 12039: 12032: 12031:External links 12029: 12027: 12026: 12007: 11985: 11980: 11967: 11960: 11955: 11942: 11928: 11923: 11909: 11907: 11904: 11902: 11901: 11891:Chisholm, Hugh 11876: 11865: 11858: 11847: 11843:Ancient Persia 11838: 11830:on 27 May 2008 11812:Turchin, Peter 11808: 11805: 11796: 11783: 11778:978-0199733309 11777: 11764: 11753: 11742: 11737:978-1474401029 11736: 11721: 11701:978-1474400305 11700: 11687: 11676: 11670: 11655: 11650:978-1316146040 11649: 11632: 11618: 11612: 11599: 11594: 11579: 11562: 11555: 11550: 11537: 11532: 11517: 11511: 11498: 11492: 11474: 11469: 11456: 11439: 11434:978-0195304657 11433: 11416: 11411:978-1444390186 11410: 11389: 11383: 11368: 11355: 11339: 11328: 11323: 11305: 11303:. I.B. Tauris. 11296: 11291: 11278: 11273: 11258: 11236: 11231: 11216: 11211: 11194: 11189: 11174: 11169: 11153: 11148: 11133: 11125:"Yazdegerd II" 11120: 11114: 11095: 11089: 11070: 11064: 11049: 11044:978-0692864401 11043: 11026: 11021:978-1780835778 11020: 11005: 10994: 10989:978-0857716668 10988: 10970: 10965: 10952: 10941: 10936:978-0520379206 10935: 10915: 10909: 10891: 10886:978-0415239028 10885: 10870: 10864: 10841: 10830: 10815: 10805: 10800: 10785: 10780:978-1463206161 10779: 10766: 10761: 10746: 10714: 10707: 10699: 10697: 10694: 10691: 10690: 10668: 10646: 10630: 10613:"Yazdegerd II" 10604: 10578: 10552: 10522: 10513: 10504: 10498:978-0892369690 10497: 10477: 10462: 10453: 10444: 10442:, p. 102. 10432: 10417: 10415:, p. 763. 10405: 10403:, p. 755. 10393: 10391:, p. 773. 10381: 10371: 10369:, p. 101. 10354: 10347: 10329: 10327:, p. 321. 10317: 10305: 10296: 10287: 10264: 10249: 10236: 10224: 10201: 10188: 10175: 10157: 10148: 10139: 10113: 10101: 10089: 10076: 10067: 10056: 10029: 10023:978-9004294486 10022: 10002: 9996:978-1317543275 9995: 9975: 9971:978-0313291449 9951: 9927: 9902: 9885: 9881:Westview Press 9868: 9856: 9844: 9832: 9819: 9817:Nicolle, p. 11 9807: 9790: 9775: 9760: 9748: 9727: 9718: 9696: 9692:Zarinkoob 1999 9684: 9668: 9656: 9636: 9627: 9613: 9587: 9580: 9562: 9553: 9531: 9516: 9510:978-0226532387 9509: 9489: 9477: 9462: 9456:978-1846031083 9455: 9435: 9419: 9413:978-1841767130 9412: 9389: 9377: 9369:Ancient Persia 9360: 9358:Nicolle, p. 14 9351: 9349:Nicolle, p. 10 9342: 9324: 9315: 9313:, p. 125. 9303: 9282: 9273: 9248: 9223: 9211: 9198: 9189: 9172: 9160: 9144: 9135: 9098: 9082: 9070: 9043: 9034: 9004: 9002:, p. 114. 8992: 8980: 8967: 8955: 8938: 8919: 8917:, p. 288. 8907: 8905:, p. 295. 8895: 8893:, p. 287. 8883: 8879:Schindel 2013a 8866: 8864:, p. 305. 8862:McDonough 2011 8854: 8850:Zarinkoob 1999 8839: 8835:Zarinkoob 1999 8827: 8816: 8798: 8786: 8782:Zarinkoob 1999 8774: 8765: 8753: 8731: 8716: 8710:978-1784918552 8709: 8689: 8659: 8653:978-9004181595 8652: 8632: 8626:978-8280340061 8625: 8605: 8590: 8578: 8574:Zarinkoob 1999 8566: 8553: 8549:Zarinkoob 1999 8541: 8527: 8507: 8487: 8474: 8470:Zarinkoob 1999 8462: 8450: 8446:Zarinkoob 1999 8438: 8426: 8414: 8402: 8390: 8375: 8363: 8351: 8339: 8327: 8323:Zarinkoob 1999 8315: 8303: 8291: 8281: 8253: 8228: 8215: 8190: 8181: 8159: 8136: 8130:978-0195215830 8129: 8107: 8098: 8075: 8052: 8036: 8006: 7993: 7987: 7969: 7957: 7945: 7910: 7872: 7860: 7846: 7831: 7808: 7807: 7805: 7802: 7799: 7798: 7786: 7774: 7748: 7727:Modern Persian 7674: 7673: 7671: 7668: 7667: 7666: 7661: 7659:Sasanian music 7656: 7651: 7646: 7641: 7636: 7631: 7625: 7624: 7608: 7605: 7604: 7603: 7584: 7573: 7559: 7549: 7543: 7537: 7530: 7519: 7509: 7506:Constantinople 7502: 7496: 7489: 7483: 7477: 7462: 7443: 7428: 7421: 7414: 7407: 7384: 7368:Theodosiopolis 7356: 7345: 7330: 7327: 7324: 7323: 7322: 7317:rebels led by 7307: 7297: 7296: 7295: 7292: 7289: 7279: 7278: 7277: 7274: 7271:synod of Isaac 7262:"the Sinner": 7256: 7253: 7252: 7251: 7240: 7237: 7219: 7216: 7209: 7206: 7203: 7202: 7201: 7191: 7181: 7171: 7170: 7169: 7162: 7159:Zoroastrianism 7156: 7153: 7121: 7118: 7106:Qissa-i Sanjan 7081: 7078: 7054:Jewish history 7049: 7046: 7023:, Russia (the 7012: 7009: 6980: 6977: 6759: 6756: 6750:, like in the 6724:Middle Persian 6719: 6716: 6714: 6711: 6665: 6662: 6570:Middle Persian 6533: 6530: 6435:Middle Persian 6380: 6377: 6369:Middle Persian 6349:Middle Persian 6320: 6317: 6224: 6221: 6187:spring equinox 6163: 6160: 6110:Naqsh-e Rostam 6094: 6091: 6023: 6020: 5982:Persian Empire 5957: 5956:Zoroastrianism 5954: 5951:Zoroastrianism 5949:Main article: 5946: 5943: 5879: 5876: 5851:Nahravan Canal 5815:Main article: 5812: 5809: 5674:Naqsh-e Rustam 5537:Sasanian music 5532: 5529: 5519: 5516: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5484: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5468:Zoroastrianism 5460: 5453: 5446: 5439: 5436: 5411: 5408: 5387: 5386: 5380: 5374: 5368: 5358:social classes 5353: 5352:Class division 5350: 5302:Touraj Daryaee 5272: 5269: 5202:medieval world 5170: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5138:, which says: 5106:Middle Persian 5030: 303–330 5004:Indo-Sasanians 4999: 4996: 4894:Main article: 4891: 4888: 4847:Main article: 4844: 4841: 4822:North Caucasus 4799:In the north, 4785:Falak-ol-Aflak 4694:Constantinople 4665: 4662: 4646: 4643: 4559: 4556: 4537: 4534: 4485: 4482: 4476: 4473: 4448:, part of the 4434:Main article: 4431: 4428: 4351:House of Suren 4347:House of Karen 4306:prime minister 4250: 4247: 4246: 4245: 4230: 4213: 4206: 4195: 4186:(665–1598) of 4180: 4164: 4161: 4022:, once one of 3953:, daughter of 3936:Nahrawan Canal 3912:Constantinople 3815: 3812: 3738: 606/607 3653:state religion 3649:Zoroastrianism 3509:Al-Mundhir III 3489:Battle of Dara 3457:Theodosiopolis 3429: 3426: 3367:House of Karen 3273:Nvarsak Treaty 3118: 3115: 2925: 309–379 2909: 2906: 2723:The spread of 2690:Naqsh-e Rostam 2487:Naqsh-e Rostam 2323:King of Persis 2309:House of Sasan 2296: 2293: 2285: 2282: 2258:Sasanid Empire 2246:ruling dynasty 2230:Arianōn ethnos 2205:Middle Persian 2196: 2193: 2146:Eastern Africa 2142:Western Europe 2137:Zoroastrianism 2110:Eastern Arabia 2108:(particularly 2067:late antiquity 2040:House of Sasan 2026:Empire of the 2009:Middle Persian 2003:), officially 1927: 1926: 1924: 1923: 1916: 1909: 1901: 1898: 1897: 1880: 1879: 1875: 1874: 1869: 1864: 1859: 1854: 1849: 1847:Heads of state 1844: 1839: 1833: 1832: 1829: 1828: 1825: 1824: 1819: 1818: 1815: 1809: 1808: 1805: 1799: 1798: 1795: 1787: 1782: 1781: 1778: 1777: 1772: 1771: 1768: 1762: 1761: 1758: 1750: 1745: 1744: 1741: 1740: 1735: 1734: 1731: 1725: 1724: 1721: 1715: 1714: 1711: 1703: 1702: 1699: 1691: 1686: 1685: 1682: 1681: 1676: 1675: 1672: 1666: 1665: 1662: 1656: 1655: 1652: 1646: 1645: 1642: 1640:Timurid Empire 1636: 1635: 1632: 1626: 1625: 1622: 1616: 1615: 1612: 1606: 1605: 1602: 1596: 1595: 1592: 1586: 1585: 1582: 1576: 1575: 1572: 1566: 1565: 1562: 1556: 1555: 1552: 1546: 1545: 1542: 1536: 1535: 1532: 1526: 1525: 1522: 1516: 1515: 1512: 1506: 1505: 1502: 1496: 1495: 1492: 1486: 1485: 1482: 1476: 1475: 1472: 1466: 1465: 1462: 1456: 1455: 1452: 1446: 1445: 1442: 1436: 1435: 1432: 1430:Nasrid dynasty 1426: 1425: 1422: 1416: 1415: 1412: 1406: 1405: 1402: 1396: 1395: 1392: 1386: 1385: 1382: 1376: 1375: 1372: 1366: 1365: 1362: 1356: 1355: 1352: 1346: 1345: 1342: 1336: 1335: 1332: 1326: 1325: 1324:pre-879 – 1215 1322: 1320:Ghurid dynasty 1316: 1315: 1312: 1306: 1305: 1302: 1300:Samanid Empire 1296: 1295: 1292: 1286: 1285: 1282: 1280:Alid dynasties 1276: 1275: 1272: 1266: 1265: 1262: 1256: 1255: 1252: 1246: 1245: 1242: 1236: 1235: 1232: 1226: 1225: 1222: 1216: 1215: 1212: 1206: 1205: 1202: 1189: 1184: 1183: 1180: 1179: 1174: 1173: 1170: 1164: 1163: 1160: 1154: 1153: 1150: 1144: 1143: 1140: 1134: 1133: 1130: 1124: 1123: 1120: 1114: 1113: 1110: 1104: 1103: 1100: 1094: 1093: 1090: 1084: 1083: 1080: 1074: 1073: 1070: 1064: 1063: 1060: 1054: 1053: 1050: 1044: 1043: 1034: 1028: 1027: 1024: 1018: 1017: 1014: 1008: 1007: 998: 992: 991: 988: 982: 981: 978: 972: 971: 968: 962: 961: 958: 950: 945: 944: 941: 940: 935: 934: 931: 925: 924: 921: 915: 914: 911: 905: 904: 901: 895: 894: 891: 885: 884: 878: 876:Avestan period 872: 871: 865: 859: 858: 855: 849: 848: 842: 836: 835: 829: 823: 822: 819: 813: 812: 806: 796: 795: 789: 787:Jiroft culture 783: 782: 779: 773: 772: 769: 761: 758:Ancient period 756: 755: 752: 751: 746: 745: 744:5th millennium 739: 733: 732: 731:6th millennium 726: 720: 719: 713: 707: 706: 700: 694: 693: 687: 674: 669: 668: 665: 664: 656: 655: 646: 645: 638: 626:, you may see 614: 613: 612: 609: 608: 605: 604: 601: 600: 593: 587: 586: 579: 573: 572: 565: 559: 558: 551: 545: 544: 537: 535:Bavand dynasty 531: 530: 523: 517: 516: 509: 500: 497: 496: 491: 483: 482: 477: 469: 468: 463: 455: 454: 449: 441: 440: 435: 423: 422: 417: 407: 406: 403: 399: 398: 394: 393: 390: 389: 386: 380: 377: 376: 373: 367: 364: 363: 360: 354: 351: 350: 347: 341: 338: 337: 334: 328: 325: 324: 321: 315: 312: 311: 308: 307: 305:Late Antiquity 302: 301:Historical era 298: 297: 294: 293: 285: 282: 279: 278: 270: 267: 264: 263: 260: 259: 256: 250: 249: 241: 235: 234: 232: 231: 224: 217: 210: 203: 196: 191:Zoroastrianism 187: 185: 181: 180: 171:Middle Persian 168: 164: 163: 161: 160: 152: 143: 141: 137: 136: 123: 115: 114: 111: 103: 102: 93: 86: 85: 77: 70: 69: 68: 65: 64: 60: 59: 48:Middle Persian 38: 35: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 17967: 17956: 17953: 17951: 17948: 17946: 17943: 17941: 17938: 17936: 17933: 17931: 17928: 17926: 17923: 17921: 17918: 17916: 17913: 17911: 17908: 17906: 17903: 17901: 17900:Ancient Syria 17898: 17896: 17893: 17891: 17888: 17886: 17883: 17881: 17878: 17876: 17873: 17871: 17868: 17866: 17863: 17861: 17858: 17856: 17853: 17851: 17848: 17847: 17845: 17822: 17821:Soviet empire 17819: 17817: 17814: 17813: 17811: 17810: 17808: 17806:Miscellaneous 17804: 17798: 17795: 17793: 17790: 17788: 17785: 17783: 17780: 17778: 17775: 17771: 17768: 17767: 17766: 17763: 17762: 17760: 17756: 17746: 17743: 17741: 17738: 17736: 17733: 17731: 17728: 17724: 17721: 17720: 17719: 17716: 17714: 17711: 17709: 17706: 17704: 17701: 17699: 17696: 17694: 17691: 17689: 17686: 17684: 17681: 17679: 17676: 17674: 17671: 17667: 17664: 17662: 17659: 17658: 17657: 17654: 17652: 17649: 17647: 17644: 17643: 17641: 17639: 17635: 17627: 17624: 17622: 17619: 17617: 17614: 17612: 17609: 17607: 17604: 17603: 17602: 17599: 17597: 17594: 17590: 17587: 17586: 17585: 17582: 17580: 17577: 17573: 17570: 17568: 17565: 17563: 17560: 17559: 17558: 17555: 17553: 17550: 17546: 17543: 17541: 17538: 17537: 17536: 17533: 17529: 17526: 17524: 17521: 17519: 17516: 17514: 17511: 17509: 17506: 17505: 17504: 17501: 17497: 17494: 17492: 17489: 17488: 17487: 17484: 17482: 17479: 17477: 17474: 17472: 17469: 17465: 17462: 17460: 17457: 17455: 17452: 17450: 17447: 17445: 17442: 17441: 17440: 17437: 17433: 17430: 17428: 17425: 17424: 17423: 17420: 17418: 17415: 17411: 17408: 17406: 17405:German Empire 17403: 17402: 17401: 17398: 17394: 17391: 17389: 17386: 17385: 17384: 17381: 17377: 17374: 17372: 17369: 17368: 17367: 17364: 17362: 17359: 17355: 17352: 17350: 17347: 17345: 17342: 17340: 17337: 17335: 17332: 17331: 17330: 17327: 17325: 17322: 17318: 17315: 17313: 17310: 17309: 17307: 17305: 17302: 17300: 17297: 17295: 17292: 17290: 17287: 17285: 17282: 17281: 17279: 17277: 17273: 17267: 17264: 17262: 17259: 17257: 17254: 17250: 17247: 17245: 17242: 17240: 17237: 17235: 17232: 17230: 17227: 17225: 17222: 17220: 17217: 17216: 17215: 17212: 17210: 17207: 17203: 17200: 17198: 17195: 17193: 17190: 17188: 17185: 17183: 17180: 17178: 17175: 17174: 17173: 17170: 17166: 17163: 17161: 17158: 17156: 17153: 17151: 17148: 17147: 17146: 17145:Turco-Persian 17143: 17141: 17138: 17136: 17133: 17131: 17128: 17126: 17123: 17121: 17118: 17116: 17113: 17111: 17108: 17106: 17103: 17099: 17096: 17094: 17091: 17090: 17089: 17086: 17082: 17079: 17077: 17074: 17072: 17069: 17067: 17064: 17062: 17059: 17057: 17054: 17053: 17052: 17049: 17046: 17044: 17041: 17039: 17036: 17034: 17031: 17027: 17024: 17022: 17019: 17017: 17014: 17013: 17012: 17009: 17005: 17002: 17000: 16997: 16995: 16992: 16990: 16987: 16986: 16985: 16982: 16980: 16977: 16975: 16972: 16970: 16967: 16965: 16962: 16960: 16957: 16953: 16950: 16948: 16945: 16943: 16940: 16938: 16935: 16934: 16933: 16930: 16926: 16923: 16921: 16918: 16916: 16913: 16911: 16908: 16907: 16906: 16903: 16899: 16896: 16894: 16891: 16889: 16886: 16885: 16884: 16881: 16879: 16876: 16874: 16871: 16869: 16866: 16864: 16861: 16857: 16854: 16852: 16849: 16847: 16844: 16843: 16842: 16839: 16837: 16834: 16830: 16827: 16825: 16822: 16820: 16817: 16815: 16812: 16810: 16807: 16805: 16802: 16801: 16800: 16797: 16793: 16790: 16788: 16785: 16784: 16783: 16780: 16776: 16773: 16771: 16768: 16766: 16763: 16761: 16758: 16757: 16756: 16753: 16751: 16748: 16744: 16741: 16740: 16739: 16736: 16732: 16729: 16727: 16724: 16723: 16721: 16719: 16716: 16714: 16711: 16709: 16706: 16704: 16701: 16699: 16696: 16694: 16691: 16689: 16686: 16685: 16683: 16681: 16677: 16669: 16666: 16665: 16664: 16661: 16659: 16656: 16652: 16649: 16647: 16644: 16643: 16642: 16639: 16635: 16632: 16631: 16630: 16627: 16623: 16620: 16618: 16615: 16613: 16610: 16608: 16605: 16603: 16600: 16598: 16595: 16594: 16593: 16590: 16588: 16585: 16583: 16580: 16576: 16573: 16571: 16568: 16566: 16563: 16561: 16558: 16557: 16556: 16553: 16549: 16546: 16544: 16541: 16540: 16539: 16536: 16534: 16531: 16527: 16524: 16522: 16519: 16517: 16514: 16512: 16509: 16507: 16504: 16503: 16502: 16499: 16497: 16494: 16492: 16489: 16485: 16482: 16480: 16477: 16475: 16472: 16471: 16470: 16467: 16465: 16462: 16458: 16455: 16453: 16450: 16448: 16445: 16444: 16443: 16440: 16436: 16433: 16431: 16428: 16426: 16423: 16422: 16421: 16418: 16414: 16411: 16409: 16406: 16405: 16404: 16401: 16399: 16396: 16394: 16391: 16390: 16388: 16385: 16380: 16376: 16372: 16365: 16360: 16358: 16353: 16351: 16346: 16345: 16342: 16330: 16326: 16322: 16320: 16312: 16311: 16308: 16294: 16291: 16289: 16286: 16284: 16281: 16280: 16278: 16274: 16264: 16263: 16259: 16257: 16254: 16252: 16249: 16247: 16244: 16242: 16239: 16237: 16234: 16232: 16229: 16228: 16226: 16224: 16220: 16213: 16209: 16206: 16204: 16201: 16199: 16196: 16194: 16191: 16189: 16186: 16184: 16181: 16179: 16176: 16173: 16169: 16166: 16164: 16161: 16159: 16156: 16153: 16150: 16147: 16143: 16142:news agencies 16139: 16136: 16134: 16131: 16128: 16124: 16121: 16119: 16116: 16114: 16111: 16109: 16106: 16104: 16101: 16098: 16094: 16091: 16089: 16086: 16084: 16081: 16079: 16076: 16073: 16071: 16065: 16062: 16060: 16057: 16055: 16052: 16049: 16045: 16042: 16039: 16036: 16034: 16030: 16027: 16026: 16023: 16020: 16018: 16014: 16004: 16001: 15999: 15996: 15994: 15991: 15989: 15986: 15983: 15980: 15978: 15975: 15973: 15970: 15968: 15964: 15961: 15959: 15956: 15954: 15951: 15950: 15948: 15944: 15938: 15935: 15932: 15928: 15925: 15923: 15920: 15917: 15913: 15910: 15908: 15905: 15904: 15902: 15900: 15896: 15888: 15885: 15883: 15880: 15878: 15875: 15873: 15870: 15868: 15865: 15863: 15860: 15858: 15855: 15853: 15850: 15849: 15848: 15845: 15842: 15838: 15835: 15834: 15832: 15828: 15822: 15819: 15817: 15814: 15812: 15809: 15807: 15804: 15802: 15799: 15797: 15794: 15792: 15789: 15787: 15784: 15783: 15781: 15779: 15775: 15772: 15770: 15766: 15762: 15758: 15753: 15749: 15735: 15732: 15730: 15727: 15725: 15722: 15720: 15717: 15716: 15714: 15710: 15704: 15701: 15699: 15696: 15694: 15691: 15689: 15686: 15684: 15681: 15679: 15676: 15675: 15673: 15671: 15665: 15659: 15656: 15653: 15650: 15648: 15645: 15643: 15640: 15638: 15634: 15631: 15628: 15624: 15621: 15618: 15614: 15611: 15609: 15606: 15604: 15601: 15598: 15594: 15591: 15589: 15586: 15584: 15581: 15577: 15574: 15572: 15569: 15568: 15567: 15564: 15561: 15557: 15554: 15553: 15551: 15549: 15545: 15538: 15534: 15531: 15529: 15526: 15524: 15521: 15519: 15516: 15514: 15511: 15509: 15506: 15504: 15503:Privatization 15501: 15498: 15494: 15491: 15489: 15486: 15484: 15481: 15479: 15476: 15474: 15471: 15469: 15466: 15464: 15461: 15459: 15456: 15454: 15451: 15449: 15446: 15444: 15441: 15439: 15436: 15434: 15431: 15429: 15426: 15424: 15421: 15419: 15416: 15414: 15411: 15409: 15406: 15403: 15399: 15396: 15394: 15391: 15389: 15386: 15385: 15383: 15379: 15375: 15371: 15366: 15362: 15348: 15345: 15343: 15340: 15338: 15335: 15333: 15330: 15329: 15327: 15325: 15321: 15315: 15312: 15310: 15307: 15305: 15302: 15300: 15297: 15295: 15292: 15290: 15287: 15286: 15284: 15280: 15274: 15271: 15269: 15266: 15263: 15259: 15256: 15254: 15251: 15249: 15246: 15244: 15241: 15239: 15236: 15233: 15229: 15226: 15224: 15221: 15219: 15216: 15213: 15210: 15208: 15205: 15203: 15199: 15196: 15194: 15191: 15187: 15184: 15182: 15179: 15177: 15174: 15173: 15172: 15169: 15167: 15164: 15162: 15159: 15156: 15152: 15149: 15147: 15144: 15141: 15137: 15134: 15132: 15129: 15128: 15126: 15122: 15118: 15114: 15109: 15105: 15095: 15092: 15090: 15087: 15085: 15082: 15080: 15077: 15075: 15072: 15070: 15067: 15065: 15062: 15060: 15057: 15055: 15052: 15050: 15047: 15045: 15042: 15038: 15035: 15034: 15033: 15030: 15028: 15025: 15021: 15018: 15016: 15013: 15012: 15011: 15008: 15006: 15003: 15002: 14999: 14995: 14990: 14986: 14972: 14971:Years in Iran 14969: 14967: 14964: 14962: 14959: 14957: 14954: 14952: 14949: 14947: 14944: 14942: 14939: 14937: 14934: 14932: 14929: 14927: 14924: 14922: 14919: 14915: 14912: 14911: 14910: 14907: 14901: 14898: 14896: 14895:Turco-Persian 14893: 14892: 14891: 14888: 14887: 14886: 14883: 14881: 14878: 14876: 14873: 14872: 14870: 14866: 14856: 14853: 14851: 14848: 14846: 14843: 14841: 14838: 14836: 14833: 14831: 14828: 14826: 14823: 14819: 14816: 14815: 14814: 14811: 14809: 14806: 14804: 14801: 14799: 14796: 14794: 14791: 14789: 14786: 14784: 14778: 14776: 14773: 14771: 14768: 14766: 14764:War (1980–88) 14760: 14758: 14755: 14753: 14747: 14745: 14742: 14740: 14737: 14735: 14732: 14730: 14727: 14725: 14722: 14720: 14715: 14714: 14712: 14707: 14702: 14696: 14690: 14688: 14685: 14683: 14680: 14678: 14675: 14673: 14670: 14668: 14665: 14663: 14657: 14656: 14654: 14650: 14647: 14643: 14633: 14630: 14628: 14625: 14623: 14620: 14618: 14615: 14613: 14610: 14608: 14602: 14600: 14594: 14592: 14586: 14584: 14578: 14576: 14570: 14568: 14562: 14560: 14556:Qara Qoyunlu 14554: 14552: 14546: 14545: 14543: 14539: 14533: 14527: 14525: 14519: 14517: 14511: 14509: 14504: 14502: 14496: 14494: 14488: 14486: 14480: 14478: 14472: 14470: 14464: 14462: 14456: 14455: 14453: 14449: 14443: 14437: 14435: 14429: 14427: 14421: 14419: 14413: 14411: 14405: 14403: 14397: 14395: 14389: 14387: 14381: 14379: 14373: 14372: 14370: 14366: 14363: 14357: 14347: 14341: 14340: 14338: 14334: 14328: 14322: 14320: 14314: 14312: 14306: 14304: 14298: 14296: 14290: 14288: 14282: 14280: 14274: 14272: 14266: 14264: 14258: 14257: 14255: 14253:550 BC–AD 224 14251: 14245: 14239: 14237: 14231: 14229: 14223: 14221: 14215: 14213: 14209:Neo-Assyrian 14207: 14205: 14199: 14197: 14191: 14189: 14183: 14181: 14175: 14173: 14167: 14165: 14159: 14157: 14151: 14150: 14148: 14144: 14141: 14137: 14133: 14128: 14124: 14120: 14115: 14111: 14106: 14099: 14094: 14092: 14087: 14085: 14080: 14079: 14076: 14061: 14056: 14046: 14043: 14041: 14038: 14036: 14033: 14031: 14028: 14026: 14023: 14021: 14018: 14016: 14013: 14011: 14008: 14006: 14003: 14001: 13998: 13996: 13993: 13991: 13988: 13986: 13983: 13981: 13978: 13976: 13973: 13971: 13968: 13966: 13963: 13960: 13957: 13955: 13952: 13950: 13947: 13945: 13942: 13940: 13937: 13934: 13931: 13929: 13926: 13924: 13921: 13919: 13916: 13914: 13911: 13909: 13906: 13904: 13901: 13898: 13895: 13892: 13889: 13887: 13884: 13882: 13879: 13877: 13874: 13872: 13869: 13867: 13864: 13862: 13859: 13857: 13854: 13852: 13849: 13848: 13845: 13841: 13833: 13828: 13826: 13821: 13819: 13814: 13813: 13810: 13798: 13795: 13793: 13790: 13788: 13785: 13783: 13780: 13778: 13775: 13773: 13770: 13769: 13767: 13763: 13757: 13754: 13752: 13749: 13747: 13744: 13742: 13739: 13737: 13734: 13732: 13729: 13727: 13724: 13723: 13721: 13717: 13711: 13708: 13706: 13703: 13701: 13698: 13697: 13695: 13691: 13685: 13682: 13680: 13677: 13675: 13672: 13670: 13667: 13665: 13662: 13660: 13657: 13655: 13652: 13650: 13647: 13645: 13642: 13640: 13637: 13635: 13632: 13630: 13627: 13625: 13622: 13620: 13617: 13615: 13612: 13610: 13607: 13605: 13602: 13601: 13599: 13595: 13589: 13586: 13584: 13581: 13579: 13576: 13574: 13571: 13569: 13566: 13564: 13561: 13559: 13556: 13554: 13551: 13549: 13546: 13544: 13541: 13539: 13536: 13534: 13531: 13529: 13526: 13524: 13521: 13519: 13516: 13514: 13511: 13509: 13506: 13504: 13501: 13500: 13498: 13496: 13492: 13482: 13479: 13477: 13474: 13472: 13469: 13467: 13464: 13462: 13459: 13457: 13454: 13452: 13449: 13447: 13444: 13442: 13439: 13437: 13434: 13432: 13429: 13427: 13424: 13422: 13419: 13417: 13414: 13412: 13409: 13407: 13404: 13402: 13399: 13397: 13394: 13393: 13391: 13389: 13385: 13379: 13376: 13374: 13371: 13369: 13366: 13364: 13361: 13359: 13356: 13354: 13350: 13347: 13345: 13342: 13340: 13337: 13335: 13332: 13330: 13327: 13325: 13322: 13320: 13317: 13315: 13312: 13310: 13307: 13305: 13302: 13301: 13299: 13297: 13293: 13290: 13286: 13281: 13267: 13264: 13262: 13259: 13257: 13254: 13252: 13249: 13247: 13244: 13242: 13239: 13237: 13234: 13232: 13229: 13227: 13224: 13222: 13219: 13217: 13214: 13212: 13209: 13207: 13204: 13202: 13199: 13197: 13194: 13192: 13189: 13187: 13184: 13182: 13179: 13177: 13174: 13172: 13169: 13167: 13164: 13163: 13161: 13157: 13151: 13148: 13146: 13143: 13141: 13138: 13134: 13131: 13129: 13126: 13125: 13124: 13121: 13119: 13116: 13114: 13113:Syrian Desert 13111: 13109: 13106: 13104: 13101: 13099: 13096: 13094: 13091: 13090: 13088: 13084: 13081: 13079: 13075: 13071: 13064: 13059: 13057: 13052: 13050: 13045: 13044: 13041: 13027: 13020: 13016: 13015: 13010: 13006: 12999: 12996: 12991: 12984: 12981: 12974: 12970: 12969: 12965: 12960: 12954: 12953: 12950: 12944: 12943: 12939: 12938: 12933: 12927: 12926: 12918: 12917: 12914: 12908: 12907: 12904: 12903: 12898: 12897: 12892: 12891: 12885: 12880: 12879: 12873: 12869: 12864: 12860: 12855: 12849: 12848: 12845: 12844: 12840: 12837: 12835: 12829: 12828: 12821: 12820: 12817: 12812: 12810: 12804: 12803: 12799: 12798: 12793: 12787: 12786: 12781: 12775: 12774: 12770: 12766: 12761: 12755: 12754: 12751: 12749: 12744: 12740: 12735: 12730: 12728: 12723: 12717: 12716: 12713: 12707: 12706: 12703: 12702: 12695: 12694: 12691: 12685: 12684: 12681: 12677: 12673: 12664: 12663: 12660: 12655: 12650: 12645: 12644: 12639: 12635: 12627: 12622: 12620: 12615: 12613: 12608: 12607: 12604: 12598: 12591: 12581: 12571: 12565: 12564: 12559: 12558: 12554: 12552: 12549: 12547: 12544: 12542: 12539: 12537: 12534: 12533: 12531: 12527: 12521: 12518: 12516: 12513: 12511: 12508: 12506: 12503: 12501: 12498: 12496: 12493: 12492: 12490: 12486: 12480: 12477: 12475: 12472: 12470: 12467: 12465: 12462: 12460: 12457: 12455: 12452: 12450: 12447: 12443: 12442:Defense lines 12440: 12438: 12435: 12434: 12433: 12430: 12429: 12427: 12423: 12417: 12414: 12412: 12409: 12407: 12404: 12402: 12399: 12397: 12394: 12392: 12389: 12387: 12384: 12382: 12379: 12377: 12374: 12372: 12369: 12367: 12364: 12362: 12359: 12358: 12356: 12352: 12347: 12337: 12334: 12332: 12329: 12325: 12322: 12321: 12320: 12317: 12316: 12314: 12310: 12304: 12301: 12299: 12296: 12295: 12292: 12288: 12283: 12274: 12269: 12267: 12262: 12260: 12255: 12254: 12251: 12245: 12242: 12240: 12237: 12235: 12232: 12230: 12227: 12225: 12221: 12218: 12215: 12213: 12209: 12206: 12203: 12201: 12198: 12196: 12193: 12190: 12189: 12185: 12181: 12177: 12174: 12171: 12169: 12166: 12164: 12161: 12159: 12156: 12153: 12150: 12148: 12145: 12142: 12140: 12136: 12133: 12130: 12128: 12124: 12121: 12118: 12116: 12112: 12109: 12106: 12104: 12101: 12099: 12096: 12094: 12090: 12087: 12086: 12081: 12079: 12076: 12073: 12070: 12068: 12067: 12063:entry in the 12062: 12059: 12056: 12052: 12049: 12048: 12043: 12040: 12038: 12035: 12034: 12015: 12014: 12008: 11996: 11995: 11990: 11989:Edward Thomas 11986: 11983: 11977: 11973: 11968: 11965: 11961: 11958: 11956:0-860-78992-6 11952: 11948: 11943: 11941: 11940:0-415-10317-7 11937: 11933: 11929: 11926: 11924:0-521-04494-4 11920: 11916: 11911: 11910: 11898: 11897: 11892: 11887: 11885: 11877: 11874: 11870: 11866: 11863: 11859: 11856: 11852: 11848: 11844: 11839: 11826: 11819: 11818: 11813: 11809: 11806: 11802: 11797: 11793: 11789: 11784: 11780: 11774: 11770: 11765: 11761: 11760: 11754: 11750: 11749: 11743: 11739: 11733: 11729: 11728: 11722: 11718: 11711: 11707: 11703: 11697: 11693: 11688: 11684: 11683: 11677: 11673: 11667: 11663: 11662: 11656: 11652: 11646: 11642: 11638: 11633: 11631: 11630:964-445-177-5 11627: 11623: 11619: 11615: 11609: 11605: 11600: 11597: 11595:0-415-23943-5 11591: 11588:, Routledge, 11587: 11586: 11580: 11578: 11577:964-90495-1-7 11574: 11570: 11566: 11563: 11560: 11556: 11553: 11547: 11543: 11538: 11535: 11533:90-04-02146-9 11529: 11525: 11524: 11518: 11514: 11512:9783940598561 11508: 11504: 11499: 11495: 11489: 11485: 11484: 11479: 11475: 11472: 11470:964-426-076-7 11466: 11462: 11457: 11453: 11449: 11445: 11440: 11436: 11430: 11426: 11422: 11417: 11413: 11407: 11403: 11399: 11395: 11390: 11386: 11380: 11376: 11375: 11369: 11365: 11361: 11356: 11353:. p. 32. 11352: 11348: 11344: 11340: 11337: 11333: 11329: 11326: 11324:0-571-22664-7 11320: 11316: 11315: 11310: 11306: 11302: 11297: 11294: 11292:0-521-31917-X 11288: 11285:, Cambridge, 11284: 11279: 11276: 11274:0-415-14687-9 11270: 11267:, Routledge, 11266: 11265: 11259: 11248: 11244: 11241: 11237: 11234: 11232:0-521-30199-8 11228: 11224: 11223: 11217: 11214: 11212:0-521-20092-X 11208: 11204: 11200: 11195: 11192: 11186: 11182: 11181: 11175: 11172: 11166: 11162: 11158: 11154: 11151: 11149:0-415-00342-3 11145: 11142:, Routledge, 11141: 11140: 11134: 11130: 11126: 11121: 11117: 11111: 11107: 11106: 11101: 11096: 11092: 11086: 11082: 11081: 11076: 11071: 11067: 11061: 11057: 11056: 11050: 11046: 11040: 11036: 11032: 11027: 11023: 11017: 11013: 11012: 11006: 11002: 11001: 10995: 10991: 10985: 10981: 10980: 10975: 10971: 10968: 10962: 10958: 10953: 10949: 10948: 10942: 10938: 10932: 10928: 10924: 10920: 10916: 10912: 10910:0-486-20399-9 10906: 10902: 10901: 10896: 10892: 10888: 10882: 10878: 10877: 10871: 10867: 10865:0-521-24693-8 10861: 10857: 10854:. Cambridge: 10853: 10852: 10847: 10842: 10839: 10835: 10831: 10828: 10824: 10820: 10816: 10813: 10810: 10806: 10803: 10797: 10793: 10792: 10786: 10782: 10776: 10772: 10767: 10764: 10762:0-521-30200-5 10758: 10754: 10753: 10747: 10744: 10740: 10736: 10732: 10728: 10724: 10720: 10715: 10712: 10708: 10705: 10701: 10700: 10678: 10672: 10656: 10650: 10643: 10637: 10635: 10618: 10614: 10608: 10592: 10588: 10582: 10566: 10562: 10556: 10540: 10536: 10532: 10526: 10517: 10508: 10500: 10494: 10490: 10489: 10481: 10473: 10466: 10457: 10448: 10441: 10436: 10429: 10424: 10422: 10414: 10409: 10402: 10397: 10390: 10385: 10375: 10368: 10363: 10361: 10359: 10350: 10348:9780719010880 10344: 10340: 10333: 10326: 10321: 10314: 10309: 10300: 10291: 10283: 10278: 10277: 10268: 10260: 10253: 10246: 10240: 10233: 10228: 10221: 10216: 10214: 10212: 10210: 10208: 10206: 10198: 10192: 10185: 10179: 10171: 10167: 10161: 10152: 10143: 10127: 10123: 10117: 10111:Nicolle, p. 6 10108: 10106: 10096: 10094: 10086: 10080: 10071: 10065: 10060: 10044: 10040: 10033: 10025: 10019: 10015: 10014: 10006: 9998: 9992: 9988: 9987: 9979: 9972: 9968: 9964: 9958: 9956: 9948: 9944: 9940: 9934: 9932: 9924: 9920: 9916: 9912: 9906: 9899: 9894: 9892: 9890: 9882: 9878: 9872: 9863: 9861: 9853: 9848: 9841: 9836: 9829: 9823: 9814: 9812: 9805:, p. 92. 9804: 9799: 9797: 9795: 9788:, p. 42. 9787: 9782: 9780: 9773:, p. 41. 9772: 9767: 9765: 9757: 9752: 9745: 9740: 9738: 9736: 9734: 9732: 9725:Daniel, p. 57 9722: 9706: 9700: 9694:, p. 239 9693: 9688: 9681: 9675: 9673: 9666: 9660: 9649: 9648: 9640: 9631: 9622: 9620: 9618: 9601: 9597: 9591: 9583: 9577: 9573: 9566: 9557: 9542: 9535: 9527: 9520: 9512: 9506: 9502: 9501: 9493: 9487:, p. 47. 9486: 9481: 9473: 9466: 9458: 9452: 9448: 9447: 9439: 9433: 9429: 9423: 9415: 9409: 9405: 9404: 9396: 9394: 9386: 9381: 9374: 9370: 9364: 9355: 9346: 9337: 9335: 9333: 9331: 9329: 9319: 9312: 9307: 9301: 9297: 9293: 9290: 9286: 9277: 9262: 9258: 9257:"Baduspanids" 9252: 9237: 9233: 9227: 9220: 9215: 9208: 9202: 9193: 9185: 9184: 9176: 9170:, p. 291 9169: 9164: 9157: 9151: 9149: 9139: 9123: 9119: 9113: 9111: 9109: 9107: 9105: 9103: 9095: 9091: 9086: 9079: 9074: 9059:. Fordham.edu 9058: 9052: 9050: 9048: 9038: 9022: 9018: 9011: 9009: 9001: 8996: 8990:, p. 27. 8989: 8984: 8977: 8971: 8965:, p. 78. 8964: 8959: 8952: 8947: 8945: 8943: 8935: 8934:Shahbazi 2005 8930: 8928: 8926: 8924: 8916: 8911: 8904: 8899: 8892: 8887: 8880: 8875: 8873: 8871: 8863: 8858: 8852:, p. 219 8851: 8846: 8844: 8837:, p. 217 8836: 8831: 8824: 8819: 8813: 8809: 8802: 8796:, p. 32. 8795: 8790: 8784:, p. 218 8783: 8778: 8769: 8763:, p. 145 8762: 8757: 8741: 8735: 8728: 8723: 8721: 8712: 8706: 8702: 8701: 8693: 8677: 8670: 8663: 8655: 8649: 8645: 8644: 8636: 8628: 8622: 8618: 8617: 8609: 8602: 8597: 8595: 8588:, p. 421 8587: 8586:Blockley 1998 8582: 8576:, p. 206 8575: 8570: 8563: 8557: 8551:, p. 200 8550: 8545: 8530: 8528:9780415103176 8524: 8521:. Routledge. 8520: 8519: 8511: 8504: 8500: 8494: 8492: 8484: 8478: 8472:, p. 199 8471: 8466: 8460:, p. 128 8459: 8454: 8448:, p. 197 8447: 8442: 8435: 8430: 8424:, p. 238 8423: 8422:Southern 2001 8418: 8412:, p. 126 8411: 8406: 8399: 8398:Southern 2001 8394: 8388:, p. 125 8387: 8382: 8380: 8373:, p. 51. 8372: 8367: 8360: 8355: 8348: 8343: 8337:, p. 180 8336: 8331: 8324: 8319: 8313:, p. 178 8312: 8307: 8301:, p. 461 8300: 8295: 8288: 8284: 8278: 8274: 8270: 8266: 8265: 8257: 8242: 8238: 8232: 8225: 8219: 8203: 8197: 8195: 8185: 8169: 8163: 8156: 8152: 8151: 8146: 8140: 8132: 8126: 8122: 8118: 8111: 8102: 8096: 8092: 8088: 8082: 8080: 8073: 8069: 8065: 8059: 8057: 8049: 8048:Shahbazi 2005 8043: 8041: 8024: 8020: 8016: 8010: 8003: 7997: 7990: 7984: 7980: 7973: 7966: 7961: 7954: 7949: 7941: 7937: 7933: 7929: 7925: 7921: 7914: 7899: 7895: 7891: 7887: 7883: 7876: 7869: 7864: 7857: 7856: 7850: 7843: 7838: 7836: 7819: 7813: 7809: 7796: 7790: 7784: 7778: 7771: 7765: 7759: 7752: 7746: 7742: 7738: 7728: 7723: 7711: 7700: 7695: 7689: 7684: 7679: 7675: 7665: 7662: 7660: 7657: 7655: 7652: 7650: 7647: 7645: 7642: 7640: 7637: 7635: 7632: 7630: 7627: 7626: 7622: 7611: 7601: 7597: 7594:(present-day 7593: 7589: 7588:Yazdegerd III 7585: 7582: 7578: 7574: 7572: 7568: 7567:Sasanian army 7564: 7560: 7558: 7554: 7550: 7548: 7547:Yazdegerd III 7544: 7542: 7538: 7535: 7531: 7528: 7524: 7520: 7518: 7514: 7510: 7507: 7503: 7501: 7497: 7494: 7490: 7488: 7484: 7482: 7478: 7475: 7471: 7467: 7463: 7460: 7459:Bahram Chobin 7456: 7452: 7448: 7444: 7441: 7437: 7433: 7429: 7426: 7422: 7419: 7415: 7412: 7408: 7405: 7401: 7397: 7393: 7392:Eternal Peace 7389: 7385: 7382: 7378: 7373: 7369: 7365: 7361: 7357: 7354: 7350: 7346: 7343: 7339: 7335: 7331: 7328: 7325: 7320: 7316: 7312: 7308: 7305: 7304: 7302: 7298: 7293: 7290: 7287: 7286: 7284: 7280: 7275: 7272: 7268: 7264: 7263: 7261: 7257: 7254: 7249: 7245: 7241: 7238: 7235: 7231: 7227: 7226: 7225:"the Great": 7224: 7220: 7217: 7214: 7210: 7207: 7204: 7200: 7197:, founder of 7196: 7192: 7190: 7186: 7182: 7179: 7178: 7177:"the Great": 7176: 7172: 7167: 7163: 7160: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7148: 7147: 7145: 7141: 7140: 7138: 7134: 7126: 7117: 7114: 7112: 7108: 7107: 7097: 7092: 7087: 7077: 7075: 7071: 7067: 7063: 7059: 7055: 7045: 7043: 7038: 7034: 7026: 7025:Caspian Gates 7022: 7017: 7008: 7006: 7002: 6998: 6994: 6990: 6986: 6976: 6974: 6970: 6966: 6962: 6958: 6954: 6950: 6946: 6942: 6938: 6934: 6930: 6926: 6923:, an unknown 6922: 6918: 6914: 6910: 6906: 6902: 6898: 6894: 6890: 6885: 6883: 6882:Middle Syriac 6879: 6875: 6871: 6867: 6863: 6859: 6855: 6851: 6847: 6843: 6839: 6835: 6830: 6828: 6824: 6820: 6816: 6812: 6807: 6805: 6801: 6797: 6793: 6789: 6788:Proto-Caspian 6786:and probably 6785: 6784:Pre-Daylamite 6782:). Unwritten 6781: 6777: 6773: 6769: 6765: 6755: 6753: 6749: 6745: 6743: 6738: 6733: 6729: 6725: 6710: 6708: 6703: 6699: 6695: 6691: 6687: 6683: 6679: 6675: 6671: 6661: 6658: 6654: 6650: 6646: 6643:(present day 6642: 6638: 6634: 6628: 6626: 6622: 6618: 6614: 6610: 6606: 6601: 6598: 6595: 6591: 6587: 6583: 6575: 6571: 6567: 6563: 6558: 6553: 6549: 6543: 6539: 6529: 6527: 6526: 6521: 6517: 6516: 6511: 6510: 6509:Khwaday-Namag 6504: 6502: 6501: 6495: 6491: 6487: 6483: 6479: 6472: 6467: 6463: 6461: 6457: 6456: 6451: 6450: 6445: 6444: 6439: 6436: 6431: 6429: 6425: 6424: 6419: 6418: 6413: 6412: 6407: 6406: 6401: 6400: 6399:Staota Yesnya 6396: 6392: 6391: 6386: 6376: 6374: 6370: 6366: 6362: 6358: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6341: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6316: 6314: 6310: 6309:Adur Gushnasp 6305: 6303: 6299: 6298:Adur Gushnasp 6295: 6291: 6287: 6282: 6280: 6276: 6272: 6271: 6266: 6262: 6261: 6260:Adur Gushnasp 6256: 6255: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6234: 6233:Adur Gushnasp 6229: 6220: 6218: 6217: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6199: 6194: 6192: 6188: 6183: 6180: 6175: 6173: 6169: 6159: 6157: 6153: 6149: 6145: 6141: 6136: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6119: 6118:Naqsh-e Rajab 6115: 6111: 6107: 6103: 6099: 6090: 6088: 6084: 6080: 6076: 6073: 6069: 6065: 6061: 6060: 6055: 6051: 6050: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6019: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6004: 6002: 5998: 5994: 5989: 5987: 5983: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5970:Parthian rule 5962: 5952: 5942: 5940: 5936: 5932: 5926: 5924: 5919: 5917: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5899: 5896: 5889: 5886:Sasanian sea 5884: 5875: 5872: 5868: 5864: 5860: 5855: 5852: 5844: 5840: 5835: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5808: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5792: 5790: 5786: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5751: 5750:Achaemenidae. 5746: 5743: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5726: 5721: 5719: 5715: 5710: 5706: 5704: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5671: 5665: 5660: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5633: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5618: 5616: 5612: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5591: 5584: 5579: 5571: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5528: 5526: 5525:Sasanian army 5515: 5510: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5480: 5476: 5474:was required. 5473: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5458: 5454: 5451: 5447: 5444: 5440: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5428: 5427: 5425: 5420: 5418: 5407: 5404: 5402: 5401: 5396: 5392: 5384: 5381: 5378: 5375: 5372: 5369: 5366: 5363: 5362: 5361: 5359: 5349: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5330: 5325: 5324: 5319: 5318: 5313: 5312: 5305: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5294: 5286: 5282: 5277: 5268: 5266: 5262: 5256: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5237: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5187: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5160: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5145: 5139: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5120: 5115: 5111: 5110:Islamic world 5107: 5102: 5100: 5096: 5092: 5091: 5086: 5085: 5080: 5074: 5070: 5068: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5047: 5043: 5038: 5024: 5021: 5020: 5014: 5009: 5005: 4995: 4993: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4972: 4970: 4965: 4961: 4956: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4921: 4920: 4915: 4911: 4906: 4902: 4897: 4887: 4883: 4881: 4876: 4872: 4867: 4865: 4860: 4856: 4850: 4843:War with Axum 4840: 4838: 4834: 4829: 4827: 4823: 4819: 4815: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4776: 4772: 4767: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4752:Kushan Empire 4748: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4717:Muslim forces 4714: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4697: 4695: 4691: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4670: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4642: 4640: 4635: 4632: 4631: 4624: 4619: 4618: 4612: 4610: 4606: 4605:siege engines 4601: 4599: 4598:war elephants 4595: 4591: 4585: 4576: 4569: 4564: 4555: 4553: 4552: 4547: 4543: 4542:Sasanian navy 4533: 4531: 4527: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4509: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4490: 4481: 4472: 4470: 4469:siege warfare 4466: 4462: 4458: 4451: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4427: 4425: 4419: 4417: 4416: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4394: 4389: 4388: 4382: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4338: 4336: 4331: 4329: 4328: 4323: 4319: 4318: 4313: 4312: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4298: 4293: 4292: 4287: 4286: 4281: 4277: 4276: 4270: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4228: 4227:Yazdegerd III 4224: 4223: 4218: 4214: 4211: 4210:Banu Munajjim 4207: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4169: 4168: 4160: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4129: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4094: 4092: 4088: 4083: 4079: 4078:al-Qādisiyyah 4075: 4071: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4018:'s commander 4017: 4011: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3996:Yazdegerd III 3993: 3984: 3980: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3956: 3952: 3947: 3943: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3877: 3873: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3811: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3782:fell in 614, 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3764: 3762: 3758: 3753: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3716: 3711: 3707: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3692:John Mystacon 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3676:Bahram Chobin 3673: 3665: 3662:15th-century 3660: 3656: 3654: 3650: 3644: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3628: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3601: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3574: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3547: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3525: 3520: 3516: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3473: 3471: 3467: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3439: 3434: 3425: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3386: 3384: 3383:Shapur Mihran 3380: 3376: 3372: 3369:, one of the 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3335: 3329: 3325: 3320: 3316: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3276: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3247: 3242: 3238: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3199: 3197: 3196:Theodosius II 3193: 3192:Constantine I 3189: 3184: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3169: 3167: 3163: 3162:second in 440 3159: 3155: 3151: 3150:Eastern Roman 3147: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3114: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3083: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3037: 3033: 3028: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3010: 3006: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2967: 2965: 2961: 2956: 2954: 2950: 2944: 2942: 2938: 2930: 2919: 2914: 2905: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2889: 2887: 2884:(near modern 2883: 2879: 2875: 2872:), Arzanene ( 2871: 2868:, Sophanene ( 2867: 2862: 2856: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2829: 2825: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2798: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2764: 2762: 2759:rabbi called 2758: 2754: 2750: 2747:, protecting 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2726: 2721: 2717: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2670: 2668: 2667: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2600: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2530: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2483: 2479: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2458:, modern day 2457: 2453: 2449: 2448: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2426: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2402: 2398: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2375: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2348: 2342: 2338: 2337: 2324: 2320: 2315: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2291: 2281: 2279: 2276:), while the 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2242: 2240: 2236: 2231: 2226: 2221: 2216: 2211: 2206: 2202: 2192: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2157: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2138: 2133: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2094: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2063: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2029: 2010: 2006: 2000: 1934: 1922: 1917: 1915: 1910: 1908: 1903: 1902: 1900: 1899: 1896: 1885: 1882: 1881: 1873: 1870: 1868: 1865: 1863: 1860: 1858: 1855: 1853: 1850: 1848: 1845: 1843: 1840: 1838: 1835: 1834: 1827: 1826: 1816: 1814: 1811: 1810: 1806: 1804: 1801: 1800: 1796: 1794: 1791: 1790: 1785: 1780: 1779: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1763: 1759: 1757: 1754: 1753: 1748: 1747:Modern period 1743: 1742: 1732: 1730: 1727: 1726: 1722: 1720: 1719:Afsharid Iran 1717: 1716: 1712: 1709: 1708:Hotak dynasty 1705: 1704: 1700: 1698: 1695: 1694: 1689: 1684: 1683: 1673: 1671: 1668: 1667: 1663: 1661: 1658: 1657: 1653: 1651: 1648: 1647: 1643: 1641: 1638: 1637: 1633: 1631: 1628: 1627: 1623: 1621: 1618: 1617: 1613: 1611: 1608: 1607: 1603: 1601: 1598: 1597: 1593: 1591: 1588: 1587: 1583: 1581: 1578: 1577: 1573: 1571: 1568: 1567: 1563: 1561: 1558: 1557: 1553: 1551: 1548: 1547: 1543: 1541: 1538: 1537: 1533: 1531: 1528: 1527: 1523: 1521: 1518: 1517: 1513: 1511: 1508: 1507: 1503: 1501: 1498: 1497: 1493: 1491: 1488: 1487: 1483: 1481: 1478: 1477: 1473: 1471: 1468: 1467: 1463: 1461: 1458: 1457: 1453: 1451: 1450:Seljuk Empire 1448: 1447: 1443: 1441: 1438: 1437: 1433: 1431: 1428: 1427: 1423: 1421: 1418: 1417: 1413: 1411: 1408: 1407: 1403: 1401: 1398: 1397: 1393: 1391: 1388: 1387: 1383: 1381: 1378: 1377: 1373: 1371: 1370:Buyid dynasty 1368: 1367: 1363: 1361: 1358: 1357: 1353: 1351: 1348: 1347: 1343: 1341: 1338: 1337: 1333: 1331: 1330:Sajid dynasty 1328: 1327: 1323: 1321: 1318: 1317: 1313: 1311: 1308: 1307: 1303: 1301: 1298: 1297: 1293: 1291: 1288: 1287: 1283: 1281: 1278: 1277: 1273: 1271: 1268: 1267: 1263: 1261: 1258: 1257: 1253: 1251: 1248: 1247: 1243: 1241: 1238: 1237: 1233: 1231: 1228: 1227: 1223: 1221: 1218: 1217: 1213: 1211: 1208: 1207: 1203: 1201: 1198: 1197: 1194: 1193: 1187: 1182: 1181: 1171: 1169: 1166: 1165: 1161: 1159: 1156: 1155: 1151: 1149: 1146: 1145: 1141: 1139: 1136: 1135: 1131: 1129: 1126: 1125: 1122:132 BC–224 AD 1121: 1119: 1116: 1115: 1112:141 BC–222 AD 1111: 1109: 1106: 1105: 1102:147 BC–224 AD 1101: 1099: 1096: 1095: 1092:247 BC–224 AD 1091: 1089: 1086: 1085: 1081: 1079: 1076: 1075: 1071: 1069: 1066: 1065: 1061: 1059: 1056: 1055: 1052:320s BC–17 AD 1051: 1049: 1046: 1045: 1040: 323 BC 1035: 1033: 1030: 1029: 1026:331 BC–428 AD 1025: 1023: 1020: 1019: 1016:550 BC–330 BC 1015: 1013: 1010: 1009: 999: 997: 994: 993: 990:626 BC–539 BC 989: 987: 984: 983: 980:635 BC–550 BC 979: 977: 974: 973: 969: 967: 964: 963: 959: 957: 956:Median Empire 954: 953: 948: 943: 942: 932: 930: 927: 926: 922: 920: 917: 916: 912: 910: 907: 906: 902: 900: 897: 896: 892: 890: 887: 886: 879: 877: 874: 873: 866: 864: 861: 860: 856: 854: 851: 850: 843: 841: 838: 837: 830: 828: 825: 824: 820: 818: 815: 814: 807: 805: 801: 798: 797: 790: 788: 785: 784: 780: 778: 777:Proto-Elamite 775: 774: 770: 768: 765: 764: 759: 754: 753: 740: 738: 737:Dalma culture 735: 734: 727: 725: 722: 721: 714: 712: 709: 708: 705:20,000–10,000 701: 699: 696: 695: 692:36,000–18,000 688: 686: 683: 682: 679: 678: 672: 667: 666: 662: 658: 657: 654: 648: 647: 642: 637: 636: 629: 625: 621: 619: 594: 592: 589: 588: 580: 578: 575: 574: 566: 564: 561: 560: 552: 550: 547: 546: 538: 536: 533: 532: 524: 522: 519: 518: 510: 508: 505: 504: 501: 495: 492: 485: 484: 481: 478: 471: 470: 467: 466:Kushan Empire 464: 457: 456: 453: 450: 443: 442: 439: 436: 429: 428: 425: 424: 421: 418: 416: 413: 412: 408: 404: 400: 395: 391: 387: 384: 378: 374: 371: 365: 361: 358: 352: 348: 345: 339: 335: 332: 326: 322: 319: 313: 309: 306: 303: 299: 295: 289: 288:Yazdegerd III 286: 280: 274: 271: 265: 261: 257: 255: 251: 248: 245: 242: 240: 236: 229: 225: 222: 218: 215: 211: 208: 204: 201: 197: 192: 189: 188: 186: 182: 179: 172: 169: 165: 156: 153: 148: 145: 144: 142: 138: 134: 121: 116: 109: 104: 96: 90: 80: 74: 66: 61: 56: 49: 33: 30: 19: 17572:Contemporary 17422:Indo-Persian 17410:Nazi Germany 17354:Contemporary 17256:Vijayanagara 17155:Great Seljuk 17066:Thessalonica 16994:Golden Horde 16634:Carthaginian 16574: 16413:Neo-Assyrian 16398:Neo-Sumerian 16276:Other topics 16260: 16188:Persian name 16127:Islamization 16069: 16029:Architecture 15982:universities 15927:Zoroastrians 15922:Christianity 15912:Baháʼí Faith 15862:Azerbaijanis 15769:Demographics 15583:Construction 15571:Central Bank 15513:Space Agency 15408:Child labour 15243:Principlists 15223:Cyberwarfare 15171:Human rights 15136:Constitution 14931:Azerbaijanis 14900:Indo-Persian 14880:Greater Iran 14751:siege (1980) 14710:1979–present 14361:early modern 14359:Medieval and 14342: 14153:Kura-Araxes 13839: 13679:Royal titles 13604:Architecture 13475: 13441:Neo-Assyrian 13288:(Pre)history 13108:Persian Gulf 13012: 13005:Ancient Rome 12976:311–129 BCE 12962: 12955:336–301 BCE 12945:539–331 BCE 12935: 12928:626–539 BCE 12919:729–609 BCE 12909:911–729 BCE 12900: 12894: 12888: 12876: 12841: 12831: 12825: 12795: 12783: 12768: 12745: 12724: 12699: 12658: 12653: 12648: 12632:Timeline of 12561: 12555: 12396:Inscriptions 12361:Architecture 12286: 12186: 12146: 12084: 12064: 12046: 12041: 12018:, retrieved 12012: 11999:, retrieved 11993: 11971: 11963: 11962:Labourt, J. 11946: 11931: 11914: 11894: 11883: 11872: 11861: 11854: 11850: 11842: 11832:, retrieved 11825:the original 11816: 11800: 11791: 11768: 11758: 11747: 11726: 11691: 11681: 11660: 11640: 11621: 11603: 11584: 11568: 11558: 11541: 11522: 11502: 11482: 11460: 11452:the original 11447: 11424: 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Retrieved 11247:fordham.edu/ 11246: 11221: 11202: 11179: 11160: 11157:Durant, Will 11138: 11128: 11103: 11078: 11054: 11034: 11010: 10999: 10978: 10956: 10946: 10922: 10899: 10875: 10850: 10837: 10826: 10811: 10790: 10770: 10751: 10726: 10722: 10710: 10703: 10696:Bibliography 10681:. Retrieved 10671: 10659:. Retrieved 10649: 10641: 10621:. Retrieved 10616: 10607: 10595:. Retrieved 10590: 10581: 10569:. Retrieved 10564: 10555: 10543:. Retrieved 10539:the original 10534: 10525: 10516: 10507: 10487: 10480: 10471: 10465: 10456: 10447: 10440:Daryaee 2008 10435: 10428:Brunner 1983 10413:Brunner 1983 10408: 10401:Brunner 1983 10396: 10389:Brunner 1983 10384: 10374: 10367:Daryaee 2008 10338: 10332: 10320: 10313:Daryaee 2008 10308: 10299: 10290: 10275: 10267: 10258: 10252: 10244: 10239: 10227: 10196: 10191: 10183: 10178: 10169: 10160: 10151: 10146:Frye, p. 325 10142: 10132:25 September 10130:. Retrieved 10126:the original 10116: 10084: 10079: 10070: 10059: 10047:. Retrieved 10043:the original 10032: 10012: 10005: 9985: 9978: 9962: 9938: 9910: 9905: 9898:Daryaee 2008 9876: 9871: 9847: 9840:Daryaee 2008 9835: 9822: 9786:Daryaee 2008 9771:Daryaee 2008 9756:Daryaee 2008 9751: 9744:Daryaee 2008 9721: 9709:. Retrieved 9699: 9687: 9679: 9659: 9646: 9639: 9630: 9604:. Retrieved 9600:the original 9590: 9571: 9565: 9556: 9544:. Retrieved 9534: 9525: 9519: 9499: 9492: 9485:Daryaee 2008 9480: 9471: 9465: 9445: 9438: 9427: 9422: 9402: 9385:Daryaee 2008 9380: 9372: 9368: 9367:Wiesehöfer, 9363: 9354: 9345: 9318: 9311:Daryaee 2008 9306: 9299: 9285: 9276: 9264:. Retrieved 9260: 9251: 9239:. Retrieved 9235: 9226: 9218: 9214: 9206: 9201: 9192: 9182: 9175: 9163: 9155: 9138: 9126:. Retrieved 9122:the original 9085: 9073: 9061:. Retrieved 9037: 9025:. Retrieved 9021:the original 8995: 8988:Daryaee 2008 8983: 8970: 8958: 8910: 8898: 8886: 8857: 8830: 8821: 8807: 8801: 8789: 8777: 8768: 8756: 8744:. Retrieved 8734: 8729:, p. 68 8727:Neusner 1969 8699: 8692: 8680:. Retrieved 8678:(216): 24–34 8675: 8662: 8642: 8635: 8615: 8608: 8581: 8569: 8561: 8556: 8544: 8532:. Retrieved 8517: 8510: 8502: 8498: 8482: 8477: 8465: 8453: 8441: 8433: 8429: 8417: 8405: 8393: 8366: 8354: 8342: 8335:Farrokh 2007 8330: 8318: 8311:Farrokh 2007 8306: 8294: 8286: 8263: 8256: 8244:. Retrieved 8240: 8231: 8223: 8218: 8206:. Retrieved 8184: 8172:. Retrieved 8162: 8154: 8149: 8145:Durant, Will 8139: 8120: 8110: 8101: 8086: 8063: 8029:11 September 8027:. Retrieved 8023:the original 8018: 8009: 7996: 7978: 7972: 7967:, p. 1. 7965:Daryaee 2018 7960: 7955:, p. 9. 7948: 7923: 7919: 7913: 7903:11 September 7901:. Retrieved 7889: 7885: 7875: 7870:, p. 4. 7863: 7854: 7849: 7842:Daryaee 2008 7822:. Retrieved 7812: 7789: 7777: 7761:, Parthian: 7751: 7744: 7740: 7683:Book Pahlavi 7678: 7649:Sasanian art 7596:Turkmenistan 7390:. Treaty of 7372:Martyropolis 7301:Yazdegerd II 7168:is assembled 7115: 7104: 7101: 7094:"Parsees of 7074:Shushandukht 7051: 7030: 6995:. In modern 6989:civilization 6982: 6886: 6852:divided the 6831: 6819:Old Armenian 6811:Old Georgian 6808: 6761: 6746: 6721: 6701: 6667: 6629: 6602: 6599: 6579: 6573: 6532:Christianity 6523: 6513: 6507: 6505: 6503:invocation. 6498: 6475: 6453: 6447: 6441: 6432: 6421: 6415: 6409: 6403: 6397: 6388: 6382: 6342: 6322: 6312: 6308: 6306: 6301: 6297: 6290:Adur Farnbag 6289: 6285: 6283: 6268: 6258: 6254:Adur Farnbag 6252: 6238: 6214: 6195: 6184: 6176: 6165: 6155: 6151: 6134: 6096: 6077: 6071: 6057: 6047: 6040:Artabanus IV 6025: 6005: 5990: 5967: 5927: 5923:Persian Gulf 5920: 5904:Indian Ocean 5900: 5892: 5888:trade routes 5856: 5848: 5797:Chal Tarkhan 5793: 5753: 5748: 5722: 5711: 5707: 5670:Taq-e Bostan 5667: 5662: 5641:Central Asia 5634: 5619: 5596: 5561:A bowl with 5541:Sasanian art 5521: 5512: 5492: 5488: 5485: 5457:Tigris River 5450:fire temples 5432:Zoroastrians 5421: 5413: 5405: 5398: 5394: 5388: 5382: 5377:Wastaryoshan 5376: 5370: 5364: 5355: 5333: 5327: 5321: 5315: 5309: 5306: 5297: 5291: 5289: 5257: 5238: 5210:Veh-Ardashir 5191: 5141: 5127: 5119:Panchatantra 5117: 5103: 5101:) to India. 5098: 5088: 5082: 5075: 5071: 5067:Gupta Empire 5051: 5046:Pulakesin II 5042:Ajanta Caves 5017: 5016:Coin of the 4983: 4973: 4960:Hephthalites 4957: 4936:Northern Wei 4925: 4917: 4899: 4884: 4868: 4852: 4830: 4798: 4771:Bedouin Arab 4768: 4749: 4745:North Africa 4737:the Caucasus 4698: 4690:Roman Empire 4687: 4636: 4629: 4625: 4623:encounters. 4621: 4615: 4614: 4602: 4587: 4568:Taq-e Bostan 4549: 4546:Persian Gulf 4539: 4510: 4502:Paygan-salar 4495: 4478: 4471:techniques. 4460: 4459:, the first 4454: 4422:resuscitate 4420: 4413: 4409: 4401: 4397: 4391: 4385: 4384:In general, 4383: 4378: 4374: 4365:, Sakastan, 4339: 4332: 4325: 4321: 4315: 4309: 4295: 4289: 4283: 4279: 4273: 4271: 4258: 4252: 4220: 4166: 4156: 4130: 4122:Central Asia 4095: 4067: 4012: 3989: 3960: 3897: 3854:Shahraplakan 3835: 3808:architecture 3765: 3754: 3727:Hephthalites 3720: 3669: 3645: 3640:South Arabia 3629: 3602: 3588:near modern 3575: 3548: 3529: 3474: 3453:Hephthalites 3450: 3415: 3387: 3336: 3332: 3277: 3263:in 451, the 3257:Christianity 3253:Yazdegerd II 3250: 3246:Yazdegerd II 3223:Hephthalites 3215:Shushandukht 3200: 3185: 3170: 3143: 3084: 3056:Hephthalites 3041: 2968: 2957: 2945: 2940: 2933: 2890: 2857: 2834: 2799: 2778:high-priest 2765: 2730: 2671: 2664: 2622: 2608: 2550:Turkmenistan 2531: 2523:Adhur-Anahid 2518: 2511:Vologases VI 2507:Artabanus IV 2504: 2455: 2445: 2443: 2436:supreme god 2418:Artabanus IV 2376: 2361: 2355: 2346: 2345: 2340: 2335: 2334: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2243: 2237:, where the 2198: 2189:Muslim world 2169:architecture 2165:Sasanian art 2158: 2134: 2126:Central Asia 2114:South Arabia 2095: 2071:Roman Empire 2064: 2004: 1932: 1930: 1857:LGBT history 1817:1979–present 1766:Pahlavi Iran 1729:Zand dynasty 1697:Safavid Iran 1660:Qara Qoyunlu 1550:Kurt dynasty 1390:Hasanwayhids 1190: 1168:Qarinvandids 1147: 1072:281 BC–62 BC 1062:312 BC–63 BC 675: 615: 420:Succeeded by 419: 414: 323:28 April 224 200:Christianity 29: 17160:Khwarezmian 17093:Carolingian 16898:Rashtrakuta 16602:Shaishunaga 16501:Hellenistic 16484:New Kingdom 16474:Old Kingdom 16293:Tehrangeles 16256:Traditional 15993:Nationality 15931:persecution 15916:persecution 15867:Circassians 15816:Neo-Aramaic 15796:Azerbaijani 15668:State-owned 15593:Health care 15556:Agriculture 15393:Brain drain 15332:Ambassadors 15027:Earthquakes 14564:Aq Qoyunlu 14513:Muzaffarid 14490:Eldiguzids 14482:Anushtegin 14308:Kingdom of 14284:Kingdom of 14276:Kingdom of 14268:Atropatene 14260:Achaemenid 14201:Kingdom of 14146:3400–539 BC 13949:Kushanshahr 13856:Adurbadagan 13782:Hittitology 13772:Assyriology 13693:Archaeology 13563:Old Persian 13373:Jemdet Nasr 13022:224–mid 7C 12986:129–63 BCE 12968:Macedonians 12863:city-states 12859:Neo-Hittite 12834:Sea Peoples 12750:city-states 12729:city-states 12672:Uruk period 12634:Mesopotamia 12505:Baduspanids 12488:Descendants 12454:Arab tribes 12324:Family tree 12188:In Our Time 11240:Frye, R. N. 10925:. Oakland: 10623:16 December 10597:16 December 10571:16 December 10561:"Shapur II" 10545:3 September 10474:, Macmillan 10083:Fergusson, 9973:(see p. 87) 9949:(see p. 87) 9925:(see p. 87) 9913:, 224 pp., 9803:Morony 2005 9711:16 December 9546:10 December 9266:16 December 9241:16 December 9128:16 December 9063:16 December 9027:16 December 8974:Procopius, 8915:Payne 2015b 8891:Payne 2015b 8794:Hewsen 1987 8746:16 December 8534:16 December 8208:16 December 8174:16 December 7953:Canepa 2018 7824:16 December 7737:New Persian 7735:whence the 7621:Iran portal 7555:during the 7525:overthrows 7453:overthrows 7340:grants the 7260:Yazdegerd I 7199:Manichaeism 7001:Iranosphere 6949:Gundeshapur 6909:Khwarazmian 6842:Neo-Elamite 6800:Mazandarani 6776:Adurbadagan 6728:Koine Greek 6726:along with 6702:Exilarchate 6651:kingdom of 6617:Christology 6462:originals. 6428:Ahura Mazda 6334:Ahura Mazda 6313:Great Fires 6286:Great Fires 6106:Sar Mashhad 5931:Transoxania 5867:Gundeshapur 5745:Fergusson: 5718:Hellenistic 5703:Middle Ages 5657:Will Durant 5653:Islamic art 5649:Merovingian 5647:, and even 5472:manumission 5417:fire-temple 5393:system the 5379:(commoners) 5371:Arteshtaran 5311:proskynesis 5194:charismatic 5188:in 570–622. 5178:Taq-i Kisra 5099:Nēw-Ardašēr 4942:during the 4930:during the 4789:Khorramabad 4760:Tus citadel 4727:and in the 4630:Strategikon 4594:Cataphracts 4263:sacred fire 4184:Paduspanids 4163:Descendants 3800:Persian art 3621:Caspian Sea 3551:Justinian I 3493:Mihr-Mihroe 3305:Hormizd III 3229:(in modern 3188:Yazdegerd I 3173:Ardashir II 3060:Alchon Huns 3054:, then the 3014:Alchon Huns 2987:Transoxiana 2979:Afghanistan 2960:Transoxiana 2888:, Turkey). 2822:Mesopotamia 2800:Succeeding 2776:Zoroastrian 2753:Shabuhragan 2745:Manichaeism 2725:Manichaeism 2674:Barbalissos 2649:Gordian III 2641:Timesitheus 2548:(in modern 2438:Ahura Mazda 2434:Zoroastrian 2358:in Pahlavi. 2343:in Pahlavi. 2085:during the 2054:during the 2034:), was the 1540:Mihrabanids 1500:Hazaraspids 1260:Baduspanids 1138:Paratarajas 1132:19 AD–224/5 650:History of 415:Preceded by 331:Iberian War 329:• The 214:Manichaeism 17844:Categories 17730:Portuguese 17611:Revival Le 17601:Vietnamese 17244:Later Tran 17214:Vietnamese 17110:Singhasari 17098:Holy Roman 16722:Bulgarian 16658:Satavahana 16629:Phoenician 16565:Achaemenid 16526:Indo-Greek 16506:Macedonian 16420:Babylonian 16193:Philosophy 16152:newspapers 16133:Literature 16038:architects 16033:Achaemenid 15953:Corruption 15413:Corruption 15253:Reformists 15248:Propaganda 15146:Corruption 15131:Censorship 15074:Lake Urmia 14762:Iran–Iraq 14458:Ghaznavid 14336:AD 224–651 14300:Frataraka 14132:Prehistory 13965:Machelonia 13933:Kadagistan 13866:Arbayistan 13746:Divination 13456:Achaemenid 13421:Isin-Larsa 13314:Trialetian 13309:Mousterian 13296:Prehistory 12746:and other 12725:and other 12411:Punishment 12401:Literature 11882:"Persia § 11834:2008-05-02 11343:Hewsen, R. 10232:Boyce 1984 10220:Boyce 1984 9852:Shaki 1992 9232:"Dabuyids" 8903:Potts 2018 8823:Christian. 8817:1560986298 8560:Agathias, 8271:. p. 8246:9 November 8095:075465740X 8072:0827611552 7892:(2): 223. 7804:References 7793:See also: 7781:See also: 7701:spelling: 7685:spelling: 7527:Khosrow II 7466:Khosrow II 7455:Hormizd IV 7451:Khosrow II 7432:Hormizd IV 7144:Ardashir I 7120:Chronology 7084:See also: 7037:Roman army 6965:Himyaritic 6813:, various 6804:Tabaristan 6780:Azerbaijan 6635:, Lazica, 6546:See also: 6443:Bundahishn 6385:Mary Boyce 6326:'non-Iran' 6216:Frashegerd 6203:Achaemenid 6198:Ardashir I 6172:Gatha days 6168:Ardashir I 6130:iconoclast 6068:Tabarestan 6032:Ardashir I 5986:Darius III 5895:Good roads 5859:Silk Route 5725:Achaemenid 5694:tapestries 5535:See also: 5507:See also: 5395:shahanshah 5385:(artisans) 5383:Hutukhshan 5373:(warriors) 5346:Mihr's day 5317:pushtigban 5293:shahanshah 5271:Shahanshah 5236:ideology. 5153:Bozorgmehr 5095:backgammon 5084:chaturanga 5019:Kushanshah 4859:Himyarites 4837:White Huns 4756:White Huns 4674:fine cameo 4649:See also: 4590:Clibanarii 4517:Dailamites 4461:shahanshah 4457:Ardashir I 4379:shahanshah 4375:shahanshah 4280:shahanshah 4259:shahanshah 4249:Government 4238:Divashtich 4203:Hormizd IV 4188:Mazandaran 4118:Tang China 4116:, fled to 4098:Farrukhzad 4062:Khosrau II 4046:Khosrau II 3968:True Cross 3955:Khosrau II 3862:assistance 3846:Shahrbaraz 3838:Khosrau II 3792:Achaemenid 3784:Alexandria 3768:Shahrbaraz 3715:Khosrow II 3680:Khosrow II 3672:Hormizd IV 3625:Tamkhosrow 3594:Mamikonian 3485:Belisarius 3292:Oxus river 3244:A coin of 3231:Uzbekistan 3207:al-Mundhir 3177:Shapur III 3080:fire altar 3068:Shapur III 2929:Met Museum 2894:Hormizd II 2814:Callinicum 2802:Bahram III 2795:Diocletian 2757:Babylonian 2714:Odaenathus 2702:Persepolis 2519:shahanshah 2454:(formerly 2430:Ardashir I 2410:Ardashir I 2408:, showing 2387:Bazrangids 2372:Ardashir I 2319:Ardashir I 2288:See also: 2260:, and the 2181:philosophy 2177:literature 2130:South Asia 2075:Ardashir I 1756:Qajar Iran 1670:Aq Qoyunlu 1654:1370s–1592 1490:Salghurids 1470:Eldiguzids 1440:Shabankara 1414:990/1–1117 1158:Zarmihrids 1078:Fratarakas 1032:Atropatene 970:652–625 BC 960:678–550 BC 549:Zarmihrids 273:Ardashir I 254:Shahanshah 239:Government 194:(official) 174:(official) 133:Khosrow II 129: 620 17723:Couronian 17361:Ethiopian 17349:Manchukuo 17304:Brazilian 17150:Ghaznavid 17120:Srivijaya 17071:Trebizond 17056:Byzantine 17038:North Sea 17033:Norwegian 17021:Almoravid 17004:Ilkhanate 16974:Majapahit 16947:Muromachi 16856:Solomonic 16841:Ethiopian 16755:Caliphate 16688:Aragonese 16516:Ptolemaic 16158:Mythology 16064:Calendars 16054:Astronomy 15963:Education 15872:Georgians 15857:Assyrians 15852:Armenians 15778:Languages 15670:companies 15633:Transport 15613:Petroleum 15398:Companies 15337:President 15324:Officials 15258:Terrorism 15207:Air Force 15151:Elections 15089:Provinces 15084:Mountains 14994:Geography 14914:languages 14652:1925–1979 14580:Afsharid 14541:1370–1925 14529:Chobanid 14423:Saffarid 14375:Rashidun 14343:Sasanian 14324:Kings of 14316:Parthian 14292:Seleucid 14233:Scythian 14193:Kassites 14177:Akkadian 13939:Khuzistan 13881:Balasagan 13876:Asoristan 13851:Abarshahr 13619:Cuneiform 13495:Languages 13304:Acheulean 13191:Babylonia 13128:Euphrates 13078:Geography 12937:Chaldeans 12854:Phoenicia 12792:Karduniaš 12520:Qarinvand 12391:Glassware 12386:Education 12083:ECAI.org 11869:Zarinkoob 11526:, Brill, 11480:(2005) . 11347:"Avarayr" 10743:0013-8266 9371:, or the 9094:Bury 1958 8761:Frye 1993 8601:Frye 1993 8562:Histories 8505:, p. 293. 8458:Frye 1993 8410:Frye 1993 8386:Frye 1993 8371:Haug 2019 8359:Frye 2005 8347:Frye 2005 8299:Frye 2005 7898:1076-156X 7767:, Greek: 7741:Iranshahr 7732:ایران‌شهر 7722:ʾylʾnštry 7710:ʾyrʾnštry 7694:ʾylʾnštr' 7600:Peroz III 7575:644: The 7561:641: The 7541:Civil war 7539:628–632: 7513:Heraclius 7481:Hormizd V 7411:Khosrow I 7379:received 7342:Armenians 7223:Shapur II 7193:215–271: 7066:Pumbedita 7011:In Europe 6917:Scythians 6889:Scythians 6878:Asoristan 6862:Palmyrene 6858:Nabataean 6834:Khuzestan 6740:reign of 6625:Theotokos 6609:Nestorius 6515:Shahnameh 6417:Gahambars 6402:with the 6359:, son of 6279:Vishtaspa 6275:Zoroaster 6231:Ruins of 6148:Hormizd I 6135:khvedodah 6120:). Under 6016:Bahram II 6012:Zurvanite 5843:Saint Len 5789:squinches 5772:Asoristan 5768:Ctesiphon 5756:Firuzabad 5678:sculpture 5611:Shahnameh 5603:Aristotle 5563:Khosrau I 5503:Education 5464:Christian 5367:(priests) 5261:Dailamite 5214:Asoristan 5182:Ctesiphon 5144:Khosrau I 5136:Shahnameh 4982:(Chinese 4976:Peroz III 4952:Silk Road 4721:conquered 4359:Abarshahr 4255:Asoristan 4133:caliphate 4056:) mint; " 3976:civil war 3972:Jerusalem 3964:Kavadh II 3932:Dastagerd 3916:Bosphorus 3864:from the 3842:Heraclius 3780:Jerusalem 3776:Heraclius 3664:Shahnameh 3613:Sebasteia 3578:Justin II 3571:Lazic War 3563:Khosrow I 3532:Khosrow I 3524:Khosrow I 3407:Khuzestan 3395:Miskawayh 3322:Plate of 3288:Kidarites 3181:Bahram IV 3052:Kidarites 3044:Shapur II 3018:Shapur II 2999:Ctesiphon 2991:Grumbates 2971:Shapur II 2964:Silk Road 2937:Shapur II 2918:Shapur II 2882:Zabdicene 2787:Bahram II 2727:(300–500) 2710:Palmyrene 2653:Euphrates 2558:Chorasmia 2515:Ctesiphon 2460:Firuzabad 2406:Firuzabad 2395:Darabgerd 2220:aryānšahr 2159:With the 1770:1925–1979 1760:1789–1925 1733:1751–1794 1723:1736–1796 1713:1722–1729 1701:1501–1736 1674:1468–1508 1664:1406–1468 1644:1370–1507 1634:1359–1596 1630:Mar'ashis 1624:1349–1504 1614:1335–1357 1604:1337–1376 1600:Sarbadars 1594:1337–1376 1584:1335–1393 1574:1335–1357 1564:1256–1335 1554:1244–1396 1544:1236–1537 1534:1223-1306 1524:1184-1597 1514:1155–1231 1504:1155–1424 1494:1148–1282 1484:1141–1319 1474:1135–1225 1464:1077–1231 1454:1037–1194 1444:1030–1355 1434:1029–1236 1424:1008–1141 1270:Justanids 1240:Bavandids 1108:Characene 870:1500–1155 857:2400–2150 847:2400–1700 834:2550-2020 794:3100–2200 781:3200–2700 771:3400–2000 718:6000–5000 357:Civil war 221:Mazdakism 184:Religion 158:(226–637) 155:Ctesiphon 150:(224–226) 18:Sassanian 17703:Japanese 17666:Scottish 17646:American 17638:Colonial 17567:Imperial 17535:Moroccan 17471:Japanese 17449:Afsharid 17308:Burmese 17294:Austrian 17249:Later Le 17224:Early Le 17209:Venetian 17135:Tiwanaku 17048:Hellenic 17011:Moroccan 16942:Kamakura 16932:Japanese 16915:Saffarid 16868:Georgian 16782:Chalukya 16760:Rashidun 16750:Calakmul 16718:Bruneian 16597:Haryanka 16575:Sasanian 16570:Parthian 16521:Bactrian 16511:Seleucid 16491:Goguryeo 16469:Egyptian 16403:Assyrian 16393:Akkadian 16384:Colonies 16319:Category 16212:football 16203:Scouting 16113:Iranians 16103:Folklore 15899:Religion 15811:Georgian 15791:Armenian 15652:shipping 15647:railways 15637:airlines 15603:Industry 15468:Taxation 15282:Councils 15198:Military 15113:Politics 15094:Wildlife 15059:Caucasus 14941:Persians 14868:See also 14692:Iranian 14659:Pahlavi 14572:Safavid 14548:Timurid 14451:977–1432 14431:Ziyarid 14407:Tahirid 14399:Samanid 14391:Abbasid 14383:Umayyad 14368:632–1090 14185:Lullubi 14169:Elamite 14035:Suristan 14020:Sakastan 13954:Khwarazm 13908:Garmekan 13886:Dihistan 13765:Academia 13719:Religion 13588:Urartian 13583:Sumerian 13568:Parthian 13503:Akkadian 13476:Sasanian 13466:Parthian 13461:Seleucid 13411:Simurrum 13401:Akkadian 13334:Khiamian 13324:Natufian 13236:Simurrum 13221:Kassites 13216:Hittites 13171:Adiabene 12878:Arameans 12872:Damascus 12843:Arameans 12797:Kassites 12785:Hurrians 12580:Category 12515:Mikalids 12495:Dabuyids 12381:Dressing 12303:Timeline 12220:Archived 12208:Archived 12176:Archived 12135:Archived 12123:Archived 12111:Archived 12089:Archived 12051:Archived 11991:(1868), 11345:(1987). 11334:(eds.), 11311:(1991), 11075:"Mazdak" 10976:(2008). 10921:(2018). 10897:(1958). 10825:(eds.): 9917:, 1995, 9375:, vol. 3 9292:Archived 9209:, p. 117 8497:Barnes, 8485:, p. 18. 8481:Barnes, 8226:, p. 305 8147:(1950). 7607:See also 7581:Khorasan 7579:conquer 7534:Kavad II 7523:Kavad II 7398:and the 7315:Armenian 7283:Bahram V 7189:Valerian 7175:Shapur I 7080:In India 6961:Germanic 6913:Sakastan 6905:Bactrian 6897:Khorasan 6827:Scythian 6732:Parthian 6713:Language 6698:Khorasan 6686:Margiana 6678:Buddhism 6670:Buddhist 6520:Ferdowsi 6500:Ahunavar 6460:Parthian 6411:Visperad 6361:Shapur I 6345:Parthian 6338:Seleucid 6241:Parthian 6144:Bahram I 6122:Shapur I 6064:Gushnasp 6036:Parthian 6008:Shapur I 5945:Religion 5916:Sogdians 5871:Shushtar 5760:Bishapur 5742:Parthian 5698:Assyrian 5686:brocades 5651:France. 5400:wuzurgan 5342:Mihragan 5334:hazarbed 5329:hazarbed 5241:deported 5132:Ferdowsi 5090:chatrang 5054:Shapur I 4984:neh-shie 4969:Sogdiana 4964:Göktürks 4940:Chang'an 4914:Jingzhou 4855:Axumites 4818:Dagestan 4803:and the 4793:Shapur I 4764:Nishapur 4719:swiftly 4678:Valerian 4515:and the 4484:Infantry 4415:spahbeds 4410:marzbans 4406:Caucasus 4402:marzbans 4398:marzbans 4387:Wuzurgan 4371:Adiabene 4349:and the 4275:shahrdar 4242:Bahram V 4234:Mikalids 4205:'s line. 4102:Khorasan 4052:. BCRA ( 4024:Muhammad 4016:Abu Bakr 3924:Rhahzadh 3906:forces, 3713:Coin of 3617:Melitene 3605:besieged 3549:Emperor 3536:taxation 3470:Iberians 3421:peasants 3381:general 3379:Mihranid 3351:Nishapur 3347:Khorasan 3326:hunting 3284:Nishapur 3219:Exilarch 3211:al-Hirah 3203:Bahram V 3160:and the 3126:Bahram V 3095:apostasy 2983:Pakistan 2941:in utero 2916:Bust of 2902:Bedouins 2898:Sakastan 2878:Corduene 2874:Aghdznik 2866:Ingilene 2849:Nusaybin 2841:Adiabene 2818:Danubian 2810:Galerius 2783:Bahram I 2772:Bahram I 2741:Nishapur 2737:Bishapur 2706:Anatolia 2694:Bishapur 2682:Valerian 2645:Rhesaina 2594:Adiabene 2582:Shapur I 2542:Khorasan 2534:Sakastan 2491:Valerian 2215:Parthian 2210:ērānšahr 2201:Iranians 2118:Caucasus 2028:Iranians 2005:Ērānšahr 1884:Timeline 1842:Monarchs 1420:Kakuyids 1410:Annazids 1404:977–1186 1394:959–1095 1384:955–1070 1374:934–1062 1360:Ilyasids 1354:930–1090 1344:919–1062 1314:861–1003 1264:665–1598 1244:651–1349 1230:Dabuyids 1224:750–1258 883:1500–500 863:Kassites 821:2700–539 811:3100-675 677:BCE / BC 641:a series 639:Part of 247:monarchy 228:Buddhism 131:, under 55:Ērānšahr 17770:largest 17765:Empires 17745:Swedish 17740:Spanish 17735:Russian 17698:Italian 17673:Chinese 17661:English 17656:British 17651:Belgian 17626:Vietnam 17616:Tay son 17562:Tsarist 17557:Russian 17552:Ottoman 17518:Dzungar 17513:Khoshut 17486:Mexican 17481:Maratha 17464:Pahlavi 17444:Safavid 17439:Iranian 17366:Haitian 17329:Chinese 17289:Ashanti 17261:Wagadou 17187:Eastern 17182:Western 17165:Timurid 17125:Tibetan 17115:Songhai 17105:Serbian 17026:Almohad 17016:Idrisid 16920:Samanid 16910:Tahirid 16905:Iranian 16883:Kannauj 16863:Genoese 16799:Chinese 16792:Eastern 16787:Western 16775:Fatimid 16770:Abbasid 16765:Umayyad 16738:Burmese 16698:Ayyubid 16693:Angevin 16663:Xianbei 16651:Eastern 16646:Western 16592:Magadha 16555:Iranian 16548:Xiongnu 16533:Hittite 16442:Chinese 16430:Kassite 16379:Ancient 16371:Empires 16262:Ey Iran 16210: ( 16170: ( 16146:student 16144: ( 16140: ( 16125: ( 16093:Cuisine 16078:Fashion 16066: ( 16046: ( 16031: ( 16017:Culture 15965: ( 15929: ( 15914: ( 15887:Turkmen 15839: ( 15830:Peoples 15801:Kurdish 15757:Society 15658:Tourism 15635: ( 15625: ( 15615: ( 15595: ( 15588:Defense 15558: ( 15548:Sectors 15535: ( 15495: ( 15400: ( 15381:General 15370:Economy 15260: ( 15230: ( 15200: ( 15153: ( 15138: ( 15124:General 15079:Islands 15015:largest 15005:Borders 14474:Seljuk 14466:Ghurid 14415:Alavid 14225:Median 14217:Urartu 14139:Ancient 14119:History 14015:Parthia 14000:Paradan 13970:Makuran 13871:Armenia 13861:Albania 13751:Prayers 13736:Deities 13700:Looting 13543:Kassite 13538:Hurrian 13533:Hittite 13523:Elamite 13518:Eblaite 13513:Aramaic 13508:Amorite 13431:Kassite 13406:Gutians 13388:History 13353:Samarra 13349:Hassuna 13319:Zarzian 13241:Subartu 13231:Mitanni 13196:Chaldea 13186:Assyria 13159:Ancient 12780:Mitanni 12748:Amorite 12727:Amorite 12701:Gutians 12541:Economy 12529:Related 12500:Bavands 12371:Coinage 12354:Culture 12312:Dynasty 12184:Radio 4 11893:(ed.). 11886:" 11884:History 11252:7 March 10848:(ed.). 10683:30 June 10661:30 June 10049:30 June 9606:21 June 9340:Durant. 8740:"XIV.1" 7940:1170959 7577:Muslims 7563:Muslims 7500:Dhu-Qar 7487:Vistahm 7442:starts. 7334:Peroz I 7248:Armenia 7244:Georgia 7111:Gujarat 7021:Derbent 6969:Sabaean 6933:Paratan 6901:Sogdian 6854:Semitic 6748:Aramaic 6694:Babylon 6690:Isfahan 6682:Bactria 6657:Armenia 6649:Arabian 6645:Bahrain 6562:Abraham 6490:Avestan 6486:Pahlavi 6330:Armenia 6265:Parthia 6211:Kavad I 6087:Avestan 5845:, Paris 5839:simurgh 5811:Economy 5770:in the 5690:damasks 5682:pottery 5583:simurgh 5518:Society 5498:Culture 5478:status. 5443:chattel 5410:Slavery 5365:Asronan 5323:darigan 5164:Society 5157:Pahlavi 5124:Borzuya 5062:Kushans 4980:Narsieh 4928:Luoyang 4864:Red Sea 4814:Derbent 4801:Khazars 4628:in his 4584:aswaran 4558:Cavalry 4506:Asvaran 4424:Persian 4393:marzban 4317:spahbed 4285:shahrab 4145:Hamadan 4141:Isfahan 3992:Estakhr 3926:in the 3893:Romania 3887:of the 3866:Khazars 3723:Balkans 3700:Armenia 3684:Maurice 3590:Yerevan 3555:Armenia 3544:dehqans 3505:Lakhmid 3477:Perozes 3438:Kavad I 3391:Kavad I 3324:Peroz I 3313:Bactria 3309:Peroz I 3275:(484). 3267:led by 3235:Armenia 3227:Bukhara 3146:Kavad I 3138:Safavid 3111:Armenia 3048:Bactria 3036:obverse 3034:on the 3024:symbol 2949:Singara 2886:Hakkâri 2870:Sophene 2845:Erzurum 2678:Antioch 2666:denarii 2657:Meshike 2637:Nisibis 2633:Carrhae 2625:Bactria 2590:Armenia 2578:Makuran 2562:Bahrain 2525:as his 2472:Susiana 2468:Isfahan 2414:victory 2383:Gochihr 2368:Estakhr 2284:History 2020: 1610:Injuids 1364:932–968 1334:889–929 1304:819–999 1294:821–873 1254:651–760 1234:642–760 1214:661–750 1204:632-661 1192:CE / AD 1152:224–651 1142:125–300 1098:Elymais 1042:–226 AD 933:720-670 929:Saparda 923:750-521 919:Zikirti 913:850–616 909:Mannaea 903:860–590 893:911–609 827:Marhaši 381:• 375:633–651 368:• 362:628–632 355:• 349:602–628 342:• 336:526–532 316:• 276:(first) 207:Judaism 147:Istakhr 140:Capital 95:Simurgh 63:224–651 17708:Mongol 17693:German 17688:French 17678:Danish 17621:Dainam 17596:Tongan 17584:Somali 17579:Sokoto 17545:'Alawi 17523:Kalmyk 17503:Mongol 17496:Second 17476:Korean 17427:Mughal 17417:Indian 17400:German 17393:Second 17383:French 17376:Second 17312:Second 17284:Afghan 17276:Modern 17202:Kyrgyz 17197:Uighur 17192:Second 17172:Turkic 17140:Toltec 17076:Epirus 17061:Nicaea 16984:Mongol 16937:Yamato 16873:Huetar 16731:Second 16668:Rouran 16617:Shunga 16612:Maurya 16587:Kushan 16560:Median 16538:Hunnic 16496:Harsha 16329:Portal 16088:Cinema 16070:Nowruz 15967:higher 15841:abroad 15806:Hebrew 15712:Places 15608:Mining 15433:Energy 15010:Cities 14926:Aryans 14645:Modern 14596:Qajar 14439:Buyid 14107:topics 14030:Spahan 14025:Sogdia 13990:Meshan 13959:Lazica 13944:Kirman 13928:Iberia 13913:Gurgan 13578:Sutean 13553:Median 13548:Luwian 13528:Gutian 13416:Ur III 13329:Nemrik 13266:Cities 13261:Urartu 13211:Hamazi 13206:Gutium 13181:Armani 13133:Tigris 13086:Modern 12563:anērān 12376:Crowns 12182:BBC – 12047:Livius 12020:5 July 12001:5 July 11978: 11953: 11938: 11921: 11775: 11734: 11708: 11698: 11668: 11647: 11628: 11610: 11592: 11575: 11548: 11530: 11509: 11490: 11467: 11431: 11408: 11381: 11321: 11289: 11271: 11229: 11209: 11187: 11167: 11146: 11112: 11087: 11062: 11041: 11018: 10986: 10963: 10933: 10907: 10883: 10862: 10798: 10777: 10759: 10741: 10644:, 118. 10619:. 2012 10593:. 1990 10567:. 2009 10495: 10345: 10166:"Seal" 10020: 9993: 9969: 9945: 9921: 9578: 9507: 9453: 9410: 9156:passim 8814: 8707: 8682:8 July 8650: 8623: 8525: 8279: 8127: 8093: 8070: 7985: 7938: 7896: 7739:terms 7396:Iberia 7234:vassal 7213:Narseh 7185:Edessa 7166:Avesta 7096:Bombay 7058:Talmud 7042:courts 6957:Slavic 6941:Makran 6929:Kirman 6874:Malays 6850:Strabo 6846:Meshan 6792:Gilaki 6772:Adhari 6742:Narseh 6707:Shmuel 6637:Iberia 6611:, the 6594:Syriac 6482:Avesta 6471:Avesta 6423:Nowruz 6395:Gathic 6357:Narseh 6267:, the 6207:spring 6191:autumn 6179:Nowruz 6156:herbad 6098:Kartir 6079:Tansar 6049:herbad 6044:Tansar 6038:King, 6001:Mazdak 5993:Avesta 5968:Under 5939:Tajiks 5869:, and 5730:Persia 5630:Syriac 5615:Athens 5551:, and 5482:years. 5338:Nowruz 5265:Gilani 5253:Latins 5234:Avesta 5230:Meshan 5149:Kalila 5081:, the 4880:Vahriz 4875:Abraha 4826:Russia 4743:, and 4657:, and 4570:, Iran 4551:nāvbed 4530:Sana'a 4526:Vahriz 4498:Paygan 4369:, and 4367:Iberia 4363:Kirman 4335:Masudi 4302:vizier 4291:mowbed 4288:and a 4222:dehqan 4192:Jamasp 4177:Jamasp 4157:Kharaj 4149:dhimmi 4143:, and 4114:Bahram 3949:Queen 3940:Diyala 3904:Slavic 3885:murals 3858:Ganzak 3852:, and 3850:Shahin 3830:, and 3806:, and 3772:Shahin 3757:Phocas 3731:Spahan 3688:Narses 3632:Vahriz 3598:Iberia 3559:Anglon 3501:Sittas 3497:Satala 3466:Lazica 3417:Jamasp 3411:Jamasp 3399:Mazdak 3375:Balash 3363:Sukhra 3328:argali 3134:Nizami 3091:heresy 3087:Avesta 3072:Tamgha 3022:Tamgha 3012:Early 3003:Jovian 2995:Julian 2880:, and 2853:Tigris 2806:Narseh 2780:Kartir 2768:Jewish 2761:Samuel 2686:Edessa 2570:Kushan 2538:Gorgan 2499:Edessa 2476:Mesene 2464:Kerman 2307:, and 2274:Persis 2256:, the 2179:, and 2148:, and 2122:Levant 2120:, the 996:Sogdia 899:Urartu 643:on the 291:(last) 258: 244:Feudal 44: 17758:Lists 17713:Omani 17683:Dutch 17589:Isaaq 17540:Saadi 17508:Oirat 17491:First 17459:Qajar 17388:First 17371:First 17344:China 17317:Third 17177:First 17130:Tikal 17081:Morea 17051:Roman 16969:Latin 16964:Khmer 16959:Kanem 16925:Buyid 16851:Zagwe 16846:Aksum 16836:Chola 16743:First 16726:First 16713:Bornu 16708:Benin 16703:Aztec 16641:Roman 16622:Gupta 16607:Nanda 16543:White 16223:Music 16208:Sport 16138:Media 16123:Islam 16059:Blogs 16003:Women 15958:Crime 15946:Other 15907:Islam 15877:Kurds 15642:metro 15560:fruit 15518:Setad 14588:Zand 14498:Kart 14045:Yemen 14040:Turan 13985:Media 13980:Mazun 13918:Harev 13891:Egypt 13664:Music 13614:Akitu 13471:Roman 13363:Ubaid 13358:Halaf 13256:Tukri 13251:Sumer 13246:Suhum 13226:Media 13176:Akkad 13014:Syria 12890:Chal- 12868:Aram- 12743:Larsa 12536:Roads 12416:Women 12406:Music 12336:Kayus 11889:. 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