1263:. Although the electrons in the valence band are always moving around, a completely full valence band is inert, not conducting any current. If an electron is taken out of the valence band, then the trajectory that the electron would normally have taken is now missing its charge. For the purposes of electric current, this combination of the full valence band, minus the electron, can be converted into a picture of a completely empty band containing a positively charged particle that moves in the same way as the electron. Combined with the
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1015:. To get the impure atoms embedded in the silicon wafer, the wafer is first put in a 1,100 degree Celsius chamber. The atoms are injected in and eventually diffuse with the silicon. After the process is completed and the silicon has reached room temperature, the doping process is done and the semiconducting
482:
can display a range of different useful properties, such as passing current more easily in one direction than the other, showing variable resistance, and having sensitivity to light or heat. Because the electrical properties of a semiconductor material can be modified by doping and by the application
1505:
elements. Group III elements all contain three valence electrons, causing them to function as acceptors when used to dope silicon. When an acceptor atom replaces a silicon atom in the crystal, a vacant state (an electron "hole") is created, which can move around the lattice and function as a charge
1267:
effective mass of the electrons at the top of the valence band, we arrive at a picture of a positively charged particle that responds to electric and magnetic fields just as a normal positively charged particle would do in a vacuum, again with some positive effective mass. This particle is called a
1345:
As the probability that electrons and holes meet together is proportional to the product of their numbers, the product is in the steady-state nearly constant at a given temperature, providing that there is no significant electric field (which might "flush" carriers of both types, or move them from
1722:
as due to the extreme "structure sensitive" behavior of semiconductors, whose properties change dramatically based on tiny amounts of impurities. Commercially pure materials of the 1920s containing varying proportions of trace contaminants produced differing experimental results. This spurred the
1800:
In the years preceding World War II, infrared detection and communications devices prompted research into lead-sulfide and lead-selenide materials. These devices were used for detecting ships and aircraft, for infrared rangefinders, and for voice communication systems. The point-contact crystal
643:. This results in an exchange of electrons and holes between the differently doped semiconducting materials. The n-doped germanium would have an excess of electrons, and the p-doped germanium would have an excess of holes. The transfer occurs until an equilibrium is reached by a process called
888:, and other electronic devices. Semiconductors for ICs are mass-produced. To create an ideal semiconducting material, chemical purity is paramount. Any small imperfection can have a drastic effect on how the semiconducting material behaves due to the scale at which the materials are used.
1144:, containing an electron only part of the time. If the state is always occupied with an electron, then it is inert, blocking the passage of other electrons via that state. The energies of these quantum states are critical since a state is partially filled only if its energy is near the
1555:
The history of the understanding of semiconductors begins with experiments on the electrical properties of materials. The properties of the time-temperature coefficient of resistance, rectification, and light-sensitivity were observed starting in the early 19th century.
903:) interfere with the semiconducting properties of the material. Crystalline faults are a major cause of defective semiconductor devices. The larger the crystal, the more difficult it is to achieve the necessary perfection. Current mass production processes use crystal
1383:
The probability of meeting is increased by carrier traps – impurities or dislocations which can trap an electron or hole and hold it until a pair is completed. Such carrier traps are sometimes purposely added to reduce the time needed to reach the steady-state.
1421:
A 1 cm specimen of a metal or semiconductor has the order of 10 atoms. In a metal, every atom donates at least one free electron for conduction, thus 1 cm of metal contains on the order of 10 free electrons, whereas a 1 cm sample of pure germanium at
1167:
with few energy states to occupy. Importantly, an insulator can be made to conduct by increasing its temperature: heating provides energy to promote some electrons across the band gap, inducing partially filled states in both the band of states beneath the band gap
1346:
neighbor regions containing more of them to meet together) or externally driven pair generation. The product is a function of the temperature, as the probability of getting enough thermal energy to produce a pair increases with temperature, being approximately
1801:
detector became vital for microwave radio systems since available vacuum tube devices could not serve as detectors above about 4000 MHz; advanced radar systems relied on the fast response of crystal detectors. Considerable research and development of
1202:. When undoped, these have electrical conductivity nearer to that of electrical insulators, however they can be doped (making them as useful as semiconductors). Semi-insulators find niche applications in micro-electronics, such as substrates for
1232:) but they can move around for some time. The actual concentration of electrons is typically very dilute, and so (unlike in metals) it is possible to think of the electrons in the conduction band of a semiconductor as a sort of classical
1904:
about 1941 when a specimen was found to be light-sensitive, with a sharp boundary between p-type impurity at one end and n-type at the other. A slice cut from the specimen at the p–n boundary developed a voltage when exposed to light.
1740:
in 1883, using a metal plate coated with selenium and a thin layer of gold; the device became commercially useful in photographic light meters in the 1930s. Point-contact microwave detector rectifiers made of lead sulfide were used by
663:
A difference in electric potential on a semiconducting material would cause it to leave thermal equilibrium and create a non-equilibrium situation. This introduces electrons and holes to the system, which interact via a process called
572:
A few of the properties of semiconductor materials were observed throughout the mid-19th and first decades of the 20th century. The first practical application of semiconductors in electronics was the 1904 development of the
2111:
1769:
observed similar light emission in 1922, but at the time the effect had no practical use. Power rectifiers, using copper oxide and selenium, were developed in the 1920s and became commercially important as an alternative to
1457:
The materials chosen as suitable dopants depend on the atomic properties of both the dopant and the material to be doped. In general, dopants that produce the desired controlled changes are classified as either electron
526:. Apart from doping, the conductivity of a semiconductor can be improved by increasing its temperature. This is contrary to the behavior of a metal, in which conductivity decreases with an increase in temperature.
2036:
855:
in a variety of proportions. These compounds share with better-known semiconductors the properties of intermediate conductivity and a rapid variation of conductivity with temperature, as well as occasional
1506:
carrier. Group V elements have five valence electrons, which allows them to act as a donor; substitution of these atoms for silicon creates an extra free electron. Therefore, a silicon crystal doped with
2280:
1119:
Semiconductors are defined by their unique electric conductive behavior, somewhere between that of a conductor and an insulator. The differences between these materials can be understood in terms of the
400:
is a material that is between the conductor and insulator in ability to conduct electical current. In many cases their conducting properties may be altered in useful ways by introducing impurities ("
1179:
A pure semiconductor, however, is not very useful, as it is neither a very good insulator nor a very good conductor. However, one important feature of semiconductors (and some insulators, known as
557:" doping. The semiconductor materials used in electronic devices are doped under precise conditions to control the concentration and regions of p- and n-type dopants. A single semiconductor device
2229:
797:. Silicon and germanium are used here effectively because they have 4 valence electrons in their outermost shell, which gives them the ability to gain or lose electrons equally at the same time.
1228:
The partial filling of the states at the bottom of the conduction band can be understood as adding electrons to that band. The electrons do not stay indefinitely (due to the natural thermal
1726:
Devices using semiconductors were at first constructed based on empirical knowledge before semiconductor theory provided a guide to the construction of more capable and reliable devices.
668:. Whenever thermal equilibrium is disturbed in a semiconducting material, the number of holes and electrons changes. Such disruptions can occur as a result of a temperature difference or
1176:). An (intrinsic) semiconductor has a band gap that is smaller than that of an insulator and at room temperature, significant numbers of electrons can be excited to cross the band gap.
3461:
2454:
Dong, Renhao; Han, Peng; Arora, Himani; Ballabio, Marco; Karakus, Melike; Zhang, Zhe; Shekhar, Chandra; Adler, Peter; Petkov, Petko St.; Erbe, Artur; Mannsfeld, Stefan C. B. (2018).
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1932:
made from germanium and silicon, but he failed to build such a working device, before eventually using germanium to invent the point-contact transistor. In France, during the war,
383:
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with electric fields. Doping and gating move either the conduction or valence band much closer to the Fermi level and greatly increase the number of partially filled states.
647:, which causes the migrating electrons from the n-type to come in contact with the migrating holes from the p-type. The result of this process is a narrow strip of immobile
2795:
1842:
Detector and power rectifiers could not amplify a signal. Many efforts were made to develop a solid-state amplifier and were successful in developing a device called the
2741:
1888:
in 1938 demonstrated a solid-state amplifier using a structure resembling the control grid of a vacuum tube; although the device displayed power gain, it had a
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610:
filled, preventing the entire flow of new electrons. Several developed techniques allow semiconducting materials to behave like conducting materials, such as
1664:
996:
is located on the cathode, which causes it to be hit by the positively charged ions that are released from the plasma. The result is silicon that is etched
1718:
Agreement between theoretical predictions (based on developing quantum mechanics) and experimental results was sometimes poor. This was later explained by
626:. These refer to the excess or shortage of electrons, respectively. A balanced number of electrons would cause a current to flow throughout the material.
2238:
1723:
development of improved material refining techniques, culminating in modern semiconductor refineries producing materials with parts-per-trillion purity.
1695:
stated that conductivity in semiconductors was due to minor concentrations of impurities. By 1931, the band theory of conduction had been established by
376:
1268:
hole, and the collection of holes in the valence band can again be understood in simple classical terms (as with the electrons in the conduction band).
537:. Doping greatly increases the number of charge carriers within the crystal. When a semiconductor is doped by Group V elements, they will behave like
3447:
1550:
1674:
classified solid materials like metals, insulators, and "variable conductors" in 1914 although his student Josef Weiss already introduced the term
684:
In certain semiconductors, excited electrons can relax by emitting light instead of producing heat. Controlling the semiconductor composition and
2822:
369:
3249:
3173:
860:. Such disordered materials lack the rigid crystalline structure of conventional semiconductors such as silicon. They are generally used in
1244:, and so these electrons respond to forces (electric field, magnetic field, etc.) much as they would in a vacuum, though with a different
1867:
1685:
1214:, can even be used as insulating materials for some applications, while being treated as wide-gap semiconductors for other applications.
864:
structures, which do not require material of higher electronic quality, being relatively insensitive to impurities and radiation damage.
1454:(an impurity) donates an extra 10 free electrons in the same volume and the electrical conductivity is increased by a factor of 10,000.
639:
occur when two differently doped semiconducting materials are joined. For example, a configuration could consist of p-doped and n-doped
3021:
1546:
2010:
672:, which can enter the system and create electrons and holes. The processes that create or annihilate electrons and holes are called
3131:"Experimentelle Beiträge Zur Elektronentheorie Aus dem Gebiet der Thermoelektrizität, Inaugural-Dissertation ... von J. Weiss, ..."
1322:
In some states, the generation and recombination of electron–hole pairs are in equipoise. The number of electron-hole pairs in the
1286:
strikes a semiconductor, it may excite an electron out of its energy level and consequently leave a hole. This process is known as
1663:, by observing a Hall effect with the reverse sign to that in metals, theorized that copper iodide had positive charge carriers.
1037:
1418:. By adding impurity to the pure semiconductors, the electrical conductivity may be varied by factors of thousands or millions.
2799:
2160:
1936:
had observed amplification between adjacent point contacts on a germanium base. After the war, Mataré's group announced their "
1155:
High conductivity in material comes from it having many partially filled states and much state delocalization. Metals are good
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1248:. Because the electrons behave like an ideal gas, one may also think about conduction in very simplistic terms such as the
1245:
673:
84:
1892:
of one cycle per second, too low for any practical applications, but an effective application of the available theory. At
2607:
872:
Almost all of today's electronic technology involves the use of semiconductors, with the most important aspect being the
3086:
Busch, G (1989). "Early history of the physics and chemistry of semiconductors-from doubts to fact in a hundred years".
2293:
1007:. This is the process that gives the semiconducting material its desired semiconducting properties. It is also known as
2061:
554:
546:
2748:
1900:
and A. Holden started investigating solid-state amplifiers in 1938. The first p–n junction in silicon was observed by
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3210:
3031:
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2441:
1203:
914:
There is a combination of processes that are used to prepare semiconducting materials for ICs. One process is called
1753:. However, it was somewhat unpredictable in operation and required manual adjustment for best performance. In 1906,
688:
allows for the manipulation of the emitted light's properties. These semiconductors are used in the construction of
2000:
1708:
1521:, dopants can be diffused into the semiconductor body by contact with gaseous compounds of the desired element, or
1518:
705:
59:
2934:
1625:
1533:
Some materials, when rapidly cooled to a glassy amorphous state, have semiconducting properties. These include B,
1593:
decreases when they are heated. This is contrary to the behavior of metallic substances such as copper. In 1839,
1497:
has four valence electrons that bond each silicon atom to its neighbors. In silicon, the most common dopants are
1111:
753:
840:
737:
35:
17:
1632:
found that a copper oxide layer on wires had rectification properties that ceased when the wires are cleaned.
483:
of electrical fields or light, devices made from semiconductors can be used for amplification, switching, and
1711:. By 1938, Boris Davydov had developed a theory of the copper-oxide rectifier, identifying the effect of the
1327:
1582:
498:
The conductivity of silicon is increased by adding a small amount (of the order of 1 in 10) of pentavalent (
2913:
1188:
615:
1490:, which exists due to thermal excitation at a much lower concentration compared to the majority carrier.
891:
A high degree of crystalline perfection is also required, since faults in the crystal structure (such as
828:
729:
41:
2990:
1594:
1581:
was the first to notice that semiconductors exhibit special feature such that experiment concerning an
1195:
1149:
1097:
1055:
2826:
2456:"High-mobility band-like charge transport in a semiconducting two-dimensional metal–organic framework"
1597:
reported observation of a voltage between a solid and a liquid electrolyte, when struck by light, the
953:
The etching is the next process that is required. The part of the silicon that was not covered by the
316:
2955:
Hulls, K.; McMillan, P. W. (May 22, 1972). "Amorphous semiconductors: a review of current theories".
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Arik, Mehmet, and
Stanton Weaver. "Chip-scale thermal management of high-brightness LED packages."
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between 100 and 300 mm (3.9 and 11.8 in) in diameter, grown as cylinders and sliced into
733:
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For partial filling at the top of the valence band, it is helpful to introduce the concept of an
1229:
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1133:
1105:
1085:
644:
523:
522:) atoms. This process is known as doping, and the resulting semiconductors are known as doped or
50:
957:
layer from the previous step can now be etched. The main process typically used today is called
2005:
1921:
1883:
1463:
1412:(pure) semiconductor varies its level of conductivity. Doped semiconductors are referred to as
1398:
The conductivity of semiconductors may easily be modified by introducing impurities into their
1393:
1335:
1300:
1184:
1008:
1004:
611:
538:
409:
401:
351:
3276:
2891:
2698:
807:, groups 12 and 16, groups 14 and 16, and between different group-14 elements, e.g.
487:. The term semiconductor is also used to describe materials used in high capacity, medium- to
27:
Material that has electrical conductivity intermediate to that of a conductor and an insulator
2087:
1742:
1729:
1578:
817:
741:
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Semiconductors with high thermal conductivity can be used for heat dissipation and improving
2409:
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3439:
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3095:
2638:
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2467:
2317:
Wang, Yangang; Dai, Xiaoping; Liu, Guoyou; Wu, Yibo; Jones, Yun Li and Steve (2016-10-05),
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1633:
1613:
1571:
1563:
1156:
1137:
713:
689:
479:
326:
31:
3144:
1736:
over a beam of light in 1880. A working solar cell, of low efficiency, was constructed by
1684:
published a theory of the movement of electrons through atomic lattices in 1928. In 1930,
1140:(extending through the material), however in order to transport electrons a state must be
8:
2518:
1963:
1955:
1851:
1704:
1696:
1647:
demonstrated the deflection of flowing charge carriers by an applied magnetic field, the
1640:
1598:
1241:
1016:
993:
908:
857:
665:
578:
460:. After silicon, gallium arsenide is the second-most common semiconductor and is used in
453:
3099:
2642:
2576:
2563:
Cutler, M.; Mott, N. (1969). "Observation of
Anderson Localization in an Electron Gas".
2471:
3525:
3357:
3111:
2972:
2848:
2654:
2499:
2391:
1987:
1855:
1700:
1690:
1644:
1624:, although this effect had been discovered much earlier by Peter Munck af Rosenschöld (
1366:
1283:
970:
873:
586:
488:
473:
469:
942:. This process is what creates the patterns on the circuit in the integrated circuit.
3579:
3471:
3420:
3402:
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3315:
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2612:
2542:
2491:
2483:
2437:
2395:
2381:
2326:
2195:
2067:
1889:
1534:
1482:. The n and p type designations indicate which charge carrier acts as the material's
1331:
1253:
1051:
943:
915:
836:
782:
549:" doping. When a semiconductor is doped by Group III elements, they will behave like
534:
484:
405:
2968:
2503:
2455:
2377:
2168:
1933:
777:
A large number of elements and compounds have semiconducting properties, including:
134:
3103:
2964:
2658:
2646:
2580:
2475:
2373:
2015:
1951:
1948:
1925:
1897:
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1827:
1790:
1750:
1712:
1602:
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1522:
1487:
1483:
1211:
1207:
1012:
966:
939:
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821:
804:
766:
709:
685:
603:
562:
449:
341:
330:
311:
3429:
2192:
Electrons and holes in semiconductors: with applications to transistor electronics
1585:
emerged with much stronger result when applying semiconductors, in 1821. In 1833,
565:
between these regions are responsible for the useful electronic behavior. Using a
107:
98:
3130:
3062:
1967:
1831:
1819:
1758:
1629:
1586:
1399:
1303:
demands that these recombination events, in which an electron loses an amount of
1173:
978:
927:
919:
881:
808:
800:
566:
530:
356:
46:
2319:"Status and Trend of Power Semiconductor Module Packaging for Electric Vehicles"
1096:; however, in semiconductors the bands are near enough to the Fermi level to be
143:
125:
116:
3589:
2602:
2520:
Charge transport in two-dimensional materials and their electronic applications
2365:
1737:
1590:
1293:
1163:, by contrast, have few partially filled states, their Fermi levels sit within
962:
958:
950:
layer to create a chemical change that generates the patterns for the circuit.
900:
786:
652:
635:
581:
receivers. Developments in quantum physics led in turn to the invention of the
457:
413:
336:
179:
173:
167:
161:
155:
149:
2676:(9th ed.). India: Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited. pp. 7–10.
2479:
1805:
materials occurred during the war to develop detectors of consistent quality.
3604:
3563:
3278:
Advanced
Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century
3250:"1954: Morris Tanenbaum fabricates the first silicon transistor at Bell Labs"
2584:
2487:
2370:
2019 IEEE 7th
Workshop on Wide Bandgap Power Devices and Applications (WiPDA)
1402:. The process of adding controlled impurities to a semiconductor is known as
1260:
1223:
1121:
1101:
770:
425:
251:
242:
233:
224:
215:
206:
197:
188:
2318:
1636:
and
Richard Evans Day observed the photovoltaic effect in selenium in 1876.
1159:
and have many partially filled states with energies near their Fermi level.
569:, one can determine quickly whether a semiconductor sample is p- or n-type.
2495:
2294:"Electrical Property of Semiconductor - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
2063:
Submarine Power Cables: Design, Installation, Repair, Environmental
Aspects
1917:
1823:
1719:
1656:
1323:
1169:
717:
607:
296:
278:
269:
260:
3399:
The
Handbook on Optical Constants of Semiconductors: In Tables and Figures
1707:
developed models of the potential barrier and of the characteristics of a
1937:
1901:
1771:
1681:
1648:
1643:, which developed greatly in the first half of the 20th century. In 1878
1498:
1249:
1145:
1075:
1011:. The process introduces an impure atom to the system, which creates the
954:
947:
892:
693:
491:
as part of their insulation, and these materials are often plastic XLPE (
461:
437:
529:
The modern understanding of the properties of a semiconductor relies on
3312:
Handbook of
Semiconductor Nanostructures and Nanodevices (5-Volume Set)
1941:
1909:
1878:
1847:
1766:
1754:
1733:
1547:
Semiconductor device § History of semiconductor device development
1511:
1042:
997:
885:
582:
503:
465:
433:
79:
3174:"1901: Semiconductor Rectifiers Patented as "Cat's Whisker" Detectors"
2144:
1966:
were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a
1749:
using natural galena or other materials became a common device in the
1124:
for electrons, each of which may contain zero or one electron (by the
3329:
2650:
1995:
1959:
1893:
1786:
1617:
1236:, where the electrons fly around freely without being subject to the
1233:
1071:
935:
861:
852:
835:
The most common semiconducting materials are crystalline solids, but
794:
640:
445:
602:
Semiconductors in their natural state are poor conductors because a
3542:
2366:"Thermal Conductivity of Power Semiconductors—When Does It Matter?"
1981:
1970:
basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.
1652:
1609:
1606:
1537:, Ge, Se, and Te, and there are multiple theories to explain them.
1311:, be accompanied by the emission of thermal energy (in the form of
1308:
1164:
1093:
1054:
for a certain energy in the material listed. The shade follows the
848:
542:
499:
417:
1659:
in 1897 prompted theories of electron-based conduction in solids.
1559:
1046:
Filling of the electronic states in various types of materials at
803:, particularly between elements in groups 13 and 15, such as
408:. When two differently doped regions exist in the same crystal, a
71:
3508:
1802:
1680:(a semiconductor in modern meaning) in his Ph.D. thesis in 1910.
1621:
1612:
exhibit decreasing resistance when light falls on them. In 1874,
1502:
1494:
1451:
985:
981:
923:
844:
790:
762:
558:
515:
507:
472:, and others. Silicon is a critical element for fabricating most
441:
3380:
3049:
1240:. In most semiconductors, the conduction bands have a parabolic
1183:) is that their conductivity can be increased and controlled by
1782:
1334:
mechanisms of generation and recombination are governed by the
1316:
1312:
1304:
669:
519:
3415:
G. B. Abdullayev, T. D. Dzhafarov, S. Torstveit (Translator),
1639:
A unified explanation of these phenomena required a theory of
765:
crystals are the most common semiconducting materials used in
606:
requires the flow of electrons, and semiconductors have their
3535:
3530:
3513:
1794:
1757:
observed light emission when electric current passed through
1628:) writing for the Annalen der Physik und Chemie in 1835, and
1507:
1067:
989:
974:
931:
904:
511:
429:
3469:
2629:
J. W. Allen (1960). "Gallium
Arsenide as a semi-insulator".
2434:
Semiconductor Materials: An Introduction to Basic Principles
1715:
and the importance of minority carriers and surface states.
3377:
2721:"Difference Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors"
1136:
arises due to the presence of electrons in states that are
321:
758:
3133:
Druck- und Verlags-Gesellschaft – via Google Books.
2323:
Modeling and Simulation for Electric Vehicle Applications
1027:
867:
648:
421:
3309:
3137:
3050:
Lidia Łukasiak & Andrzej Jakubowski (January 2010).
1940:" amplifier only shortly after Bell Labs announced the "
1217:
839:
and liquid semiconductors are also known. These include
789:; the most commercially important of these elements are
30:
For devices using semiconductors and their history, see
3059:
Journal of Telecommunication and Information Technology
2352:
Fourth International Conference on Solid State Lighting
1928:
at Bell Labs in 1947. Shockley had earlier theorized a
1296:
as well, in the absence of any external energy source.
1271:
2363:
1525:
can be used to accurately position the doped regions.
1510:
creates a p-type semiconductor whereas one doped with
2364:
Boteler, L.; Lelis, A.; Berman, M.; Fish, M. (2019).
1793:
in 1874 and Indian physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose's
3166:
2453:
1977:
1292:. Electron-hole pairs are constantly generated from
597:
3356:
3333:
1540:
3224:"1947: Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor"
1846:which could amplify 20 dB or more. In 1922,
1732:used the light-sensitive property of selenium to
1699:and the concept of band gaps had been developed.
1551:Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering
1406:. The amount of impurity, or dopant, added to an
3602:
577:, a primitive semiconductor diode used in early
533:to explain the movement of charge carriers in a
3129:Überlingen.), Josef Weiss (de (July 22, 1910).
2671:
1299:Electron-hole pairs are also apt to recombine.
992:is what creates the plasma in the chamber. The
2849:"Band strcutre and carrier concentration (Ge)"
2820:
814:Certain ternary compounds, oxides, and alloys.
3455:
3417:Atomic Diffusion in Semiconductor Structures,
3328:
3203:A History of the World Semiconductor Industry
3023:A History of the World Semiconductor Industry
2954:
2561:As in the Mott formula for conductivity, see
1589:reported that the resistance of specimens of
1172:) and the band of states above the band gap (
377:
3396:
3128:
2672:Louis Nashelsky, Robert L.Boylestad (2006).
2410:"How do thermoelectric coolers (TECs) work?"
2316:
1050:. Here, height is energy while width is the
1022:
723:
708:of electronics. They play a crucial role in
699:
3354:
2628:
1528:
1206:. An example of a common semi-insulator is
965:pumped in a low-pressure chamber to create
3462:
3448:
3336:Physics of Semiconductor Devices (2nd ed.)
2911:
2562:
2281:Light and Optics: Principles and Practices
384:
370:
3274:
3268:
3045:
3043:
2598:
2596:
2594:
2138:
2136:
2134:
2132:
2088:"Electrical Conduction in Semiconductors"
2011:Semiconductor characterization techniques
1854:amplifiers for radio, but he died in the
618:. These modifications have two outcomes:
561:can have many p- and n-type regions; the
3310:A. A. Balandin & K. L. Wang (2006).
3195:
2426:
2223:
2221:
2219:
2217:
2215:
2213:
2211:
2189:
1818:
1558:
1326:at a given temperature is determined by
1128:). These states are associated with the
1041:
757:
40:
3419:Gordon & Breach Science Pub., 1987
1198:materials are sometimes referred to as
1038:Electrical resistivity and conductivity
14:
3603:
3378:Yu, Peter Y.; Cardona, Manuel (2004).
3040:
3019:
2912:Honsberg, Christiana; Bowden, Stuart.
2591:
2227:
2129:
2059:
1858:after successful completion. In 1926,
1028:Energy bands and electrical conduction
868:Preparation of semiconductor materials
440:. Some examples of semiconductors are
3443:
3359:The Essential Guide to Semiconductors
3085:
3020:Morris, Peter Robin (July 22, 1990).
3015:
3013:
3011:
3009:
3007:
3005:
3003:
2957:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
2674:Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory
2516:
2208:
2034:
1486:. The opposite carrier is called the
1218:Charge carriers (electrons and holes)
961:. Plasma etching usually involves an
428:, at these junctions is the basis of
2742:"Lesson 6: Extrinsic semiconductors"
2237:. Elizabeth A. Jones. Archived from
2161:"2.4.7.9 The "hot-probe" experiment"
1808:
1493:For example, the pure semiconductor
1278:Carrier generation and recombination
1272:Carrier generation and recombination
658:
3430:Feynman's lecture on Semiconductors
2608:Introduction to Solid State Physics
2142:
1761:crystals, the principle behind the
1084:lies inside at least one band. In
781:Certain pure elements are found in
452:, and elements near the so-called "
24:
3314:. American Scientific Publishers.
3303:
3000:
2718:
2536:
2035:Tatum, Jeremy (13 December 2016).
629:
25:
3622:
3435:
2870:"Doping: n- and p-semiconductors"
2231:Semiconductor Physics and Devices
2060:Worzyk, Thomas (11 August 2009).
1450:holes. The addition of 0.001% of
1252:, and introduce concepts such as
679:
676:and recombination, respectively.
2889:
2793:
2696:
2001:Semiconductor device fabrication
1980:
1373:is the absolute temperature and
598:Variable electrical conductivity
70:
3401:. World Scientific Publishing.
3242:
3216:
3122:
3079:
2983:
2948:
2927:
2905:
2883:
2862:
2841:
2814:
2787:
2766:
2734:
2712:
2690:
2665:
2622:
2555:
2530:
2510:
2447:
2402:
2378:10.1109/WiPDA46397.2019.8998802
2357:
2344:
2310:
2286:
2273:
1862:patented a device resembling a
1541:Early history of semiconductors
1514:results in an n-type material.
1315:) or radiation (in the form of
754:List of semiconductor materials
738:thermoelectric figures of merit
553:creating free holes, known as "
3275:Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016).
2719:Y., Roshni (5 February 2019).
2539:Fundamentals of Semiconductors
2248:
2183:
2153:
2104:
2080:
2053:
2028:
841:hydrogenated amorphous silicon
36:Semiconductor (disambiguation)
13:
1:
3340:. John Wiley and Sons (WIE).
2821:Van Zeghbroeck, Bart (2000).
2796:"Ohm's Law, Microscopic View"
2256:"Electron-Hole Recombination"
2021:
1954:fabricated the first silicon
1328:quantum statistical mechanics
1289:electron-hole pair generation
934:. Other processes are called
592:
2774:"General unit cell problems"
2037:"Resistance and Temperature"
1866:, but it was not practical.
1709:metal–semiconductor junction
1466:. Semiconductors doped with
1109:
1092:the Fermi level is inside a
747:
730:thermoelectric power factors
720:, among other applications.
412:is created. The behavior of
7:
3088:European Journal of Physics
3052:"History of Semiconductors"
2541:. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
2146:Feynman Lectures on Physics
1973:
1196:wider-bandgap semiconductor
1052:density of available states
1003:The last process is called
10:
3627:
3201:Peter Robin Morris (1990)
3108:10.1088/0143-0807/10/4/002
2372:. IEEE. pp. 265–271.
2228:Neamen, Donald A. (2003).
2190:Shockley, William (1950).
1812:
1797:crystal detector in 1901.
1595:Alexandre Edmond Becquerel
1544:
1391:
1275:
1221:
1210:. Some materials, such as
1031:
751:
728:Semiconductors have large
29:
3572:
3559:Characterization analysis
3551:
3501:
3478:
3256:. Computer History Museum
3230:. Computer History Museum
3036:– via Google Books.
2969:10.1088/0022-3727/5/5/205
2914:"Semiconductor Materials"
2480:10.1038/s41563-018-0189-z
2194:. R. E. Krieger Pub. Co.
1815:History of the transistor
1474:, while those doped with
1387:
1238:Pauli exclusion principle
1130:electronic band structure
1126:Pauli exclusion principle
1034:Electronic band structure
1023:Physics of semiconductors
973:, or more commonly known
876:(IC), which are found in
734:thermoelectric generators
724:Thermal energy conversion
700:High thermal conductivity
493:Cross-linked polyethylene
3573:Material characteristics
2937:Amorphous semiconductors
2585:10.1103/PhysRev.181.1336
2354:. Vol. 5530. SPIE, 2004.
1914:point-contact transistor
1850:developed two-terminal,
1844:point contact transistor
1836:point-contact transistor
1616:observed conduction and
1529:Amorphous semiconductors
1478:impurities are known as
1340:conservation of momentum
1106:intrinsic semiconductors
1056:Fermi–Dirac distribution
829:metal–organic frameworks
524:extrinsic semiconductors
3470:Fundamental aspects of
3182:Computer History Museum
3153:Computer History Museum
2892:"Silicon and Germanium"
2283:." 2007. March 4, 2016.
1864:field-effect transistor
1860:Julius Edgar Lilienfeld
1651:. The discovery of the
1134:Electrical conductivity
1104:. "intrin." indicates
1066:: no state filled). In
969:. A common etch gas is
51:monocrystalline silicon
2699:"Doped Semiconductors"
2517:Arora, Himani (2020).
2260:Engineering LibreTexts
2006:Semiconductor industry
1930:field-effect amplifier
1922:Walter Houser Brattain
1839:
1834:developed the bipolar
1747:cat's-whisker detector
1575:
1470:impurities are called
1394:Doping (semiconductor)
1336:conservation of energy
1301:Conservation of energy
1150:Fermi–Dirac statistics
1116:
1062:: all states filled,
922:on the surface of the
818:Organic semiconductors
774:
742:thermoelectric coolers
740:making them useful in
732:making them useful in
575:cat's-whisker detector
468:, microwave-frequency
410:semiconductor junction
53:
34:. For other uses, see
3397:Sadao Adachi (2012).
3363:. Prentice Hall PTR.
3283:John Wiley & Sons
2298:www.sciencedirect.com
2279:By Abdul Al-Azzawi. "
1822:
1779:semiconductor devices
1743:Jagadish Chandra Bose
1730:Alexander Graham Bell
1579:Thomas Johann Seebeck
1562:
1157:electrical conductors
1045:
946:is used along with a
761:
690:light-emitting diodes
655:across the junction.
495:) with carbon black.
480:Semiconductor devices
44:
3585:Electronic structure
3502:Classes of materials
3355:Turley, Jim (2002).
2244:on October 27, 2022.
1964:junction transistors
1763:light-emitting diode
1751:development of radio
1634:William Grylls Adams
1614:Karl Ferdinand Braun
1572:semiconductor device
1564:Karl Ferdinand Braun
1187:with impurities and
1019:is almost prepared.
926:. This is used as a
32:Semiconductor device
3100:1989EJPh...10..254B
3061:: 3. Archived from
2823:"Carrier densities"
2754:on January 28, 2023
2643:1960Natur.187..403A
2577:1969PhRv..181.1336C
2472:2018NatMa..17.1027D
1956:junction transistor
1852:negative resistance
1785:, including German
1705:Nevill Francis Mott
1697:Alan Herries Wilson
1665:Johan Koenigsberger
1641:solid-state physics
1599:photovoltaic effect
1442:free electrons and
1242:dispersion relation
1098:thermally populated
858:negative resistance
666:ambipolar diffusion
489:high-voltage cables
474:electronic circuits
470:integrated circuits
454:metalloid staircase
3254:The Silicon Engine
3228:The Silicon Engine
3178:The Silicon Engine
3149:The Silicon Engine
2537:Yu, Peter (2010).
2526:. Dresden: Qucosa.
2143:Feynman, Richard.
1988:Electronics portal
1908:The first working
1856:Siege of Leningrad
1840:
1789:Ferdinand Braun's
1701:Walter H. Schottky
1645:Edwin Herbert Hall
1576:
1426:°C contains about
1367:Boltzmann constant
1332:quantum mechanical
1284:ionizing radiation
1117:
1100:with electrons or
971:chlorofluorocarbon
874:integrated circuit
775:
736:, as well as high
712:, high-brightness
706:thermal management
686:electrical current
651:, which causes an
587:integrated circuit
436:, and most modern
54:
3598:
3597:
3580:Crystal structure
3479:Materials science
3472:materials science
3425:978-2-88124-152-9
3408:978-981-4405-97-3
3389:978-3-540-41323-3
3370:978-0-13-046404-0
3347:978-0-471-05661-4
3321:978-1-58883-073-9
2683:978-81-203-2967-6
2611:, 7th ed. Wiley,
2548:978-3-642-00709-5
2466:(11): 1027–1032.
2387:978-1-7281-3761-2
2332:978-953-51-2637-9
2201:978-0-88275-382-9
2165:ecee.colorado.edu
2073:978-3-642-01270-9
1962:. However, early
1890:cut-off frequency
1809:Early transistors
1254:electron mobility
1132:of the material.
1114:
944:Ultraviolet light
916:thermal oxidation
822:organic compounds
710:electric vehicles
659:Excited electrons
485:energy conversion
406:crystal structure
394:
393:
16:(Redirected from
3618:
3552:Analysis methods
3464:
3457:
3450:
3441:
3440:
3412:
3393:
3374:
3362:
3351:
3339:
3325:
3297:
3296:
3272:
3266:
3265:
3263:
3261:
3246:
3240:
3239:
3237:
3235:
3220:
3214:
3199:
3193:
3192:
3190:
3188:
3170:
3164:
3163:
3161:
3159:
3141:
3135:
3134:
3126:
3120:
3119:
3083:
3077:
3076:
3074:
3073:
3067:
3056:
3047:
3038:
3037:
3017:
2998:
2997:
2995:
2987:
2981:
2980:
2952:
2946:
2945:
2943:
2931:
2925:
2924:
2922:
2920:
2909:
2903:
2902:
2900:
2898:
2887:
2881:
2880:
2878:
2876:
2866:
2860:
2859:
2857:
2855:
2845:
2839:
2838:
2836:
2834:
2825:. Archived from
2818:
2812:
2811:
2809:
2807:
2798:. Archived from
2791:
2785:
2784:
2782:
2780:
2770:
2764:
2763:
2761:
2759:
2753:
2747:. Archived from
2746:
2738:
2732:
2731:
2729:
2727:
2716:
2710:
2709:
2707:
2705:
2694:
2688:
2687:
2669:
2663:
2662:
2651:10.1038/187403b0
2637:(4735): 403–05.
2626:
2620:
2600:
2589:
2588:
2559:
2553:
2552:
2534:
2528:
2527:
2525:
2514:
2508:
2507:
2460:Nature Materials
2451:
2445:
2436:, Springer 2003
2430:
2424:
2423:
2421:
2420:
2406:
2400:
2399:
2361:
2355:
2348:
2342:
2341:
2340:
2339:
2314:
2308:
2307:
2305:
2304:
2290:
2284:
2277:
2271:
2270:
2268:
2267:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2243:
2236:
2225:
2206:
2205:
2187:
2181:
2180:
2178:
2176:
2167:. Archived from
2157:
2151:
2150:
2140:
2127:
2126:
2124:
2123:
2112:"Joshua Halpern"
2108:
2102:
2101:
2099:
2098:
2084:
2078:
2077:
2057:
2051:
2050:
2048:
2047:
2032:
2016:Transistor count
1990:
1985:
1984:
1952:Morris Tanenbaum
1949:physical chemist
1926:William Shockley
1898:William Shockley
1887:
1876:
1828:William Shockley
1791:crystal detector
1694:
1673:
1603:Willoughby Smith
1568:crystal detector
1523:ion implantation
1488:minority carrier
1484:majority carrier
1449:
1447:
1441:
1439:
1434:atoms, but only
1433:
1431:
1425:
1360:
1307:larger than the
1212:titanium dioxide
1208:gallium arsenide
1142:partially filled
1110:
940:photolithography
843:and mixtures of
805:gallium arsenide
801:Binary compounds
767:microelectronics
692:and fluorescent
585:in 1947 and the
510:) or trivalent (
450:gallium arsenide
416:, which include
386:
379:
372:
342:Transistor count
295:
277:
268:
259:
250:
241:
232:
223:
214:
205:
196:
187:
142:
133:
124:
115:
106:
97:
74:
56:
55:
21:
3626:
3625:
3621:
3620:
3619:
3617:
3616:
3615:
3601:
3600:
3599:
3594:
3568:
3547:
3497:
3474:
3468:
3438:
3409:
3390:
3371:
3348:
3322:
3306:
3304:Further reading
3301:
3300:
3293:
3285:. p. 168.
3273:
3269:
3259:
3257:
3248:
3247:
3243:
3233:
3231:
3222:
3221:
3217:
3200:
3196:
3186:
3184:
3172:
3171:
3167:
3157:
3155:
3143:
3142:
3138:
3127:
3123:
3084:
3080:
3071:
3069:
3065:
3054:
3048:
3041:
3034:
3018:
3001:
2993:
2989:
2988:
2984:
2953:
2949:
2941:
2933:
2932:
2928:
2918:
2916:
2910:
2906:
2896:
2894:
2888:
2884:
2874:
2872:
2868:
2867:
2863:
2853:
2851:
2847:
2846:
2842:
2832:
2830:
2819:
2815:
2805:
2803:
2792:
2788:
2778:
2776:
2772:
2771:
2767:
2757:
2755:
2751:
2744:
2740:
2739:
2735:
2725:
2723:
2717:
2713:
2703:
2701:
2695:
2691:
2684:
2670:
2666:
2627:
2623:
2601:
2592:
2565:Physical Review
2560:
2556:
2549:
2535:
2531:
2523:
2515:
2511:
2452:
2448:
2431:
2427:
2418:
2416:
2408:
2407:
2403:
2388:
2362:
2358:
2349:
2345:
2337:
2335:
2333:
2315:
2311:
2302:
2300:
2292:
2291:
2287:
2278:
2274:
2265:
2263:
2254:
2253:
2249:
2241:
2234:
2226:
2209:
2202:
2188:
2184:
2174:
2172:
2171:on 6 March 2021
2159:
2158:
2154:
2141:
2130:
2121:
2119:
2110:
2109:
2105:
2096:
2094:
2086:
2085:
2081:
2074:
2058:
2054:
2045:
2043:
2033:
2029:
2024:
1986:
1979:
1976:
1968:mass-production
1881:
1870:
1832:Walter Brattain
1817:
1811:
1759:silicon carbide
1688:
1667:
1630:Arthur Schuster
1587:Michael Faraday
1553:
1543:
1531:
1445:
1443:
1437:
1435:
1429:
1427:
1423:
1400:crystal lattice
1396:
1390:
1379:
1354:
1347:
1280:
1274:
1226:
1220:
1200:semi-insulators
1181:semi-insulators
1174:conduction band
1115:
1083:
1040:
1032:Main articles:
1030:
1025:
998:anisotropically
979:radio-frequency
920:silicon dioxide
901:stacking faults
870:
827:Semiconducting
809:silicon carbide
756:
750:
726:
702:
682:
661:
636:Heterojunctions
632:
630:Heterojunctions
600:
595:
567:hot-point probe
535:crystal lattice
531:quantum physics
414:charge carriers
390:
361:
357:Nanoelectronics
308:
302:
293:
284:
275:
266:
257:
248:
239:
230:
221:
212:
203:
194:
185:
140:
131:
122:
113:
104:
95:
82:
63:
61:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3624:
3614:
3613:
3611:Semiconductors
3596:
3595:
3593:
3592:
3590:Microstructure
3587:
3582:
3576:
3574:
3570:
3569:
3567:
3566:
3561:
3555:
3553:
3549:
3548:
3546:
3545:
3540:
3539:
3538:
3528:
3523:
3522:
3521:
3519:Semiconductors
3516:
3505:
3503:
3499:
3498:
3496:
3495:
3492:
3489:
3486:
3482:
3480:
3476:
3475:
3467:
3466:
3459:
3452:
3444:
3437:
3436:External links
3434:
3433:
3432:
3427:
3413:
3407:
3394:
3388:
3375:
3369:
3352:
3346:
3326:
3320:
3305:
3302:
3299:
3298:
3291:
3267:
3241:
3215:
3194:
3165:
3136:
3121:
3078:
3039:
3032:
2999:
2982:
2947:
2926:
2904:
2882:
2861:
2840:
2829:on May 3, 2021
2813:
2802:on May 3, 2021
2786:
2765:
2733:
2711:
2689:
2682:
2664:
2621:
2603:Charles Kittel
2590:
2554:
2547:
2529:
2509:
2446:
2432:B. G. Yacobi,
2425:
2401:
2386:
2356:
2343:
2331:
2325:, IntechOpen,
2309:
2285:
2272:
2247:
2207:
2200:
2182:
2152:
2128:
2103:
2079:
2072:
2052:
2026:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2019:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1975:
1972:
1934:Herbert Mataré
1813:Main article:
1810:
1807:
1738:Charles Fritts
1734:transmit sound
1605:observed that
1591:silver sulfide
1583:Seebeck effect
1566:developed the
1542:
1539:
1530:
1527:
1392:Main article:
1389:
1386:
1377:
1352:
1330:. The precise
1294:thermal energy
1276:Main article:
1273:
1270:
1246:effective mass
1222:Main article:
1219:
1216:
1122:quantum states
1090:semiconductors
1081:
1029:
1026:
1024:
1021:
959:plasma etching
928:gate insulator
918:, which forms
869:
866:
833:
832:
825:
815:
812:
798:
787:periodic table
752:Main article:
749:
746:
725:
722:
701:
698:
681:
680:Light emission
678:
660:
657:
653:electric field
631:
628:
599:
596:
594:
591:
541:creating free
458:periodic table
426:electron holes
392:
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92:
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80:MOSFET scaling
76:
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67:
66:
26:
18:Semiconductors
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3623:
3612:
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3606:
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3564:Phase diagram
3562:
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3343:
3338:
3337:
3331:
3330:Sze, Simon M.
3327:
3323:
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3313:
3308:
3307:
3294:
3292:9780470508923
3288:
3284:
3280:
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3219:
3212:
3211:0-86341-227-0
3208:
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3183:
3179:
3175:
3169:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3140:
3132:
3125:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3094:(4): 254–64.
3093:
3089:
3082:
3068:on 2013-06-22
3064:
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3046:
3044:
3035:
3033:9780863412271
3029:
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3024:
3016:
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3012:
3010:
3008:
3006:
3004:
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2986:
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2974:
2970:
2966:
2963:(5): 865–82.
2962:
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2617:0-471-11181-3
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2117:
2116:Chemistry 003
2113:
2107:
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2017:
2014:
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1788:
1784:
1780:
1775:
1773:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1745:in 1904; the
1744:
1739:
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1724:
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1716:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
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1678:
1671:
1666:
1662:
1661:Karl Baedeker
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1637:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1618:rectification
1615:
1611:
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1596:
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1262:
1261:electron hole
1257:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1230:recombination
1225:
1224:Electron hole
1215:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
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1001:
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994:silicon wafer
991:
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980:
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850:
846:
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830:
826:
823:
819:
816:
813:
810:
806:
802:
799:
796:
792:
788:
784:
783:group 14
780:
779:
778:
772:
771:photovoltaics
768:
764:
760:
755:
745:
743:
739:
735:
731:
721:
719:
718:power modules
715:
711:
707:
697:
695:
691:
687:
677:
675:
671:
667:
656:
654:
650:
646:
645:recombination
642:
638:
637:
627:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
608:valence bands
605:
590:
588:
584:
580:
576:
570:
568:
564:
563:p–n junctions
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
527:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
496:
494:
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481:
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463:
459:
455:
451:
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427:
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411:
407:
403:
399:
398:semiconductor
387:
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353:
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347:Semiconductor
345:
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139:
136:
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109:
103:
100:
94:
93:
91:
90:
86:
85:process nodes
81:
78:
77:
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69:
68:
65:
60:Semiconductor
58:
57:
52:
48:
43:
37:
33:
19:
3518:
3416:
3398:
3382:. Springer.
3379:
3358:
3335:
3311:
3277:
3270:
3258:. Retrieved
3253:
3244:
3232:. Retrieved
3227:
3218:
3202:
3197:
3185:. Retrieved
3177:
3168:
3156:. Retrieved
3148:
3139:
3124:
3091:
3087:
3081:
3070:. Retrieved
3063:the original
3058:
3022:
2985:
2960:
2956:
2950:
2936:
2929:
2917:. Retrieved
2907:
2895:. Retrieved
2885:
2873:. Retrieved
2864:
2852:. Retrieved
2843:
2831:. Retrieved
2827:the original
2816:
2804:. Retrieved
2800:the original
2789:
2777:. Retrieved
2768:
2756:. Retrieved
2749:the original
2736:
2724:. Retrieved
2714:
2702:. Retrieved
2692:
2673:
2667:
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2630:
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2606:
2568:
2564:
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2433:
2428:
2417:. Retrieved
2413:
2404:
2369:
2359:
2351:
2346:
2336:, retrieved
2322:
2312:
2301:. Retrieved
2297:
2288:
2275:
2264:. Retrieved
2262:. 2016-07-28
2259:
2250:
2239:the original
2230:
2191:
2185:
2173:. Retrieved
2169:the original
2164:
2155:
2145:
2120:. Retrieved
2118:. 2015-01-12
2115:
2106:
2095:. Retrieved
2091:
2082:
2066:. Springer.
2062:
2055:
2044:. Retrieved
2040:
2030:
1946:
1918:John Bardeen
1916:invented by
1907:
1841:
1824:John Bardeen
1799:
1776:
1774:rectifiers.
1728:
1725:
1720:John Bardeen
1717:
1713:p–n junction
1676:
1675:
1657:J.J. Thomson
1638:
1620:in metallic
1577:
1570:, the first
1554:
1532:
1516:
1492:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1456:
1420:
1414:
1407:
1403:
1397:
1382:
1380:is bandgap.
1374:
1370:
1362:
1356:
1349:
1344:
1324:steady state
1321:
1298:
1288:
1281:
1264:
1258:
1227:
1199:
1193:
1180:
1178:
1170:valence band
1154:
1141:
1118:
1089:
1078:
1063:
1059:
1013:p–n junction
1002:
984:between the
952:
913:
893:dislocations
890:
884:, scanners,
871:
834:
776:
727:
703:
694:quantum dots
683:
662:
634:
633:
623:
619:
601:
571:
545:, known as "
528:
497:
478:
462:laser diodes
404:") into the
397:
395:
346:
299: ~ 2025
281: – 2022
272: – 2020
263: – 2018
254: – 2016
245: – 2014
236: – 2012
227: – 2010
218: – 2009
209: – 2007
200: – 2005
191: – 2003
182: – 2001
176: – 1999
170: – 1996
164: – 1993
158: – 1990
152: – 1987
146: – 1984
137: – 1981
128: – 1977
119: – 1974
110: – 1971
101: – 1968
3494:Performance
3213:, pp. 11–25
2758:January 28,
2571:(3): 1336.
2175:27 November
2092:www.mks.com
1938:Transistron
1902:Russell Ohl
1882: [
1871: [
1772:vacuum tube
1689: [
1682:Felix Bloch
1668: [
1649:Hall effect
1601:. In 1873,
1519:manufacture
1250:Drude model
1146:Fermi level
1138:delocalized
1076:Fermi level
1048:equilibrium
955:photoresist
948:photoresist
932:field oxide
886:cell-phones
466:solar cells
438:electronics
434:transistors
337:Moore's law
180:130 nm
174:180 nm
168:250 nm
162:350 nm
156:600 nm
150:800 nm
135:1.5 μm
64:fabrication
3526:Composites
3491:Processing
3488:Properties
3145:"Timeline"
3072:2012-08-03
2444:, pp. 1–3.
2419:2021-11-08
2338:2024-01-24
2303:2023-12-14
2266:2024-04-01
2122:2024-04-01
2097:2024-04-01
2046:2023-12-22
2041:LibreTexts
2022:References
1942:transistor
1910:transistor
1879:R. W. Pohl
1848:Oleg Losev
1777:The first
1767:Oleg Losev
1755:H.J. Round
1677:Halbleiter
1574:, in 1874.
1545:See also:
1512:phosphorus
1161:Insulators
1086:insulators
1072:semimetals
936:photomasks
820:, made of
674:generation
593:Properties
583:transistor
504:phosphorus
331:multi-gate
312:Half-nodes
252:10 nm
243:14 nm
234:22 nm
225:28 nm
216:32 nm
207:45 nm
198:65 nm
189:90 nm
108:10 μm
99:20 μm
3485:Structure
3260:23 August
3234:23 August
3187:23 August
3158:22 August
3116:250888128
2991:"Kirj.ee"
2977:250874071
2890:Nave, R.
2794:Nave, R.
2697:Nave, R.
2488:1476-4660
2414:ii-vi.com
2396:211227341
1996:Deathnium
1960:Bell Labs
1947:In 1954,
1894:Bell Labs
1868:R. Hilsch
1787:physicist
1686:B. Gudden
1610:resistors
1499:group III
1460:acceptors
1415:extrinsic
1409:intrinsic
1234:ideal gas
1165:band gaps
1005:diffusion
977:. A high
862:thin film
853:tellurium
837:amorphous
795:germanium
748:Materials
641:germanium
589:in 1958.
551:acceptors
543:electrons
456:" on the
446:germanium
418:electrons
297:2 nm
279:3 nm
270:5 nm
261:7 nm
144:1 μm
126:3 μm
117:6 μm
3605:Category
3543:Polymers
3509:Ceramics
3332:(1981).
2504:53027396
2496:30323335
1974:See also
1838:in 1947.
1653:electron
1622:sulfides
1607:selenium
1476:acceptor
1361:, where
1309:band gap
1265:negative
1094:band gap
963:etch gas
878:desktops
849:selenium
500:antimony
352:Industry
3205:, IET,
3096:Bibcode
3026:. IET.
2659:4183332
2639:Bibcode
2605:(1995)
2573:Bibcode
2468:Bibcode
1803:silicon
1517:During
1503:group V
1495:silicon
1452:arsenic
1365:is the
1317:photons
1313:phonons
986:cathode
982:voltage
924:silicon
882:laptops
845:arsenic
791:silicon
785:of the
763:Silicon
670:photons
604:current
559:crystal
516:gallium
508:arsenic
442:silicon
317:Density
290:Future
3536:Alloys
3423:
3405:
3386:
3367:
3344:
3318:
3289:
3209:
3114:
3030:
2975:
2919:May 3,
2897:May 3,
2875:May 3,
2854:May 3,
2833:May 3,
2806:May 3,
2779:May 3,
2726:May 3,
2704:May 3,
2680:
2657:
2631:Nature
2615:
2545:
2502:
2494:
2486:
2440:
2394:
2384:
2329:
2198:
2070:
1924:, and
1912:was a
1783:galena
1549:, and
1480:p-type
1472:n-type
1464:donors
1424:
1404:doping
1388:Doping
1305:energy
1189:gating
1185:doping
1068:metals
1009:doping
967:plasma
909:wafers
905:ingots
899:, and
851:, and
624:p-type
620:n-type
616:gating
612:doping
555:p-type
547:n-type
539:donors
520:indium
430:diodes
424:, and
402:doping
327:Device
132:
62:device
3531:Metal
3514:Glass
3112:S2CID
3066:(PDF)
3055:(PDF)
2994:(PDF)
2973:S2CID
2942:(PDF)
2939:1968"
2752:(PDF)
2745:(PDF)
2655:S2CID
2524:(PDF)
2500:S2CID
2392:S2CID
2242:(PDF)
2235:(PDF)
1886:]
1875:]
1795:radio
1781:used
1693:]
1672:]
1508:boron
1468:donor
1348:exp(−
1282:When
1194:Some
1148:(see
1102:holes
1064:white
1060:black
1017:wafer
990:anode
975:Freon
897:twins
579:radio
512:boron
506:, or
47:ingot
3421:ISBN
3403:ISBN
3384:ISBN
3365:ISBN
3342:ISBN
3316:ISBN
3287:ISBN
3262:2019
3236:2019
3207:ISBN
3189:2019
3160:2019
3028:ISBN
2921:2021
2899:2021
2877:2021
2856:2021
2835:2021
2808:2021
2781:2021
2760:2023
2728:2021
2706:2021
2678:ISBN
2613:ISBN
2543:ISBN
2492:PMID
2484:ISSN
2438:ISBN
2382:ISBN
2327:ISBN
2196:ISBN
2177:2020
2068:ISBN
1877:and
1830:and
1703:and
1501:and
1338:and
1204:HEMT
1112:edit
1088:and
1074:the
1070:and
1036:and
988:and
938:and
930:and
793:and
769:and
716:and
714:LEDs
649:ions
622:and
422:ions
322:CMOS
3104:doi
2965:doi
2647:doi
2635:187
2581:doi
2569:181
2476:doi
2374:doi
1958:at
1944:".
1655:by
1462:or
1444:2.5
1436:2.5
1428:4.2
1319:).
1152:).
614:or
49:of
45:An
3607::
3281:.
3252:.
3226:.
3180:.
3176:.
3151:.
3147:.
3110:.
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