20:
523:
409:
352:, reduced leaf turgor, reduced leaf and tiller number, reduced growth rate, and low seed yield. Low phosphorus levels cause similar effects of low nitrogen but also cause reduced seed size, lower root to shoot ratios, and increased water stress. Low soil moisture causes reduced nutrient uptake and transport, decreased stomatal opening, and reduced photosynthetic capacity, and also reduces plant growth and productivity. Serpentine plants have strongly developed root systems to facilitate uptake of water and nutrients. For example,
169:
209:
348:
nutrients. An adaptive mechanism to high magnesium soils allocates more resources to deep-growing roots. Heavy metals stunt growth, induce iron deficiency, cause chlorosis, and restrict root development. Multiple adaptive mechanisms to heavy metals include the exclusion of metals by restricting the uptake by the roots, compartmentalization of metals in various organs, or the development of toxicity tolerance. In nitrogen-poor sites, physiological effects on plants include impaired protein synthesis,
1949:
91:
rocky, and vulnerable to erosion, which causes many serpentine soils to be rather shallow. The shallow soils and sparse vegetation lead to elevated soil temperatures and dry conditions. Due to their ultramafic origin, serpentine soils also have a low calcium-to-magnesium ratio and have low levels of many essential nutrients such as
372:
heterogeneity is an important contributor to the level of endemism and biodiversity in this system. Although the patchy distribution is attributed to the high rates of speciation in serpentine communities, there are a number of challenges associated with this. The spatial isolation from source and other populations limit
226:
Serpentine plant communities range from moist bogs and fens to rocky barrens and must be able to tolerate the harsh environmental conditions of such poor soil. As a result, they are often drastically different from non-serpentine soil areas bordering the serpentine soils. Vegetative characteristics
496:
Serpentine soils can be amended to support crops and pasture land for cattle grazing. This can be done by adding ample amounts of gypsum to the soil. By adding gypsum a more favourable calcium-to-magnesium ratio can be developed, creating a better balance of plant nutrients. This, however, poses a
347:
In order to overcome the chemical and physical challenges presented by serpentine soils, plants have developed tolerances to drought, heavy metals, and limited nutrients. Low calcium:magnesium ratios cause limited root growth and root activity, weak cell membranes, and reduced uptake of essential
90:
Serpentine soils exhibit distinct chemical and physical properties and are generally regarded as poor soils for agriculture. The soil is often reddish, brown, or gray in color due to its high iron and low organic content. Geologically, areas with serpentine bedrock are characteristically steep,
371:
Adaptation to serpentine soils has evolved multiple times. Serpentine-tolerant plants are evolutionarily younger than non-serpentine plants. The heterogeneity of serpentine communities coupled with their patchy distribution limits gene flow but promotes speciation and diversification. Habitat
503:
discerned that 20% of the grazing animals had toxic levels of nickel in their kidneys, and 32% had toxic levels of copper in their liver. Further study is needed to see if this will potentially have a negative effect on human health as it pertains to beef consumption.
1178:
Miranda, M.; Benedito, J.L.; Blanco-Penedo, I.; LĂłpez-Lamas, C.; Merino, A.; LĂłpez-Alonso, M. (2009). "Metal accumulation in cattle raised in a serpentine-soil area: Relationship between metal concentrations in soil, forage and animal tissues".
1133:
NATO Advanced Study
Institute on Phytoremediation of Metal-Contaminated Soils, Morel, J.-L., Echevarria, G., & Goncharova, N. (2006). Phytoremediation of metal-contaminated soils. NATO science series, v. 68. Dordrecht:
122:, with water. Serpentinite has a mottled, greenish-gray, or bluish-gray color and is often waxy to the touch. The rock often contains white streaks of chrysotile running through it, which are a type of naturally occurring
103:(K). Serpentine soils contain high concentrations of heavy metals, including chromium, iron, cobalt, and nickel. Together, these factors create serious ecological challenges for plants living in serpentine soils.
443:, and Washington. Species-rich archipelagos of communities comprise 1.5% of the state's land area. In California, 10% of the state's plants are serpentine endemics. The barrens occur on outcrops of altered
613:, which, along with some manual cover removal, has been successful in regenerating populations of previously sparse species. In addition to over 20 conservationally listed plant species, Rhiannon’s aster (
579:
significance. Since 1979, the Nature
Conservancy has worked with the local community to protect and preserve several tracts in the State-Line Serpentine Barrens which are home to this fragile habitat.
87:
or white asbestos, all of which are commonly found in ultramafic rocks. The term "serpentine" is commonly used to refer to both the soil type and the mineral group which forms its parent materials.
971:
Zefferman, Emily; Stevens, Jens T.; Charles, Grace K.; Dunbar-Irwin, Mila; Emam, Taraneh; Fick, Stephen; Morales, Laura V.; Wolf, Kristina M.; Young, Derek J. N.; Young, Truman P. (2015).
582:
535:
376:, which could make these populations vulnerable to changing environmental conditions. In addition, there is high gene flow with the non-serpentine communities that can cause
1290:
130:
from long-time exposure of breathing in the dust particles. Caution should be taken when working in serpentine soils or when working with crushed serpentine rocks.
519:, covers 1,900 acres of serpentine barren. The area has over 38 rare, threatened, and endangered plant species; as well as rare insects, rocks, and minerals.
400:. Since these plants developed specialized adaptations to high concentrations of heavy metals, they have been used to remove heavy metals from polluted soil.
160:
Serpentine soils are derived from ultramafic rocks. Ultramafic rocks are igneous or metamorphic rocks that contain more than 70% iron or magnesium minerals.
227:
are often shared among the types of flora found on serpentine soils. They will exhibit a "stunted" growth habit, with dull waxy, gray-green leaves (seen in
196:, the Alps, Cuba, and New Caledonia. In North America, serpentine soils also are present in small but widely distributed areas on the eastern slope of the
1330:
University of
California. "Trees and Shrubs for Northern California Serpentine xxxLandscapes". Division of Agriculture and Natural resources. 2009. Web.
1020:
Arnold, Brian J.; Lahner, Brett; Dacosta, Jeffrey M.; Weisman, Caroline M.; Hollister, Jesse D.; Salt, David E.; Bomblies, Kirsten; Yant, Levi (2016).
1181:
499:
233:), which allow for water retention and sunlight reflection respectively. Other possible phenotypic traits include pigmented stems (as seen in the
1216:
601:, with variable soil depths ranging from 0 to 60 centimetres (0 to 24 inches) and rock outcrops representing 5–10% of the local landscape. The
1309:
Whittaker, R. H., Walker, R., Kruckeberg, A., "The
Ecology of Serpentine Soils". Department of xxxRadiological Services. 1954. pp 258–275.Web.
368:. In some cases, symbioses with serpentine tolerant ectomycorrhizal help facilitate plants’ adaptation to edaphic stressors on serpentine.
1243:
1258:
605:
for this community is "Southern Blue Ridge
Ultramafic Outcrop Barren" and believed to be unique to the Buck Creek area. In 1995, the
512:
212:
652:
Brady, Kristy U.; Kruckeberg, Arthur R.; Bradshaw Jr., H.D. (2005). "Evolutionary
Ecology of Plant Adaptation to Serpentine Soils".
1996:
1383:
1274:
602:
412:
Unlike most ecosystems, in serpentine barrens, there is less plant growth closer to a stream, due to toxic minerals in the water.
1660:
328:. In California, 45% of the taxa associated with serpentine are rare or endangered. In California, shrubs such as leather oak (
786:
691:
1366:
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designation, on numerous grounds. They included supporting a number of rare and endemic species, an intact population of
1324:
1981:
1644:
1649:
1152:
907:
823:
1317:
1166:
1654:
1986:
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1282:
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1021:
779:
Introduction to
California soils and plants : serpentine, vernal pools, and other geobotanical wonders
606:
560:
1685:
1338:
590:
544:
19:
973:"Plant communities in harsh sites are less invaded: A summary of observations and proposed explanations"
200:
in the eastern United States. However, California has the majority of the continent's serpentine soils.
1670:
895:
516:
1971:
1220:
586:
568:
1316:
Department of
Natural Resources. "Natural Communities-Serpentine grasslands". Maryland.gov. xxxWeb.
1275:"Restoration of Buck Creek Serpentine Barrens, Tusquitee Ranger District, Nantahala National Forest"
1680:
478:
318:
283:
241:
1675:
1638:
1359:
615:
1976:
1952:
336:
312:
1337:
USDA. "Serpentine Soils and Plant
Adaptations". United States Department of Agriculture. Web.
219:
Ecologically, serpentine soils have three main traits: poor plant productivity, high rates of
1241:"Rock Springs Nature Preserve", Lancaster County Conservancy Website, Retrieved May 10, 2009.
665:
542:
led to the conversion of the area to forest. This barren contains the rare serpentine aster (
522:
428:
235:
197:
24:
1323:
Ellis, M. "Should We be
Worried about Asbestos in Serpentine Rock?". Bay Nature. 2013. Web.
1806:
1240:
1036:
848:
728:
539:
295:
277:
1259:"Places We Protect: State-Line Serpentine Barrens, Pennsylvania", Retrieved July 20, 2020.
8:
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1167:"Evaluation of the Nottingham Park Serpentine Barrens", UMCES-AL, Retrieved May 10, 2009.
553:
408:
271:
229:
173:
72:
1040:
852:
732:
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Serpentine soils are widely distributed on Earth, in part mirroring the distribution of
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near the surface of the earth, particularly where water circulates in cooling rock near
1926:
1559:
1352:
1116:
1059:
997:
972:
864:
746:
307:
36:
1085:
Anacker, Brian L.; Whittall, Justen B.; Goldberg, Emma E.; Harrison, Susan P. (2011).
1991:
1841:
1325:
https://baynature.org/article/should-we-be-worried-about-asbestos-in-serpentine-rock/
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1103:
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1002:
913:
903:
819:
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697:
687:
150:
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814:
Traces on the Appalachians: A Natural History of Serpentine in Eastern North America
750:
392:
The unique plants that survive in serpentine soils have been used in the process of
1846:
1190:
1098:
1054:
1044:
992:
984:
944:
856:
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661:
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that is a prime example of a serpentine barren. It was originally a grassland, but
454:
393:
381:
354:
168:
60:
932:
526:
Serpentine Barrens in Rock Springs Nature Preserve, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania
1911:
1756:
1247:
610:
365:
289:
247:
154:
142:
138:
52:
30:
1318:
http://dnr2.maryland.gov/wildlife/Pages/plants_wildlife/serpentine.aspx.Accessed
1194:
933:"Serpentine Endemism in the California Flora: A Database of Serpentine Affinity"
208:
1886:
1831:
684:
Geology and plant life : the effects of landforms and rock types on plants
397:
330:
253:
741:
716:
188:. There are outcroppings of serpentine soils in the Balkan Peninsula, Turkey,
1965:
1931:
1816:
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796:
701:
424:
377:
324:
134:
1310:
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988:
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began active conservation management of the site, primarily with prescribed
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Areas of serpentine soil are also home to diverse plants, many of which are
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1861:
1202:
1112:
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628:
432:
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189:
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127:
111:
64:
1921:
1901:
1821:
1801:
1781:
1771:
1766:
1087:"Origins and Consequences of Serpentine Endemism in the California Flora"
360:
1086:
245:. Some examples of common serpentine tolerant plants include gray pine (
1906:
1856:
1811:
1796:
1761:
1731:
1597:
1504:
1469:
1444:
1177:
1145:
Savannas, Barrens, and Rock Outcrop Plant Communities of North America,
868:
572:
444:
436:
119:
96:
84:
76:
56:
1344:
1339:
https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/beauty/serpentines/adaptations.shtml
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1409:
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185:
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100:
80:
860:
126:. Asbestos is linked to an array of human health conditions such as
1876:
1791:
1746:
1622:
1602:
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1544:
1529:
1499:
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1434:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1313:
xxx/Whittaker_Eco_of_Serpentine_Soils_1954_II.pdf.Accessed 05/2017.
970:
576:
466:
220:
123:
92:
1217:"Maryland Department of Natural Resources - Maryland Park Service"
563:, the Nottingham Park, aka Serpentine Barrens, was recommended by
1826:
1786:
1751:
1741:
1736:
1726:
1721:
1617:
1587:
1582:
1572:
1567:
1519:
1514:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1454:
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1404:
1399:
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598:
490:
486:
358:(aka Fendler's penny grass) is a hyper-accumulator of nickel and
223:, and vegetation types that are distinct from neighboring areas.
115:
68:
1936:
1871:
1612:
1607:
1509:
1084:
594:
474:
470:
440:
193:
1851:
900:
Serpentine : the evolution and ecology of a model system
564:
114:
is a meta-igneous rock formed by the metamorphic reaction of
593:, is another example. Dominant rock types are serpentinized
497:
possible implication to grazing cattle. An article from the
1881:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1286:
1022:"Borrowed alleles and convergence in serpentine adaptation"
839:
Whittaker, R.H. (1954). "The ecology of serpentine soils".
651:
549:
462:
48:
1019:
1866:
949:
10.3120/0024-9637(2005)52[222:SEITCF]2.0.CO;2
619:) was described in 2004 and is endemic to these barrens.
239:) and occasionally a carnivorous nature as seen in the
931:
Safford, H. D.; Viers, J. H.; Harrison, S. P. (2005).
534:
is a 176-acre (71 ha) property conserved by the
1331:
930:
654:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
894:
811:
1182:Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology
715:Chiarucci, Alessandro; Baker, Alan J. M. (2007).
500:Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology
1963:
1029:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
714:
493:would normally lead to the growth of forests.
1360:
1334:. xxxucanr.edu/pdf/8400.pdf.Accessed 05/2017.
1162:
1160:
717:"Advances in the ecology of serpentine soils"
427:in small but widely distributed areas of the
818:. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
67:. More precisely, serpentine soil contains
1367:
1353:
1157:
1147:Ch. 19, Cambridge University Press, 1999,
776:
681:
548:), as well as a number of rare species of
1311:http://www.californiachaparral.com/images
1263:
1102:
1058:
1048:
996:
838:
740:
513:Soldiers Delight Natural Environment Area
213:Soldiers Delight Natural Environment Area
666:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.021103.105730
521:
461:, with unusually high concentrations of
407:
207:
167:
18:
1374:
603:U.S. National Vegetation Classification
1964:
1661:Canadian system of soil classification
1348:
1293:from the original on 4 September 2021
1080:
1078:
403:
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966:
964:
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772:
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768:
766:
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760:
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675:
647:
645:
643:
453:They are named for minerals of the
344:) are typical of serpentine soils.
13:
1645:Unified Soil Classification System
1075:
902:. University of California Press.
781:. University of California Press.
686:. University of Washington Press.
14:
2008:
1650:AASHTO Soil Classification System
955:
875:
757:
672:
640:
387:
334:) and coast whiteleaf manzanita (
281:), California laurel (bay tree) (
133:Serpentinite most often forms in
1948:
1947:
1104:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2010.01114.x
530:Rock Springs Nature Preserve in
1997:Plant communities of California
1252:
1234:
1209:
1171:
1137:
1127:
1013:
898:; Rajakaruna, Nishanta (2011).
172:Serpentine outcrop high in the
163:
1666:Australian Soil Classification
1657:(French classification system)
924:
832:
803:
708:
532:Lancaster County, Pennsylvania
106:
1:
777:Kruckeberg, Arthur R (2006).
682:Kruckeberg, Arthur R (2002).
634:
583:Buck Creek Serpentine Barrens
176:of northwest California—here
1283:United States Forest Service
1143:Anderson, Roger C., et al.,
607:United States Forest Service
561:Chester County, Pennsylvania
536:Lancaster County Conservancy
477:. Serpentine barrens, as at
7:
1686:List of vineyard soil types
1195:10.1016/j.jtemb.2009.03.004
622:
591:Clay County, North Carolina
575:, and also the site having
545:Symphyotrichum depauperatum
507:
384:, and nonviable offspring.
51:type produced by weathered
10:
2013:
1671:Polish Soil Classification
1246:February 22, 2009, at the
517:Baltimore County, Maryland
141:: masses of the resulting
1982:Soil in the United States
1945:
1695:Non-systematic soil types
1694:
1631:
1558:
1382:
742:10.1007/s11104-007-9268-7
587:Nantahala National Forest
569:National Natural Landmark
269:sp.), California redbud (
203:
1681:List of U.S. state soils
479:Grass Valley, California
319:Pentachaeta bellidiflora
284:Umbellularia californica
242:Darlingtonia californica
180:dominates the landscape.
40:in rocky serpentine soil
1676:1938 USDA soil taxonomy
1655:Référentiel pédologique
1639:FAO soil classification
1050:10.1073/pnas.1600405113
810:Dann, Kevin T. (1988).
616:Symphyotrichum rhiannon
275:), California buckeye (
527:
423:found in parts of the
413:
337:Arctostaphylos viscida
313:Acanthomintha duttonii
216:
181:
153:near present and past
41:
1987:Geology of California
989:10.1093/aobpla/plv056
525:
429:Appalachian Mountains
411:
257:), California lilac (
236:Streptanthus howellii
211:
198:Appalachian Mountains
171:
25:Solidago multiradiata
22:
1807:Calcareous grassland
1384:World Reference Base
540:wildfire suppression
296:Polystichum lemmonii
278:Aesculus californica
63:derivatives such as
1376:Soil classification
1327:. Accessed 05/2017.
1041:2016PNAS..113.8320A
853:1954Ecol...35..258W
733:2007PlSoi.293....1C
489:in areas where the
481:, often consist of
378:genotypic pollution
272:Cercis occidentalis
230:Eriogonum libertini
174:Siskiyou Wilderness
73:serpentine subgroup
1560:USDA soil taxonomy
1386:for Soil Resources
528:
417:Serpentine barrens
414:
404:Serpentine barrens
308:endangered species
263:Arctostaphylos sp.
217:
182:
42:
37:Adiantum aleuticum
1959:
1958:
1341:Accessed 05/2017.
1332:http://anrcatalog
788:978-0-520-23372-0
693:978-0-295-98203-8
287:), and the ferns
251:), Jeffrey Pine (
151:continental crust
2004:
1972:Serpentine soils
1951:
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1847:Hydrophobic soil
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611:controlled burns
567:as deserving of
459:serpentine soils
455:serpentine group
394:phytoremediation
355:Noccaea fendleri
192:, the island of
149:incorporated in
139:mid-ocean ridges
2012:
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2007:
2006:
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1912:Subaqueous soil
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1248:Wayback Machine
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290:Aspidotis densa
248:Pinus sabiniana
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143:ultramafic rock
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53:ultramafic rock
47:is an uncommon
45:Serpentine soil
31:Erigeron aureus
17:
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1842:Fuller's earth
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1035:(29): 8320–5.
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847:(2): 258–288.
831:
824:
802:
787:
756:
721:Plant and Soil
707:
692:
671:
638:
636:
633:
632:
631:
624:
621:
509:
506:
405:
402:
398:bioremediation
389:
388:Bioremediation
386:
331:Quercus durata
261:), manzanita (
254:Pinus jeffreyi
205:
202:
165:
162:
155:tectonic plate
108:
105:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2009:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1977:Types of soil
1975:
1973:
1970:
1969:
1967:
1954:
1953:Types of soil
1944:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1932:Tropical peat
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
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1905:
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1818:
1817:Dry quicksand
1815:
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1632:Other systems
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1292:
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1280:
1279:www.fs.fed.us
1276:
1272:
1266:
1260:
1255:
1249:
1245:
1242:
1237:
1223:on 2012-11-08
1222:
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1196:
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1188:
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1174:
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1154:
1153:0-521-57322-X
1150:
1146:
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1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1100:
1097:(2): 365–76.
1096:
1092:
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1079:
1070:
1066:
1061:
1056:
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1042:
1038:
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909:9780520268357
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825:0-8135-1323-5
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541:
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476:
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468:
464:
460:
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451:
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446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
425:United States
422:
419:are a unique
418:
410:
401:
399:
395:
385:
383:
382:hybridization
379:
375:
369:
367:
363:
362:
357:
356:
351:
345:
343:
339:
338:
333:
332:
327:
326:
325:Phlox hirsuta
321:
320:
315:
314:
309:
305:
300:
298:
297:
292:
291:
286:
285:
280:
279:
274:
273:
268:
265:), live oak (
264:
260:
259:Ceanothus sp.
256:
255:
250:
249:
244:
243:
238:
237:
232:
231:
224:
222:
214:
210:
201:
199:
195:
191:
187:
179:
175:
170:
161:
158:
156:
152:
148:
145:are found in
144:
140:
136:
135:oceanic crust
131:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
104:
102:
98:
94:
88:
86:
82:
78:
75:, especially
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
39:
38:
33:
32:
27:
26:
21:
1896:
1862:Martian soil
1295:. Retrieved
1278:
1265:
1254:
1236:
1225:. Retrieved
1221:the original
1211:
1189:(3): 231–8.
1186:
1180:
1173:
1144:
1139:
1129:
1094:
1090:
1032:
1028:
1015:
980:
976:
940:
936:
926:
899:
844:
840:
834:
813:
805:
778:
727:(1–2): 1–2.
724:
720:
710:
683:
657:
653:
629:Dwarf forest
614:
581:
558:
543:
529:
511:
498:
495:
458:
452:
433:Coast Ranges
416:
415:
396:, a type of
391:
370:
359:
353:
346:
341:
335:
329:
323:
317:
311:
301:
294:
288:
282:
276:
270:
266:
262:
258:
252:
246:
240:
234:
228:
225:
218:
190:Newfoundland
183:
178:Jeffrey pine
164:Distribution
159:
157:boundaries.
132:
128:mesothelioma
118:-rich rock,
112:Serpentinite
110:
89:
65:serpentinite
44:
43:
35:
29:
23:
1927:Terra rossa
1922:Terra preta
1902:Spodic soil
1822:Duplex soil
1802:Brown earth
1782:Alkali soil
1772:Rhizosphere
1767:Laimosphere
1641:(1974–1998)
1598:Inceptisols
1505:Plinthosols
1470:Kastanozems
1320:xxx05/2017.
1297:4 September
660:: 243–266.
361:Sedum laxum
215:in Maryland
107:Parent rock
61:metamorphic
1966:Categories
1907:Stagnogley
1857:Lunar soil
1812:Dark earth
1797:Brickearth
1762:Pedosphere
1732:Soil crust
1540:Technosols
1525:Solonchaks
1445:Ferralsols
1410:Anthrosols
1227:2012-11-07
983:: plv056.
977:AoB Plants
943:(4): 222.
635:References
573:pitch pine
448:ophiolites
445:ultramafic
437:California
366:succulence
364:expresses
186:ophiolites
147:ophiolites
120:peridotite
97:phosphorus
85:chrysotile
77:antigorite
57:peridotite
1892:Quicksand
1837:Fill dirt
1777:Bulk soil
1623:Vertisols
1613:Spodosols
1603:Mollisols
1593:Histosols
1578:Aridisols
1550:Vertisols
1545:Umbrisols
1535:Stagnosol
1500:Planosols
1495:Phaeozems
1475:Leptosols
1460:Gypsisols
1450:Fluvisols
1430:Chernozem
1425:Cambisols
1420:Calcisols
1415:Arenosols
1134:Springer.
1091:Evolution
918:632224033
797:928683002
702:475373672
483:grassland
421:ecoregion
374:gene flow
350:chlorosis
342:pulchella
101:potassium
99:(P), and
81:lizardite
16:Soil type
1992:Pedology
1877:Paleosol
1792:Blue goo
1747:Gypcrust
1618:Ultisols
1588:Gelisols
1583:Entisols
1573:Andisols
1568:Alfisols
1530:Solonetz
1520:Retisols
1515:Regosols
1490:Nitisols
1485:Luvisols
1480:Lixisols
1465:Histosol
1455:Gleysols
1440:Durisols
1435:Cryosols
1405:Andosols
1395:Acrisols
1291:Archived
1273:(n.d.).
1244:Archived
1203:19486833
1121:22429441
1113:20812977
1069:27357660
1007:26002746
751:35737876
623:See also
577:historic
554:skippers
508:Examples
487:savannas
467:chromium
431:and the
310:such as
221:endemism
124:asbestos
93:nitrogen
69:minerals
59:and its
55:such as
1827:Eluvium
1787:Bay mud
1752:Caliche
1742:Hardpan
1737:Claypan
1727:Subsoil
1722:Topsoil
1608:Oxisols
1510:Podzols
1400:Alisols
1388:(1998–)
1060:4961121
1037:Bibcode
998:4497477
937:Madroño
869:1931126
849:Bibcode
841:Ecology
729:Bibcode
599:olivine
491:climate
267:Quercus
116:olivine
71:of the
1937:Yedoma
1872:Muskeg
1201:
1151:
1119:
1111:
1067:
1057:
1005:
995:
916:
906:
867:
822:
795:
785:
749:
700:
690:
595:dunite
475:cobalt
473:, and
471:nickel
441:Oregon
322:, and
204:Botany
194:Cyprus
83:, and
34:, and
1917:Takir
1852:Loess
1117:S2CID
1025:(PDF)
865:JSTOR
747:S2CID
565:UMCES
550:moths
340:ssp.
95:(N),
1882:Peat
1717:Loam
1712:Clay
1707:Silt
1702:Sand
1299:2021
1287:USDA
1271:USFS
1199:PMID
1149:ISBN
1109:PMID
1065:PMID
1003:PMID
914:OCLC
904:ISBN
820:ISBN
793:OCLC
783:ISBN
698:OCLC
688:ISBN
597:and
552:and
463:iron
304:rare
293:and
49:soil
1867:Mud
1191:doi
1099:doi
1055:PMC
1045:doi
1033:113
993:PMC
985:doi
945:doi
857:doi
737:doi
725:293
662:doi
589:in
585:in
559:In
515:in
485:or
435:of
306:or
1968::
1289:.
1285:,
1281:.
1277:.
1197:.
1187:23
1185:.
1159:^
1115:.
1107:.
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1077:^
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1001:.
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957:^
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877:^
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845:35
843:.
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759:^
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735:.
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719:.
696:.
674:^
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642:^
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1193::
1123:.
1101::
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1039::
1009:.
987::
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951:.
947::
920:.
871:.
859::
851::
828:.
799:.
753:.
739::
731::
704:.
668:.
664::
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
