1061:
3012:, pp. 333–335). Burney citing Burmese sources gives the Chinese strength as 500,000-foot and 50,000 cavalry and states the Burmese strength to be 64,000-foot and 1200 cavalry. These numbers are certainly exaggerated. Per Harvey (pp. 333–335), the Burmese numbers should be reduced by an order of magnitude, which gives the Chinese strength as about 55,000 which is in line with the 60,000 figure from Chinese sources. Moreover, the Burmese figure of ~65,000 was also exaggerated though probably not by a factor of ten. Per Harvey's analysis, the most the Konbaung kings could have raised was 60,000, even that in early 19th century when they had a larger empire than Hsinbyushin's. Hsinbyushin could not have raised 60,000 since Burma had been at war since 1740 and many able men had already perished. The most he could have raised was no more than 40,000.
397:
188:
2243:
470:
2905:
382:
363:
174:
162:
57:
349:
329:
310:
293:
278:
258:
243:
226:
212:
144:
542:
459:
447:
435:
423:
411:
529:
1418:
1981:
285:
250:
504:
493:
2381:, as planned. But the commander of that army did not want to march far away from the base. When the Burmese army assigned to guard the west bank approached, the Chinese retreated back to the east bank. Likewise, the army assigned to march down the eastern bank also did not proceed. This left the Chinese flotilla exposed. The Burmese flotilla came up the river and attacked and sank all the Chinese boats. The Chinese armies now converged on attacking
2919:
2418:
1805:
1216:
2813:. Despite sending in 50,000 and 60,000 troops in the last two invasions, the Qing command lacked up-to-date information about invasion routes, and had to consult centuries-old maps to form their battle plan. This unfamiliarity exposed their supply and communication lines to repeated Burmese attacks, and allowed their main armies to be encircled in the last three invasions. The Burmese
988:
2232:
1335:
931:. Nonetheless, the war, which claimed the lives of over 70,000 Chinese soldiers and four commanders, is sometimes described as "the most disastrous frontier war that the Qing dynasty had ever waged", and one that "assured Burmese independence". Burma's successful defense laid the foundation for the present-day boundary between the two countries.
2358:. It clearly was a calculated gamble; he had wanted to strike before the Burmese arrived but he had also hoped that "miasma would not be everywhere." So in October 1768, towards the end of (but still during) the monsoon season, Fuheng launched the largest invasion yet. The three Chinese armies jointly attacked and captured
2103:. The smaller army, led by Maha Sithu, continued to pursue Ming Rui while the larger army led by Maha Thiha Thura advanced through the mountainous route to emerge directly behind the Chinese. Through careful maneuvering, the Burmese managed to achieve complete encirclement of the Chinese at modern-day
970:
for about one decade in an attempt to wage another war while imposing a ban on inter-border trade for two decades. The
Burmese, too, were preoccupied with the Chinese threat, and kept a series of garrisons along the border. Twenty years later, when Burma and China resumed a diplomatic relationship in
1089:
revolts at the border. Shan resistance leaders united people by saying "The lands and water are our properties. We could plow ourselves and eat our own produces. There is not a need to pay tributes to foreign government". In July 1732, a Shan army, mostly consisted of native mountaineers, laid siege
2430:
The
Chinese command, which had already lost 20,000 men, and a quantity of arms and ammunition, now asked for terms. The Burmese staff were averse to granting terms, saying that the Chinese were surrounded like cattle in a pen, they were starving, and in a few days, they could be wiped out to a man.
2119:
army was completely annihilated. The slaughter was such that the
Burmese could hardly grip their swords as the hilts were slippery with enemy blood. Of the original 30,000 men of the main army, only 2,500 of then remained alive and were captured. The rest had been killed either on the battlefield,
1760:
since
January 1766. Throughout 1767, when the Chinese were mobilizing for their most serious invasion yet, the Burmese were still focused on defeating the Siamese. Even after the Siamese capital was finally captured in April 1767, Hsinbyushin kept part of the troops in Siam during the rainy season
2454:
Comrades, unless we make peace, yet another invasion will come. And when we have defeated it, yet another will come. Our nation cannot go on just repelling invasion after invasion of the
Chinese for we have other things to do. Let us stop the slaughter, and let their people and our people live in
1388:
Governor Liu, in his embarrassment, first tried to conceal what had happened. When the
Emperor became suspicious, he ordered Liu's immediate recall and demotion. Instead of complying, Liu committed suicide by slicing his throat with a stationery knife, writing as blood was pouring from his neck:
2400:
himself was struck down by fever. More ominously for the
Chinese, the Burmese army sent to cut the enemy line of communication also achieved its purpose, and closed in on the Chinese armies from the rear. By early December, the Chinese forces were completely encircled. The Burmese armies then
2617:
The
Burmese for years were preoccupied with another impending invasion by the Chinese, and kept a series of garrisons along the border. The high casualties of the war (in terms of the population size) and the ongoing need to guard the northern border seriously hampered the Burmese military's
1293:
The Yunnan government reported the news to the
Emperor in 1759, and the Qing court promptly issued an imperial edict ordering reconquest. At first, the Yunnan officials, who believed that "barbarians must be conquered using barbarians", tried to resolve the matter by supporting the defected
1671:
armies. The
Manchus saw themselves as a warlike and conquering race and the Chinese as an occupied people. He commissioned a study of the first two invasions, and the report reinforced his biases—that the low battle-worthiness of the Green Standard armies was the reason for the failures.
2460:
He pointed out to his commanders that war with the Chinese was quickly becoming a cancer that would finally destroy the nation. Compared to Chinese losses, Burmese losses were light but considered in proportion to the population, they were heavy. The commanders were not convinced but
1094:
for 90 days. The Yunnan government responded with an overwhelming force numbered around 5,000 and lifted the siege. The Qing army pursued further west but could not put down persistent local resistance. Finally, the Qing field commanders changed their tactics by allying with neutral
950:. Nonetheless, battle-hardened Burmese troops defeated the first two invasions of 1765–1766 and 1766–1767 at the border. The regional conflict now escalated to a major war that involved military maneuvers nationwide in both countries. The third invasion (1767–1768) led by the elite
2227:
in 1768 and went on to reconquer all of their territories throughout 1768 and 1769. For the Burmese, their hard-fought gains of the prior three years (1765–1767) in Siam had gone to waste but there was little they could do. The survival of their kingdom was now at stake.
2120:
through disease or through execution after their surrender. Ming Rui himself was severely wounded in battle. Only a small group managed to break through and escaped the carnage. Ming Rui himself could have escaped with that group. Instead, he cut off his
2665:'s successful defense laid the foundation for the present-day boundary between the two countries. The border still was not demarcated, and the borderlands were still overlapping spheres of influence. After the war, Burma remained in possession of
962:
redeployed his armies from Siam to the Chinese front. The fourth and largest invasion got bogged down at the frontier. With the Qing forces completely encircled, a truce was reached between the field commanders of the two sides in December 1769.
2156:
court had heard nothing, and then the news finally came. The Emperor was shocked and ordered an immediate halt to all military actions until he could decide what next to do. Generals returning from the front line cautioned that there was no way
2208:'s encouragement, made it clear that no compromise with the Burmese could be made. The dignity of the state demanded a full surrender. His aim was to establish direct Qing rule over all Burmese possessions. Emissaries were sent to Siam and
2528:
was not pleased with the treaty. He did not accept the Chinese commanders' explanation that the fourth stipulation—exchange of embassies bearing presents—amounted to Burmese submission and tribute. He did not permit the surrender of the
2338:, who had arrived back from the Siamese theater. Based on their troop movements, the Burmese knew at least the general direction from where the massive invasion force would come. Maha Thiha Thura moved upriver by boat toward
2546:
was furious that his generals had acted without his knowledge, and tore up his copy of the treaty. Knowing that the king was angry, the Burmese armies were afraid to return to the capital. In January 1770, they marched to
2030:. Ming Rui now resorted to defensive tactics, playing for time to enable the northern army to come to his relief. But it was not to be. The northern army had suffered heavy casualties in their repeated attacks against the
1723:
militias accompanied this force. Provinces throughout China were mobilized to provide supplies. The total strength of the invasion force was 50,000 men, the vast majority being infantry. The mountains and thick jungles of
2829:
and other tropical diseases, and many perished as a result. This neutralized the Chinese advantage of superior numbers, and allowed the Burmese to engage the Chinese armies head-to-head towards the end of the campaigns.
2738:
The main beneficiaries of the war were the Siamese, who took full advantage of the Burmese absence to reclaim their lost territories and independence. By 1770, they had reconquered most of the pre-1765 territories. Only
2065:. The Qing commander at Hsenwi committed suicide. The main Qing army was now cut off from all supplies. It was now March 1768. Thousands of Bannermen from the freezing grasslands along the Russian border, began dying of
1776:
As a result, when the invasion did come in November 1767, the Burmese defenses had not been upgraded to meet a much larger and a more determined foe. The Burmese command looked much like that of the second invasion.
1998:
famously did not panic at the prospect of a large Chinese army, numbering around 30,000 men at his doorstep. The court urged the king to flee, but he scornfully refused, saying he and his brother princes, sons of
2508:(known as the Treaty of Kaungton). The Chinese burned their boats and melted down their cannon. Two days later, as the Burmese stood to arms and looked down, starved Chinese soldiers marched sullenly away up the
2864:
Yet it proved that there were limits to the Burmese military power. The Burmese learned that they could not fight two simultaneous wars, especially if one of them was against the world's largest military. King
4618:
2691:) of southern Yunnan remained as authority of Burma until British occupied the whole Burma in 1886. Likewise, the Chinese exercised a degree of control over the borderlands, including present-day northeastern
2022:. The Burmese guerrilla attacks on the long supply lines across the jungles of the Shan Hills were seriously hampering the Qing army's ability to proceed. Burmese guerrilla operations were directed by General
2321:
fort. In the last week of September, three Burmese armies were dispatched to meet the three Chinese armies head-on. A fourth army was organized with the sole purpose of cutting the enemy supply lines. King
2641:, the resumption was on equal terms, and they considered the exchange of presents as part of diplomatic etiquette, not as tribute. To the Chinese however, all of these diplomatic missions were considered
2774:, who hitherto had never faced defeat, now had to accept—albeit grudgingly—that there were limits to Qing power. A historian of Chinese military history, Marvin Whiting, writes that the Burmese success
2172:
at a time when most believed that war was too risky. On 14 April 1768, the imperial court announced the death of Ming Rui and the appointment of Fuheng as the new chief commander of the Burma campaign.
1968:
at the beginning of 1768. The only bright spot for the Burmese was that the northern invasion force, which was to come down the Irrawaddy to join up with Ming Rui's main army, had been held off at
2409:
where other Chinese forces were stationed. The Chinese armies were now trapped inside the corridor between the Shwenyaungbin and Kaungton forts, completely surrounded by rings of Burmese forces.
1874:
route again. The ultimate objective was for both armies to clamp themselves in a pincer action on the Burmese capital of Ava. The Burmese plan was to hold the second Chinese army in the north at
958:(Inwa). But the bannermen of northern China could not cope with unfamiliar tropical terrains and lethal endemic diseases, and were driven back with heavy losses. After the close call, King
4682:
1736:
court now seriously considered the threat of illnesses among its troops; as a precaution, the campaign was planned for the winter months when diseases were believed to be less prevalent.
1361:
used a few minor trade disputes between local Chinese and Burmese merchants as the excuse to order an invasion of Kengtung in December 1765. The invasion force, which consisted of 3,500
1192:. By the mid-1740s, the authority of the Burmese king had largely dissipated. In 1752, the Toungoo dynasty was toppled by the forces of the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom which captured
2857:
The Burmese military proved that they were able and willing to take on a far superior enemy, using their familiarity with the terrain and the weather to their maximum advantage (the
2301:
so as to minimize the Burmese guerrilla attacks on his supply lines. He also brought in a full regiment of carpenters who would build fortresses and boats along the invasion route.
1634:, after losing 10,000 men had sued for peace. He recommended that the emperor graciously accept the peace offer to restore the normal trade relations between the two countries. The
1748:
did not seem to realize the gravity of the situation. Throughout the first two invasions, he had steadfastly refused to recall the main Burmese armies, which had been battling in
5238:
2563:. The Burmese raised their nominee to the throne and returned. The king's anger had subsided; after all, they had won victories and preserved his throne. Still, the king sent
1389:"There is no way to pay back the emperor's favor. I deserve death with my crime". While this kind of suicide in the face of bureaucratic failure apparently was not unusual in
4516:
2584:, the Burmese did not return the 2,500 Chinese prisoners of war, who were resettled. The Qing had lost some of the generation's most important frontier experts, including
2124:
and sent it to the Emperor as a token of his loyalty by those who were escaping. He then hanged himself on a tree. In the end, only a few dozen of the main army returned.
5277:
1801:
fort. Given that the main Burmese army was only about 7,000 strong, the entire Burmese defense at the start of the third invasion was most likely no more than 20,000.
828:
2297:'s mistake, he was determined to guard his supply and communication lines, and advance at a sustainable pace. He avoided an invasion route through the jungles of the
2095:
began his retreat, pursued by a Burmese army of 10,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry. The Burmese then tried to encircle the Chinese by splitting the army into two.
1060:
2751:
alone even as Siam continued to consolidate its gains (he was finally forced to send Burmese armies to Siam in 1775 in response to a Siamese-backed rebellion in
1699:). His appointment meant that this was no longer a border dispute but a full-fledged war. Ming Rui arrived in Yunnan in April. An invasion force consisting of
2285:
head-on, which he knew would be difficult. But two other larger armies would bypass Kaungton and march down the Irrawaddy, one on each bank of the river, to
1052:
decided to impose a tighter control of Yunnan's border regions while the Burmese authority largely dissipated with the rapid decline of the Toungoo dynasty.
4611:
5282:
5118:
1574:
army out of Kaungton fort, and Ne Myo Sithu's army from the north. The Chinese retreated eastwards and then northwards where another Burmese army led by
2645:. The Emperor viewed the resumption of relations as Burmese submission, and unilaterally claimed victory and included the Burma campaign in his list of
2578:
Although hostilities ceased, an uneasy truce ensued. None of the points in the treaty was honored by both sides. Because the Chinese did not return the
2035:
1859:
2003:, would fight the Chinese single-handed if they had to. Instead of defending the capital, Hsinbyushin calmly sent an army to take up position outside
1893:
At first, everything went according to plan for the Qing. The third invasion began in November 1767 as the smaller Chinese army attacked and occupied
4069:
History of Burma: including Burma proper, Pegu, Taungu, Tenasserim, and Arakan. From the earliest time to the end of the first war with British India
2492:
The emperor of China and the king of Burma would resume friendly relations, regularly exchanging embassies bearing letters of good will and presents.
2168:, Ming Rui's uncle. Back in the 1750s, Fuheng had been one of the few senior officials who had fully backed the Emperor's decision to eliminate the
4957:
3967:
3097:
3051:
4697:
1172:
was faced with multiple external raids and internal rebellions and could not take any reciprocal action. Throughout the 1730s, the dynasty faced
971:
1790, the Qing unilaterally viewed the act as Burmese submission, and claimed victory. Ultimately, the main beneficiaries of this war were the
821:
5102:
5073:
4692:
4148:
2585:
1843:
1615:
1429:
1398:
736:
4774:
2552:
532:
17:
2396:
invasion force was bogged down at the border. Predictably, many Chinese soldiers and sailors fell ill, and began to die in large numbers.
2309:
For the Burmese, the overall objective was to stop the enemy at the border, and prevent another Chinese penetration into their heartland.
4313:
2947:
790:
4655:
1917:
a supply base, and assigned 5,000 troops to remain at Hsenwi and guard the rear. He then led a 15,000-strong army in the direction of
4762:
4747:
1433:
1358:
1307:
814:
2625:
It would be another twenty years when Burma and China resumed a diplomatic relationship in 1790. The resumption was brokered by the
5557:
4449:
2869:'s reckless decision to fight a two-front war nearly cost the kingdom its independence. Moreover, their losses, while smaller than
2593:
2186:
2182:
1378:
3021:
The number is derived from the fact that only a few dozens of the 30,000 strong main army managed to return to Yunnan. (See e.g. (
1826:
planned a two-pronged invasion as soon as the rainy season ended. The main Chinese army, led by Ming Rui himself, was to approach
2942:
1354:
1162:
1158:
943:
5485:
4824:
2743:
remained in Burmese hands. Preoccupied by the Chinese threat, and recovering from the depletion of manpower from the war, King
2289:. The twin invading armies on each side of the river would be accompanied by war boats manned by thousands of sailors from the
2014:
had overstretched himself, and was in no position to proceed any farther. He was now too far away from his main supply base at
1117:
of the border who used to pay dual tributes, were increasingly siding with the more powerful Qing. By 1735, the year which the
1761:
months in order to mop up the remaining Siamese resistance during the winter months later that year. He actually allowed many
5516:
4757:
4104:
4085:
4057:
4038:
3951:
3923:
3080:
2642:
1373:
militias, laid siege to Kengtung but could not match battle-hardened Burmese troops at the Kengtung garrison, led by General
2069:
as well as Burmese attacks in the furnace-like hot weather of central Burma. Ming Rui gave up all hope of proceeding toward
1555:. One Qing report stated that 800 out of 1,000 soldiers in one garrison had died of disease, and that another 100 were ill.
5597:
5562:
4986:
4737:
4650:
4374:
1472:, a few miles south of Bhamo on the Irrawaddy. The Kaungton fort had been especially equipped with the cannon corps led by
2873:
losses, were heavy in proportion to their much smaller size of population, hampering their military capability elsewhere.
4559:
4389:
1048:(chiefs) at the border regions paying tribute to both sides. The situation turned to China's favor in the 1730s when the
5202:
4571:
4444:
4268:
2152:
assuming an easy victory. He had begun making plans about how he would administer his newest territory. For weeks, the
1570:-Bhamo corridor, cut off from all supplies. The Burmese then proceeded to attack the main Chinese army from two sides—
1081:
attempts for tighter control of the border were initially met with fierce resistance by the local chiefs. In 1732, the
1590:
and defeated other lightly held Chinese garrisons at the border. The Burmese armies proceeded to occupy eight Chinese
5491:
5332:
5207:
4564:
4141:
4006:
3904:
2465:, on his own responsibility, and without informing the king, demanded that the Chinese agree to the following terms:
729:
2982:, pp. 171–173); from Burmese sources; figures adjusted down by one magnitude per G.E. Harvey's analysis in his
2551:
where a rebellion had begun, taking advantage of Burmese troubles with the Chinese. After a three days' battle near
1512:
in December 1766, and established a supply base. The Chinese then proceeded to lay siege to the Burmese garrison at
1203:, saying that all "barbarian" tribes under his rule must be studied and reported their natures and cultures back to
5302:
2614:
for about one decade in an attempt to wage another war while imposing a ban on inter-border trade for two decades.
1692:
1464:'s plan was to lure the Chinese into Burmese territory, and then surround them. The Burmese commander in the field
775:
1929:), the two main armies faced off and the first major battle of the third invasion ensued. Outnumbered two-to-one,
5567:
5552:
5419:
4662:
4349:
4235:
2755:
a year earlier). In the following decades, Siam would become a power in its own right, swallowing up Lan Na, the
1015:
borderlands between 1380 and 1388, and stamped out local resistance by the mid-1440s. The Burmese control of the
2313:
was the overall commander, the role which he had assumed since the second half of the third invasion. As usual,
1199:
By then, the Qing control of the former borderlands was unquestioned. In 1752, the Emperor issued a manuscript,
5612:
5602:
5003:
4869:
4637:
4384:
4323:
4293:
4283:
2932:
2385:. But for four consecutive weeks, the Burmese put up a remarkable defense, withstanding gallant charges by the
2223:
to face the Chinese. With the Burmese fully preoccupied with the Chinese threat, the Siamese resistance retook
2200:. The Burmese also sent signals that they would like to give diplomacy a chance, given their preoccupations in
1655:
After the two defeats, the Qing emperor and his court could not comprehend how a relatively small country like
770:
5437:
5212:
5068:
4752:
4742:
4727:
4722:
4554:
4504:
4484:
4424:
4258:
1539:
The impasse did not favor the Chinese troops who were utterly unprepared to fight in the tropical weather of
2326:
had also organized a flotilla of war boats to meet the Chinese war boats. The Burmese defenses now included
5647:
5196:
4974:
4841:
4707:
4601:
4211:
4201:
4134:
1230:
1189:
722:
3878:
Fernquest, Jon (Autumn 2006). "Crucible of War: Burma and the Ming in the Tai Frontier Zone (1382–1454)".
2794:, the war highlighted limits to their military power. The Emperor blamed the low battle-worthiness of his
5113:
5096:
4606:
4581:
4544:
4454:
4414:
4166:
3988:
Jung, Richard J. K. (1971). "The Sino-Burmese War, 1766–1770: War and Peace Under the Tributary System".
2242:
1578:
was waiting. The two other Burmese armies also followed up, and the Chinese army was destroyed entirely.
5592:
5587:
5582:
5577:
5572:
5496:
4942:
4031:
Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland
3854:
2042:. The commander was later publicly shamed and executed (sliced to death) on the orders of the Emperor.
1851:
2712:"Their other victories were over states on their own level such as Siam; this was won over an empire.
5642:
5547:
5506:
5225:
5154:
4947:
4479:
4404:
4273:
4191:
1070:
3837:
2695:. Overall, the Burmese were able to push back the line of control up to one that existed before the
2443:
in 1768, realized that another wipe-out would merely stiffen the resolve of the Chinese government.
1257:
authority. (Nearer Shan States had been reacquired since 1754). Three of the ten farther Shan state
5427:
5247:
4981:
4952:
4702:
3896:
2886:
2575:. He would not allow them to see him. He also exiled ministers who dared to speak on their behalf.
1173:
1105:
captainships and regional commanderships. To complete the agreements, the third ranking officer of
852:
513:
2161:
could be conquered. But there was no real choice but to press on. Imperial prestige was at stake.
1397:(the Chinese word for "Burmese") was now a matter of imperial prestige. The Emperor now appointed
1039:
conquered all of the Shan States. The border was never demarcated in the modern sense, with local
975:, who reclaimed most of their territories in the next three years after having lost their capital
5632:
5617:
5023:
4489:
4474:
4308:
4206:
2952:
2676:
1867:
1863:
954:
nearly succeeded, penetrating deep into central Burma within a few days' march from the capital,
785:
1667:
themselves to come into the picture. He had always doubted the battle-worthiness of his Chinese
5652:
5637:
5627:
5622:
5607:
5404:
5292:
5173:
4998:
4216:
2475:
and other rebels and fugitives from Burmese justice who had taken shelter in Chinese territory;
1922:
1818:
862:
3944:
Fighting techniques of the Oriental world, AD 1200–1860: equipment, combat skills, and tactics
2405:, which fell after a fierce battle. The fleeing Chinese troops fell back into the pocket near
2377:
But almost nothing went according to plan. One army did cross over to the western bank of the
5478:
5337:
5297:
4964:
4926:
4814:
4794:
4712:
4511:
4494:
4359:
4328:
4263:
4115:
2814:
2730:, though he described the Sino-Burmese war "a righteous war of defense against the invader".
2196:
Before any fighting resumed, some on the Chinese side sent out peace feelers to the court of
1855:
760:
3025:, pp. 102–103).) This figure does not include casualties suffered by the northern army.
117:
Siam regained independence from Burma since the war forced the Burmese to withdraw from Siam
56:
5409:
5376:
5342:
5287:
5167:
5149:
4859:
4789:
4596:
4379:
2567:, the decorated general, whose daughter was married to Hsinbyushin's son and heir-apparent
1941:
too was repulsed at Hsenwi. The news of the disaster at the Goteik Gorge reached Ava. King
1781:
again assigned the same commanders of the second invasion to face off against the Chinese.
838:
765:
1558:
With the Chinese army greatly weakened, the Burmese then launched their offensive. First,
1520:'s defenses held off repeated Chinese assaults. Meanwhile, two Burmese armies, one led by
120:
Solidified tripartite division of Mainland Southeast Asia between Burma, Siam, and Vietnam
8:
5462:
5312:
5252:
5184:
4864:
4717:
4672:
4419:
4298:
4278:
4186:
2937:
2795:
2646:
1980:
1945:
finally realized the gravity of the situation, and urgently recalled Burmese armies from
1668:
1362:
1323:
1102:
935:
928:
927:
launched four invasions of Burma between 1765 and 1769, which were considered one of his
746:
508:
48:
5347:
5058:
5053:
4879:
4819:
4809:
4804:
4799:
4623:
4469:
4288:
3961:
3866:
3825:
2622:. It would be another five years when the Burmese sent another invasion force to Siam.
1440:, which was located far away from the Burmese heartland, Yang was determined to strike
780:
546:
3845:
Dai, Yingcong (2004). "A Disguised Defeat: The Myanmar Campaign of the Qing Dynasty".
2995:~20,000 at the beginning, plus additional 10,000 men and 2,000 cavalry towards the end
2877:'s military power would plateau in the following decades. It made no progress against
1785:
led the main Burmese army, and was the overall commander of the Chinese theater, with
5357:
5352:
5327:
5272:
5267:
5190:
5138:
5043:
4874:
4779:
4677:
4576:
4539:
4464:
4394:
4364:
4318:
4100:
4081:
4053:
4034:
4002:
3947:
3919:
3900:
3870:
3076:
2721:
2224:
2121:
2053:
had begun to arrive back. Bolstered by the reinforcements, two Burmese armies led by
2023:
1627:
947:
857:
795:
463:
166:
31:
2821:
cuts. Perhaps most importantly, the Qing soldiers proved ill-suited to fight in the
1744:
The Burmese now faced the largest Chinese army yet mobilized against them. Yet King
1532:'s army also arrived and took position near Bhamo to block the escape route back to
1381:, and defeated them there. Ne Myo Sithu left a reinforced garrison, and returned to
709:
Burmese Royal horse army (3,000), Shan local army (500-2,000), Burmese army (10,000)
5511:
5394:
5317:
5257:
5063:
4784:
4645:
4591:
4434:
4399:
4228:
4196:
3977:
3858:
2874:
2858:
2838:
2834:
2825:
of Burma. In the last three invasions, thousands of Chinese troops became ill with
2822:
2771:
2740:
2564:
2525:
2462:
2446:
2440:
2432:
2335:
2331:
2310:
2273:
expeditions to form his battle plan, which called for a three-pronged invasion via
2141:
2112:
2096:
2086:
2054:
2027:
1938:
1887:
1786:
1757:
1635:
1575:
1529:
1481:
1422:
1350:
1226:
1118:
1065:
976:
924:
916:
892:
884:
867:
473:
415:
371:
337:
318:
298:
266:
231:
217:
193:
178:
3098:"The Fall of Ayutthaya and Siam's Disrupted Order of Tribute to China (1767-1782)"
3052:"The Fall of Ayutthaya and Siam's Disrupted Order of Tribute to China (1767-1782)"
2164:
The Emperor turned to one of his most trusted advisers, the chief grand councilor
1298:. But the strategy did not work. In 1764, a Burmese army, which was on its way to
942:. The Qing invasion came as the majority of Burmese forces were deployed in their
5526:
5472:
5322:
5307:
5131:
4586:
4549:
4499:
4459:
4409:
4354:
4223:
3070:
2421:
2378:
2371:
2278:
2247:
1961:
1712:
1583:
1453:
1169:
1036:
2798:
armies for the first two failed invasions. But he was to concede later that his
5389:
5262:
5028:
4991:
4439:
4429:
4369:
2924:
2779:
2610:. Nonetheless, the Emperor kept a heavy military lineup in the border areas of
2370:. As planned, the carpenters duly built hundreds of war boats to sail down the
2355:
2354:, against the advice of his officers, decided not to wait until the end of the
2209:
2169:
1688:
1437:
1417:
1284:
1146:
1110:
972:
3862:
1310:, a respected scholarly minister from the capital to sort out the matters. At
5541:
5501:
5467:
5432:
5048:
5038:
4854:
4245:
2882:
2802:
2799:
2402:
2386:
2363:
2327:
2174:
2149:
2116:
1956:
pressed on full-steam ahead, overrunning one town after another, and reached
1934:
1847:
1704:
1623:
1540:
1473:
1441:
1264:
1185:
1177:
1091:
951:
496:
284:
249:
3942:
Haskew, Michael E., Christer Joregensen, Eric Niderost, Chris McNab (2008).
5521:
5218:
5160:
4849:
4831:
4687:
4157:
2910:
2870:
2861:
is now a military case study of infantry fighting against a larger army.).
2791:
2767:
2696:
2692:
2509:
2505:
2393:
2266:
2235:
2190:
2153:
2058:
1910:
1906:
1879:
1839:
1790:
1733:
1660:
1631:
1559:
1525:
1505:
1445:
1390:
1374:
1272:
1250:
1242:
1138:
1134:
1078:
1049:
1020:
1008:
908:
439:
149:
87:
2637:
officials who wanted to see trade resume. To the Burmese, then under King
2535:
or other fugitives nor the resumption of trade between the two countries.
1468:
was ordered to give up Bhamo, and instead stay at the Burmese stockade at
5457:
5178:
4899:
4894:
2866:
2818:
2744:
2707:
2706:. Their victory over the Qing is described as a moral victory. Historian
2630:
2626:
2572:
2543:
2479:
2323:
2265:
in April, 1769 to take command of a 60,000-strong force. He studied past
2216:
1995:
1942:
1902:
1882:, and meet the main Chinese army in the northeast with two armies led by
1804:
1778:
1762:
1745:
1720:
1716:
1591:
1493:
1461:
1370:
1366:
1319:
1315:
1238:
1086:
1040:
1028:
1016:
959:
557:
402:
95:
3072:
A History of Myanmar since Ancient Times: Traditions and Transformations
1460:. The Burmese knew the route of invasion in advance, and were prepared.
1448:
claimant on the Burmese throne. Yang's planned path of invasion was via
5125:
4969:
4919:
4889:
4732:
2881:. Its later conquests came only against smaller kingdoms to the west —
2852:
2717:
2713:
2417:
2314:
2298:
2212:
states informing them of the Chinese ambition and seeking an alliance.
2193:
military establishment prepared for a final showdown with the Burmese.
2104:
2100:
2019:
2000:
1930:
1883:
1794:
1782:
1579:
1571:
1521:
1517:
1465:
1246:
1234:
1233:, and went on to reunite much of the kingdom by 1758. In 1758–59, King
1219:
1181:
1154:
1032:
1024:
992:
934:
At first, the Qing emperor envisaged an easy war, and sent in only the
518:
451:
427:
83:
4126:
2478:
The Chinese would undertake to respect Burmese sovereignty over those
1642:. On his arrival, Yang committed suicide at the order of the Emperor.
1432:
arrived in the summer of 1766 to take command. Unlike the invasion of
1393:
China, it reportedly enraged the Emperor nonetheless. Sorting out the
714:
4914:
4904:
3893:
Asian borderlands: the transformation of Qing China's Yunnan frontier
2667:
2638:
2568:
1708:
1691:
in the northwest and was in command of the strategically key post of
1638:
however realized the falsity of the report, and ordered Yang back to
1587:
1548:
1406:
1322:
militias alone was not working, and that he needed to commit regular
2571:, a woman's dress to wear, and exiled him and other generals to the
1113:
personally and held a ceremony of allegiance. By the mid-1730s, the
333:
5399:
5144:
5091:
5033:
4909:
4884:
4097:
The Cambridge history of China: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Volume 9
2878:
2844:
2810:
2760:
2756:
2748:
2703:
2688:
2684:
2619:
2512:
valley; they began to perish of hunger by thousands in the passes.
2497:
2406:
2382:
2367:
2318:
2282:
2220:
2201:
2050:
2031:
1969:
1946:
1875:
1798:
1753:
1696:
1687:, and head of the Burma campaign. Ming Rui had seen battle against
1676:
1567:
1513:
1485:
1477:
1469:
1402:
1346:
1299:
1150:
806:
367:
2851:(1765–1769) testified to a truly astonishing elan unmatched since
987:
123:
Resumption of diplomatic relations between Burma and China in 1790
5384:
3395:
3393:
2826:
2806:
2725:
2662:
2601:
2589:
2580:
2548:
2531:
2521:
2501:
2483:
2471:
2436:
2294:
2270:
2158:
2145:
2092:
2066:
2062:
2046:
2015:
2011:
1953:
1914:
1898:
1823:
1729:
1725:
1700:
1684:
1656:
1639:
1611:
1552:
1544:
1492:), was ordered to march to the Bhamo theater across the northern
1311:
1280:
1254:
1204:
1142:
1126:
1044:
1000:
262:
1237:, the founder of the dynasty, sent an expedition to the farther
1168:
While the Qing were consolidating their hold at the border, the
4021:
3715:
3713:
3618:
3616:
3614:
3612:
3610:
3608:
3571:
3569:
3567:
3565:
3563:
3561:
3510:
3508:
3506:
3466:
3464:
3462:
3460:
3458:
3226:
3224:
3222:
3220:
3218:
3216:
3214:
2752:
2680:
2634:
2611:
2597:
2424:
2397:
2351:
2290:
2262:
2258:
2205:
2165:
2074:
2039:
1926:
1835:
1831:
1756:
since January 1765, and laying siege to the Siamese capital of
1680:
1664:
1610:
with the captured guns, muskets and prisoners in early May. At
1595:
1543:. Thousands of Chinese soldiers reportedly were struck down by
1533:
1489:
1276:
1259:
1125:
had sided with the Qing. The annexed border states ranged from
1106:
1097:
1082:
1012:
967:
939:
386:
314:
91:
3784:
3782:
3390:
3356:
3354:
2500:, on 13 December 1769 (or 22 December 1769), under a 7-roofed
1064:
Myanmar (缅甸国) delegates in Peking in 1761, at the time of the
5108:
4667:
3700:
3698:
3696:
3694:
3692:
3690:
3688:
3686:
3533:
3531:
3529:
3527:
3525:
3523:
3433:
3431:
3429:
3427:
3425:
3423:
3296:
3294:
3292:
3290:
3288:
2890:
2848:
2672:
2560:
2359:
2339:
2274:
2049:. By early 1768, battle-hardened Burmese reinforcements from
2004:
1957:
1894:
1871:
1846:. The main invasion route was the same route followed by the
1619:
1563:
1509:
1449:
1377:. The Burmese lifted the siege and pursued the invaders into
1268:
1215:
1130:
1004:
966:
The Qing kept a heavy military lineup in the border areas of
920:
912:
553:
3745:
3743:
3710:
3661:
3659:
3657:
3655:
3605:
3558:
3503:
3455:
3236:
3211:
3115:
3113:
3111:
3069:
Aung-Thwin, Michael; Aung-Thwin, Maitrii (15 October 2013).
2604:
in 1770). The war cost the Qing treasury 9.8 million silver
2231:
2038:, against the express orders of Ming Rui, retreated back to
1675:
In 1767, the Emperor appointed the veteran Manchu commander
1055:
5278:
Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet
4767:
3779:
3730:
3728:
3351:
2606:
2556:
2539:
2286:
2197:
2178:
2108:
2070:
1991:
1984:
1965:
1918:
1827:
1766:
1749:
1607:
1457:
1382:
1338:
1334:
1193:
955:
353:
3935:
History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824
3683:
3520:
3420:
3339:
3285:
2702:
However, the war also forced the Burmese to withdraw from
2111:. Over the course of three days of bloody fighting at the
1622:
had been occupied; that its inhabitants had begun wearing
3740:
3652:
3628:
3366:
3327:
3201:
3199:
3186:
3184:
3182:
3180:
3178:
3176:
3108:
2679:
in 1824, the Burmese exerted authority over the southern
2496:
The Chinese commanders decided to agree to the terms. At
2362:. They proceeded south and built a massive fortress near
2189:
were appointed as his deputies. Now, the top rung of the
1933:'s main Burmese army was thoroughly routed by Ming Rui's
1582:'s army which had been guarding the western flank of the
1345:
In early 1765, a 20,000-strong Burmese army stationed at
665:
4,500 foot, 200 horse (RBA)Shan national archer army(400)
3794:
3725:
3581:
3548:
3546:
3493:
3491:
3410:
3408:
3378:
3317:
3315:
3313:
3311:
3309:
3151:
3149:
3147:
3134:
3132:
3130:
3128:
1566:. The main Chinese army was now totally holed up in the
1306:
complained to China. In response, the Emperor appointed
4095:
Woodside, Alexander (2002). Willard J. Peterson (ed.).
3767:
1401:, an experienced frontier officer with long service in
3196:
3173:
3161:
1302:, was increasing its grip of the borderlands, and the
3755:
3543:
3488:
3476:
3443:
3405:
3306:
3275:
3273:
3271:
3269:
3267:
3265:
3263:
3248:
3144:
3125:
4078:
Imperial Chinese Military History: 8000 BC – 1912 AD
3640:
3068:
2900:
2392:
A little over a month into the invasion, the entire
2215:
Ava now fully expected another major invasion. King
2007:, personally leading his men toward the front line.
1808:
Main battle routes of the third invasion (1767–1768)
1210:
5283:
Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory
2986:(1925) in the section Numerical Note (pp. 333–335).
1085:government's demand of higher taxes led to several
3983:. New York and London: Cambridge University Press.
3976:
3671:
3593:
3260:
2504:hall, 14 Burmese and 13 Chinese officers signed a
2366:village, 12 miles east of the Burmese fortress at
1484:and posted at the easternmost Burmese garrison at
1101:, granting them Qing titles and powers, including
1480:in 1756). To reinforce them, another army led by
5539:
1176:raids that reached increasingly deeper parts of
4119:, Chapter 327, Biographies 114 《清史稿》卷327 列傳一百十四
3918:(3rd ed.). Hutchinson University Library.
3820:. Vol. 9. Canton: Printed for Proprietors.
2720:was stained with treachery; the great siege of
2099:had now assumed the overall command, replacing
1279:and tried to persuade Qing officials to invade
4683:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations
4099:. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
4050:The River of Lost Footsteps—Histories of Burma
3996:
3242:
1952:Having smashed through the main Burmese army,
1679:, a son-in-law of his, as governor-general of
1412:
1275:) and their militias reportedly ran away into
636:Green Standard and Tai-Shan militias (balance)
5103:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China
5074:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
4142:
2683:borderlands, as far as Kenghung (present-day
2219:had now brought most of the troops back from
1645:
1329:
822:
730:
3966:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2330:musketeers and gunners under the command of
30:For other wars between China and Burma, see
4113:
3167:
2135:
1707:troops rushed down from northern China and
1444:directly. He reportedly planned to place a
4149:
4135:
2817:meant that the Chinese were vulnerable to
2778:saved the independence of other states in
2766:From a wider geopolitical standpoint, the
2077:with as many of his soldiers as possible.
1618:began resorting to lies. He reported that
829:
815:
737:
723:
685:Total: 150,000 royal Burma army Shan army
649:2,000 foot, 200 horse (Royal Burmese Army)
4763:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
4028:
4015:
3974:
3877:
3800:
3773:
3734:
3719:
3622:
3587:
3575:
3514:
3470:
3345:
3230:
3102:Taiwan Journal of Southeast Asian Studies
3056:Taiwan Journal of Southeast Asian Studies
2555:, the Manipuris were defeated, and their
2130:
2018:, hundreds of miles away in the northern
1975:
1499:
1253:over two decades earlier, to reestablish
1201:Qing Imperial Illustration of Tributaries
1056:Qing consolidation of borderlands (1730s)
4612:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi
4094:
3818:Four Years' War between Burmah and China
3788:
3360:
2974:
2972:
2970:
2968:
2843:"These near simultaneous victories over
2416:
2281:. The first army would attack Bhamo and
2241:
2230:
1979:
1803:
1416:
1333:
1214:
1059:
986:
575:Total strength: 5,000 foot, 1,000 horse
5219:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
4156:
4075:
4047:
3890:
3704:
3537:
3437:
3414:
3384:
3372:
3300:
3205:
3155:
3138:
3119:
3022:
2489:All prisoners of war would be released;
2073:, and instead tried to make it back to
1739:
1663:. For the Emperor, it was time for the
1650:
1163:Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture
744:
184:
140:
61:Burma and China prior to the war (1765)
27:Qing dynasty war of expansion (1765-69)
14:
5540:
4066:
3941:
3932:
3815:
3761:
3749:
3665:
3646:
3634:
3552:
3497:
3482:
3449:
3399:
3333:
3254:
3190:
3009:
3005:
2979:
2657:
2304:
2253:
2107:(Maymyo), about 50 miles northeast of
1850:forces a century earlier, chasing the
1606:Victorious Burmese armies returned to
319:
5517:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions
4758:Principles of the Constitution (1908)
4130:
3095:
3049:
2965:
2350:As the Burmese armies marched north,
1793:commanding two other Burmese armies.
810:
718:
4738:Ministry of Posts and Communications
3987:
3913:
3599:
3321:
2805:too were less suited to fighting in
2469:The Chinese would surrender all the
1812:
905:Myanmar campaign of the Qing dynasty
836:
5486:History of Qing (People's Republic)
3946:(Illustrated ed.). Macmillan.
3937:. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.
3891:Giersch, Charles Patterson (2006).
3844:
3677:
3279:
2482:that had been historically part of
2080:
1476:gunners (captured at the battle of
1357:. With the main Burmese army gone,
1007:had long been vaguely defined. The
677:Total: ~30,000 foot, 2,000 cavalry
24:
5203:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor
4572:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)
4565:1909 Provincial Assembly elections
4445:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)
4269:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)
3816:Burney, Col. Henry (August 1840).
2833:The war is considered the peak of
2699:consolidation drive of the 1730s.
2675:. At least down to the eve of the
2435:, who oversaw the annihilation of
1858:. The second army, led by General
1773:at the start of the rainy season.
1630:; and that the Burmese commander,
995:, where major campaigns took place
25:
5664:
5492:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty
5333:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)
5208:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty
4360:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)
4067:Sir Arthur Purves Phayre (1884).
1249:), which had been annexed by the
1211:Burmese reassertion (1750s–1760s)
1121:ascended the Chinese throne, ten
652:Shan militia at Kengtung garrison
5303:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking
4619:Articles of Favourable Treatment
4375:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)
2917:
2903:
1353:, left Kengtung for yet another
540:
527:
502:
491:
468:
457:
445:
433:
421:
409:
395:
380:
361:
347:
327:
308:
291:
283:
276:
256:
248:
241:
224:
210:
186:
172:
160:
142:
73:December 1765 – 22 December 1769
55:
5558:Wars involving the Qing dynasty
4350:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813
4236:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
4080:. iUniverse. pp. 480–481.
3880:SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research
3015:
2998:
2989:
2943:Burmese–Siamese War (1765–1767)
2733:
2652:
2618:capability to renew warfare in
2045:The situation turned worse for
1562:easily retook the lightly held
1341:army in a 19th-century painting
1314:, Liu assessed that the use of
1019:(which covered the present-day
907:, was a war fought between the
591:Total: 25,000 foot, 2,500 horse
5004:Guest House of Imperial Envoys
4294:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
4033:. Cambridge University Press.
3089:
3062:
3043:
2687:, Yunnan). But, Chiang Huang (
2515:
1659:could resist the might of the
1225:In 1752, a new dynasty called
771:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
13:
1:
5438:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank
5213:Islam during the Qing dynasty
5069:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)
4753:Provincial military commander
4743:Nine Gates Infantry Commander
4728:Imperial Household Department
4555:Preparative Constitutionalism
4259:Sino-Russian border conflicts
4052:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
4029:Lieberman, Victor B. (2003).
3032:
2401:attacked the Chinese fort at
1290:and his followers also fled.
982:
796:Campaigns against the Gurkhas
5197:Researches on Manchu Origins
4602:Mongolian Revolution of 1911
4212:Transition from Ming to Qing
4202:Later Jin invasion of Joseon
3037:
1601:
1231:Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom
1190:Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom
613:30,000 bannermen and Mongols
114:Assured Burmese independence
42:Sino-Burmese War (1765–1769)
18:Sino-Burmese War (1765-1769)
7:
5563:Military history of Myanmar
5097:Changzhou School of Thought
4607:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang
4582:Railway Protection Movement
4560:1909 Parliamentary election
4545:British expedition to Tibet
4455:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang
4415:Self-Strengthening Movement
4390:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)
4076:Whiting, Marvin C. (2002).
2896:
2785:
2345:
2293:navy. To avoid a repeat of
1921:. In late December, at the
1413:Second invasion (1766–1767)
1161:(Kyaingyun) in present-day
923:(Myanmar). China under the
619:Tai-Shan militias (balance)
599:Tai-Shan militias (balance)
582:Tai-Shan militias (balance)
10:
5669:
5497:Legacy of the Qing dynasty
4385:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)
4324:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)
4314:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa
4284:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)
4024:: Yangon University Press.
3855:Cambridge University Press
3809:
2948:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa
2837:military power. Historian
2246:A Burmese war-boat on the
2084:
1901:'s main army occupied the
1816:
1646:Third invasion (1767–1768)
1528:, surrounded the Chinese.
1330:First invasion (1765–1766)
936:Green Standard Army troops
29:
5507:Names of the Qing dynasty
5450:
5418:
5375:
5368:
5237:
5155:Manchu Han Imperial Feast
5082:
5014:
4935:
4840:
4636:
4527:
4485:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)
4480:Gongche Shangshu movement
4425:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
4337:
4274:Chinese Rites controversy
4244:
4174:
4165:
4018:History of Union of Burma
3975:Htin Aung, Maung (1967).
3863:10.1017/s0026749x04001040
3008:, pp. 180–181) and (
1732:forces to a minimum. The
1245:and northern and eastern
1188:revolted and founded the
1031:) came in 1557 when King
896:
888:
848:
756:
690:
564:
552:
482:
200:
133:
65:
54:
46:
41:
5428:Great Qing Treasure Note
5248:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)
4958:Administrative divisions
4775:Administrative divisions
4703:Flag of the Qing dynasty
3897:Harvard University Press
3402:, pp. 191–192, 201.
2958:
2933:Mongol invasion of Burma
2671:, the nine states above
2600:(who eventually died of
2412:
2204:. But the Emperor, with
2136:Intermission (1768–1769)
1586:, then marched north of
1355:Burmese invasion of Siam
1090:to the Qing garrison at
999:The long border between
979:to the Burmese in 1767.
853:Siege of Kengtung (1765)
633:40,000 bannermen/Mongols
5598:China–Myanmar relations
5024:Chengde Mountain Resort
4825:Three Eastern Provinces
4475:First Sino-Japanese War
4450:Northern Chinese Famine
4309:Lin Shuangwen rebellion
4207:Qing invasion of Joseon
4048:Myint-U, Thant (2006).
3997:George C. Kohn (2006).
2953:First Anglo-Burmese War
2716:'s crusade against the
2677:First Anglo-Burmese War
2449:was said to have said:
1508:troops easily captured
1488:(present-day Jinghong,
901:Qing invasions of Burma
897:တရုတ်-မြန်မာ စစ်ပွဲများ
786:Lin Shuangwen rebellion
5568:18th-century conflicts
5553:Wars involving Myanmar
5405:Great Qing Copper Coin
5293:Convention of Tientsin
5226:Annotated Bibliography
5174:Qing official headwear
4217:Battle of Shanhai Pass
3933:Harvey, G. E. (1925).
3096:Erika, Masuda (2007).
3050:Erika, Masuda (2007).
2427:
2250:
2239:
2131:Fourth invasion (1769)
2061:succeeded in retaking
1987:
1976:Burmese counter-attack
1819:Battle of Goteik Gorge
1809:
1500:Trap at Bhamo–Kaungton
1426:
1342:
1222:
1074:
996:
863:Battle of Goteik Gorge
201:Commanders and leaders
5613:18th century in Burma
5603:18th century in China
5479:Draft History of Qing
5338:Treaty of Shimonoseki
5119:performance criticism
4723:Imperial Commissioner
4713:Great Qing Legal Code
4512:Eight-Nation Alliance
4495:Third plague pandemic
4405:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars
4329:White Lotus Rebellion
4116:Draft History of Qing
3914:Hall, D.G.E. (1960).
2815:scorched earth policy
2759:states, and parts of
2420:
2245:
2234:
1983:
1897:. Within eight days,
1878:with the army led by
1856:Southern Ming dynasty
1807:
1524:, and another led by
1420:
1337:
1218:
1063:
990:
899:), also known as the
701:4th campaign: 20,000+
699:3rd campaign: 30,000+
697:2nd campaign: ~20,000
691:Casualties and losses
616:12,000 Green Standard
596:14,000 Green Standard
5410:Great Qing Gold Coin
5343:Treaty of Tarbagatai
5288:Convention of Peking
5168:Pentaglot Dictionary
5150:Literary inquisition
4860:Ever Victorious Army
4693:Deliberative Council
4597:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil
4550:1905 Batang uprising
4490:Hundred Days' Reform
4380:Small Swords Society
4122:(in Chinese). China.
3847:Modern Asian Studies
2389:to scale the walls.
2034:fort. Its commander
1964:, 30 miles north of
1797:again commanded the
1740:Burmese mobilization
1651:Chinese mobilization
791:Invasion of Đại Việt
579:3,500 Green Standard
5648:Green Standard Army
5463:Anti-Qing sentiment
5313:Treaty of the Bogue
5253:Treaty of Nerchinsk
5185:Complete Tang Poems
4865:Green Standard Army
4748:Provincial governor
4718:Imperial Clan Court
4698:Diplomatic missions
4673:Consultative Bureau
4420:Tongzhi Restoration
4299:Afaqi Khoja revolts
4279:Ten Great Campaigns
4187:Jurchen unification
4071:. Trübner & co.
4001:. Checkmark Books.
3791:, pp. 265–266.
3752:, pp. 257–258.
3722:, pp. 181–183.
3707:, pp. 103–104.
3637:, pp. 196–198.
3625:, pp. 178–179.
3578:, pp. 314–318.
3540:, pp. 102–103.
3517:, pp. 177–178.
3473:, pp. 310–314.
3440:, pp. 100–101.
3363:, pp. 256–262.
3303:, pp. 101–110.
3243:George C. Kohn 2006
3233:, pp. 180–183.
3122:, pp. 480–481.
2938:Ten Great Campaigns
2658:Territorial changes
2647:Ten Great Campaigns
2305:Burmese battle plan
2254:Chinese battle plan
2010:It turned out that
1363:Green Standard Army
1324:Green Standard Army
929:Ten Great Campaigns
761:Conquest of Dzungar
748:Ten Great Campaigns
509:Green Standard Army
49:Ten Great Campaigns
5348:Treaty of Tientsin
5059:Western Qing tombs
5054:Eastern Qing tombs
4880:Peking Field Force
4624:Manchu Restoration
4517:Declaration of war
4470:Jindandao incident
4289:Lhasa riot of 1750
4016:Kyaw Thet (1962).
3999:Dictionary of wars
3979:A History of Burma
3668:, p. 255–257.
3375:, pp. 99–100.
3336:, p. 254–258.
3075:. Reaktion Books.
2724:was a magnificent
2643:tributary missions
2428:
2251:
2240:
1988:
1810:
1427:
1365:troops along with
1343:
1229:rose to challenge
1223:
1075:
997:
781:Jinchuan campaigns
766:Amursana rebellion
547:Royal Burmese Army
533:Royal Siamese Army
497:Eight Banners Army
111:Treaty of Kaungton
5593:Conflicts in 1769
5588:Conflicts in 1768
5583:Conflicts in 1766
5578:Conflicts in 1767
5573:Conflicts in 1765
5535:
5534:
5446:
5445:
5358:Treaty of Whampoa
5353:Treaty of Wanghia
5328:Treaty of Nanking
5298:Li–Lobanov Treaty
5273:Chefoo Convention
5268:Burlingame Treaty
5139:Kangxi Dictionary
5044:Old Summer Palace
4875:Firearm Battalion
4678:Cup of Solid Gold
4632:
4631:
4577:Manchurian plague
4540:Late Qing reforms
4531:(1901–1912)
4465:Sikkim expedition
4395:Panthay Rebellion
4365:Taiping Rebellion
4341:(1801–1900)
4319:Sino-Nepalese War
4264:Dzungar–Qing Wars
4250:(1683–1799)
4178:(1616–1683)
4106:978-0-521-24334-6
4087:978-0-595-22134-9
4059:978-0-374-16342-6
4040:978-0-521-80496-7
3953:978-0-312-38696-2
3925:978-1-4067-3503-1
3387:, pp. 59–80.
3348:, pp. 61–63.
3324:, pp. 27–29.
3193:, pp. 27–31.
3082:978-1-86189-939-2
2422:Military Minister
2225:Ayutthaya Kingdom
2024:Teingya Minkhaung
1870:) was to try the
1813:Chinese offensive
1349:, led by General
1153:) in present-day
876:
875:
858:Siege of Kaungton
804:
803:
713:
712:
668:Kaungton garrison
519:Tai-Shan militias
464:Teingya Minkhaung
247:Yang Yingju
167:Ayutthaya Kingdom
129:
128:
32:Sino-Burmese wars
16:(Redirected from
5660:
5643:Qianlong Emperor
5548:Konbaung dynasty
5512:New Qing History
5395:Qianlong Tongbao
5373:
5372:
5318:Treaty of Canton
5258:Unequal treaties
5064:Fuling Mausoleum
4663:Advisory Council
4592:Wuchang Uprising
4532:
4435:Tianjin Massacre
4400:Second Opium War
4342:
4304:Sino-Burmese War
4251:
4229:Battle of Penghu
4197:Seven Grievances
4179:
4172:
4171:
4151:
4144:
4137:
4128:
4127:
4123:
4110:
4091:
4072:
4063:
4044:
4025:
4012:
3993:
3984:
3982:
3971:
3965:
3957:
3938:
3929:
3910:
3887:
3874:
3841:
3835:
3831:
3829:
3821:
3804:
3798:
3792:
3786:
3777:
3771:
3765:
3759:
3753:
3747:
3738:
3732:
3723:
3717:
3708:
3702:
3681:
3675:
3669:
3663:
3650:
3644:
3638:
3632:
3626:
3620:
3603:
3597:
3591:
3585:
3579:
3573:
3556:
3550:
3541:
3535:
3518:
3512:
3501:
3495:
3486:
3480:
3474:
3468:
3453:
3447:
3441:
3435:
3418:
3412:
3403:
3397:
3388:
3382:
3376:
3370:
3364:
3358:
3349:
3343:
3337:
3331:
3325:
3319:
3304:
3298:
3283:
3277:
3258:
3252:
3246:
3240:
3234:
3228:
3209:
3203:
3194:
3188:
3171:
3165:
3159:
3153:
3142:
3136:
3123:
3117:
3106:
3105:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3066:
3060:
3059:
3047:
3026:
3019:
3013:
3002:
2996:
2993:
2987:
2984:History of Burma
2976:
2927:
2922:
2921:
2920:
2913:
2908:
2907:
2906:
2859:Battle of Maymyo
2839:Victor Lieberman
2823:tropical climate
2772:Qianlong Emperor
2565:Maha Thiha Thura
2526:Qianlong Emperor
2463:Maha Thiha Thura
2447:Maha Thiha Thura
2441:Battle of Maymyo
2433:Maha Thiha Thura
2332:Pierre de Milard
2311:Maha Thiha Thura
2142:Qianlong Emperor
2113:Battle of Maymyo
2097:Maha Thiha Thura
2087:Battle of Maymyo
2081:Battle of Maymyo
2055:Maha Thiha Thura
2028:Maha Thiha Thura
1939:Maha Thiha Thura
1913:. Ming Rui made
1888:Maha Thiha Thura
1787:Maha Thiha Thura
1728:kept the use of
1715:from Yunnan and
1695:(in present-day
1636:Qianlong Emperor
1576:Maha Thiha Thura
1530:Maha Thiha Thura
1504:As planned, the
1482:Maha Thiha Thura
1423:Qianlong Emperor
1379:Pu'er Prefecture
1351:Ne Myo Thihapate
1283:. The nephew of
1119:Qianlong Emperor
1066:Qianlong Emperor
1011:first conquered
952:Manchu Bannermen
925:Qianlong Emperor
917:Konbaung dynasty
898:
890:
881:Sino-Burmese War
868:Battle of Maymyo
843:
841:
840:Sino–Burmese War
831:
824:
817:
808:
807:
776:Sino-Burmese War
751:
749:
739:
732:
725:
716:
715:
682:Fourth invasion:
658:Second invasion:
625:Fourth invasion:
588:Second invasion:
545:
544:
543:
531:
530:
507:
506:
505:
495:
494:
474:Pierre de Milard
472:
471:
462:
461:
460:
450:
449:
448:
438:
437:
436:
426:
425:
424:
416:Maha Thiha Thura
414:
413:
412:
400:
399:
398:
385:
384:
383:
376:
366:
365:
364:
352:
351:
350:
342:
332:
331:
330:
321:
313:
312:
311:
303:
296:
295:
294:
287:
282:E'erdeng'e
281:
280:
279:
271:
261:
260:
259:
252:
246:
245:
244:
236:
229:
228:
227:
218:Qianlong Emperor
215:
214:
213:
196:
192:
190:
189:
179:Thonburi Kingdom
177:
176:
175:
165:
164:
163:
156:Co-belligerents:
152:
148:
146:
145:
107:Burmese victory
67:
66:
59:
39:
38:
21:
5668:
5667:
5663:
5662:
5661:
5659:
5658:
5657:
5538:
5537:
5536:
5531:
5527:Willow Palisade
5473:Chuang Guandong
5442:
5414:
5364:
5323:Treaty of Kulja
5308:Treaty of Aigun
5241:
5233:
5132:History of Ming
5084:
5078:
5016:
5010:
4936:Special regions
4931:
4870:Imperial Guards
4836:
4628:
4587:1911 Revolution
4533:
4530:
4523:
4500:Boxer Rebellion
4460:Sino-French War
4410:Amur Annexation
4355:First Opium War
4343:
4340:
4333:
4252:
4249:
4240:
4224:Great Clearance
4180:
4177:
4161:
4155:
4107:
4088:
4060:
4041:
4009:
3992:. Vol. 24.
3990:Papers on China
3959:
3958:
3954:
3926:
3907:
3833:
3832:
3823:
3822:
3812:
3807:
3799:
3795:
3787:
3780:
3772:
3768:
3760:
3756:
3748:
3741:
3733:
3726:
3718:
3711:
3703:
3684:
3680:, pp. 178.
3676:
3672:
3664:
3653:
3645:
3641:
3633:
3629:
3621:
3606:
3598:
3594:
3586:
3582:
3574:
3559:
3551:
3544:
3536:
3521:
3513:
3504:
3496:
3489:
3481:
3477:
3469:
3456:
3448:
3444:
3436:
3421:
3413:
3406:
3398:
3391:
3383:
3379:
3371:
3367:
3359:
3352:
3344:
3340:
3332:
3328:
3320:
3307:
3299:
3286:
3278:
3261:
3253:
3249:
3241:
3237:
3229:
3212:
3204:
3197:
3189:
3174:
3168:Qing Chronicles
3166:
3162:
3154:
3145:
3137:
3126:
3118:
3109:
3094:
3090:
3083:
3067:
3063:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3029:
3020:
3016:
3003:
2999:
2994:
2990:
2977:
2966:
2961:
2923:
2918:
2916:
2909:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2788:
2736:
2660:
2655:
2518:
2439:'s army at the
2415:
2348:
2307:
2279:Irrawaddy River
2256:
2248:Irrawaddy River
2138:
2133:
2127:
2091:In March 1768,
2089:
2083:
1978:
1962:Irrawaddy River
1842:, and down the
1821:
1815:
1742:
1713:Green Standards
1711:. Thousands of
1653:
1648:
1604:
1584:Irrawaddy River
1502:
1454:Irrawaddy River
1415:
1385:in April 1766.
1332:
1213:
1180:. In 1740, the
1170:Toungoo dynasty
1133:in present-day
1058:
1037:Toungoo dynasty
985:
944:latest invasion
877:
872:
844:
839:
837:
835:
805:
800:
752:
747:
745:
743:
704:
702:
700:
698:
684:
679:
676:
674:Third invasion:
671:
660:
655:
629:
627:
622:
609:
607:
605:Third invasion:
602:
592:
590:
585:
574:
572:First invasion:
541:
539:
528:
524:
523:
503:
501:
492:
478:
469:
458:
456:
446:
444:
434:
432:
422:
420:
410:
408:
396:
394:
381:
379:
378:
372:
362:
360:
359:
358:
348:
346:
338:
328:
326:
309:
307:
299:
292:
290:
277:
275:
267:
257:
255:
242:
240:
232:
225:
223:
211:
209:
187:
185:
173:
171:
170:
161:
159:
158:
154:
143:
141:
98:
60:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5666:
5656:
5655:
5650:
5645:
5640:
5635:
5633:1760s in Burma
5630:
5625:
5620:
5618:1760s in China
5615:
5610:
5605:
5600:
5595:
5590:
5585:
5580:
5575:
5570:
5565:
5560:
5555:
5550:
5533:
5532:
5530:
5529:
5524:
5519:
5514:
5509:
5504:
5499:
5494:
5489:
5482:
5475:
5470:
5465:
5460:
5454:
5452:
5448:
5447:
5444:
5443:
5441:
5440:
5435:
5430:
5424:
5422:
5416:
5415:
5413:
5412:
5407:
5402:
5397:
5392:
5390:Kangxi Tongbao
5387:
5381:
5379:
5370:
5366:
5365:
5363:
5362:
5361:
5360:
5355:
5350:
5345:
5340:
5335:
5330:
5325:
5320:
5315:
5310:
5305:
5300:
5295:
5290:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5263:Boxer Protocol
5255:
5250:
5244:
5242:
5235:
5234:
5232:
5231:
5230:
5229:
5215:
5210:
5205:
5200:
5193:
5188:
5181:
5176:
5171:
5164:
5157:
5152:
5147:
5142:
5135:
5128:
5123:
5122:
5121:
5111:
5106:
5099:
5094:
5088:
5086:
5080:
5079:
5077:
5076:
5071:
5066:
5061:
5056:
5051:
5046:
5041:
5036:
5031:
5029:Forbidden City
5026:
5020:
5018:
5012:
5011:
5009:
5008:
5007:
5006:
4996:
4995:
4994:
4992:General of Ili
4989:
4979:
4978:
4977:
4975:List of ambans
4972:
4962:
4961:
4960:
4950:
4945:
4939:
4937:
4933:
4932:
4930:
4929:
4924:
4923:
4922:
4917:
4912:
4902:
4897:
4892:
4887:
4882:
4877:
4872:
4867:
4862:
4857:
4852:
4846:
4844:
4838:
4837:
4835:
4834:
4829:
4828:
4827:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4787:
4777:
4772:
4771:
4770:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4680:
4675:
4670:
4665:
4660:
4659:
4658:
4653:
4642:
4640:
4634:
4633:
4630:
4629:
4627:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4615:
4614:
4609:
4604:
4599:
4594:
4584:
4579:
4574:
4569:
4568:
4567:
4562:
4552:
4547:
4542:
4536:
4534:
4529:
4525:
4524:
4522:
4521:
4520:
4519:
4509:
4508:
4507:
4497:
4492:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4447:
4442:
4440:Margary Affair
4437:
4432:
4430:Mudan incident
4427:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4372:
4370:Nian Rebellion
4367:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4346:
4344:
4339:
4335:
4334:
4332:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4255:
4253:
4248:
4242:
4241:
4239:
4238:
4233:
4232:
4231:
4221:
4220:
4219:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4183:
4181:
4176:
4169:
4163:
4162:
4154:
4153:
4146:
4139:
4131:
4125:
4124:
4111:
4105:
4092:
4086:
4073:
4064:
4058:
4045:
4039:
4026:
4020:(in Burmese).
4013:
4007:
3994:
3985:
3972:
3952:
3939:
3930:
3924:
3911:
3905:
3888:
3875:
3842:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3805:
3803:, p. 184.
3801:Lieberman 2003
3793:
3778:
3774:Lieberman 2003
3766:
3764:, p. 259.
3754:
3739:
3737:, p. 182.
3735:Htin Aung 1967
3724:
3720:Htin Aung 1967
3709:
3682:
3670:
3651:
3639:
3627:
3623:Htin Aung 1967
3604:
3592:
3590:, p. 178.
3588:Htin Aung 1967
3580:
3576:Kyaw Thet 1962
3557:
3555:, p. 253.
3542:
3519:
3515:Htin Aung 1967
3502:
3500:, p. 195.
3487:
3485:, p. 192.
3475:
3471:Kyaw Thet 1962
3454:
3452:, p. 250.
3442:
3419:
3404:
3389:
3377:
3365:
3350:
3346:Fernquest 2006
3338:
3326:
3305:
3284:
3282:, p. 145.
3259:
3257:, p. 258.
3247:
3235:
3231:Htin Aung 1967
3210:
3208:, p. 102.
3195:
3172:
3160:
3158:, p. 101.
3143:
3141:, p. 103.
3124:
3107:
3088:
3081:
3061:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3028:
3027:
3014:
2997:
2988:
2963:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2956:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2929:
2928:
2925:Myanmar portal
2914:
2898:
2895:
2796:Green Standard
2787:
2784:
2780:Southeast Asia
2735:
2732:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2517:
2514:
2494:
2493:
2490:
2487:
2476:
2458:
2457:
2414:
2411:
2356:monsoon season
2347:
2344:
2334:, governor of
2317:commanded the
2306:
2303:
2255:
2252:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2085:Main article:
2082:
2079:
2026:, a deputy of
1977:
1974:
1866:, or possibly
1852:Yongli Emperor
1817:Main article:
1814:
1811:
1769:battalions to
1741:
1738:
1689:Turkic peoples
1669:Green Standard
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1603:
1600:
1501:
1498:
1414:
1411:
1331:
1328:
1212:
1209:
1147:Kengtung State
1103:Green Standard
1057:
1054:
991:Topography of
984:
981:
874:
873:
871:
870:
865:
860:
855:
849:
846:
845:
834:
833:
826:
819:
811:
802:
801:
799:
798:
793:
788:
783:
778:
773:
768:
763:
757:
754:
753:
742:
741:
734:
727:
719:
711:
710:
707:
706:2,500 captured
703:Total: 70,000+
693:
692:
688:
687:
670:
669:
666:
654:
653:
650:
643:First invasion
639:
638:
637:
634:
628:Total: 250,000
621:
620:
617:
614:
601:
600:
597:
584:
583:
580:
567:
566:
562:
561:
550:
549:
537:
536:
535:
522:
521:
516:
511:
499:
488:
485:
484:
483:Units involved
480:
479:
477:
476:
466:
454:
442:
430:
418:
406:
391:
389:
357:
356:
344:
324:
305:
288:
273:
253:
238:
221:
206:
203:
202:
198:
197:
182:
136:
135:
131:
130:
127:
126:
125:
124:
121:
118:
115:
112:
104:
100:
99:
81:
79:
75:
74:
71:
63:
62:
52:
51:
44:
43:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5665:
5654:
5653:Eight Banners
5651:
5649:
5646:
5644:
5641:
5639:
5638:1765 in Burma
5636:
5634:
5631:
5629:
5628:1769 in China
5626:
5624:
5623:1765 in China
5621:
5619:
5616:
5614:
5611:
5609:
5608:1760s in Asia
5606:
5604:
5601:
5599:
5596:
5594:
5591:
5589:
5586:
5584:
5581:
5579:
5576:
5574:
5571:
5569:
5566:
5564:
5561:
5559:
5556:
5554:
5551:
5549:
5546:
5545:
5543:
5528:
5525:
5523:
5520:
5518:
5515:
5513:
5510:
5508:
5505:
5503:
5502:Manchu people
5500:
5498:
5495:
5493:
5490:
5488:
5487:
5483:
5481:
5480:
5476:
5474:
5471:
5469:
5468:Canton System
5466:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5456:
5455:
5453:
5449:
5439:
5436:
5434:
5433:Hubu Guanpiao
5431:
5429:
5426:
5425:
5423:
5421:
5417:
5411:
5408:
5406:
5403:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5393:
5391:
5388:
5386:
5383:
5382:
5380:
5378:
5374:
5371:
5367:
5359:
5356:
5354:
5351:
5349:
5346:
5344:
5341:
5339:
5336:
5334:
5331:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5314:
5311:
5309:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5260:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5246:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5236:
5228:
5227:
5223:
5222:
5221:
5220:
5216:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5206:
5204:
5201:
5199:
5198:
5194:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5186:
5182:
5180:
5177:
5175:
5172:
5170:
5169:
5165:
5163:
5162:
5158:
5156:
5153:
5151:
5148:
5146:
5143:
5141:
5140:
5136:
5134:
5133:
5129:
5127:
5124:
5120:
5117:
5116:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5104:
5100:
5098:
5095:
5093:
5090:
5089:
5087:
5083:Society &
5081:
5075:
5072:
5070:
5067:
5065:
5062:
5060:
5057:
5055:
5052:
5050:
5049:Summer Palace
5047:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5039:Mukden Palace
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5021:
5019:
5015:Palaces &
5013:
5005:
5002:
5001:
5000:
4997:
4993:
4990:
4988:
4985:
4984:
4983:
4980:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4968:
4967:
4966:
4963:
4959:
4956:
4955:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4940:
4938:
4934:
4928:
4925:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4913:
4911:
4908:
4907:
4906:
4903:
4901:
4898:
4896:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4881:
4878:
4876:
4873:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4861:
4858:
4856:
4855:Eight Banners
4853:
4851:
4848:
4847:
4845:
4843:
4839:
4833:
4830:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4788:
4786:
4783:
4782:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4769:
4766:
4765:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4708:Grand Council
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4676:
4674:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4648:
4647:
4644:
4643:
4641:
4639:
4635:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4589:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4558:
4557:
4556:
4553:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4537:
4535:
4528:20th century
4526:
4518:
4515:
4514:
4513:
4510:
4506:
4503:
4502:
4501:
4498:
4496:
4493:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4448:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4438:
4436:
4433:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4347:
4345:
4338:19th century
4336:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4256:
4254:
4247:
4243:
4237:
4234:
4230:
4227:
4226:
4225:
4222:
4218:
4215:
4214:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4184:
4182:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4164:
4159:
4152:
4147:
4145:
4140:
4138:
4133:
4132:
4129:
4121:
4118:
4117:
4112:
4108:
4102:
4098:
4093:
4089:
4083:
4079:
4074:
4070:
4065:
4061:
4055:
4051:
4046:
4042:
4036:
4032:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4014:
4010:
4008:0-8160-6578-0
4004:
4000:
3995:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3980:
3973:
3969:
3963:
3955:
3949:
3945:
3940:
3936:
3931:
3927:
3921:
3917:
3912:
3908:
3906:0-674-02171-1
3902:
3898:
3894:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3843:
3839:
3827:
3819:
3814:
3813:
3802:
3797:
3790:
3789:Woodside 2002
3785:
3783:
3776:, p. 32.
3775:
3770:
3763:
3758:
3751:
3746:
3744:
3736:
3731:
3729:
3721:
3716:
3714:
3706:
3701:
3699:
3697:
3695:
3693:
3691:
3689:
3687:
3679:
3674:
3667:
3662:
3660:
3658:
3656:
3649:, p. 29.
3648:
3643:
3636:
3631:
3624:
3619:
3617:
3615:
3613:
3611:
3609:
3602:, p. 28.
3601:
3596:
3589:
3584:
3577:
3572:
3570:
3568:
3566:
3564:
3562:
3554:
3549:
3547:
3539:
3534:
3532:
3530:
3528:
3526:
3524:
3516:
3511:
3509:
3507:
3499:
3494:
3492:
3484:
3479:
3472:
3467:
3465:
3463:
3461:
3459:
3451:
3446:
3439:
3434:
3432:
3430:
3428:
3426:
3424:
3417:, p. 68.
3416:
3411:
3409:
3401:
3396:
3394:
3386:
3381:
3374:
3369:
3362:
3361:Woodside 2002
3357:
3355:
3347:
3342:
3335:
3330:
3323:
3318:
3316:
3314:
3312:
3310:
3302:
3297:
3295:
3293:
3291:
3289:
3281:
3276:
3274:
3272:
3270:
3268:
3266:
3264:
3256:
3251:
3245:, p. 82.
3244:
3239:
3232:
3227:
3225:
3223:
3221:
3219:
3217:
3215:
3207:
3202:
3200:
3192:
3187:
3185:
3183:
3181:
3179:
3177:
3169:
3164:
3157:
3152:
3150:
3148:
3140:
3135:
3133:
3131:
3129:
3121:
3116:
3114:
3112:
3103:
3099:
3092:
3084:
3078:
3074:
3073:
3065:
3057:
3053:
3046:
3042:
3024:
3018:
3011:
3007:
3001:
2992:
2985:
2981:
2975:
2973:
2971:
2969:
2964:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2930:
2926:
2915:
2912:
2901:
2894:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2862:
2860:
2856:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2840:
2836:
2831:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2783:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2764:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2731:
2729:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2709:
2705:
2700:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2669:
2664:
2650:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2623:
2621:
2615:
2613:
2609:
2608:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2582:
2576:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2545:
2541:
2536:
2534:
2533:
2527:
2523:
2513:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2491:
2488:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2474:
2473:
2468:
2467:
2466:
2464:
2456:
2452:
2451:
2450:
2448:
2444:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2426:
2423:
2419:
2410:
2408:
2404:
2403:Shwenyaungbin
2399:
2395:
2390:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2375:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2364:Shwenyaungbin
2361:
2357:
2353:
2343:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2302:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2249:
2244:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2213:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2194:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2171:
2167:
2162:
2160:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2088:
2078:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2043:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2008:
2006:
2002:
1997:
1993:
1986:
1982:
1973:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1950:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1891:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1820:
1806:
1802:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1774:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1737:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1673:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1643:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1599:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1556:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1537:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1497:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1452:and down the
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1424:
1419:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1340:
1336:
1327:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1261:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1241:(present-day
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1221:
1217:
1208:
1206:
1202:
1197:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1166:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1099:
1093:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1073:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1053:
1051:
1047:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
994:
989:
980:
978:
974:
969:
964:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
938:stationed in
937:
932:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
894:
886:
882:
869:
866:
864:
861:
859:
856:
854:
851:
850:
847:
842:
832:
827:
825:
820:
818:
813:
812:
809:
797:
794:
792:
789:
787:
784:
782:
779:
777:
774:
772:
769:
767:
764:
762:
759:
758:
755:
750:
740:
735:
733:
728:
726:
721:
720:
717:
708:
705:
695:
694:
689:
686:
683:
678:
675:
667:
664:
663:
662:
659:
651:
648:
647:
646:
644:
640:
635:
632:
631:
630:
626:
618:
615:
612:
611:
610:
608:Total: 70000,
606:
598:
595:
594:
593:
589:
581:
578:
577:
576:
573:
569:
568:
563:
559:
555:
551:
548:
538:
534:
526:
525:
520:
517:
515:
512:
510:
500:
498:
490:
489:
487:
486:
481:
475:
467:
465:
455:
453:
443:
441:
431:
429:
419:
417:
407:
405:
404:
393:
392:
390:
388:
377:
375:
369:
355:
345:
343:
341:
335:
325:
322:
316:
306:
304:
302:
289:
286:
274:
272:
270:
264:
254:
251:
239:
237:
235:
230:Liu Zao
222:
220:
219:
208:
207:
205:
204:
199:
195:
183:
180:
168:
157:
153:
151:
138:
137:
132:
122:
119:
116:
113:
110:
109:
108:
105:
102:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
80:
77:
76:
72:
69:
68:
64:
58:
53:
50:
45:
40:
37:
33:
19:
5522:Treaty ports
5484:
5477:
5451:Other topics
5224:
5217:
5195:
5183:
5166:
5161:Peiwen Yunfu
5159:
5137:
5130:
5101:
4850:Beiyang Army
4832:Zongli Yamen
4688:Da-Qing Bank
4505:Red Lanterns
4303:
4158:Qing dynasty
4120:
4114:
4096:
4077:
4068:
4049:
4030:
4017:
3998:
3989:
3978:
3943:
3934:
3915:
3892:
3883:
3879:
3850:
3846:
3817:
3796:
3769:
3757:
3705:Myint-U 2006
3673:
3642:
3630:
3595:
3583:
3538:Myint-U 2006
3478:
3445:
3438:Myint-U 2006
3415:Giersch 2006
3385:Giersch 2006
3380:
3373:Giersch 2006
3368:
3341:
3329:
3301:Giersch 2006
3250:
3238:
3206:Giersch 2006
3163:
3156:Giersch 2006
3139:Giersch 2006
3120:Whiting 2002
3101:
3091:
3071:
3064:
3055:
3045:
3023:Myint-U 2006
3017:
3000:
2991:
2983:
2911:China portal
2863:
2842:
2832:
2789:
2775:
2765:
2737:
2734:Geopolitical
2711:
2701:
2693:Kachin State
2666:
2661:
2653:Significance
2624:
2616:
2605:
2579:
2577:
2537:
2530:
2519:
2510:Taping River
2506:peace treaty
2495:
2470:
2459:
2453:
2445:
2429:
2391:
2376:
2349:
2308:
2257:
2214:
2195:
2163:
2139:
2126:
2105:Pyin Oo Lwin
2090:
2059:Ne Myo Sithu
2044:
2009:
1989:
1951:
1923:Goteik Gorge
1892:
1880:Ne Myo Sithu
1822:
1791:Ne Myo Sithu
1775:
1770:
1743:
1674:
1654:
1632:Ne Myo Sithu
1605:
1572:Balamindin's
1560:Ne Myo Sithu
1557:
1538:
1526:Ne Myo Sithu
1503:
1428:
1425:'s bannermen
1394:
1387:
1375:Ne Myo Sithu
1344:
1303:
1295:
1292:
1287:
1258:
1243:Kachin State
1224:
1200:
1198:
1167:
1159:Sipsongpanna
1139:Hsenwi State
1135:Kachin State
1122:
1114:
1109:traveled to
1096:
1076:
1069:
1050:Qing dynasty
1043:
1021:Kachin State
1009:Ming dynasty
998:
965:
933:
909:Qing dynasty
904:
900:
880:
878:
696:
681:
680:
673:
672:
661:Total:10000
657:
656:
642:
641:
624:
623:
604:
603:
587:
586:
571:
570:
440:Ne Myo Sithu
401:
373:
339:
300:
297:Aligui
268:
233:
216:
169:(until 1767)
155:
139:
134:Belligerents
106:
88:Kachin State
36:
5458:Aisin Gioro
5420:Paper money
5179:Qing poetry
4900:Wuwei Corps
4895:Shuishiying
4656:Family tree
3857:: 145–189.
3834:|work=
3762:Harvey 1925
3750:Harvey 1925
3666:Harvey 1925
3647:Haskew 2008
3635:Phayre 1884
3553:Harvey 1925
3498:Phayre 1884
3483:Phayre 1884
3450:Harvey 1925
3400:Phayre 1884
3334:Harvey 1925
3255:Harvey 1925
3191:Haskew 2008
3010:Harvey 1925
3006:Burney 1840
2980:Burney 1840
2867:Hsinbyushin
2847:(1767) and
2819:supply line
2745:Hsinbyushin
2708:G.E. Harvey
2633:nobles and
2586:Yang Yingju
2573:Shan states
2544:Hsinbyushin
2480:Shan states
2324:Hsinbyushin
2261:arrived in
2217:Hsinbyushin
1996:Hsinbyushin
1943:Hsinbyushin
1903:Shan states
1844:Namtu River
1779:Hsinbyushin
1746:Hsinbyushin
1616:Yang Yingju
1592:Shan states
1541:Upper Burma
1494:Shan states
1462:Hsinbyushin
1442:Upper Burma
1430:Yang Yingju
1399:Yang Yingju
1239:Shan States
1186:Lower Burma
1178:Upper Burma
1029:Kayah State
1017:Shan States
960:Hsinbyushin
645:Total:2500
403:Hsinbyushin
181:(from 1767)
96:Upper Burma
82:Modern-day
5542:Categories
5126:Four Wangs
5017:mausoleums
4970:Golden Urn
4943:Inner Asia
4920:Xiang Army
4890:Hushenying
4815:Liangguang
4795:Liangjiang
4733:Lifan Yuan
4638:Government
3033:References
2853:Bayinnaung
2770:, and the
2741:Tenasserim
2714:Alaungpaya
2553:Langthabal
2315:Balamindin
2299:Shan Hills
2101:Maha Sithu
2036:E'erdeng'e
2020:Shan Hills
2001:Alaungpaya
1931:Maha Sithu
1925:(south of
1884:Maha Sithu
1860:E'erdeng'e
1795:Balamindin
1783:Maha Sithu
1771:demobilize
1703:and elite
1580:Maha Sithu
1522:Maha Sithu
1518:Balamindin
1466:Balamindin
1247:Shan State
1235:Alaungpaya
1220:Alaungpaya
1165:, Yunnan.
1155:Shan State
1151:Kyaingtong
1033:Bayinnaung
1025:Shan State
993:Shan State
983:Background
452:Balamindin
428:Maha Sithu
84:Shan State
4948:Manchuria
4915:Huai Army
4905:Yong Ying
4790:Shaan-Gan
4246:High Qing
4192:Later Jin
3962:cite book
3871:145784397
3836:ignored (
3826:cite book
3600:Hall 1960
3322:Hall 1960
3038:Citations
2803:Bannermen
2722:Ayutthaya
2668:Koshanpye
2639:Bodawpaya
2516:Aftermath
2387:Bannermen
2379:Irrawaddy
2372:Irrawaddy
2177:generals
2150:Bannermen
2144:had sent
2117:Bannerman
1935:Bannermen
1758:Ayutthaya
1709:Manchuria
1602:Aftermath
1588:Myitkyina
1549:dysentery
1407:Guangzhou
977:Ayutthaya
5400:Hongqian
5369:Currency
5239:Treaties
5145:Kaozheng
5092:Booi Aha
5034:Hetu Ala
4987:Timeline
4982:Xinjiang
4953:Mongolia
4910:Chu Army
4885:New Army
4842:Military
4780:Viceroys
3678:Dai 2004
3280:Dai 2004
2897:See also
2875:Konbaung
2841:writes:
2835:Konbaung
2811:Xinjiang
2809:than in
2790:For the
2786:Military
2776:probably
2761:Cambodia
2710:writes:
2689:Jinghong
2685:Jinghong
2590:Ming Rui
2559:fled to
2498:Kaungton
2437:Ming Rui
2407:Kaungton
2383:Kaungton
2368:Kaungton
2346:Invasion
2319:Kaungton
2295:Ming Rui
2283:Kaungton
2277:and the
2238:flotilla
2170:Dzungars
2148:and his
2146:Ming Rui
2093:Ming Rui
2047:Ming Rui
2032:Kaungton
2012:Ming Rui
1970:Kaungton
1954:Ming Rui
1899:Ming Rui
1876:Kaungton
1830:through
1824:Ming Rui
1799:Kaungton
1697:Xinjiang
1677:Ming Rui
1628:pigtails
1568:Kaungton
1514:Kaungton
1486:Kenghung
1478:Thanlyin
1470:Kaungton
1438:Kengtung
1403:Xinjiang
1347:Kengtung
1326:troops.
1285:Kengtung
1227:Konbaung
1174:Manipuri
915:and the
565:Strength
368:Ekkathat
78:Location
47:Part of
5385:Zhiqian
5377:Coinage
5114:Economy
5085:culture
4820:Yun-Gui
4810:Min-Zhe
4805:Sichuan
4800:Huguang
4646:Emperor
4167:History
3810:Sources
2887:Manipur
2827:malaria
2757:Laotian
2726:dacoity
2602:malaria
2581:sawbwas
2549:Manipur
2542:, King
2532:sawbwas
2522:Beijing
2502:pyathat
2472:sawbwas
2210:Laotian
2067:malaria
1994:, King
1960:on the
1854:of the
1767:Laotian
1730:cavalry
1685:Guizhou
1665:Manchus
1640:Beijing
1626:-style
1612:Kunming
1594:within
1553:malaria
1545:cholera
1434:Liu Zao
1359:Liu Zao
1312:Kunming
1308:Liu Zao
1304:sawbwas
1296:sawbwas
1265:Mogaung
1260:sawbwas
1255:Burmese
1205:Beijing
1143:Theinni
1127:Mogaung
1123:sawbwas
1115:sawbwas
1098:sawbwas
1045:sawbwas
1035:of the
973:Siamese
903:or the
893:Burmese
885:Chinese
514:Mongols
374:†
340:†
317: (
301:†
269:†
263:Mingrui
234:†
4999:Taiwan
4175:Early
4160:topics
4103:
4084:
4056:
4037:
4022:Yangon
4005:
3950:
3922:
3903:
3869:
3079:
2883:Arakan
2800:Manchu
2753:Lan Na
2681:Yunnan
2635:Yunnan
2612:Yunnan
2598:Fuheng
2596:, and
2594:Aligun
2524:, the
2455:peace.
2425:Fuheng
2398:Fuheng
2352:Fuheng
2328:French
2291:Fujian
2271:Mongol
2263:Yunnan
2259:Fuheng
2206:Fuheng
2187:Suhede
2183:Aligun
2175:Manchu
2166:Fuheng
2115:, the
2075:Yunnan
2063:Hsenwi
2040:Yunnan
2016:Hsenwi
1927:Hsipaw
1915:Hsenwi
1911:Hsipaw
1907:Hsenwi
1848:Manchu
1840:Hsipaw
1836:Lashio
1832:Hsenwi
1705:Manchu
1701:Mongol
1681:Yunnan
1624:Manchu
1596:Yunnan
1551:, and
1534:Yunnan
1516:. But
1490:Yunnan
1474:French
1288:sawbwa
1277:Yunnan
1273:Hsenwi
1145:) and
1107:Yunnan
1083:Yunnan
1013:Yunnan
968:Yunnan
940:Yunnan
887::
560:levies
387:Taksin
370:
336:
334:Arigūn
315:Fuheng
265:
191:
147:
103:Result
92:Yunnan
5191:Queue
5109:Dibao
4965:Tibet
4785:Zhili
4668:Amban
3916:Burma
3867:S2CID
2959:Notes
2891:Assam
2849:China
2807:Burma
2747:left
2673:Bhamo
2663:Burma
2607:taels
2569:Singu
2561:Assam
2484:Burma
2413:Truce
2360:Bhamo
2340:Bhamo
2275:Bhamo
2159:Burma
2122:queue
2005:Singu
1958:Singu
1895:Bhamo
1872:Bhamo
1726:Burma
1657:Burma
1620:Bhamo
1564:Bhamo
1510:Bhamo
1450:Bhamo
1281:Burma
1269:Bhamo
1131:Bhamo
1111:Simao
1092:Pu'er
1071:万国来朝图
1005:China
1001:Burma
921:Burma
913:China
554:Bamar
194:Burma
150:China
4927:Navy
4768:Ejen
4651:List
4101:ISBN
4082:ISBN
4054:ISBN
4035:ISBN
4003:ISBN
3968:link
3948:ISBN
3920:ISBN
3901:ISBN
3886:(2).
3838:help
3077:ISBN
2889:and
2879:Siam
2871:Qing
2845:Siam
2792:Qing
2768:Qing
2749:Siam
2718:Mons
2704:Siam
2697:Qing
2631:Shan
2620:Siam
2557:raja
2431:But
2394:Qing
2336:Tabe
2269:and
2267:Ming
2236:Qing
2221:Siam
2202:Siam
2191:Qing
2185:and
2179:Agui
2154:Qing
2140:The
2057:and
2051:Siam
1947:Siam
1909:and
1886:and
1868:額爾景額
1864:額爾登額
1838:and
1789:and
1765:and
1763:Shan
1754:Siam
1752:and
1750:Laos
1734:Qing
1721:Shan
1683:and
1661:Qing
1506:Qing
1446:Qing
1421:The
1405:and
1395:Mien
1391:Qing
1371:Shan
1320:Shan
1300:Siam
1251:Qing
1129:and
1087:Shan
1079:Qing
1077:The
1041:Shan
1027:and
1003:and
948:Siam
889:清緬戰爭
879:The
558:Shan
556:and
354:Agui
70:Date
3859:doi
2627:Tai
2540:Ava
2538:At
2520:At
2287:Ava
2198:Ava
2109:Ava
2071:Ava
1992:Ava
1990:At
1985:Ava
1966:Ava
1919:Ava
1905:of
1828:Ava
1717:Tai
1693:Ili
1608:Ava
1458:Ava
1456:to
1436:in
1383:Ava
1367:Tai
1339:Ava
1316:Tai
1194:Ava
1184:of
1182:Mon
1157:to
1137:to
956:Ava
946:of
919:of
911:of
320:DOW
5544::
3964:}}
3960:{{
3899:.
3895:.
3882:.
3865:.
3853:.
3851:38
3849:.
3830::
3828:}}
3824:{{
3781:^
3742:^
3727:^
3712:^
3685:^
3654:^
3607:^
3560:^
3545:^
3522:^
3505:^
3490:^
3457:^
3422:^
3407:^
3392:^
3353:^
3308:^
3287:^
3262:^
3213:^
3198:^
3175:^
3146:^
3127:^
3110:^
3100:.
3054:.
2967:^
2893:.
2885:,
2855:."
2782:.
2763:.
2649:.
2592:,
2588:,
2374:.
2342:.
2181:,
1972:.
1949:.
1937:.
1890:.
1834:,
1614:,
1598:.
1547:,
1536:.
1496:.
1409:.
1271:,
1267:,
1207:.
1196:.
1068:.
1023:,
895::
891:;
94:,
90:,
86:,
4150:e
4143:t
4136:v
4109:.
4090:.
4062:.
4043:.
4011:.
3970:)
3956:.
3928:.
3909:.
3884:4
3873:.
3861::
3840:)
3170:.
3104:.
3085:.
3058:.
3004:(
2978:(
2728:"
2629:-
2486:;
1862:(
1719:-
1369:-
1318:-
1263:(
1149:(
1141:(
883:(
830:e
823:t
816:v
738:e
731:t
724:v
323:)
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.