204:
236:
dynamically as the snowflake falls through the cloud and tiny changes in temperature and humidity affect the way in which water molecules attach to the snowflake. Since the micro-environment (and its changes) are very nearly identical around the snowflake, each arm tends to grow in nearly the same way. However, being in the same micro-environment does not guarantee that each arm grows the same; indeed, for some crystal forms it does not because the underlying crystal growth mechanism also affects how fast each surface region of a crystal grows. Empirical studies suggest less than 0.1% of snowflakes exhibit the ideal six-fold symmetric shape. Very occasionally twelve branched snowflakes are observed; they maintain the six-fold symmetry.
251:
97:
395:
135:
27:
547:
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depiction as symmetrical. It is unlikely that any two snowflakes are alike due to the estimated 10 (10 quintillion) water molecules which make up a typical snowflake, which grow at different rates and in different patterns depending on the changing temperature and humidity within the atmosphere that the snowflake falls through on its way to the ground. Snowflakes that look identical, but may vary at the molecular level, have been grown under controlled conditions.
714:
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687:
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651:
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633:
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166:. The corresponding depletion of water vapor causes the droplets to evaporate, meaning that the ice crystals grow at the droplets' expense. These large crystals are an efficient source of precipitation, since they fall through the atmosphere due to their mass, and may collide and stick together in clusters, or aggregates. These aggregates are usually the type of ice particle that falls to the ground.
408:
such as side-planes, bullet-rosettes and also planar types depending on the conditions and ice nuclei. If a crystal has started forming in a column growth regime, at around â5 °C (23 °F), and then falls into the warmer plate-like regime, then plate or dendritic crystals sprout at the end of the column, producing so called "capped columns".
402:
The shape of a snowflake is determined primarily by the temperature and humidity at which it is formed. Freezing air down to â3 °C (27 °F) promotes planar crystals (thin and flat). In colder air down to â8 °C (18 °F), the crystals form as hollow columns, prisms or needles. In air
69:
as the flake moves through differing temperature and humidity zones in the atmosphere, such that individual snowflakes differ in detail from one another, but may be categorized in eight broad classifications and at least 80 individual variants. The main constituent shapes for ice crystals, from which
407:
discovered, shape is also a function of whether the prevalent moisture is above or below saturation. Forms below the saturation line trend more towards solid and compact. Crystals formed in supersaturated air trend more towards lacy, delicate and ornate. Many more complex growth patterns also form
113:
In warmer clouds, an aerosol particle or "ice nucleus" must be present in (or in contact with) the droplet to act as a nucleus. The particles that make ice nuclei are very rare compared to nuclei upon which liquid cloud droplets form; however, it is not understood what makes them efficient. Clays,
220:
The shape of the snowflake is determined broadly by the temperature and humidity at which it is formed. Rarely, at a temperature of around â2 °C (28 °F), snowflakes can form in threefold symmetry â triangular snowflakes. Most snow particles are irregular in form, despite their common
235:
of ice. At that stage, the snowflake has the shape of a minute hexagon. The six "arms" of the snowflake, or dendrites, then grow independently from each of the corners of the hexagon, while either side of each arm grows independently. The microenvironment in which the snowflake grows changes
678:
262:
Snowflakes form in a wide variety of intricate shapes, leading to the notion that "no two are alike". Although nearly-identical snowflakes have been made in laboratory, they are very unlikely to be found in nature. Initial attempts to find identical snowflakes by
403:
as cold as â22 °C (â8 °F), shapes become plate-like again, often with branched or dendritic features. At temperatures below â22 °C (â8 °F), the crystals become plate-like or columnar, depending on the degree of saturation. As
157:
of water molecules in the air (vapor) onto the ice crystal surface where they are collected. Because water droplets are so much more numerous than the ice crystals due to their sheer abundance, the crystals are able to grow to hundreds of
104:
Snowflakes nucleate around mineral or organic particles in moisture-saturated, subfreezing air masses. They grow by net accretion to the incipient crystals in hexagonal formations. The cohesive forces are primarily electrostatic.
211:
Although ice by itself is clear, snow usually appears white in color due to diffuse reflection of the whole spectrum of light by the scattering of light by the small crystal facets of the snowflakes of which it is comprised.
421:
Plate crystal (P) â Subdivided into: Regular crystal in one plane, plane crystal with extensions, crystal with irregular number of branches, crystal with 12 branches, malformed crystal, radiating assemblage of plane
448:
describes snow crystal classification, once it is deposited on the ground, that include grain shape and grain size. The system also characterizes the snowpack, as the individual crystals metamorphize and coalesce.
1798:
178:, which were claimed to be 15 inches (38 cm) wideâwell outside the normally documented range of aggregated flakes of three or four inches in width. Single crystals the size of a
1413:
Bishop, Michael P.; Björnsson, Helgi; Haeberli, Wilfried; Oerlemans, Johannes; Shroder, John F.; Tranter, Martyn (2011). Singh, Vijay P.; Singh, Pratap; Haritashya, Umesh K. (eds.).
425:
Combination of columnar and plate crystals (CP) â Subdivided into: Column with plane crystal at both ends, bullet with plane crystals, plane crystal with spatial extensions at ends
281:
developed a crystal morphology diagram, relating crystal shape to the temperature and moisture conditions under which they formed, which is summarized in the following table:
437:
Germ of snow crystal (G) â Subdivided into: Minute column, germ of skeleton form, minute hexagonal plate, minute stellar crystal, minute assemblage of plates, irregular germ
519:
which enhance traction during harsh winter driving conditions are labelled with a snowflake on the mountain symbol. A stylized snowflake has been part of the emblem of the
411:
Magono and Lee devised a classification of freshly formed snow crystals that includes 80 distinct shapes. They are listed in the following main categories (with symbol):
1378:
865:
Christner, Brent Q.; Morris, Cindy E.; Foreman, Christine M.; Cai, Rongman & Sands, David C. (2007). "Ubiquity of
Biological Ice Nucleators in Snowfall".
1204:
1208:
428:
Columnar crystal with extended side planes (S) â Subdivided into: Side planes, scalelike side planes, combination of side planes, bullets, and columns
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1054:
1490:
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environmentâwherein liquid moisture coexists with ice beyond its equilibrium point at temperatures below freezing. The droplet then grows by
1856:
70:
combinations may occur, are needle, column, plate, and rime. Snow appears white in color despite being made of clear ice. This is due to
1353:
163:
1602:
203:
126:. Experiments show that "homogeneous" nucleation of cloud droplets only occurs at temperatures lower than â35 °C (â31 °F).
1777:
801:
114:
desert dust, and biological particles may be effective, although to what extent is unclear. Artificial nuclei include particles of
1701:
1752:
721:
Comprehensive photographic studies of fresh snowflakes show the simple symmetry represented in
Bentley's photographs to be rare.
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Irregular snow crystal (I) â Subdivided into: Ice particle, rimed particle, broken piece from a crystal, miscellaneous
1389:
1326:
1566:
1748:
932:
224:
Although snowflakes are never perfectly symmetrical, the growth of a non-aggregated snowflake often approximates
1466:
1441:
509:
398:
Wilson
Bentley micrograph showing two classes of snowflake, plate and column. Missing is an example of a needle.
993:
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138:
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by folding a piece of paper several times, cutting out a pattern with scissors and then unfolding it. The
1171:
1064:
477:
431:
Rimed crystal (R) â Subdivided into: Rimed crystal, densely rimed crystal, graupellike crystal, graupel
20:
497:
179:
1482:
1086:
889:
515:
Snowflakes are also often used as symbols representing winter or cold conditions. For example, snow
1152:
588:
In the Tang
Dynasty, snowflakes in poetry sometimes served as a symbol of the cosmic energy of the
485:
229:
45:
that has achieved a sufficient size, and may have amalgamated with others, which falls through the
1021:
768:
Knight, C.; Knight, N. (1973). Snow crystals. Scientific
American, vol. 228, no. 1, pp. 100â107.
500:" weather that often occurs during Christmastide. During this period, it is quite popular to make
1303:
245:
1923:
1538:
Magono, Choji; Lee, Chung Woo (1966). "Meteorological
Classification of Natural Snow Crystals".
1952:
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or millimeters in size at the expense of the water droplets. This process is known as the
8:
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1592:
Fierz, C.; Armstrong, R.L.; Durand, Y.; Etchevers, P.; Greene, E.; et al. (2009),
1257:
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796:
550:
The three grades in the Order of Canada (Companion, Officer and Member, respectively) .
508:
refers to the atonement of sins causing them to appear "white as snow" before God (cf.
394:
96:
71:
1744:
958:
1893:
1833:
1724:
1660:
1630:
1625:
Wallach, Jennifer Jensen; Swindall, Lindsey R.; Wise, Michael D. (12 February 2016).
1601:, IHP-VII Technical Documents in Hydrology, vol. 83, Paris: UNESCO, p. 80,
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of humanity; so, in
European and North American Christmas traditions, snowflakes
404:
278:
150:
1511:
Kenneth G. Libbrecht (JanuaryâFebruary 2007). "The
Formation of Snow Crystals".
578:
1829:
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605:
505:
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Crystal structure morphology as a function of temperature and water saturation
272:
134:
54:
1957:
1946:
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469:
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The snowflake is often a traditional seasonal image or motif used around the
123:
115:
1348:
928:
898:
170:
lists the world's largest aggregated snowflakes as those of
January 1887 at
906:
546:
473:
182:(17.91 mm in diameter) have been observed. Snowflakes encapsulated in
91:
58:
582:
418:
Columnar crystal (C) â Subdivided into: Simple and combination of columns
264:
42:
26:
1524:
415:
Needle crystal (N) â Subdivided into: Simple and combination of needles
268:
171:
159:
142:
1253:
747:â An eight-pointed floral design that may be mistaken for a snowflake.
713:
704:
695:
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623:
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183:
66:
462:
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75:
62:
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187:
175:
149:
Once a water droplet has frozen as an ice nucleus, it grows in a
119:
1799:"Canadian Honours > Order of Canada > Levels and Insignia"
1595:
1412:
741:â Guide to snowflake forms written in Japan in the 19th century.
496:
purity. Snowflakes are also traditionally associated with the "
1442:"Growth rates and habits of ice crystals between â20 and â70C"
677:
1591:
207:
Snow crystals in strong direct sunlight act like small prisms
79:
1055:""No Two Snowflakes the Same" Likely True, Research Reveals"
446:
International Classification for Seasonal Snow on the Ground
1467:
10.1175/1520-0469(2004)061<0514:GRAHOI>2.0.CO;2
516:
50:
1439:
275:
found the wide variety of snowflakes we know about today.
864:
589:
1920:, information on the parameters of snowflake formation:
554:
A six pointed stylized hexagonal snowflake used for the
1857:"The great white lie: What snowflakes really look like"
1419:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 1253.
777:
Hobbs, P.V. 1974. Ice Physics. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
1585:
373:â22 °C (â8 °F) to â40 °C (â40 °F)
333:â3.5 °C (26 °F) to â10 °C (14 °F)
1571:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 43.
353:â10 °C (14 °F) to â22 °C (â8 °F)
1882:
1510:
1480:
316:
0 °C (32 °F) to â3.5 °C (26 °F)
1699:
Other instructions and pictures of paper snowflakes
1624:
1618:
1230:Smalley, I.J. (1963). "Symmetry of Snow Crystals".
1205:
American Association for the Advancement of Science
1125:"Meet the scientist who makes identical snowflakes"
573:. Three different snowflake symbols are encoded in
122:, and these are used to stimulate precipitation in
1814:"The Snow of Mao Shan: A Cluster of Taoist Images"
1172:"Branch Growth and Sidebranching in Snow Crystals"
831:Hands-on Science: Light, Physical Science (matter)
1406:
53:. Each flake nucleates around a tiny particle in
1944:
1774:"Olympic Games Salt Lake City 2002 â The emblem"
1650:
1648:
1646:
1301:
991:M. Klesius (2007). "The Mystery of Snowflakes".
956:
558:(a national honor system) has come to symbolize
1564:
792:"Giant Snowflakes as Big as Frisbees? Could Be"
472:, especially in Europe and North America. As a
82:by the small crystal facets of the snowflakes.
1565:Pruppacher, H. R.; Klett, J. D. (2010-06-25).
1546:(4) (Geophysics ed.). Hokkaido: 321â335.
1376:
1084:
1643:
1433:
1284:. Boston: American Tract Society. p. 164
1281:Snowflakes: a chapter from the book of nature
1048:
1046:
986:
984:
982:
980:
858:
733:â Mathematical curve resembling a snowflake.
145:on both ends of a "capped column" snowflake.
65:and accrete in crystal form. Complex shapes
1929:Online guide to snowflakes and ice crystals
1197:"ScienceShot: The True Shape of Snowflakes"
820:
818:
1679:for detailed instructions see for example
1627:The Routledge History of American Foodways
1531:
1316:
1052:
1043:
990:
977:
785:
783:
1889:Ken Libbrecht's Field Guide to Snowflakes
1776:. International Olympic Committee. 2009.
1654:
1537:
1465:
1347:
1019:
888:
254:An early classification of snowflakes by
1568:Microphysics of Clouds and Precipitation
1194:
1188:
833:. Portage & Main Press. p. 39.
815:
545:
456:
393:
249:
202:
133:
95:
25:
1854:
1811:
1801:. The Governor General of Canada. 2002.
1377:Libbrecht, Kenneth (Winter 2004â2005).
1229:
1085:Libbrecht, Kenneth (Winter 2004â2005).
780:
441:They documented each with micrographs.
1945:
1716:
1416:Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers
1274:
1169:
1150:
824:
762:
476:celebration, Christmas celebrates the
1745:"More About Sapporo 1972: The Emblem"
1440:Matthew Bailey; John Hallett (2004).
1319:"Origin of diversity in falling snow"
1159:from the original on 9 December 2017.
1122:
939:from the original on 22 December 2015
929:"Meteorology Glossary: Cloud seeding"
789:
581:snowflake" at U+2745 (â
); and "heavy
1855:Pilcher, Helen (December 17, 2013).
1211:from the original on 29 October 2016
1184:from the original on 5 January 2015.
1020:Libbrecht, Kenneth G. (2006-09-11).
950:
771:
604:A selection of photographs taken by
577:: "snowflake" at U+2744 (â); "tight
484:, who according to Christian belief
1481:Kenneth G. Libbrecht (2006-10-23).
1446:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
13:
1914:California Institute of Technology
1876:
1487:California Institute of Technology
1026:California Institute of Technology
452:
164:WegenerâBergeronâFindeisen process
14:
1969:
1907:
1723:. Cengage Learning. p. 271.
1540:Journal of the Faculty of Science
1327:Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics
562:northern heritage and diversity.
461:Snowflake in the coat of arms of
239:
1195:Bohannon, John (10 April 2013).
1123:Olsen, Erik (16 February 2018).
827:"Chapter 5: The Colors of Light"
790:Broad, William J. (2007-03-20).
712:
703:
694:
685:
676:
667:
658:
649:
640:
631:
622:
613:
1848:
1805:
1791:
1780:from the original on 2009-03-25
1766:
1755:from the original on 2016-02-09
1749:International Olympic Committee
1737:
1710:
1692:
1673:
1608:from the original on 2016-09-29
1558:
1504:
1493:from the original on 2009-07-10
1474:
1370:
1359:from the original on 2011-11-20
1310:
1295:
1268:
1223:
1163:
1144:
1116:
1105:from the original on 2010-09-17
1078:
1032:from the original on 2009-07-10
933:American Meteorological Society
847:from the original on 2014-01-01
804:from the original on 2011-11-04
1013:
921:
751:Timeline of snowflake research
16:Ice crystals that fall as snow
1:
1659:. Itasca Books. p. 147.
1170:Nelson, Jon (17 March 2005).
1153:"The Six-fold Nature of Snow"
1151:Nelson, Jon (15 March 2011).
756:
193:
1818:Journal of Chinese Religions
825:Lawson, Jennifer E. (2001).
139:Scanning electron microscope
85:
61:cloud water droplets, which
7:
1812:Schafer, Edward H. (1985).
1304:"Identical-Twin Snowflakes"
724:
10:
1974:
1830:10.1179/073776985805308211
1629:. Routledge. p. 223.
599:
585:snowflake" at U+2746 (â).
243:
108:
89:
21:Snowflake (disambiguation)
18:
1655:Mosteller, Angie (2008).
1317:Jon Nelson (2008-09-26).
1053:John Roach (2007-02-13).
957:Basil John Mason (1971).
267:thousands of them with a
129:
100:Freshly fallen snowflakes
57:air masses by attracting
1060:National Geographic News
226:six-fold radial symmetry
215:
198:
1349:10.5194/acp-8-5669-2008
899:10.1126/science.1149757
293:Saturation range (g/m)
246:Classifications of snow
1302:Kenneth G. Libbrecht.
1276:Warren, Israel Perkins
551:
465:
399:
305:Types of snow crystal
296:Types of snow crystal
259:
208:
168:Guinness World Records
146:
101:
34:
33:of a natural snowflake
1155:. The Story of Snow.
1022:"Guide to Snowflakes"
549:
460:
397:
256:Israel Perkins Warren
253:
233:crystalline structure
206:
137:
99:
29:
1934:Interview with video
1918:Kenneth G. Libbrecht
1884:Kenneth G. Libbrecht
1842:Taylor & Francis
1717:Gilles, Tim (2004).
1483:"A Snowflake Primer"
541:2002 Winter Olympics
537:1998 Winter Olympics
533:1988 Winter Olympics
529:1984 Winter Olympics
525:1972 Winter Olympics
521:1968 Winter Olympics
273:Wilson Alwyn Bentley
271:from 1885 onward by
186:form balls known as
19:For other uses, see
1458:2004JAtS...61..514B
1379:"Snowflake Science"
1340:2008ACP.....8.5669N
1246:1963Natur.198.1080S
1240:(4885): 1080â1081.
1087:"Snowflake Science"
994:National Geographic
935:. 26 January 2012.
881:2008Sci...319.1214C
286:
228:, arising from the
1892:. Voyageur Press.
1720:Automotive chassis
1704:2013-02-08 at the
1686:2012-01-08 at the
1525:10.1511/2007.63.52
1513:American Scientist
797:The New York Times
552:
466:
400:
290:Temperature range
284:
260:
209:
147:
102:
72:diffuse reflection
47:Earth's atmosphere
35:
1899:978-0-7603-2645-9
1730:978-1-4018-5630-4
1666:978-1-60791-008-4
1636:978-1-317-97522-9
1578:978-0-306-48100-0
1426:978-90-481-2641-5
1386:American Educator
1334:(18): 5669â5682.
1254:10.1038/1981080b0
1177:. Story of Snow.
1095:American Educator
970:978-0-19-851603-3
960:Physics of Clouds
840:978-1-894110-63-1
565:In heraldry, the
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31:Macro photography
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594:Milky Way galaxy
502:paper snowflakes
470:Christmas season
365:Sectored plates
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1877:Further reading
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92:Snow science
41:is a single
38:
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1916:professor,
1136:16 February
510:Isaiah 1:18
478:incarnation
376:0.0 to 0.4
356:1.2 to 1.2
336:0.5 to 1.2
319:0.0 to 0.5
310:saturation
301:saturation
160:micrometers
59:supercooled
43:ice crystal
1947:Categories
1866:2023-06-06
1784:2009-07-15
1759:2016-01-05
1612:2016-11-25
1497:2009-06-28
1399:2009-07-14
1363:2011-08-30
1288:2016-11-25
1201:ScienceNOW
1109:2010-10-19
1071:2009-07-14
1036:2009-06-28
943:2016-01-05
851:2009-06-28
808:2009-07-12
757:References
579:trifoliate
367:Dendrites
327:Dendrites
269:microscope
244:See also:
194:Appearance
172:Fort Keogh
155:deposition
143:rime frost
90:See also:
1838:0737-769X
1681:this page
1657:Christmas
1552:2115/8672
1215:5 January
1007:0027-9358
1001:(1): 20.
885:CiteSeerX
745:Selburose
567:snowflake
560:Canadians
494:symbolize
474:Christian
230:hexagonal
141:image of
86:Formation
39:snowflake
1924:Overview
1886:(2006).
1778:Archived
1753:Archived
1702:Archived
1684:Archived
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725:See also
592:and the
488:for the
463:Lumijoki
422:branches
385:Columns
347:Needles
76:spectrum
1844:Online.
1454:Bibcode
1336:Bibcode
1262:4186179
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868:Science
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575:Unicode
387:Prisms
188:graupel
176:Montana
120:dry ice
109:Nucleus
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571:charge
486:atones
405:Nakaya
130:Growth
67:emerge
63:freeze
1606:(PDF)
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1258:S2CID
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911:S2CID
517:tires
482:Jesus
308:above
299:below
216:Shape
199:Color
80:light
1958:Snow
1894:ISBN
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539:and
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444:The
184:rime
180:dime
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