2234:
empire's vulnerability due to the smallpox spread. As a result, the Aztec's tactics countering the
Spaniard's advanced technology is understated. According to Hassig, "It is true that cannons, guns, crossbows, steel blades, horses and war dogs were advanced on the Aztecs' weaponry. But the advantage these gave a few hundred Spanish soldiers was not overwhelming." In the words of Restall, "Spanish weapons were useful for breaking the offensive lines of waves of indigenous warriors, but this was no formula for conquest ... rather, it was a formula for survival, until Spanish and indigenous reinforcements arrived." The integration of the indigenous allies, essentially, those from Tlaxcala and Texcoco, into the Spanish army played a crucial role in the conquest, yet other factors paved the path for the Spaniards' success. For instance, the Spaniards' timing of entry, the compelling ideologies of both groups, and the Spanish unfamiliarity with the Aztec Empire. Therefore, the Spaniards lacked a sense of danger and power structure within the empire. "A direct attack on a city as mighty as Tenochtitlan was unlikely and unexpected" from the enemy empires. As well, it was very uncommon that an attacking army would come unannounced. In addition, aside from the infantry and the allies' role in the Spanish conquest, cavalry was the "arm of decision in the conquest" and "the key ingredient in the Spanish forces".
3883:
3194:
4572:(1550–1590) would become the longest and costliest conflict between Spanish forces and indigenous peoples in the Americas. The attacks intensified with each passing year. In 1554, the Chichimecas inflicted a great loss upon the Spanish when they attacked a train of sixty wagons and captured more than 30,000 pesos worth of valuables. By the 1580s, thousands had died and Spanish mining settlements in Chichimeca territory were continually under threat. In 1585, Don Alvaro Manrique de Zúñiga, Marquis of Villamanrique, was appointed viceroy. The viceroy was infuriated when he learned that some Spanish soldiers had begun supplementing their incomes by raiding the villages of peaceful Indians in order to sell them into slavery. With no military end to the conflict in sight, he was determined to restore peace to that region and launched a full-scale peace offensive by negotiating with Chichimeca leaders and providing them with lands, agricultural supplies, and other goods. This policy of "peace by purchase" finally brought an end to the Chichimeca War. l
4726:
3906:, Moctezuma's father, prepared for Cortés. On the same day that the Spanish expedition and their allies entered Tenochtitlan, Moctezuma came to visit Cortés and his men. What happened in this second meeting remains controversial. According to several Spanish versions, some written years or decades later, Moctezuma first repeated his earlier, flowery welcome to Cortés on the Great Causeway, but then went on to explain his view of what the Spanish expedition represented in terms of Aztec tradition and lore, including the idea that Cortés and his men (pale, bearded men from the east) were the return of characters from Aztec legend. At the end of this explanation, the Emperor pledged his loyalty to the King of Spain and accepted Cortés as the King's representative. According to Diaz, Moctezuma said to Cortés, "As for your great King, I am in his debt and will give him of what I possess."
3937:
4286:
3710:
4090:
2507:
184:
171:
158:
52:
492:
3718:
2882:, first published in 1843, remains an important unified narrative synthesis of the conquest. Prescott read and used all the formal writings from the sixteenth century, although few had been published by the mid-nineteenth century when he was writing. It is likely that a 1585 revision of Bernardino de Sahagún's account of the conquest survives today only in the form of a copy because it was made in Spain for Prescott's project from a now-lost original. Although scholars of the modern era point out its biases and shortcomings, "there is nowhere they can get as good a unified narrative of the main events, crises, and course of the Mexican conquest as Prescott's version."
2660:
4805:
4956:
2684:, 22 April 1519) to the final victory over the Mexica in Tenochtitlan on 13 August 1521. Notably, the accounts of the conquest, Spanish and indigenous alike, have biases and exaggerations. Some, though not all, Spanish accounts downplay the support of their indigenous allies. Conquerors' accounts exaggerate individual contributions to the Conquest at the expense of their comrades, while indigenous allies' accounts stress their loyalty and importance to victory for the Spanish. These accounts are similar to Spanish conquerors' accounts contained in petitions for rewards, known as
4376:
4172:
2421:
4308:, the cousin of Moctezuma II, Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco fell on 13 August 1521, during which the Emperor was captured trying to escape the city in a canoe. The siege of the city and its defense had both been brutal. Largely because he wanted to present the city to his king and emperor, Cortés had made several attempts to end the siege through diplomacy, but all offers were rejected. During the battle, the defenders cut the beating hearts from seventy Spanish prisoners-of-war at the altar to
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699:
688:
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574:
305:
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320:
3108:
2891:
422:
241:
7958:
3794:
3327:
3421:
2956:
3382:. With this pair of translators, Cortés could now communicate to the Aztecs. How effectively is still a matter of speculation, since Marina did not speak the dialect of the Aztecs, nor was she familiar with the protocols of the Aztec nobility, who were renowned for their flowery, flattering talk. Doña Marina quickly learned Spanish, and became Cortés's primary interpreter, confidant, consort, cultural translator, and the mother of his first son,
3571:
435:
3534:
355:
276:
4970:
335:
3213:, then one of Velázquez's favorites and brother-in-law, was named as the commander, which created envy and resentment among the Spanish contingent in the Spanish colony. Licenses for expeditions allowed the Crown to retain sovereignty over newly conquered lands while not risking its own assets in the enterprise. Anyone willing to make a financial contribution could potentially gain even more wealth and power. Men who brought horses,
2230:(the sorrowful night) about "400 Spaniards, 4000 native allies and many horses before reaching the mainland". Moctezuma was killed, although the sources do not agree on who killed him. According to one account, when Moctezuma, now seen by the population as a mere puppet of the invading Spaniards, attempted to calm the outraged populace, he was killed by a projectile. According to an indigenous account, the Spanish killed Moctezuma.
345:
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372:
291:
213:
261:
4984:
1898:
409:
203:
2707:
exception of a few pre- Cortesian pictographic codices. Every written
Nahuatl text was recorded after 1521 either directly by a Christian priest, by students who worked directly under priestly supervision, or by former students who had studied in Christian schools long enough to understand the necessity of the new religion. The written language was a personal possession of the noble and priestly class.”
3059:
his own letters written on the spot, Cortés never claimed that he was perceived as a god. The idea appears to emerge only in the 1540s, in writings by
Europeans. Nonetheless, it was repeated in many sources, even among Indians, especially those who had become students of the Franciscan friars and were searching for an explanation for how the Aztecs had fallen. This was complicated by the word
3809:, the island capital of the Mexica-Aztecs. It is believed that the city was one of the largest in the world at that time, and the largest in the Americas up to that point. The most common estimates put the population at around 60,000 to over 300,000 people. If the population of Tenochtitlan was 250,000 in 1519, then Tenochtitlan would have been larger than every city in Europe except perhaps
2406:. Conquistadors massacre unarmed Cholulans, then Spanish-Tlaxcala combine forces to sack Cholollan, and replace Cholulan political leadership with Tlaxcallan-favoring nobles. The massacre broke out for disputed reasons, perhaps to quash an impending Cholulan attack or to fulfill a Tlaxcalteca plan to both exact revenge on Cholollan for its secession and to test their new Spanish allies.
3762:, urged by the Tlaxcalans, the enemies of the Cholulans. Cortés confronted the city leaders in the main temple alleging that they were planning to attack his men. They admitted that they had been ordered to resist by Moctezuma, but they claimed they had not followed his orders. Regardless, on command, the Spaniards seized and killed many of the local nobles to serve as a lesson.
3031:(retrospective) creations to help the Mexica explain their defeat. Some scholars contend that "the most likely interpretation of the story of these portents is that some, if not all, had occurred" but concede that it is very likely that "clever Mexicans and friars, writing later of the Mexican empire, were happy to link those memories with what they know occurred in Europe.
4125:
risen against them. The
Spaniards' situation could only deteriorate. Because the Aztecs had removed the bridges over the gaps in the causeways that linked the city to the surrounding lands, Cortés' men constructed a portable bridge to cross the water of the lake. On the rainy night of 10 July 1520, the Spaniards and their allies set out for the mainland via the causeway to
2226:
received the message that "the Aztec had risen against the
Spanish garrison" during a religious celebration. Alvarado ordered his army to attack the unarmed crowd; he later claims that the Aztecs had used the celebration to cover up a counterattack. Cortés realized that the defeat was imminent and decided to escape yet, the Aztecs attacked. The Massacre is most known as
2929:. The primary sources from the native people affected as a result of the conquest are seldom used, because they tend to reflect the views of a particular native group, such as the Tlaxcalans. Indigenous accounts were written in pictographs as early as 1525. Later accounts were written in the native tongue of the Aztec and other native peoples of central Mexico,
4491:
2108:, the capital of the Aztec Empire, marked the beginning of Spanish dominance in the region and the establishment of New Spain. This conquest had profound consequences, as it led to the cultural assimilation of the Spanish culture, while also paving the way for the emergence of a new social hierarchy dominated by Spanish conquerors and their descendants.
3612:, a great deal of hatred and bitterness had developed between the Tlaxcalans and the Aztecs. The Aztecs had already conquered most of the territory around Tlaxcala, and waged war on them every year. It has been suggested that the Aztecs left Tlaxcala independent so that they would have a constant supply of war captives to sacrifice to their gods.
3766:
3,000 people and had burned the city. Another witness, Vázquez de Tapia, claimed the death toll was as high as 30,000. However, since the women and children, and many men, had already fled the city, it is unlikely that so many were killed. Regardless, the massacre of the nobility of
Cholula was a notorious chapter in the conquest of Mexico.
3055:'s expedition, Moctezuma believed that those men were heralds of Quetzalcoatl, as Moctezuma, as well as everyone else in the Aztec Empire, were to believe that eventually, Quetzalcoatl will return. Moctezuma even had glass beads that were left behind by Grijalva brought to Tenochtitlan and they were regarded as sacred religious relics.
3296:, on the east coast of Yucatán, trying to convert the locals to Christianity, something that provided mixed results. While at Cozumel, Cortés heard reports of other white men living in the Yucatán. Cortés sent messengers to these reported Spaniards, who turned out to be the survivors of a Spanish shipwreck that had occurred in 1511,
4661:. The key to understanding how considerable continuity of pre-Conquest indigenous structures was possible was the Spanish colonial utilization of the indigenous nobility. In the colonial era, the indigenous nobility were largely recognized as nobles by the Spanish colonial regime, with privileges including the noble Spanish title
4155:. Although hard-pressed, the Spanish infantry was able to hold off the overwhelming numbers of enemy warriors, while the Spanish cavalry under the leadership of Cortés charged through the enemy ranks again and again. When Cortés and his men killed one of the Aztec leaders, the Aztecs broke off the battle and left the field.
3899:
those who have gone, your substitutes ... This is what has been told by our rulers, those of whom governed this city, ruled this city. That you would come to ask for your throne, your place, that you would come here. Come to the land, come and rest: take possession of your royal houses, give food to your body."
4714:
system. The indigenous were not slaves under this system, chattel bought and sold or removed from their home community, but the system was still one of forced labor. The indigenous people of
Central Mexico had practices rendering labor and tribute products to their polity's elites and those elites to
4625:
The Aztec Empire ceased to exist with the
Spanish final conquest of Tenochtitlan in August 1521. The empire had been composed of separate city-states that had either allied with or been conquered by the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, and rendered tribute to the Mexica while maintaining their internal ruling
4421:
was sent into Purépecha territory and arrived at
Tzintzuntzan within days. The imperial army numbered many thousands, perhaps as many as 100,000, but at the crucial moment they chose not to fight. Tangaxuan submitted to the Spanish administration, but for his cooperation was allowed a large degree of
4132:
The retreat quickly turned into a rout. The
Spanish discovered that they could not remove their portable bridge unit from the first gap, and so had no choice but to leave it behind. The bulk of the Spanish infantry, left behind by Cortés and the other horsemen, had to cut their way through the masses
4040:
to guard Moctezuma, Cortés set out against Narváez, who had advanced onto Cempoala. Cortés surprised his antagonist with a night attack, during which his men wounded Narváez in the eye and took him prisoner. After Cortés permitted the defeated soldiers to settle in the country, they "passed with more
3737:
had apparently decided to resist with force the advance of Cortés and his troops, and it seems that Moctezuma ordered the leaders of Cholula to try to stop the Spanish. Cholula had a very small army, because as a sacred city they put their confidence in their prestige and their gods. According to the
3220:
In an agreement signed on 23 October 1518, Governor Velázquez restricted the expedition led by Cortés to exploration and trade, so that conquest and settlement of the mainland might occur under his own command, once he had received the permission necessary to do so which he had already requested from
3165:
came many years after the Spaniards' and their loyal indigenous allies' rapid conquest of Central Mexico (1519–21). With the help of tens of thousands of Xiu Mayan warriors, it would take more than 170 years for the Spanish to establish full control of the Maya homelands, which extended from northern
3142:
to them, which offered the natives the protection of the King of Spain, if they would submit to him. Córdoba took two prisoners, who adopted the baptized names of Melchor and Julián and became interpreters. Later, the two prisoners, being misled or misinterpreting the language gave information to the
2237:
Many of those on the Cortés expedition of 1519 had never seen combat before, including Cortés. A whole generation of Spaniards later participated in expeditions in the Caribbean and Tierra Firme (Central America), learning strategy and tactics of successful enterprises. The Spanish conquest of Mexico
2233:
The Spanish, Tlaxcalans and reinforcements returned a year later on 13 August 1521 to a civilization that had been weakened by famine and smallpox. This made it easier to conquer the remaining Aztecs. The Spaniards' victory is attributed to their help from indigenous allies, technology, and the Aztec
4315:
Cortés then ordered the idols of the Aztec gods in the temples to be taken down and replaced with icons of Christianity. He also announced that the temple would never again be used for human sacrifice. Human sacrifice and reports of cannibalism, common among the natives of the Aztec Empire, had been
3957:
and his captains, who had killed the Spanish soldiers. Though these captains of Moctezuma were sentenced to be "burned to death", Moctezuma continued to remain a prisoner, fearing a "rebellion in his city" or that the Spanish may "try to set up another prince in his place." This, despite Moctezuma's
3765:
They captured the Cholulan leaders Tlaquiach and Tlalchiac and then ordered the city to be set on fire. The troops started in the palace of Xacayatzin, and then on to Chialinco and Yetzcoloc. In letters to his King, Cortés claimed that in three hours time his troops (helped by the Tlaxcalans) killed
3058:
On the other hand, some ethnohistorians say the Aztec leaders did not view the Spaniards as supernatural in any sense but rather as simply another group of powerful outsiders. They believe that Moctezuma responded rationally to the Spanish invasion and did not think the Spanish were supernatural. In
2213:
or indigenous ruler was a standard operating procedure for Spaniards in their expansion in the Caribbean, so capturing Motecuhzoma had considerable precedent but modern scholars are skeptical that Cortés and his countrymen took Motecuhzoma captive at this time. They had great incentive to claim they
4669:
for noblewomen. To this day, the title of Duke of Moctezuma is held by a Spanish noble family. A few of the indigenous nobility learned Spanish. Spanish friars taught indigenous tribes to write their own languages in Latin letters, which soon became a self-perpetuating tradition at the local level.
3769:
The Azteca and Tlaxcalteca histories of the events leading up to the massacre vary; the Tlaxcalteca claimed that their ambassador Patlahuatzin was sent to Cholula and had been tortured by the Cholula. Thus, Cortés was avenging him by attacking Cholula.(Historia de Tlaxcala, por Diego Muñoz Camargo,
3615:
On 23 September 1519, Cortés arrived in Tlaxcala and was greeted with joy by the rulers, who saw the Spanish as an ally against the Aztecs. Due to a commercial blockade by the Aztecs, Tlaxcala was poor, lacking, among other things, salt and cotton cloths, so they could only offer Cortés and his men
3021:
also told us of a tradition they had heard from their ancestors, that one of the idols which they particularly worshipped had prophesied the coming of men from distant lands in the direction of the sunrise, who would conquer them and rule them." Some accounts would claim that this idol or deity was
6300:
Guerrero is reported to have responded, "Brother Aguilar, I am married and have three children, and they look at me as a Cacique here, and a captain in time of war ... But my face is tattooed and my ears are pierced. What would the Spaniards say if they saw me like this? And look how handsome
3898:
A fragment of the greetings of Moctezuma says: "My lord, you have become fatigued, you have become tired: to the land you have arrived. You have come to your city: Mexico, here you have come to sit on your place, on your throne. Oh, it has been reserved to you for a small time, it was conserved by
3323:, where he lived. Although Guerrero's later fate is somewhat uncertain, it appears that for some years he continued to fight alongside the Maya forces against Spanish incursions, providing military counsel and encouraging resistance; it is speculated that he may have been killed in a later battle.
2706:
Lockhart, however, argues for a later post-1540 date for this manuscript, and indeed the majority of indigenous source material was recorded a generation or more after the events through interaction with and under influence of Spanish priests. As noted in, “No ‘pure’ Nahuatl text exists-with the
3686:
Cortés, who had not yet decided to start a war with the Aztec Empire, decided to offer a compromise. He accepted the gifts of the Aztec ambassadors, and at the same time accepted the offer of the Tlaxcalan allies to provide porters and 1,000 warriors on his march to Cholula. He also sent two men,
3034:
Many sources depicting omens and the return of old Aztec gods, including those supervised by Spanish priests, were written after the fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521. Spanish accounts tended to incorporate omens to emphasize what they saw as the preordained nature of the conquest and their success as
4124:
to the gods through both human bodies and bloodletting. The capital was also used for central and imperialistic governmental control. Preparations for war began in their capital. The Spanish and their allies, including the Tlaxcala, had to flee the central city, as the people of Tenochtitlan had
4740:
According to West, "slavery was a well-established institution among the Aztecs and their neighbors." "During the Conquest, Spaniards legally enslaved large numbers of natives – men, women and children – as booty of warfare, branding each individual on the cheek." In fact, "Cortés owned several
4000:. Moctezuma was then made to pay a tribute to the Spanish King, which included his father's treasure. These treasures, the Spaniards melted down to form gold bars stamped with an iron die. Finally, Moctezuma let the Catholic conquistadors build an altar on their temple, next to the Aztec idols.
3646:
Legends say that he convinced the four leaders of Tlaxcala to become baptized. Maxixcatzin, Xicotencatl the Elder, Citalpopocatzin, and Temiloltecutl received the names of Don Lorenzo, Don Vicente, Don Bartolomé, and Don Gonzalo. It is impossible to know if these leaders understood the Catholic
3549:
There is a popular misconception that the ships were burned rather than sunk. This misconception has been attributed to the reference made by Cervantes de Salazár in 1546, as to Cortés burning his ships. This may have also come from a mistranslation of the version of the story written in Latin.
3510:
Hearing of the rebellion, more ambassadors from the Aztec Emperor returned to see Cortés, bearing gifts of "gold and cloth", in thankfulness for Cortés freeing his tax collectors. Moctezuma also told Cortés, he was certain the Spanish were of "his own race" and had arrived as "his ancestors had
3248:
Therefore, Velázquez sent Luis de Medina with orders to replace Cortés. However, Cortés's brother-in-law allegedly had Medina intercepted and killed. The papers that Medina had been carrying were sent to Cortés. Thus warned, Cortés accelerated the organization and preparation of his expedition.
2948:
of Texcoco. Nezahualpilli warned Moctezuma that he must be on guard, for in a few years Aztec cities would be destroyed. Before leaving, he said that there would be omens for Moctezuma to know that what he has been told is true. Over the years, and especially after Nezhualpilli's death in 1515,
2675:
The conquest of Mexico, the initial destruction of the great pre-Columbian civilizations, is a significant event in world history. The conquest was well documented by a variety of sources with differing points of view, including indigenous accounts, by both allies and opponents. Accounts by the
2702:
Because Nahuatl did not have a full alphabet, the majority of extant indigenous sources are recollections of Nahuatl-speakers who were subsequently introduced to Latin characters after the arrival of the Spanish. Gingerish identifies the Annals of Tlatelolco (1524?-1528) as “One of the oldest
4074:
was central to the Aztecs' cosmological views; the temple served as a burial ground for the offerings made to different gods, such as the gods of fertility, mountains, rain, and earth. Considering the centrality and the importance of the Great Temple as a religious and cultural monument could
2225:
in charge of Tenochtitlan. Cortés left with a small army to the coast with the plan of attacking during the night. After defeating Narváez's fleet, Cortés convinced most of his enemy's crew to go with him by promising great riches. Upon reaching Tenochtitlan, Cortés and the new enlarged force
3784:
In one of his responses to Cortés, Moctezuma blamed the commanders of the local Aztec garrison for the resistance in Cholula, and recognizing that his long-standing attempts to dissuade Cortés from coming to Tenochtitlan with gifts of gold and silver had failed, Moctezuma finally invited the
3909:
While in the Axayacatl palace, the conquistadors discovered the secret room where Moctezuma kept the treasure he had inherited from his father. The treasure consisted of a "quantity of golden objects – jewels and plates and ingots". Diaz noted, "The sight of all that wealth dumbfounded me."
3217:, received two shares of the spoils, one for military service, another because of the horse. Cortés invested a considerable part of his personal fortune and probably went into debt to borrow additional funds. Velázquez may have personally contributed nearly half the cost of the expedition.
3319:, Aguilar relayed that before coming, he had attempted to convince Guerrero to leave as well. Guerrero declined on the basis that he was by now well-assimilated with the Maya culture, had a Maya wife and three children, and he was looked upon as a figure of rank within the Maya state of
3953:, and many Totonacs. Cortés along with five of his captains and Doña Marina and Aguilar, convinced Moctezuma to "come quietly with us to our quarters, and make no protest ... if you cry out, or raise any commotion, you will immediately be killed." Moctezuma was later implicated by
4136:
The channel is now a street in Mexico City, called "Puente de Alvarado" (Alvarado's Bridge), because it seemed Alvarado escaped across an invisible bridge (He may have been walking on the bodies of those soldiers and attackers who had preceded him, given the shallowness of the lake.).
3561:
warrior chiefs and at least 200 other natives whose task was to drag the cannon and carry supplies. The Cempoalans were accustomed to the hot climate of the coast, but they suffered immensely from the cold of the mountains, the rain, and the hail as they marched towards Tenochtitlan.
3541:
Men still loyal to the governor of Cuba planned to seize a ship and escape to Cuba, but Cortés moved swiftly to squash their plans. Two leaders were condemned to be hanged; two were lashed, and one had his foot mutilated. To make sure such a mutiny did not happen again, he decided to
4075:
potentially have influenced the decision to attack a location such as this. Alvarado's explanation to Cortés was that the Spaniards had learned that the Aztecs planned to attack the Spanish garrison in the city once the festival was complete, so he had launched a preemptive attack.
3143:
Spanish conquistadors that there was plenty of gold up for grabs. On the western side of the Yucatán Peninsula, the Spanish were attacked at night by Maya chief Mochcouoh, a battle in which 50 men were killed. Córdoba was mortally wounded and only a remnant of his crew returned to
4104:
after the Spanish attack, which the Spanish did not expect. Fierce fighting ensued, and the Aztec troops besieged the palace housing the Spaniards and Moctezuma. Alvarado and the rest of the Spanish were held hostage by the Aztecs for a month. The nobility of Tenochtitlan chose
3245:. Thus, as the preparations for departure drew to a close, the governor became suspicious that Cortés would be disloyal to him and try to commandeer the expedition for his own purposes, namely to establish himself as governor of the colony, independent of Velázquez's control.
4567:
region and established mining settlements in Chichimeca territory which altered the terrain and the Chichimeca traditional way of life. The Chichimeca resisted the intrusions on their ancestral lands by attacking travelers and merchants along the "silver roads." The ensuing
3777:
The massacre had a chilling effect on the other city states and groups affiliated with the Aztecs, as well as the Aztecs themselves. Tales of the massacre convinced the other cities in the Aztec Empire to entertain seriously Cortés' proposals rather than risk the same fate.
3553:
With all of his ships scuttled, Cortés effectively stranded the expedition in central Mexico. However, it did not completely end the aspirations of those members of his company who remained loyal to the governor of Cuba. Cortés then led his band inland towards Tenochtitlan.
4133:
of Aztec warriors opposing them. Many of the Spaniards, weighed down by their armor and booty, drowned in the causeway gaps or were killed by the Aztecs. Much of the wealth the Spaniards had acquired in Tenochtitlan was lost. The bridge was later called "Alvarado's Leap".
4129:. They placed the portable bridge in the first gap, but at that moment their movement was detected and Aztec forces attacked, both along the causeway and by means of canoes on the lake. The Spanish were thus caught on a narrow road with water or buildings on both sides.
2398:
September – Tlaxcalteca assault the Spanish camp by day, and the Spanish respond by raiding unarmed Tlaxcalteca towns and villages by night. Tlaxcallan brokers a peace after 18 punishing days of war, by which point the Spaniards had lost half their cavalry and 1/5 their
4441:
ruler of his empire, for which the conquistador allied himself with Don Pedro Panza Cuinierángari against the Irecha. Tangaxuan was tried with plotting a rebellion, withholding tribute, sodomy and heresy, and he was tortured and executed. His ashes were thrown into the
4113:(Emperor). Cortés ordered Moctezuma to speak to his people from a palace balcony and persuade them to let the Spanish return to the coast in peace. Moctezuma was jeered and stones were thrown at him, mortally wounding him. Aztec sources state the Spaniards killed him.
2910:
in the mid to late sixteenth century, there are accounts of events that were interpreted as supernatural omens of the conquest. These two accounts are full-blown narratives from the viewpoint of the Spanish opponents. Most first-hand accounts about the conquest of the
3868:; and Topantemoc, Motechzoma's treasurer in Tlatelolco." Moctezuma and his chiefs were adorned with blazing gold on their shoulders with feathers and jewels. On the causeway where the two groups met, enormous numbers of people from Tenochtitlan watched the exchange.
3593:, fought the Spanish in a series of three battles from 2 to 5 September 1519, and at one point Diaz remarked, "they surrounded us on every side". After Cortés continued to release prisoners with messages of peace, and realizing the Spanish were enemies of Moctezuma,
3225:, Cortés managed to free himself of Velázquez's authority by presenting Velázquez as a tyrant acting in his own self-interest, and not in the interest of the Crown. The men under Cortés also named him military leader and chief magistrate (judge) of the expedition.
4319:
Tenochtitlan had been almost totally destroyed using the manpower of the Tlaxcalans plus fire and cannon fire during the siege, and once it finally fell, the Spanish continued its destruction, as they soon began to establish the foundations of what would become
4235:
Cortés was able to pacify the country, after the indigenous realized the Spaniards put "an end to the rape and robbery that the Mexicans practised.". Finally, Xicotencatl the Elder, baptized as Don Lorenzo de Vargas, agreed to support Cortés' expedition against
2765:(i.e. Tenochtitlan). Rather than it being a petition for rewards for services, as many Spanish accounts were, the Anonymous Conqueror made observations about the indigenous situation at the time of the conquest. The account was used by eighteenth-century Jesuit
2370:
24 March – Leaders of Potoncan sue Spaniards for peace and gift the Spaniards, 20 slave women. One of the enslaved Nahua woman (known as La Malinche, Doña Marina, Malintze, and Malintzin), is multilingual and will serve as one of the main translators for the
2836:'s 1585 revision of the conquest account, which shifts from the indigenous viewpoint entirely and inserts at crucial junctures passages lauding the Spanish and in particular Hernán Cortés. Another indigenous account compiled by a Spanish friar is Dominican
4685:, in order to evangelize to the indigenous people in their native tongue. Early mendicants created texts in order to forward the project of Christianization. Particularly important were the 1571 Spanish-Nahuatl dictionary compiled by the Franciscan Fray
4652:
have, using indigenous texts in the indigenous languages, been able to examine in considerable detail how the indigenous lived during the era of Spanish colonial rule. A major work that utilizes colonial-era indigenous texts as its main source is
4626:
structures. Those polities now came under Spanish rule, also retaining their internal structures of ruling elites and tribute-paying commoners, as well as land holding and other economic structures being largely intact. Two key works by historian
2780:
On the indigenous side, the allies of Cortés, particularly the Tlaxcalans, wrote extensively about their services to the Spanish Crown in the conquest, arguing for special privileges for themselves. The most important of these are the pictorial
5076:"The companies portentous discovery and conquest of the New World, met under the banners of Castile incarnate". Las portentosas empresas del descubrimiento y la conquista del Nuevo Mundo, se cumplieron bajo los encarnados pendones de Castilla.
4041:
or less willingness to Cortés' side." Hernán Cortés gained their support when he "promised to make them rich and give them commands ." Cortés then made a rapid return to Tenochtitlan to relieve the besieged Alvarado and the other invaders.
3506:
chiefs to rebel against the Aztecs, taking prisoner five of Moctezuma's tax collectors. The Totonacs also helped Cortés build the town of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, which was the starting point for his attempt to conquer the Aztec Empire.
4705:
and the Franciscan order in the late sixteenth century became increasingly hostile to works in the indigenous languages written by priests and clerics, concerned that they were heretical and an impediment to the Indians' true conversion.
4197:
told Cortés' men: "Consider yourselves at home. Rest ... do not think it a small thing that you have escaped with your lives from that strong city ... if we thought of you as brave men before, we consider you much braver now."
3443:
Faced with imprisonment or death for defying the governor, Cortés' only alternative was to continue his enterprise in the hope of redeeming himself and his men with the Spanish Crown. To do this, his men established a settlement called
3035:
Spanish destiny. This influenced some natives writing under the tutelage of the Franciscan friars. Other explanations include a desire to please the Spaniards or resentment toward the failure of Montezuma and Tenochtitlan warriors."
3678:
Cholula was one of the most important cities of Mesoamerica, the second largest, and probably the most sacred. Its huge pyramid (larger in volume than the great pyramids of Egypt) made it one of the most prestigious places of the
4351:
that flowed around the city. "When I beheld the scenes around me", said Díaz, "I thought within myself, this was the garden of the world. All of the wonders I beheld that day, nothing now remains. All is overthrown and lost."
4277:
The joint forces of Tlaxcala and Cortés proved to be formidable. One by one they took over most of the cities under Aztec control, some in battle, others by diplomacy. In the end, only Tenochtitlan and the neighboring city of
3616:
food and slaves. Cortés stayed twenty days in Tlaxcala, giving his men time to recover from their wounds from the battles. Cortés seems to have won the true friendship and loyalty of the senior leaders of Tlaxcala, among them
3968:
However, Moctezuma continued to act as Emperor, subject to Cortés' overall control. During the period of his imprisonment, Moctezuma stated "he was glad to be a prisoner, since either our gods gave us power to confine him or
3683:. However, it appears that Cortés perceived Cholula more as a military threat to his rear guard than a religious center, as he marched to Tenochtitlan. He sent emissaries ahead to try a diplomatic solution to enter the city.
7415:
Hispania Victrix; First and Second Parts of the General History of the Indies, With the Whole Discovery and Notable Things That Have Happened Since They Were Acquired Until the Year 1551, With the Conquest of Mexico and New
4158:
In this retreat, the Spaniards suffered heavy casualties, losing 860 soldiers, 72 other Spanish members of Cortés' group, including five women, and 1,000 Tlaxcalan warriors. Several Aztec noblemen loyal to Cortés, including
2718:, giving a contemporary account of the conquest from his point of view, in which he justified his actions. These were almost immediately published in Spain and later in other parts of Europe. Much later, Spanish conqueror
2377:
Early June – Cortés establishes the colony of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz and relocates the company to a beach near the settlement of Quiahuiztlan. Afterward, the Spaniards travel to Cempoala and formalize an alliance with
4709:
To reward Spaniards who participated in the conquest of what is now contemporary Mexico, the Spanish crown authorized grants of native labor, in particular the assignment of entire indigenous communities to labor via the
3948:
After Cortés' request surrounding the questioning of raising the cross and the image of the Virgin Mary, the Mexica then killed seven Spanish soldiers Cortés had left on the coast, including Cortés' Villa Rica Constable
3407:
is used by Mexicans to denote one who apes the language and customs of another country. It would not be until the late 20th century that a few feminist writers and academics in Mexico would attempt to rehabilitate
3046:
writes that Moctezuma was debating whether Cortés was a god or the ambassador of a great king in another land. Because the Spaniards arrived in 1519, Moctezuma knew this was the year of Ce Acatl, which is the year
2189:. Particularly important to the Spanish success was a multilingual (Nahuatl, a Maya dialect, and Spanish) Nahua-speaking woman enslaved by the Mayas, known to the Spanish conquistadors as Doña Marina, and later as
3890:
After greetings, Moctezuma personally dressed only Cortés in a priceless feather-work flower, a golden jewelry studded necklace and a garland of flowers. Moctezuma then brought Cortés to the shrine of the goddess
2132:) to Mexico. The next year, Cortés and his retinue set sail for Mexico. The Spanish campaign against the Aztec Empire had its final victory on 13 August 1521, when a coalition army of Spanish forces and native
3757:
informed Cortés, after talking to the wife of one of the lords of Cholula, that the locals planned to murder the Spanish in their sleep. Although he did not know if the rumor was true or not, Cortés ordered a
2936:
The native texts of the defeated Mexica narrating their version of the conquest describe eight omens that were believed to have occurred nine years prior to the arrival of the Spanish from the Gulf of Mexico.
3349:, where there was little gold. After defeating the local natives in two battles, he discovered a far more valuable asset in the form of a woman whom Cortés would have christened Marina. She is often known as
4737:, in Higher Peru (now Bolivia) and other places in the Spanish empire in the New World that were worked for hundreds of years by forced native labor and contributed most of the wealth that flowed to Spain.
4007:, or priests, they would not stay unless the Spaniards were killed and driven back across the sea. Moctezuma warned Cortés to leave at once, as their lives were at risk. Many of the nobility rallied around
3275:
from Cuba and some Africans, both freedmen and slaves. Although modern usage often calls the European participants "soldiers", the term was never used by these men themselves in any context, something that
4930:
was co-produced by Televisión Azteca, Dopamine, and Onza Entertainment in 2019. The plot revolves around Hernán Cortés and his cadre from his arrival at the Mexican coast until the defeat of the Mexicas.
7738:
Raudzens, George. "So Why Were the Aztecs Conquered, and What Were the Wider Implications? Testing Military Superiority as a Cause of Europe's Pre-Industrial Colonial Conquests." War in History (1995):
4689:, and his 1569 bilingual Nahuatl-Spanish confessional manual for priests. A major project by the Franciscans in Mexico was the compilation of knowledge on Nahua religious beliefs and culture that friar
4422:
autonomy. This resulted in a strange arrangement where both Cortés and Tangáxuan considered themselves rulers of Michoacán for the following years: the population of the area paid tribute to them both.
3315:, proved to be a valuable asset for Cortés as a translator – a skill of particular significance to the later conquest of the Aztec Empire that was to be the result of Cortés's expedition. According to
3022:
Quetzalcoatl, and that the Aztecs were defeated because they believed the Spanish were supernatural and didn't know how to react, although whether or not the Aztecs really believed that is debatable.
7243:
4560:, the Spanish forces and their Indigenous allies ultimately succeeded in recapturing the towns and suppressing resistance. However, fighting did not completely come to a halt in the ensuing years.
3635:
gave Cortés "the most beautiful of their daughters and nieces". Xicotencatl the Elder's daughter was baptized as Doña Luisa, and Maxixcatzin's daughter as Doña Elvira. They were given by Cortés to
2762:
3989:
that "their ancestral tradition, set down in their books of records, that men would come from the direction of the sunrise to rule these lands" and that "He believed ... we were these men."
2458:
Late June – Uprising in Tenochtitlan; the death of Moctezuma in unclear circumstances, perhaps killed by the Spaniards, perhaps by his own people; deaths of other leaders of the Triple Alliance
3879:. Cortés strode ahead of his commanders and attempted to embrace Moctezuma, but was restrained by Cuitlahuac and Cacamatzin. Cortés was not permitted to touch the emperor; no one was allowed.
3882:
3393:
Native speakers of the Nahuatl community would call her "Malintzin," making her name a part of their own language, trying their best to make it similar to the Spanish "Marina." Over time, "
2201:
on 8 November 1519, where he took up residence with fellow Spaniards and their indigenous allies. When news reached Cortés of the death of several of his men during the Aztec attack on the
3221:
the Crown. In this way, Velázquez sought to ensure title to the riches and laborers discovered. However, armed with the knowledge of Castilian law that he had likely gained as a notary in
4718:
The Spanish conquerors in Mexico during the early colonial era lived off the labor of the indigenous peoples. Due to some horrifying instances of abuse against the native peoples, Bishop
4868:
as the main characters Tulio and Miguel end up as stowaways on Hernán Cortés' fleet to Mexico. Here, Cortés is represented as a merciless and ambitious villain, leading a quest to find
4025:
In April 1520, Cortés was told by Moctezuma that a much larger party of Spanish troops had arrived, consisting of nineteen ships and fourteen hundred soldiers under the command of
3025:
Omens were extremely important to the Aztecs, who believed that history repeated itself. A number of modern scholars cast doubt on whether such omens occurred or whether they were
7020:(1569), With an introduction by Roberto Moreno. Mexico: Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicos, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricos, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
2851:, an early indigenous account in Nahuatl, perhaps from 1540, remained in indigenous hands until it was published. An extract of this important manuscript was published in 1991 by
1068:
6729:
Nagao, Debra (Winter 1990). "Reviewed Work: The Great Temple of Tenochtitlan: Center and Periphery in the Aztec World by Johanna Broda, David Carrasco, Eduardo Matos Moctezuma".
2801:
to the Spanish Crown, the indigenous lords of Huexotzinco lay out their case in for their valorous service. The letter has been published in Nahuatl and English translation by
2392:
16 August – Spaniards and Totonac allies embark on march toward the Valley of Tenochtitlan, passing Citlatapetl and many other notable geographic landmarks like Cofre de Perote
7823:
3483:, Cortés was able to free himself from Velásquez's authority and continue his expedition. To ensure the legality of this action, several members of his expedition, including
3241:
Velázquez himself must have been keenly aware that whoever conquered the mainland for Spain would gain fame, glory and fortune to eclipse anything that could be achieved in
10419:
7726:
Brandt, Anthony. "Perfect storm at Tenochtitlan 1521: How Cortes's band of hidalgos destroyed the Mexica Empire." MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History (2014): 58.
3961:
As of 14 November 1519, Moctezuma was Cortés' prisoner as insurance against any further resistance, until the end of May 1520, Moctezuma lived with Cortés in the palace of
3123:
2703:
recorded manuscripts in Nahuatl, written presumably by a native who must have learned the use of Latin characters and alphabet within three or four years of the conquest.”
5607:"Spaniards Attack Cholulans From Díaz del Castillo, Vol. 2, Chapter 83". American Historical Association. Archived from the original on 2012-10-08. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
2863:
from 1992. Not surprisingly, many publications and republications of sixteenth-century accounts of the conquest of Mexico appeared around 1992, the 500th anniversary of
2093:—the Aztecs normally kept subordinate rulers compliant. This was an inherently unstable system of governance, as this situation could change with any alteration in the
3193:
482:
1139:
3663:
Meanwhile, Moctezuma's ambassadors, who had been in the Spanish camp after the battles with the Tlaxcalans, continued to press Cortés to take the road to Mexico via
3095:, seeking wealth in the form of gold and access to indigenous labor to mine gold and other manual labor. Twenty-five years after the first Spanish settlement in the
2761:
The chronicle of the so-called "Anonymous Conqueror" was written sometime in the sixteenth century, entitled in an early twentieth-century translation to English as
3260:. Velázquez then sent orders for the fleet to be held and Cortés taken prisoner. Nevertheless, Cortés set sail, beginning his expedition with the legal status of a
4763:
The Aztec education system was abolished and replaced by a very limited church education. Even some foods associated with Mesoamerican religious practice, such as
3387:
4339:
4011:, the brother of Moctezuma and his heir-apparent; however, most of them could take no overt action against the Spanish unless the order was given by the Emperor.
3363:
2925:
2668:
2214:
did, owing to the laws of Spain at this time, but critical analysis of their personal writings suggest Motecuhzoma was not taken captive until a much later date.
3749:
Cortés and his men entered Cholula without active resistance. However, they were not met by the city leaders and were not given food and drink on the third day.
2525:
February – Combined Spanish-Tlaxcalteca-Texcoca forces attack Xaltocan and Tlacopan; Texcoco becomes the base of operations for the campaign against Tenochtitlan
7856:
4414:, where they were presented to the ruler and gifts were exchanged. They returned with samples of gold and Cortés' interest in the Tarascan state was awakened.
3895:, where he gave him a more private greeting, in which he practically gave the Aztec Empire to Cortés, as he reportedly said that it was his "desire to serve."
3307:
Aguilar petitioned his Maya chieftain to be allowed to join his former countrymen, and he was released and made his way to Cortés's ships. Now quite fluent in
9549:
4293:
Cortés then approached Tenochtitlan and mounted a siege of the city that involved cutting the causeways from the mainland and controlling the lake with armed
4185:
The Spanish were able to complete their escape to Tlaxcala. There, they were given assistance, since all 440 of them were wounded, with only 20 horses left.
3067:
used to refer to the Spaniards, who claimed to represent their Christian god and originated from a land unknown to the natives. "Teules" is derived from the
4638:(1964) were central in reshaping the historiography of the indigenous and their communities from the Spanish conquest to the 1810 Mexican independence era.
1334:
1219:
4760:
brought in far more silver direct from South American mines to China than the overland Silk Road, or even European trade routes in the Indian Ocean could.
2347:
10 February – Cortés expedition leaves Cuba, taking Hernández de Córdoba's route. In the process, Cortés ignores Velásquez's cancellation of the expedition
1061:
17:
4618:, who had demonstrated that he was independent-minded and defied official orders when he threw off the authority of Governor Velázquez in Cuba. The name "
8558:
4240:. According to Bernal Diaz, he sent more than 10,000 warriors under the command of Chichimecatecuhtli as Cortés marched on the day after Christmas 1520.
2809:
in 1991. Texcoco patriot and member of a noble family there, Fernando Alva Ixtlilxochitl, likewise petitioned the Spanish Crown, in Spanish, saying that
2742:
petitions to the Spanish Crown, requesting rewards for their services in the conquest, including Juan Díaz, Andrés de Tapia, García del Pilar, and Fray
9569:
8484:
7816:
4879:
The aftermath of the Spanish conquest, including the Aztecs' struggle to preserve their cultural identity, is the subject of the Mexican feature film,
2085:, the Aztec Empire had established dominance over central Mexico through military conquest and intricate alliances. Because the Aztec Empire ruled via
1164:
998:
974:
4792:
during the earliest days of colonization. As a result of these unions, as well as concubinage and secret mistresses, mixed race individuals known as
10487:
3933:
were furious at the suggestion, with Moctezuma claiming his idols, "give us health and rain and crops and weather, and all the victories we desire."
3502:
and marched his forces there. On their arrival in Cempoala, they were greeted by 20 dignitaries and cheering townsfolk. Cortés quickly persuaded the
5168:
Bernard Grunberg, "La folle aventure d'Hernan Cortés", in L'Histoire n°322, July–August 2007: states that Cortes arrived in Mexico with 15 cannons,
4784:
In the 16th century, perhaps 240,000 Spaniards entered American ports. They were joined by 450,000 in the next century. Unlike the English-speaking
4725:
3781:
Cortés then sent emissaries to Moctezuma with the message that the people of Cholula had treated him with trickery and had therefore been punished.
7071:
4324:
on the site. The surviving Aztec people were forbidden to live in Tenochtitlan and the surrounding isles, and were banished to live in Tlatelolco.
7361:(Nahuatl-Spanish trans.), Lysander Kemp (Spanish-English trans.), Alberto Beltran (illus.) (Expanded and updated ed.). Boston: Beacon Press.
1760:
10034:
7075:
3985:, were forced to take a more formal oath of allegiance to the King of Spain, though Moctezuma "could not restrain his tears". Moctezuma told his
1054:
9529:
7175:
4556:, led an attack on Nochistlán. However, the Chichimecas counter-attacked and Alvarado's forces were routed. Under the leadership of Viceroy Don
1339:
4066:
When Cortés returned to Tenochtitlan in late May, he found that Alvarado and his men had attacked and killed many of the Aztec nobility in the
5679:
James Lockhart, We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico, translated and edited. University of California Press, 1991, p. 39
4756:. The silver was used to purchase commercial goods abroad, as European manufactured goods were not in demand in Asia and the Middle East. The
2537:
by Tlaxcalteca laborers under Spanish supervision; mounted with cannon; launched into Lake Texcoco, allowing Spanish control of the inland sea
10573:
10492:
9579:
7809:
4144:" (The Night of Sorrows), and the old tree ("El árbol de la noche triste") where Cortés allegedly cried, is still a monument in Mexico City.
3628:. The Spaniards agreed to respect parts of the city, like the temples, and reportedly took only the things that were offered to them freely.
4788:, the majority of the Spanish colonists were single men who married or made concubines of the natives, and were even encouraged to do so by
2813:
had not received sufficient rewards for their support of the conquistadors, particularly after the Spanish were forced out of Tenochtitlan.
2543:
30 June – Defeat of Spanish-Tlaxcalteca forces on a causeway; capture and ritual sacrifice of the Spaniards and their horses in Tenochtitlan
9184:
8542:
7851:
4722:
suggested importing black slaves to replace them. Las Casas later repented when he saw the even worse treatment given to the black slaves.
3770:
lib. II cap. V. 1550). The Azteca version put the blame on the Tlaxcalteca, claiming that they resented Cortés going to Cholula instead of
2446:
1010:
944:
7612:
History of the Conquest of Mexico, with a Preliminary View of Ancient Mexican Civilization, and the Life of the Conqueror, Hernando Cortes
2797:
allies from Huexotzinco (or Huejotzinco) near Tlaxcala argued that their contributions had been overlooked by the Spanish. In a letter in
10608:
7141:
4909:
4771:, like other pre-Christian traditions, was quickly suppressed. In converting people to Catholicism, the Spanish pushed for a switch from
5086:
7224:
5013:
4472:
that took a heavy toll on the Native Americans, causing the population to fall by half and weakening the traditional social structure.
2776:
Tlaxcalan allies of the Spanish, showing their leaders, porters, as well as a Spanish warrior and a Spanish war dog. Lienzo de Tlaxcala
1648:
1596:
5667:
A BIBLIOGRAPHIC INTRODUCTION TO TWENTY MANUSCRIPTS OF CLASSICAL NAHUATL LITERATURE Willard P. Gingerich University of Pittsburgh 1975
3170:
and the southern Guatemalan highlands. The end of this latter campaign is generally marked by the downfall of the Maya state based at
10531:
2998:, and images of fighting men riding "on the backs of animals resembling deer", in a mirror on the crown of a bird caught by fishermen
5073:
3824:
To the Aztecs, Tenochtitlan was the "altar" for the Empire, as well as being the city that Quetzalcoatl would eventually return to.
10583:
10578:
10399:
9503:
8181:
7883:
1653:
1544:
6622:
Brooks, Francis J. (May 1995). "Motecuzoma Xocoyotl, Hernán Cortés, and Bernal Díaz del Castillo: The Construction of an Arrest".
5261:
3357:" or Malinalli. Later, the Aztecs would come to call Cortés "Malintzin" or La Malinche by dint of his close association with her.
9483:
7751:
4433:, decided to march on northwestern Mexico with a force of 5,000–8,000 men in search for new populations to subdue. He arrived in
3840:
reports that Moctezuma welcomed Cortés to Tenochtitlan on the Great Causeway, Xolac. "The chiefs who accompanied Moctezuma were:
3043:
1229:
5870:(The Florentine Codex). Book 12. Arthur J.O. Anderson and Charles Dibble, translators. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
3936:
1628:
5514:
Townsend, Camilla. "Malintzin's Choices: An Indian Woman in the Conquest of Mexico" University of New Mexico Press, 2006. p, 36
4715:
the Mexica overlords in Tenochtitlan, so the Spanish system of encomienda was built on pre-existing patterns of labor service.
8621:
10257:
8368:
6801:
6776:
6667:
6493:
6063:
5435:
5366:
5341:
5303:
4513:
After the Spanish conquest of central Mexico, expeditions were sent further northward in Mesoamerica, to the region known as
4116:
Cortés had formed an alliance with Tlaxcala. This alliance had many victories, including the overtaking of the Aztec Capital
3013:
saw a "radiance that shone in the east every morning three hours before sunrise", and a "whirlwind of dust" from the volcano
1700:
1663:
1539:
9219:
9088:
8715:
8711:
3836:, and her son, King Carlos I of Castile and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, all Spanish royalty, had then made an appearance.
3753:
reported that fortifications were being constructed around the city and the Tlaxcalans were warning the Spaniards. Finally,
3436:
in April 1519. During this same period, soon after he arrived, Cortés was welcomed by representatives of the Aztec Emperor,
10347:
9715:
9121:
8764:
8217:
8062:
7832:
7650:
7602:
7522:
7505:
7488:
7474:
7457:
7436:
7405:
7388:
7342:
7305:
7269:
7236:
4785:
4285:
3785:
conquistadors to visit his capital city, according to Spanish sources, after feeling as though nothing else could be done.
3383:
2691:
Two lengthy accounts from the defeated indigenous viewpoint were created under the direction of Spanish friars, Franciscan
2468:– Evacuation of Spanish-Tlaxcalteca allied forces from Tenochtitlan; deaths of perhaps 1,000 Spaniards and 1,000 Tlaxcalans
2308:
2074:, and his small army of European soldiers and numerous indigenous allies, overthrowing one of the most powerful empires in
1787:
1770:
1695:
1254:
39:
4733:
The other discovery that perpetuated this system of indigenous forced labor were the extensive silver mines discovered at
3709:
3655:. An exchange of gifts was made and thus began the highly significant and effective alliance between Cortés and Tlaxcala.
2395:
31 August – Tlaxcalteca attack Spaniards after entering the territory of Tlaxcallan. They succeed in killing two horsemen.
10414:
9534:
7866:
2743:
1611:
1549:
1239:
8403:
6535:
4270:
plague starting in September 1520, which lasted seventy days. Many were killed, including their new leader, the Emperor
2148:. The fall of Tenochtitlan marks the beginning of Spanish rule in central Mexico, and they established their capital of
1329:
10181:
9498:
9434:
9156:
9136:
8611:
8343:
8306:
7766:
7202:
6682:
Anonymous informants of Sahagún, Florentine Codex, book XII, chapter XVI, translation from Nahuatl by Angel Ma. Garibay
6320:
5826:
5396:
2042:
1777:
10546:
9650:
8112:
3075:
for god but with its meaning changed to representative of god, sometimes implying mysterious and supernatural power.
1129:
10247:
10156:
9554:
9098:
8651:
8281:
7878:
7712:
7695:
7683:
7667:
7636:
7619:
7585:
7571:
7554:
7366:
7325:
7291:
6579:
6545:
6199:
5271:
5197:
4301:
lasted eight months. The besiegers cut off the supply of food and destroyed the aqueduct carrying water to the city.
3631:
As before with other native groups, Cortés preached to the Tlaxcalan leaders about the benefits of Christianity. The
1755:
1683:
1480:
1349:
3692:
2734:
petition for rewards but he expanded it to encompass a full history of his earlier expeditions in the Caribbean and
2452:
Late May – Cortés forces attack Narvárez's forces at Cempoala; incorporation of those Spaniards into Cortés's forces
1134:
1112:
10613:
10447:
9131:
8615:
8393:
8148:
4693:
oversaw using indigenous informants, resulting in a number of important texts and culminating in a 12 volume text,
4411:
4121:
3424:
Coat of arms of Villa Rica, Veracruz; the first town council founded by the Spanish. The tile mosaic is located in
2497:
Late December – Spanish-Tlaxcaltec forces return to the Valley of Mexico; join with Texcoca forces of Ixtlilxochitl
2067:, ultimately reshaping the course of human history. Taking place between 1519 and 1521, this event saw the Spanish
1945:
1485:
1354:
1194:
1159:
937:
9823:
9758:
8012:
5223:
4826:
10658:
10643:
10384:
10176:
9963:
9763:
9312:
9247:
8833:
8735:
7997:
7937:
4846:
4450:, Bishop of Michoacan, in 1533. During the next decades, puppet rulers were installed by the Spanish government.
4249:
4030:
3119:
3111:
2609:'s expedition to Honduras; renounces Cortés' authority; Cortés expedition to Honduras with the captive Cuauhtemoc
2581:
November – Death of Cortés's wife, Catalina Suárez, in Coyoacan, where Cortés was resident while the new capital
2288:
1591:
1314:
1289:
1274:
1209:
1144:
51:
10302:
9818:
9262:
9146:
6859:
Gorenstein (1993, xv). According to some other sources Tangaxuan II was dragged behind a horse and then burned.
6569:
4914:
4140:
It is said that Cortés, upon reaching the mainland at Tlacopan, wept over their losses. This episode is called "
2193:. After eight months of battles and negotiations, which overcame the diplomatic resistance of the Aztec Emperor
2101:, and the impact of European diseases contributed to the downfall of the short rule of the Aztec civilization.
1102:
10673:
10668:
10633:
10404:
10342:
10141:
9559:
9272:
9252:
9224:
9141:
9116:
8976:
8784:
8691:
8631:
8598:
7888:
7861:
7410:
7393:
6889:
6412:
See: Restall, Matthew. Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest. Oxford University Press: Oxford and New York, 2003.
6039:
5505:(1983). See especially chapter 3, "From islands to the mainland: the Caribbean phase and subsequent conquests."
5152:
3488:
3440:. Gifts were exchanged, and Cortés attempted to frighten the Aztec delegation with a display of his firepower.
2727:
2506:
1765:
1745:
1264:
1097:
10367:
10196:
9953:
7930:
5527:
5048:
4518:
4465:
4459:
4426:
4316:
a major reason motivating Cortés and encouraging his soldiers to avoid surrender while fighting to the death.
4151:
towards a sanctuary in Tlaxcala. On 14 July 1520, the Aztecs attempted to destroy the Spanish for good at the
3717:
3151:
1658:
1436:
1224:
10648:
10519:
10497:
10452:
10394:
10372:
10186:
9958:
9640:
9429:
9414:
8499:
8363:
8316:
7947:
7920:
5038:
5023:
4767:, were forbidden. Catholic missionaries campaigned against cultural traditions of the Aztecs, and the use of
4649:
4599:
4089:
3492:
2916:
2715:
2636:
2571:
2481:
1 August – Spanish punitive expedition in Tepeaca in reprisal for the murder of Spaniards by its inhabitants.
1710:
1673:
1668:
1519:
1509:
1495:
1490:
1451:
1304:
1204:
1149:
9748:
8102:
8002:
7431:). Book 12. Arthur J.O. Anderson and Charles Dibble, translators. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
3256:
in person, "he and Cortés again embraced, with a great exchange of compliments", before Cortés set sail for
2964:
A column of fire that appeared from midnight until dawn, and seemed to rain fire in the year 1517 (12-House)
10663:
10389:
10357:
9888:
9753:
9189:
8569:
8378:
8174:
8032:
8007:
7942:
7910:
5043:
4067:
4061:
1740:
1730:
1705:
1500:
1234:
1214:
10377:
9710:
7925:
5770:, Trans., annotated, and with an introduction by Doris Heyden. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994.
1441:
10678:
10593:
10362:
10262:
9893:
9345:
9277:
8246:
7915:
7793:
7358:
7261:
mis à jour par Michel Graulich Bibliothèque nationale de France-Société des Américanistes, Paris, 1995.
5033:
4837:
Cortés's conquest has been depicted in numerous television documentaries. These include in an episode of
3730:
3664:
3640:
3386:. Until Cortés's marriage to his second wife, a union which produced a legitimate son whom he also named
3139:
2659:
2648:
2403:
2315:
1750:
1725:
1409:
1199:
1154:
930:
328:
9813:
9720:
7992:
7310:
4330:
3358:
3316:
2920:
2719:
2663:
10638:
10598:
10297:
9660:
9307:
9194:
9106:
9078:
8705:
8675:
8480:
8311:
8107:
7749:
White, John Manchip. "Cortes and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire: A Study in a Conflict of Cultures."
7595:
The Conquest of Mexico: Incorporation of Indian Societies into the Western World, 16th – 18th centuries
7376:
6971:
5850:
5616:
Díaz del Castillo, Bernal; "Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España" cap CXXX pp.104-108.
4654:
4627:
3425:
3277:
2852:
2802:
2766:
1735:
1678:
1643:
1576:
1456:
9680:
9635:
4804:
4147:
The Aztecs pursued and harassed the Spanish, who, guided by their Tlaxcalan allies, moved around Lake
2855:
in Nahuatl transcription and English translation. A popular anthology in English for classroom use is
2602:
to Mexico, beginning of the "spiritual conquest" to convert the indigenous populations to Christianity
10216:
10166:
10024:
9923:
9419:
9292:
9257:
9209:
9111:
8723:
8607:
8296:
8266:
8261:
7731:
4935:
4753:
4498:
4259:
3886:"Motecuhzuma receives Cortés. Mexican dances in the lake." by Juan González and Miguel González. 1698
2875:
2599:
2552:
1 August – Spanish-Tlaxcalan-Texcocan forces enter the Plaza Mayor; last stand of the Aztec defenders
1822:
1792:
1616:
1426:
1404:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1344:
1269:
1189:
1169:
8841:
8027:
5562:
Levy, Buddy. Conquistador: Hernan Cortes, King Montezuma, and the Last Stand of the Aztecs. p. 55-56
4719:
10603:
10588:
10161:
10044:
10004:
9943:
9938:
9878:
9297:
9287:
9073:
8776:
8687:
8388:
8022:
5571:
Levy, Buddy. Conquistador: Hernan Cortes, King Montezuma, and the Last Stand of the Aztecs. p 62-64
5008:
4775:
to the Catholic sacrament of the Eucharist. Despite this history, in some remote areas, the use of
4347:
had showered them with gifts, and given them rooms and food. He was dazzled by the gardens and the
2750:
did not write at any length about his actions in the New World, and died as a man of action in the
2735:
2217:
When Cortés left Tenochtitlan to return to the coast and deal with the threat of the expedition of
1849:
1715:
1638:
1586:
1475:
1364:
1359:
1294:
1259:
1244:
10541:
9620:
8853:
8373:
7481:
Conquistador Voices: The Spanish Conquest of the Americas As Recounted Largely by the Participants
7441:
7420:
7229:
Ally of Cortés: Account 13 of the Coming of the Spaniards and the Beginning of the Evangelical Law
7037:, vol. 13, part 2, Howard F. Cline, volume editor, Austin: University of Texas Press, 1973 p. 196.
6644:
5742:
Ally of Cortés: Account 13 of the Coming of the Spaniards and the Beginning of the Evangelical Law
4690:
4681:
in central Mexico, particularly the Franciscans and Dominicans learned the indigenous language of
3837:
3378:
in Spanish who would then translate into Mayan for Marina. She would then translate from Mayan to
3267:
Cortés's contingent consisted of 11 ships carrying about 630 men (including 30 crossbowmen and 12
2903:
2817:
2692:
10628:
10623:
10618:
10211:
10069:
9913:
9853:
9803:
9705:
9302:
9267:
9214:
8849:
8719:
8683:
8413:
8286:
8271:
8167:
8047:
6837:
6191:
5757:
translated by Howard F. Cline, with an introduction by S.L. Cline. University of Utah Press 1989.
5173:
4553:
4205:
settlement was abandoned, and supply ships arrived from Cuba and Spain. Cortés also had built 13
4026:
3625:
3602:
3159:
2436:
2218:
1817:
1633:
1559:
1299:
1028:
728:
9404:
7348:
7195:
Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492-2015
5705:
Patricia de Fuente, editor and translator. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1993, pp. 182–96
4468:
took almost 170 years. The whole process could have taken longer were it not for three separate
4309:
3471:
This strategy was not unique. Velásquez had used this same legal mechanism to free himself from
2856:
2268:
1493–1515 – Spanish exploration, conquest, enslavement, and settlement in the Caribbean and the
10502:
10074:
10009:
9513:
9399:
9282:
9242:
8886:
8679:
8338:
8328:
6881:
6604:
The Return of Quetzalcoatl and the Irony of Empire: Myths and Prophecies in the Aztec Tradition
5018:
4796:
became the majority of the Mexican population in the centuries following the Spanish conquest.
4749:
4321:
3992:
Cortés sent expeditions to investigate the Aztec sources of gold in the provinces of Zacatula,
3579:
3334:
3312:
3271:, an early form of firearm), a doctor, several carpenters, at least eight women, a few hundred
3014:
2993:
2133:
2035:
2000:
1601:
1514:
1465:
1421:
1174:
986:
412:
206:
9645:
7153:
6375:
5539:
3412:
as a woman who made the best of her situation and became, in many respects, a powerful woman.
3375:
3297:
2790:
2351:
2097:. A combination of factors including superior weaponry, strategic alliances with oppressed or
9948:
9358:
9179:
9068:
9007:
8935:
8845:
8546:
8226:
8097:
8057:
6336:
5718:
Patricia de Fuente, (editor and trans). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1993, pp. 165–81
5090:
4864:
4838:
4702:
4591:
4298:
4279:
4045:
3865:
3621:
3594:
3345:
After leaving Cozumel, Cortés continued round the tip of the Yucatán Peninsula and landed at
3308:
3209:, Velázquez decided to send a third and even larger expedition to explore the Mexican coast.
2145:
2098:
2060:
1965:
1827:
1581:
449:
438:
338:
175:
10482:
9883:
9670:
9630:
9589:
8563:
8037:
7778:
6105:
4926:
3197:
Hernán Cortés in his later years; his coat of arms on the upper right corner (16th century).
2989:, weeping in the middle of the night for them (the Aztecs) to "flee far away from this city"
2619:
February – execution of the three rulers of the former Triple Alliance, including Cuauhtemoc
2546:
July – Spanish ships land at Veracruz with large numbers of Spaniards, munitions, and horses
2386:), the leader of Cempoala. At this time, Cempoala is the capital of the Totonac confederacy.
2325:
to the Yucatán and Gulf coasts; appointment of Cortés to lead a third exploratory expedition
284:
10457:
10126:
10089:
10079:
10019:
9918:
9898:
9793:
9605:
9424:
8301:
8291:
8042:
7972:
7672:
7611:
7098:
6443:
6430:
5598:
Townsend, Camilla. Malintzin's Choices: An Indian Woman in the Conquest of Mexico. p. 60-62
4961:
4856:
4820:
4810:
4789:
4581:
3088:
2864:
2848:
2125:
2015:
1832:
1782:
1309:
1034:
914:
443:
391:
138:
9983:
9773:
9695:
4636:
The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico, 1519–1810
4258:"The Last Days of Tenochtitlan, Conquest of Mexico by Cortez", a 19th-century painting by
3127:
2606:
2173:, a former partner in the Aztec Triple Alliance. Other city-states also joined, including
2117:
535:
348:
269:
8:
10526:
10282:
10267:
10151:
10131:
10084:
10064:
9868:
9863:
9808:
9778:
9544:
9169:
9126:
9083:
9012:
8981:
8752:
8731:
8697:
8603:
8573:
8504:
8348:
8321:
8221:
8087:
7607:
7056:
West, Robert. Early Silver Mining in New Spain, 1531–1555 (1997). Bakewell, Peter (ed.).
7055:
5155:: states that Cortes's men lost all the artillery they had initially arrived with during
4768:
4585:
4379:
3914:
3845:
3582:, a confederacy of about 200 towns and different tribes, but without central government.
3511:
foretold". As Cortés told his men, the natives "think of us as gods, or godlike beings."
3337:
army, with Cortés and La Malinche, along with an African slave in front the meeting with
2318:
secedes from Tlaxcalteca Alliance, becomes a tributary state of the Aztec Triple Alliance
2170:
1797:
1571:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1394:
1179:
1117:
545:
530:
496:
454:
234:
216:
43:
10272:
9973:
7300:. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1993. Previously published by Orion Press 1963.
7102:
6638:
5247:
Townsend, Camilla. Malintzin's Choices: An Indian Woman in the Conquest of Mexico. p. 92
4490:
4375:
4366:
2754:
in 1542. Two letters to Cortés about Alvarado's campaigns in Guatemala are published in
425:
244:
129:
91:
10653:
10287:
10277:
10252:
10206:
10171:
10029:
9738:
9615:
9488:
8986:
8966:
8626:
8514:
8241:
8143:
8082:
8017:
7801:
7462:
7122:
7065:
6874:
6746:
6711:
6169:
6078:
Camilla Townsend, "Burying the White Gods: New Perspectives on the Conquest of Mexico"
5484:
5476:
4881:
4615:
4607:
4603:
4557:
4514:
4383:
4237:
4194:
4177:
4020:
3759:
3374:
Cortés had stumbled upon one of the keys to realizing his ambitions. He would speak to
3210:
2810:
2782:
2711:
2071:
1869:
1470:
1446:
1431:
1004:
922:
882:
864:
832:
795:
589:
520:
460:
58:
9610:
9539:
7452:, introduction and notes by S.L. Cline. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press 1989.
5179:
2722:, a well-seasoned participant in the conquest of Central Mexico, wrote what he called
10467:
10409:
10242:
10014:
9988:
9978:
9968:
9903:
9858:
9788:
9768:
9743:
9690:
9665:
8930:
8457:
8398:
8353:
8212:
8077:
8067:
7987:
7871:
7784:
7708:
7700:
7691:
7679:
7663:
7646:
7632:
7615:
7598:
7581:
7567:
7550:
7518:
7501:
7484:
7470:
7453:
7432:
7401:
7384:
7362:
7338:
7321:
7301:
7287:
7265:
7232:
7198:
7114:
7089:
Guzmán, Gastón (1 November 2008). "Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in Mexico: An Overview".
6987:
6885:
6797:
6772:
6715:
6663:
6575:
6541:
6396:
6357:
6316:
6195:
6059:
6035:
5822:
5441:
5431:
5392:
5362:
5337:
5299:
5267:
5193:
5148:
4886:
4549:
4494:
4418:
4225:
4171:
4037:
3950:
3833:
3688:
3636:
3484:
3480:
3320:
3162:
2747:
2443:
2222:
2028:
1812:
1807:
1720:
1279:
898:
732:
550:
525:
8488:
7337:. Translated and edited by Doris Heyden. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1994.
7126:
5692:
Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1993. Previously published by Orion Press 1963.
5488:
3647:
faith. In any case, they apparently had no problems in adding the Christian "Dios" (
2979:
The appearance of fire, or comets, streaming across the sky in threes during the day
2420:
1324:
10099:
10094:
10059:
10039:
9798:
9675:
9574:
9478:
8940:
8780:
8117:
8072:
7982:
7510:
7493:
7428:
7258:
7253:
7106:
6738:
6701:
6161:
5629:. Translated by Lesley Byrd Simpson. Berkeley: University of California Press 1966.
5468:
5427:
When Montezuma met Cortés : the true story of the meeting that changed history
4698:
4686:
4502:
4447:
4152:
3798:
3704:
3330:
3301:
3253:
3202:
3091:. There were further Spanish explorations and settlements in the Caribbean and the
3052:
2825:
2560:
13–17 August – Wholesale sacking and violence against the survivors in Tenochtitlan
2540:
10 May – Start of the siege of Tenochtitlan; potable water from Chapultepec cut off
2472:
2428:
2363:
2322:
2302:
2186:
2121:
2059:
was a pivotal event in the history of the Americas, marked by the collision of the
1930:
1319:
1107:
1022:
992:
673:
660:
636:
623:
606:
554:
476:
183:
170:
157:
65:
10477:
8509:
8052:
7400:
Translated by Lesley Byrd Simpson. Berkeley: University of California Press 1964.
7352:
6497:
5459:
Douglas, Daniel (1992). "Tactical Factors in the Spanish Conquest of the Aztecs".
4614:. Mendoza was entirely loyal to the Spanish crown, unlike the conqueror of Mexico
4606:(who was as the King of Spain known as Charles I), named the Spanish nobleman Don
3695:, directly to Tenochtitlan, as ambassadors and to scout for an appropriate route.
10542:
Law of coartación (which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others)
10292:
10232:
10146:
10054:
9928:
9908:
9873:
9655:
9625:
9564:
9174:
9164:
9060:
8945:
8837:
8794:
8554:
8462:
8333:
8122:
8092:
7977:
7895:
7655:
7624:
7590:
7449:
6976:
The Nahuas After the Conquest: Postconquest Central Mexican History and Philology
5589:
Thomas, Hugh. Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes, and the Fall of Old Mexico. p. 237-246
5386:
5156:
4940:
4893:
4831:
4659:
The Nahuas After the Conquest: Postconquest Central Mexican History and Philology
4163:, and their families also perished, including Moctezuma's son and two daughters.
4141:
4084:
3849:
3652:
3465:
3449:
3445:
2968:
2870:
A popular and enduring narrative of the Spanish campaign in central Mexico is by
2867:'s first voyage, when scholarly and popular interest in first encounters surged.
2463:
2227:
1925:
1837:
1623:
1399:
1016:
738:
693:
10201:
3367:
that Marina was "truly a great princess". Later, the honorific Spanish title of
2265:
1492–93 – Columbus reaches the Caribbean; start of permanent Spanish settlements
10136:
10049:
9933:
9685:
9508:
9493:
9394:
9368:
9353:
9234:
8829:
8823:
8727:
8494:
8408:
8358:
8236:
8190:
7543:
7283:
6947:
The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico
6942:
6926:
6905:
6574:(2nd ed.). Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 148–49.
5053:
4850:
4757:
4595:
4569:
4481:
4430:
4403:
4221:
4214:
3861:
3814:
3680:
3668:
3608:
The Tlaxcalans' main city was Tlaxcala. After almost a century of fighting the
3472:
3257:
2738:
and the conquest of the Aztec. A number of lower rank Spanish conquerors wrote
2242:
2137:
2064:
1940:
1935:
1920:
1802:
1078:
757:
568:
540:
358:
162:
133:
8641:
7330:
7110:
6706:
6693:
5445:
5187:
4777:
4622:" had been suggested by Cortés and was later confirmed officially by Mendoza.
2907:
2895:
2837:
2696:
222:
10567:
9700:
8550:
8467:
8276:
7900:
7846:
7772:
7729:
Daniel, Douglas A. "Tactical Factors in the Spanish Conquest of the Aztecs."
7643:
When Montezuma Met Cortés: The True Story of the Meeting that Changed History
7383:, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1991. (anthology)
7118:
6869:
5839:
History of the Conquest of New Spain, 1585 Revision by Bernardino de Sahagún,
5816:
5580:
Thomas, Hugh. Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes, and the Fall of Old Mexico. p. 237
4998:
4975:
4934:
A fictionalized version of the fall of Tenochtitlan was depicted in the 2021
4742:
4229:
4190:
4110:
4052:
June 1520, with 1,300 soldiers and 96 horses, plus 2,000 Tlaxcalan warriors.
3958:
chieftains, nephews and relations suggesting they should attack the Spanish.
3805:
On 8 November 1519, after the fall of Cholula, Cortés and his forces entered
3027:
2941:
2794:
2531:
Mid-April – Combined forces defeated by the Xochimilcans, Tenochtitlan's ally
2358:
2298:
2262:
1428 – Creation of the Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan
1985:
1980:
1905:
1854:
1606:
1554:
1369:
1046:
713:
698:
687:
650:
579:
573:
6091:
Levy, Thomas. Conquest: Cortes, Montezuma, and the Fall of Old Mexico. p. 43
5642:, David Carrasco, ed. New York: Oxford University Press 2001, vol. 1, p. 248
5551:
4748:
Spain spent enormous amounts of this wealth hiring mercenaries to fight the
4541:
4305:
4271:
4106:
4008:
3872:
2751:
2141:
645:
632:
10472:
10462:
10191:
9730:
9584:
9409:
8925:
8701:
8383:
8231:
5528:
https://www.thoughtco.com/hernan-cortes-conquest-of-aztecs-timeline-2136533
4989:
4904:
4896:
did an in-depth coverage of the Spanish conquest over four episodes of his
4873:
4645:
4642:
4407:
4399:
4395:
4370:
4334:
4327:
4210:
4202:
4117:
4071:
3926:
3922:
3913:
Cortés later asked Moctezuma to allow him to erect a cross and an image of
3857:
3832:
Upon meeting, Hernan Cortés claimed to be the representative of the queen,
3806:
3743:
3734:
3586:
3515:
3437:
3432:
Cortés landed his expedition force on the coast of the modern day state of
3390:, Cortés's natural son with Marina was the heir of his envisaged fortunes.
3338:
3268:
3135:
3092:
3048:
2974:
2912:
2528:
Early April – Attacks against Yautepec and Cuernavaca, following by sacking
2269:
2198:
2194:
2182:
2162:
2105:
2082:
2068:
2010:
1995:
1990:
1955:
1950:
708:
656:
619:
323:
309:
304:
125:
102:
85:
9783:
4872:, the legendary city of gold in the New World. Hernán Cortés is voiced by
4434:
4254:
4036:
Leaving his "least reliable soldiers" under the command of the headstrong
3671:, which was an ally of Tlaxcala. They were surprised Cortés had stayed in
3346:
3280:
realized when analyzing sixteenth-century legal records from conquest-era
3233:
817:
9373:
9199:
8768:
8646:
7559:
7467:
Victors and Vanquished: Spanish and Nahua Views of the Conquest of Mexico
7245:
Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of Temestitan
7231:. Douglass K. Ballentine, translator. El Paso: Texas Western Press 1969.
6124:
Victors and Vanquished: Spanish and Nahua Views of the Conquest of Mexico
5334:
Victors and Vanquished: Spanish and Nahua Views of the Conquest of Mexico
5296:
Victors and Vanquished: Spanish and Nahua Views of the Conquest of Mexico
4545:
4443:
4070:, that happened during a religious festival organized by the Aztecs. The
3970:
3918:
3771:
3754:
3722:
3617:
3609:
3598:
3491:, returned to Spain to seek acceptance of the cabildo's declaration with
3453:
3409:
3403:
3394:
3350:
3150:
At that time, Yucatán was briefly explored by the conquistadors, but the
2986:
2871:
2763:
Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of Temestitan
2681:
2582:
2383:
2379:
2339:
2334:
2190:
2178:
2149:
2090:
2075:
1874:
600:
594:
421:
240:
226:
9363:
6376:"Affirmative action and Hernán Cortés (1485–1547) : Mexico History"
4446:. A period of violence and turbulence began until being fully calmed by
4033:
from Cuba to kill or capture Cortés, who had defied Velazquez's orders.
3605:, that it would be better to ally with the newcomers than to kill them.
3167:
3107:
2710:
The first Spanish account of the conquest was written by lead conqueror
319:
10237:
8971:
8251:
8138:
6876:
Maya Society Under Colonial Rule: The Collective Enterprise of Survival
5744:. Douglass K. Ballentine, translator. El Paso: Texas Western Press 1969
5668:
5480:
4918:
4745:." Indian slavery was abolished in 1542 but persisted until the 1550s.
4711:
4678:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4485:
4294:
4206:
4160:
3978:
3954:
3876:
3841:
3739:
3590:
3461:
3222:
3084:
2485:
2439:
arrives on the Gulf coast, sent by Governor Velázquez to rein in Cortés
2241:
The fall of the Aztec Empire was the key event in the formation of the
2166:
2094:
1284:
1249:
860:
780:
774:
669:
471:
294:
279:
6750:
6173:
5425:
4670:
Their surviving writings are crucial in our knowledge of colonial era
4304:
Despite the stubborn Aztec resistance organized by their new emperor,
3925:, after climbing the one hundred and fourteen steps to the top of the
3793:
3420:
3326:
2955:
2890:
2833:
434:
9204:
8961:
8861:
8636:
8538:
8472:
5028:
4869:
4818:
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire is the subject of an opera,
4619:
4611:
4564:
4469:
4297:
constructed by the Spanish and transported overland to the lake. The
4186:
4049:
3997:
3962:
3941:
3903:
3570:
3543:
3518:, the lavish gifts and the polite, welcoming remarks only encouraged
3401:) became a term for a traitor to one's people. To this day, the word
3354:
3114:, who commissioned Cortés's limited expedition of exploration in 1519
3096:
2982:
The "boiling deep," and water flooding, of a lake nearby Tenochtitlan
2894:
A comet seen by Moctezuma, interpreted as a sign of impending peril.
2575:
2246:
968:
682:
584:
188:
5472:
4734:
4537:
3533:
3083:
The Spanish had established a permanent settlement on the island of
2374:
21 April – Expedition lands in the Gulf coast near San Juan de Ullúa
2111:
1975:
9378:
8256:
6742:
6694:"Review: Aztec Religion and Warfare: Past and Present Perspectives"
6165:
6152:
Cohen, Sara E. (March 1972). "How the Aztecs Appraised Montezuma".
5655:, chapter 4, "Narratives of the Conquest". Pearson, 2003, pp. 73–96
4924:
An historical drama series in Mayan, Nahuatl, and Spanish entitled
4764:
4544:, and other mountain towns then besieged the Spanish settlement in
4387:
4267:
4148:
4126:
3993:
3853:
3750:
3672:
3558:
3521:
3499:
3433:
3183:
3010:
2772:
2677:
2424:
2206:
2174:
2157:
1864:
980:
902:
789:
399:
383:
375:
363:
354:
334:
290:
275:
7957:
7500:(1753). Trans. Thomas Townsend. 2 vols. New York: AMS Press 1973.
7298:
The Conquistadors: First-Person Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico
7060:. Aldershot: Variorum, Ashgate Publishing Limited. pp. 65–66.
6482:. New York & London: Garland Publishing, Inc. pp. 139–41.
6480:
Archaeology of ancient Mexico and Central America, an Encyclopedia
5716:
The Conquistadors: First-person Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico
5147:
Diaz, B., 1963, The Conquest of New Spain, London: Penguin Books,
4217:, however, sought an alliance with the Mexicans, but was opposed.
2588:
Cortés's Second Letter to the crown is published in Seville, Spain
344:
10536:
10507:
9017:
9002:
8159:
7005:
Vocabulario en lengua cstellana y mexicana y mexcana y castellana
4793:
4682:
3818:
3503:
3457:
3379:
3293:
3171:
3068:
2930:
2829:
2798:
2210:
2202:
2086:
1915:
1859:
785:
465:
371:
212:
7788:
5690:
The Conquistadors: First-Person Accounts the Conquest of Mexico,
4862:
The expedition was also partially included in the animated film
4044:
Cortés led his combined forces on an arduous trek back over the
2816:
The best-known indigenous account of the conquest is Book 12 of
2209:, Cortés claims that he took Motecuhzoma captive. Capturing the
2091:
psychological perception of Aztec power—backed by military force
408:
260:
202:
9473:
9027:
9022:
8799:
5003:
4671:
4344:
3810:
3651:
in Spanish), the lord of the heavens, to their already complex
3272:
3261:
3155:
3131:
3099:, expeditions of exploration were sent to the coast of Mexico.
3064:
2861:
The Broken Spears: The Aztec Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico
2556:
13 August – Surrender of Aztec defenders; capture of Cuauhtemoc
2250:
1897:
1889:
808:
804:
7744:
Malintzin's Choices: An Indian Woman in the Conquest of Mexico
7354:
The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico
6313:
Malintzin's Choices: An Indian Woman in the Conquest of Mexico
2475:, Aztec forces attack the Spanish-Tlaxcalteca forces at Otumba
2354:, shipwrecked Spaniard, bilingual in Yoko Ochoko, joins Cortés
10514:
8788:
8452:
6794:
Memories of Conquest: Becoming Mexicano in Colonial Guatemala
6401:
Indian Women: Gender Differences and Identity in Early Mexico
4348:
3929:, a central place for religious authority. Moctezuma and his
3206:
2944:, who had a reputation as a great seer, as well as being the
264:
6521:, lib. XII, cap. X.; Spanish version by Angel Ma. Garibay K.
6421:
Matthew Restall, "Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest", 2003
4120:. Their capital was used as a cosmic center, where they fed
3557:
In addition to the Spaniards, Cortés' force now included 40
3138:
invited the Spanish to land, and the conquistadors read the
2626:) appointed governor of the indigenous sector of Mexico City
2535:
Late April – Construction of 13 shallow-bottomed brigantines
8857:
8772:
7347:
6315:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. p. 12.
5540:
https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/conquest/id593921773?mt=11
4224:
and the remnants of Narvaez's men, on a ship to Spain, and
3892:
3281:
3242:
3144:
8750:
7381:
We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico
5781:
We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico
5131:
5129:
5127:
4525:
population, causing them to rebel under the leadership of
2807:
We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico
2726:, countering the account by Cortés's official biographer,
2654:
2301:
dies; Cacamatzin succeeds to the throne; the rebellion of
7248:. Marshall Saville (trans). New York: The Cortés Society.
6243:, 2nd ed. (Detroit: Macmillan, 2008), vol. 2, pp. 146–49.
5361:. Wheeling, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, Inc. p. 100.
5255:
5253:
4842:
3648:
3525:
to continue his march towards the capital of the empire.
3514:
Although they attempted to dissuade Cortés from visiting
3460:
of Villa Rica" then promptly offered him the position of
3122:
commissioned a fleet of three ships under the command of
2099:
otherwise dissatisfied or opportunistic indigenous groups
7831:
7794:
La Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España
7483:. vol. 1. Spruce Tree Press 2015. (textbook, anthology)
7029:
Howard F. Cline, "Evolution of the Historia General" in
6868:
6771:. Wheeling, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, Inc. p. 99.
6662:. Wheeling, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, Inc. p. 98.
6058:. Wheeling, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, Inc. p. 97.
4213:
into a strategic body of water to assault Tenochtitlan.
4078:
2494:; death of Cuitlahuac on 4 December, perhaps of smallpox
952:
7688:
Conquest: Cortés, Montezuma, and the Fall of Old Mexico
7018:
Confessionario mayor en la lengua castellana y mexicana
6276:
Conquest: Montezuma, Cortés, and the Fall of Old Mexico
6137:
Conquest: Montezuma, Cortés, and the Fall of Old Mexico
5189:
Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control
5124:
5119:
Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes, and the Fall of Old Mexico
4282:
remained unconquered or not allied with the Spaniards.
3729:
There are contradictory reports about what happened at
3102:
7564:
Time, History, and Belief in Aztec and Colonial Mexico
7498:
The History of the Conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards
7197:(4th ed.). Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland.
6949:, 1519–1810, Stanford: Stanford University Press 1964.
6220:
5250:
4563:
In 1546, Spanish authorities discovered silver in the
3742:, the priests of Cholula expected to use the power of
2714:, who sent a series of letters to the Spanish monarch
2427:
depicted in Book XII on the conquest of Mexico in the
8505:
Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost France
6990:, "Aztec Literacy," in George A. Coller et al., eds.
3130:
peninsula. Córdoba reached the coast of Yucatán. The
2915:
were written by Spaniards: Hernán Cortés' letters to
7746:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006.
6364:, vol. 2, p. 777-78. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997.
4951:
4799:
4501:. The glyph to the right of his head represents his
4453:
4166:
3528:
2676:
Spanish conquerors exist from the first landfall at
2165:
as well as their political rivals, particularly the
7398:
Cortés: The Life of the Conqueror by His Secretary,
7241:
5526:Timeline of Hernan Cortes' Conquest of the Aztecs,
5391:. University of Oklahoma Press: Norman and London.
5113:
5111:
4355:
4003:Finally, the Aztec gods allegedly told the Mexican
2940:In 1510, Aztec Emperor Moctezuma II was visited by
2089:by maintaining local leadership and relying on the
7789:University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center
7257:, Introduction de Michel Graulich, commentaire de
6873:
6537:The history of Mexico from pre-conquest to present
6099:
6097:
5259:
5192:. University of Oklahoma Press, 1988. p. 25.
3667:, which was under Aztec control, rather than over
3498:Cortés learned of an indigenous settlement called
2389:July/August – Cortés' soldiers desecrate Cempoala
2155:Cortés made alliances with tributary city-states (
7547:The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An Imperial Society
6816:
6241:International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences
5783:, University of California Press 1991, pp. 256–73
5731:, University of California Press 1991, pp. 289–97
5218:
5216:
4250:Fall of Tenochtitlan § Siege of Tenochtitlan
4243:
3871:Moctezuma went to greet Cortés with his brother,
2832:and Spanish, with pictorials. Less well-known is
2410:8 November 1519 – Meeting of Cortés and Moctezuma
2342:, meet Moctezuma in Tenochtitlan, 8 November 1519
2112:Significant events in the conquest of Mesoamerica
10565:
7529:Relación de méritos y servicios del conquistador
5714:"The Cronicle of the Anonymous Conquistador" in
5522:
5520:
5423:
5380:
5378:
5121:, (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993), 528–529.
5108:
4575:
4417:In 1522 a Spanish force under the leadership of
2973:A lightning bolt destroying the straw temple of
2622:Don Juan Velázquez Tlacotzin, former "viceroy" (
2287:1511– Spanish viceroy in the Caribbean appoints
9049:
7469:. Boston: Bedford, 2000. (textbook, anthology)
7319:The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico: 1517–1521
6529:
6527:
6094:
5889:. Washington, DC: University of Nebraska Press.
5853:, "Introduction" to William Hickling Prescott,
5819:: The Aztec Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico.
3827:
3287:
3188:
2959:Aztec empire on the eve of the Spanish Invasion
2885:
2492:Mid-October to mid-December – Smallpox epidemic
2455:24 June – Spanish forces return to Tenochtitlan
105:and other indigenous states (modern-day Mexico)
6291:, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1968.
5841:Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press 1989.
5651:Ida Altman, Sarah Cline, and Javier Pescador,
5213:
4695:The General History of the Things of New Spain
4100:In any event, the population of the city rose
3973:permitted it." He would even play the game of
2769:in his descriptions of the history of Mexico.
1617:Banda Oriental and Rio Grande do Sul (1762–63)
1076:
8694:, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon)
8175:
7817:
7335:The History of the Indies of New Spain (1581)
6994:, pp. 395–417. New York: Academic Press 1982.
6819:The True History of the Conquest of New Spain
6571:The Native population of the Americas in 1492
5857:, New York: The Modern Library, 2001, p. xxv.
5517:
5375:
5260:Mark A. Burkholder, Lyman L. Johnson (2019).
4497:'s death in 1541, depicted in the indigenous
4340:The True History of the Conquest of New Spain
3364:The True History of the Conquest of New Spain
2926:The True History of the Conquest of New Spain
2724:The True History of the Conquest of New Spain
2284:1504 – Hernan Cortés arrives in the Caribbean
2036:
1607:Iberian Peninsula and South America (1762–63)
1062:
938:
8369:Independence of Spanish continental Americas
7070:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
6606:. University Press of Colorado. p. 150.
6524:
6403:. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1993.
6265:. Longman: London and New York, 1994. p. 46.
5336:. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins. p. 157.
5298:. Boston: Bedford/St Martin's. p. 157.
4859:(1947) is about early Cortés and the Aztec.
4824:(2005) and of a set of six symphonic poems,
4402:sent emissaries to the Spanish victors (the
3675:so long "among a poor and ill-bred people".
3658:
2844:, from 1581, with many color illustrations.
2585:was constructed on the ruins of Tenochtitlan
2309:Expedition of Francisco Hernández de Córdoba
2294:1510~ Francisco Vazquez de Coronado was born
2238:had antecedents with established practices.
27:16th-century Spanish invasion of Mesoamerica
7705:Cortés and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire
6978:, Stanford: Stanford University Press 1992.
6217:. Longman: London and New York, 1994. p. 45
6209:
6207:
5384:
5185:
4910:History of Morelos, Conquest and Revolution
4437:and found out that Tangaxuan was still the
4232:to represent his case in the Royal Courts.
4209:and had them mounted with cannons, turning
3746:, their primary god, against the invaders.
3713:The massacre of Cholula. Lienzo de Tlaxcala
3051:was promised to return. Previously, during
84:February 1519 – 13 August 1521 against the
8182:
8168:
7824:
7810:
7719:
7425:General History of the Things of New Spain
7192:
7142:"The Columbian Mosaic in Colonial America"
7074:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
6643:. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott. pp.
5868:General History of the Things of New Spain
5809:
5135:
5014:Historiography of Colonial Spanish America
3788:
3228:
3166:Yucatán to the central lowlands region of
3038:
2822:General History of the Things of New Spain
2338:Cortés and his counselor, the Nahua woman
2281:1503–09 – Moctezuma's coronation conquests
2043:
2029:
1069:
1055:
945:
931:
871:200,000 Aztecs dead (including civilians)
90:after 1529 – 17 February 1530 against the
10488:Colonial universities in Hispanic America
7049:
6767:Egerton, Douglas R.; et al. (2007).
6705:
6658:Egerton, Douglas R.; et al. (2007).
6519:Informantes de Sahagún: Códice Florentino
6054:Egerton, Douglas R.; et al. (2007).
5807:
5805:
5803:
5801:
5799:
5797:
5795:
5793:
5791:
5789:
5552:http://www.mexicoarcheology.com/cempoala/
5357:Egerton, Douglas R.; et al. (2007).
3624:, although he could not win the heart of
3565:
3537:Cortés scuttling fleet off Veracruz coast
3448:, or "True Cross", since they arrived on
3415:
2847:A text from the Nahua point of view, the
733:
10493:Colonial universities in the Philippines
7769:– web directory with thumbnail galleries
7446:The Conquest of New Spain, 1585 Revision
7140:Axtell, James (September–October 1991).
7058:Mines of Silver and Gold in the Americas
7046:Blackburn 1997: 136; Friede 1971: 165–66
6691:
6636:
6601:
6496:. Library.thinkquest.org. Archived from
6310:
6204:
6103:
6026:
6024:
6022:
6020:
6018:
6016:
6014:
6012:
6010:
6008:
6006:
6004:
6002:
6000:
5998:
5996:
5994:
5992:
5990:
5988:
5986:
5984:
5982:
5980:
5978:
5976:
5974:
5972:
5970:
5968:
5966:
5964:
5962:
5960:
5958:
5956:
5954:
5952:
5950:
5948:
5946:
5944:
5942:
5940:
5938:
5936:
5934:
5932:
5930:
5928:
5926:
5924:
5922:
5920:
5918:
5916:
5755:The Conquest of New Spain, 1585 Revision
5331:
5293:
4803:
4724:
4489:
4374:
4312:, an act that infuriated the Spaniards.
4284:
4253:
4170:
4088:
3935:
3881:
3792:
3716:
3708:
3569:
3532:
3419:
3325:
3292:Cortés spent some time at the island of
3232:
3192:
3106:
2954:
2889:
2771:
2658:
2505:
2419:
2362:The death of Moctezuma, depicted in the
2357:
2333:
9484:Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia
7752:The Hispanic American Historical Review
7580:. Longman: London and New York, (1994)
6933:, New Haven: Yale University Press 1952
6791:
6766:
6657:
6624:The Hispanic American Historical Review
6567:
6561:
6533:
6082:Vol. 108, No. 3 (June 2003), pp. 659–87
6053:
5914:
5912:
5910:
5908:
5906:
5904:
5902:
5900:
5898:
5896:
5884:
5663:
5661:
5638:Sarah Cline, "Conquest Narratives," in
5458:
5356:
5266:(10th ed.). 2019. pp. 54–57.
4586:Nahuas § Colonial_Period_1521-1821
4552:, coming to the aid of acting governor
4333:seemed remorseful after the sacking of
2730:. Bernal Díaz's account had begun as a
2655:Sources for the conquest of Mesoamerica
2278:, emperor of the Aztec Triple Alliance
881:15 Spaniards dead, many wounded at the
739:
14:
10566:
10437:
7139:
7088:
7007:(1571), Mexico: Editorial Porrúa, 1970
6962:Vol. 45, No. 3 (Aug. 1965), pp. 477–80
6834:The First Americans: Prehistory - 1600
6796:. University of North Carolina Press.
6621:
5786:
5768:The History of the Indies of New Spain
5701:"Two Letters of Pedro de Alvarado" in
5640:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerica
5538:Thomas, Hugh. “Conquest.” Apple Books
5089:. Arqueología mexicana. Archived from
4641:Scholars who were part of a branch of
4594:was constituted in 1524 and the first
3698:
3341:. The facing page is no longer extant.
3177:
3078:
2902:In the sources recorded by Franciscan
2898:'s account from indigenous informants.
2842:The History of the Indies of New Spain
2669:True History of the Conquest of Mexico
2578:, the Spanish name for central Mexico.
913:b. Primarily military support against
501:
481:Various petty city-states and tribes (
10436:
10332:
10331:
9455:
9333:
9048:
8907:
8875:
8812:
8749:
8664:
8587:
8527:
8441:
8430:
8202:
8201:
8163:
7805:
7785:Ibero-American Electronic Text Series
7549:. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, (1982)
6831:
6762:
6760:
6728:
6640:The History of the Conquest of Mexico
6617:
6615:
6613:
6477:
6471:
6239:David A. Boruchoff, "Hernán Cortés,"
6151:
6147:
6145:
6104:Townsend, Camilla (7 November 2019).
6049:
6047:
5880:
5878:
5876:
5419:
5417:
5415:
5224:"Conquest of the Aztec Empire Part I"
5074:Teoría de la bandera.Guido Villa.1974
4410:). A few Spaniards went with them to
4079:The Spanish retreat from Tenochtitlan
4055:
3371:would be added to her baptized name.
3154:with its many independent city-state
2949:several supernatural omens appeared.
2144:and Tenochtitlan, the capital of the
1602:Caribbean and North America (1739–48)
1050:
926:
909:
893:
10574:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
8765:Captaincy General of the Philippines
8257:New Laws in favour of the indigenous
7833:Spanish colonization of the Americas
7536:
6373:
6301:these children of mine are!" (p. 60)
5893:
5669:https://www.jstor.org/stable/2502581
5658:
5424:Restall, Matthew (15 January 2019).
5320:The Early History of Greater Mexico,
4406:was a contemporary and enemy of the
4394:After hearing about the fall of the
4390:allies in the conquest of Michoacan.
4289:Hernan Cortés fight with two Aztecs.
4029:. Narváez had been sent by Governor
4014:
3475:' authority in Cuba. In being named
3237:Map depicting Cortés' conquest route
3103:Early Spanish expeditions to Yucatán
2600:first twelve Franciscan missionaries
2549:20–25 July – Battle for Tenochtitlan
2057:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
2006:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
956:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
40:Spanish colonization of the Americas
33:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
18:Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire
10468:Indochristian painting in New Spain
8588:
7629:Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest
7031:Handbook of Middle American Indians
6960:Hispanic American Historical Review
6540:. New York: Routledge. p. 12.
6228:The Early History of Greater Mexico
6188:Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest
5653:The Early History of Greater Mexico
4536:In 1540, the Chichimecas fortified
4201:Cortés got reinforcements when the
3601:persuaded the Tlaxcalan warleader,
2874:-born nineteenth-century historian
2478:11 or 12 July – Retreat to Tlaxcala
2449:celebrating the Festival of Toxcatl
2116:Following an earlier expedition to
1103:Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña (1478)
879:Unknown casualties of other natives
722:Various local rulers and chieftains
24:
10609:Battles involving the Aztec Empire
9435:Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires
8908:
8189:
7781:– website for 2001 PBS documentary
7515:Historia de la conquista de Méjico
7242:Anonymous Conqueror, the (1917) .
7217:
7212:
6817:Díaz del Castillo, Bernal (1800).
6757:
6685:
6610:
6142:
6044:
5873:
5412:
3977:with Cortés. After the treason of
3902:Moctezuma had the royal palace of
3801:on the eve of the Spanish conquest
2919:and the first-person narrative of
2518:Late January – Cuauhtemoc elected
25:
10690:
8665:
8528:
8409:Independence of Equatorial Guinea
7760:
7631:. Oxford University Press (2003)
7517:. Reprint, Forgotten Books 2018.
6931:Tlaxcala in the Sixteenth Century
6568:Denevan, William M., ed. (1992).
5855:History of the Conquest of Mexico
4849:, with Cortés being portrayed by
4800:Cultural depictions of the Aztecs
4632:Tlaxcala in the Sixteenth Century
4475:
4454:Conquest of the Yucatán Peninsula
4167:Spaniards find refuge in Tlaxcala
3574:Meeting of Cortés and Xicotencatl
3529:Scuttling the fleet and aftermath
3397:" (the modern Spanish cognate of
3252:Velázquez arrived at the dock in
2880:History of the Conquest of Mexico
2382:(also known as the Fat Chief and
915:Tenochtitlan and joined the siege
114:Spanish-Indigenous allied victory
10520:Criollos in the colonial society
10448:Spanish missions in the Americas
9570:Charles Bonaventure de Longueval
8149:Spanish missions in the Americas
7956:
7779:Conquistadors, with Michael Wood
7566:. Texas University Press (2001)
7168:
7133:
7082:
7040:
7035:Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources
7023:
7010:
6997:
6494:"Empires Past: Aztecs: Conquest"
6360:. "Malinche and Malinchismo" in
6226:Ida Altman, S.L. (Sarah) Cline,
5887:Moctezuma: Warlord of the Aztecs
5627:The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico
4982:
4968:
4954:
4356:Further Spanish Wars of Conquest
4181:, depicting the battle of Otumba
3087:in 1493 on the second voyage of
2952:The eight bad omens or wonders:
2574:names Cortés captain-general of
2197:to his visit, Cortés arrived in
2185:, the inland lake system of the
1896:
712:
697:
686:
649:
572:
490:
433:
420:
407:
370:
353:
343:
333:
318:
303:
289:
274:
259:
239:
221:
211:
201:
182:
169:
156:
50:
10584:1520s in the Aztec civilization
10579:1510s in the Aztec civilization
10547:Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649
8431:
7578:Mexico and the Spanish Conquest
7531:. (c. 1545). Mexico: UNAM 1972.
6981:
6965:
6952:
6936:
6920:
6898:
6862:
6853:
6844:
6825:
6810:
6785:
6722:
6692:Brumfiel, Elizabeth M. (1990).
6676:
6651:
6630:
6595:
6512:
6486:
6458:
6436:
6424:
6415:
6406:
6390:
6367:
6351:
6329:
6304:
6294:
6281:
6268:
6263:Mexico and the Spanish Conquest
6255:
6246:
6233:
6215:Mexico and the Spanish Conquest
6180:
6129:
6116:
6085:
6072:
5860:
5844:
5831:
5773:
5760:
5747:
5734:
5721:
5708:
5695:
5682:
5673:
5645:
5632:
5619:
5610:
5601:
5592:
5583:
5574:
5565:
5556:
5544:
5532:
5508:
5495:
5452:
5350:
5325:
5312:
5287:
4521:were particularly harsh on the
3917:next to the two large idols of
2699:, using indigenous informants.
1325:Argentine Northwest (1560–1667)
825:Unknown number of other natives
8876:
8599:Captaincy General of Guatemala
8307:Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)
7527:Vázquez de Tapia, Bernardino.
6698:Latin American Research Review
6080:The American Historical Review
5740:Fernando Alva Ixtlilxochitil,
5241:
5162:
5141:
5079:
5067:
4830:(1992–99) by Italian composer
4429:, then president of the first
4244:Siege and fall of Tenochtitlan
3489:Alonso Hernandez Puertocarrero
3174:in the Petén region, in 1697.
2992:Montezuma II saw the stars of
2513:, 17th century, oil on canvas.
2484:Mid-September – Coronation of
2152:on the ruins of Tenochtitlan.
2124:in 1518, Spanish conquistador
70:Conquista de México por Cortés
13:
1:
10498:General Archive of the Indies
9759:Francisco Vázquez de Coronado
9430:Camino Real de Tierra Adentro
9415:Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas
8364:Third Treaty of San Ildefonso
8317:War of the Spanish Succession
8282:Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)
8013:Francisco Vázquez de Coronado
7225:Alva Ixtlilxochitil, Fernando
6637:Prescott, William H. (1873).
5039:Spanish conquest of Guatemala
5024:History of smallpox in Mexico
4576:The Aztecs under Spanish rule
4337:. He said later in his book,
3817:, and four times the size of
3446:La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz
3126:to sail west and explore the
3005:, running through the streets
2967:Fire consuming the temple of
2917:Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
2637:Spanish conquest of Guatemala
2572:Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
788:(~8,400 followed Cortés from
254:Support or occasional allies:
9456:
8570:Captaincy General of Yucatan
8500:Union with Holy Roman Empire
8479:Southern Italy (Kingdoms of
8394:German–Spanish Treaty (1899)
6399:. "Rethinking Malinche," in
6374:Tuck, Jim (9 October 2008).
5866:Fray Bernardino de Sahagún,
5753:Fray Bernardino de Sahagún,
5332:Schwartz, Stuart B. (2000).
5294:Schwartz, Stuart B. (2000).
5044:Spanish conquest of Honduras
4701:. The Spanish crown via the
4697:published in English as the
4386:, led Spanish soldiers with
4360:
4266:The Aztecs were struck by a
4096:depicted in the 17th century
4068:Massacre in the Great Temple
4062:Massacre in the Great Temple
3828:Cortés welcomed by Moctezuma
3288:Cortés gains two translators
3189:Commissioning the expedition
3017:. According to Diaz, "These
2886:Aztec omens for the conquest
2274:1502 – Moctezuma II elected
1793:Dominican Republic (1863–65)
7:
9334:
9050:Administrative subdivisions
8247:War of the League of Cognac
7442:Sahagún, Fray Bernardino de
7421:Sahagún, Fray Bernardino de
7349:León-Portilla, Miguel (Ed.)
6958:Review by Benjamin Keen in
6534:Russell, Philip L. (2010).
6252:Boruchoff, "Hernán Cortés."
5837:S.L. Cline "Introduction,"
5049:Spanish conquest of Yucatán
5034:Spanish conquest of Chiapas
4947:
4754:Turkish invasions of Europe
4648:, more recently called the
4466:Spanish conquest of Yucatán
4460:Spanish conquest of Yucatán
3693:Bernardino Vázquez de Tapia
3456:. The legally constituted "
3353:and also sometimes called "
3152:Spanish conquest of Yucatán
2746:. Cortés's right-hand man,
2649:Spanish conquest of Chiapas
2256:
2136:warriors led by Cortés and
897:a. Formed an alliance with
10:
10695:
9764:Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar
9749:Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada
9651:Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca
8813:
8549:), Western United States (
8442:
8312:Portuguese Restoration War
8113:Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca
8103:Tristán de Luna y Arellano
8003:Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada
7998:Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar
7411:López de Gómara, Francisco
7394:López de Gómara, Francisco
7296:de Fuentes, Patricia, ed.
7186:
7152:(5): 12–18. Archived from
6792:Matthew, Laura E. (2012).
6478:Evans, Susan Toby (2001).
6311:Townsend, Camilla (2006).
4786:colonists of North America
4579:
4548:. The famous conquistador
4479:
4457:
4364:
4247:
4082:
4059:
4018:
3702:
3181:
2767:Francisco Javier Clavijero
2291:to conquer and govern Cuba
1649:Banda Oriental (1776–1777)
1080:Spanish colonial campaigns
10532:Slavery in Spanish Empire
10443:
10432:
10338:
10327:
10225:
10119:
10112:
9997:
9846:
9839:
9832:
9819:Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor
9729:
9598:
9560:Álvaro de Bazán the Elder
9522:
9466:
9462:
9451:
9420:Barcelona Trading Company
9387:
9344:
9340:
9329:
9233:
9185:New Andalusia (1501–1513)
9155:
9097:
9059:
9055:
9044:
8995:
8954:
8918:
8914:
8903:
8882:
8819:
8760:
8692:Venezuela, part of Guyana
8671:
8594:
8545:, Central United States (
8534:
8448:
8437:
8426:
8277:Bruneian–Spanish conflict
8262:Expulsion of the Moriscos
8208:
8197:
8131:
7965:
7954:
7839:
7732:Anthropological Quarterly
7315:The Conquest of New Spain
7111:10.1007/s12231-008-9033-8
6992:The Inca and Aztec States
6880:. Princeton UP. pp.
6707:10.1017/S0023879100023487
6122:Schwartz, Stuart B., ed.
6034:, London: Penguin Books,
6032:The Conquest of New Spain
5688:Patricia de Fuentes, ed.
5461:Anthropological Quarterly
5087:"Indigeniso e hispanismo"
4936:Marvel Cinematic Universe
4634:(1952) and his monograph
4499:Codex Telleriano-Remensis
4260:William de Leftwich Dodge
4048:, returning to Mexico on
3944:allies enter Tenochtitlan
3659:Cortés marches to Cholula
2876:William Hickling Prescott
2828:, in parallel columns of
2793:. Less successfully, the
2728:Francisco López de Gómara
2511:The Capture of Cuauhtemoc
1701:Spanish America (1808–33)
1696:Río de la Plata (1806–07)
1088:
964:
889:
842:
794:and high number of other
750:
509:
398:Independent kingdoms and
148:
76:
49:
37:
32:
10473:Quito painting tradition
10463:Cusco painting tradition
9824:García López de Cárdenas
9814:Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera
9721:Felipe González de Ahedo
9641:Pedro Menéndez de Avilés
8218:Conquest of the Americas
8023:Luis de Carvajal y Cueva
7993:Bernal Díaz del Castillo
7787:presented online by the
7767:Hernán Cortés on the Web
7311:Bernal Díaz del Castillo
7176:"The Conquest of Mexico"
6870:Nancy Marguerite Farriss
6602:Carrasco, David (2000).
6444:"Conquistadors – Cortés"
6337:"Conquistadors – Cortés"
6126:. Boston: Bedforf, 2000.
5813:León-Portilla, M. 1992,
5172:acquiring the forces of
5060:
5009:Aztec influence in Spain
4741:hundred, used mainly in
4729:Evangelization of Mexico
4517:. The expeditions under
4331:Bernal Díaz del Castillo
3940:Conquistadors and their
3589:initially, and then the
3359:Bernal Díaz del Castillo
3311:, as well as some other
3118:In 1517, Cuban governor
2921:Bernal Díaz del Castillo
2720:Bernal Díaz del Castillo
2664:Bernal Díaz del Castillo
2488:as Moctezuma's successor
2297:1515 – Texcocan monarch
1870:Western Sahara (1973–76)
1798:Peru and Chile (1864–66)
1597:Banda Oriental (1735–37)
1098:Canary Islands (1402–96)
10614:Battles involving Spain
10258:Comuneros (New Granada)
10035:Balearic Islands (1558)
9754:Hernán Pérez de Quesada
9681:Ruy López de Villalobos
9636:Miguel López de Legazpi
9550:García de Toledo Osorio
8414:Western Sahara conflict
8404:Independence of Morocco
8344:Treaty of Madrid (1750)
8287:Piracy in the Caribbean
8272:French Wars of Religion
8033:Hernán Pérez de Quesada
8008:Sebastián de Belalcázar
7720:Additional bibliography
7660:The Conquest of America
7193:Clodfelter, M. (2017).
7016:Fray Alonso de Molina,
7003:Fray Alonso de Molina,
6850:Gorenstein (1993, xiv).
6838:Oxford University Press
6289:Spanish Peru, 1532–1560
6192:Oxford University Press
5885:Tsouras, Peter (2005).
5501:Lockhart and Schwartz,
4215:Xicotencatl the Younger
3789:Entry into Tenochtitlan
3626:Xicotencatl the Younger
3603:Xicotencatl the Younger
3578:Cortés soon arrived at
3464:, or Chief Justice and
3229:Revoking the commission
3039:Cortés and Quetzalcoatl
2181:and polities bordering
2138:Xicotencatl the Younger
2081:Led by the Aztec ruler
1654:North America (1779–83)
1572:North America (1702–13)
1410:Philippines (1599-1600)
1345:Philippines (1565–1898)
569:Xicotencatl the Younger
413:Confederacy of Tlaxcala
248:(1522-1529, since 1533)
207:Confederacy of Tlaxcala
10659:16th-century conflicts
10644:History of Mesoamerica
10503:Colonial Spanish Horse
10177:Colonia del Sacramento
9400:Spanish treasure fleet
8977:Royal Decree of Graces
8028:Bartolomé de las Casas
7677:The Conquest of Mexico
7359:Ángel María Garibay K.
6466:The conquest of Mexico
6431:Cortés Burns His Boats
6362:Encyclopedia of Mexico
6230:, Pearson, 2003, p. 54
5821:Boston: Beacon Press,
5263:Colonial Latin America
5019:History of Mexico City
4815:
4750:Protestant Reformation
4730:
4720:Bartolomé de las Casas
4519:Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán
4510:
4427:Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán
4391:
4290:
4263:
4182:
4097:
3996:, and the land of the
3945:
3887:
3802:
3726:
3714:
3641:Juan Velázquez de León
3575:
3566:Alliance with Tlaxcala
3538:
3479:by a duly constituted
3429:
3416:Foundation of Veracruz
3342:
3333:depicting the Spanish-
3238:
3198:
3115:
2960:
2899:
2777:
2672:
2514:
2447:massacres Aztec elites
2431:
2366:
2343:
853:1,000 killed in battle
510:Commanders and leaders
69:
57:Conquest of Mexico by
10674:1521 in North America
10669:1520 in North America
10634:1519 in North America
9661:Vasco Núñez de Balboa
9621:Juan Sebastián Elcano
8936:Council of the Indies
8297:Spanish–Moro conflict
8267:Ottoman–Habsburg wars
8227:Treaty of Tordesillas
8108:Vasco Núñez de Balboa
8063:Pedro de Portocarrero
8058:Francisco de Orellana
7773:Catholic Encyclopedia
7597:. Polity Press 1993.
7373:(textbook, anthology)
5322:Pearson, 2003, p. 59.
4865:The Road to El Dorado
4839:Engineering an Empire
4808:Scene from the opera
4807:
4728:
4703:Council of the Indies
4691:Bernardino de Sahagún
4610:the first Viceroy of
4592:Council of the Indies
4493:
4378:
4299:Siege of Tenochtitlan
4288:
4257:
4191:Xicotencatl the Elder
4174:
4092:
4046:Sierra Madre Oriental
3939:
3885:
3834:Doña Juana of Castile
3796:
3721:Cholula Massacre, by
3720:
3712:
3622:Xicotencatl the Elder
3595:Xicotencatl the Elder
3573:
3536:
3423:
3361:wrote in his account
3329:
3236:
3196:
3110:
2958:
2904:Bernardino de Sahagún
2893:
2824:and published as the
2818:Bernardino de Sahagún
2775:
2693:Bernardino de Sahagún
2662:
2509:
2423:
2361:
2337:
2321:1518 – Expedition of
2249:, which later became
2140:captured the emperor
2061:Aztec Triple Alliance
1875:Western Sahara (1975)
1828:Philippines (1896–98)
1783:Cochinchina (1858–62)
1684:Caribbean (1796–1802)
1545:Lake Maracaibo (1669)
1481:Philippines (1638-46)
1355:Philippines (1567–72)
1210:El Salvador (1524–39)
1205:Guatemala (1524–1697)
1165:Puerto Rico (1511–29)
1011:Tenochtitlan Massacre
859:Tens of thousands of
849:1,800 Spaniards dead
843:Casualties and losses
831:900 Spaniards at the
764:~2,500–3,000 infantry
580:Xicotencatl the Elder
310:Aztec Triple Alliance
176:Columbian Viceroyalty
10649:History of New Spain
10458:Mesoamerican Codices
10182:Comuneros (Paraguay)
10020:Siege of Castelnuovo
9606:Christopher Columbus
9425:Consulate of the Sea
9405:Casa de Contratación
8996:Titles and positions
8389:Spanish–American War
8379:Liberal constitution
8222:Asia and the Pacific
8043:Francisco de Montejo
7973:Christopher Columbus
7608:Prescott, William H.
6626:. 75. No. 2: 149–83.
5385:Ross Hassig (2006).
5186:Ross Hassig (1988).
4962:Latin America portal
4913:on the walls of the
4907:(1886–1957) painted
4857:Captain from Castile
4769:psilocybin mushrooms
4582:History of New Spain
4529:and thus launch the
3981:, Moctezuma and his
3313:indigenous languages
3124:Hernández de Córdoba
3089:Christopher Columbus
2865:Christopher Columbus
2857:Miguel León-Portilla
2849:Anales de Tlatelolco
2787:Historia de Tlaxcala
2744:Francisco de Aguilar
2311:to the Yucatán coast
2016:Fall of Tenochtitlan
1555:New Mexico (1680–92)
1005:Narvaez's Expedition
516:Spanish commanders:
139:Kingdom of New Spain
132:, and others by the
10664:Religion-based wars
10187:Cartagena de Indias
9809:Diego de Mazariegos
9779:Pere Fages i Beleta
9646:Sebastián de Ocampo
9127:Provincias Internas
9099:Captaincies General
9013:Municipal president
8982:School of Salamanca
8753:Spanish East Indies
8732:Misiones Orientales
8604:Spanish West Indies
8568:, Central America (
8515:Pyrénées-Orientales
8468:Union with Portugal
8359:Napoleonic invasion
8339:War of Jenkins' Ear
7742:Townsend, Camilla.
7463:Schwartz, Stuart B.
7280:Letters from Mexico
7103:2008EcBot..62..404G
6832:Hakim, Joy (2005).
6154:The History Teacher
5503:Early Latin America
5318:Ida Altman, et al.
5228:www.spanishwars.net
4847:Heroes and Villains
3927:main temple pyramid
3699:Massacre of Cholula
3376:Gerónimo de Aguilar
3298:Gerónimo de Aguilar
3178:Cortés's expedition
3140:Requirement of 1513
3079:Spanish expeditions
2791:Diego Muñoz Camargo
2402:October – March to
2352:Gerónimo de Aguilar
2128:led an expedition (
1788:Morocco (1859–1860)
1778:Balanguingui (1848)
1746:Venezuela (1811–23)
1711:Argentina (1810–18)
1225:Yucatán (1527–1697)
1200:Chiapas (1523–1695)
875:300 war canoes sunk
659:of Tlatelolco
564:Indigenous allies:
531:Gonzalo de Sandoval
497:Governorate of Cuba
466:Guamare Confederacy
44:Mexican Indian Wars
10679:Invasions by Spain
10594:1520s in New Spain
10483:Academia Antártica
10438:Other civil topics
9804:Pánfilo de Narváez
9706:Sebastián Vizcaíno
9671:Andrés de Urdaneta
9631:Juan Ponce de León
9616:Ferdinand Magellan
9590:Bernardo de Gálvez
9489:Indian auxiliaries
8987:Trial of residence
8967:Laws of the Indies
8751:Asia and Oceania (
8612:Dominican Republic
8144:Indian auxiliaries
8083:Nikolaus Federmann
8048:Pánfilo de Narváez
8038:Juan Ponce de León
7857:Strait of Magellan
7701:White, Jon Manchip
7641:Restall, Matthew.
7544:Berdan, Frances F.
6769:The Atlantic World
6700:. 25 N.2: 248–59.
6660:The Atlantic World
6500:on 2 February 2009
6397:Karttunen, Frances
6358:Karttunen, Frances
6186:Restall, Matthew.
6056:The Atlantic World
5766:Fray Diego Durán,
5703:The Conquistadors,
5359:The Atlantic World
5174:Pánfilo de Narváez
4882:The Other Conquest
4841:as well as in the
4816:
4731:
4608:Antonio de Mendoza
4604:Holy Roman Emperor
4598:in 1527. In 1535,
4558:Antonio de Mendoza
4554:Cristóbal de Oñate
4515:La Gran Chichimeca
4511:
4425:In 1529, however,
4392:
4291:
4264:
4195:Chichimecatecuhtli
4183:
4178:Lienzo de Tlaxcala
4098:
4056:The Aztec response
4027:Pánfilo de Narváez
4021:Battle of Cempoala
3946:
3888:
3875:, and his nephew,
3850:Tetlepanquetzaltin
3803:
3760:pre-emptive strike
3738:chronicles of the
3727:
3715:
3576:
3539:
3430:
3343:
3239:
3199:
3116:
3112:Diego de Velázquez
3009:Additionally, the
3001:A two headed man,
2961:
2900:
2783:Lienzo de Tlaxcala
2778:
2673:
2515:
2437:Pánfilo de Narváez
2432:
2367:
2344:
2219:Pánfilo de Narváez
1890:Aztec civilization
1833:Puerto Rico (1898)
1803:Puerto Rico (1868)
1761:Colombia (1819–20)
1756:Colombia (1815–16)
1736:El Salvador (1811)
1721:Paraguay (1810–11)
1664:New Granada (1781)
1634:Philippines (1762)
1540:Porto Bello (1668)
1510:Philippines (1646)
1466:Philippines (1630)
1422:Philippines (1602)
1405:Puerto Rico (1598)
1395:Philippines (1596)
1390:Puerto Rico (1595)
1385:Cambodia (1593–97)
1265:Colombia (1537–40)
1215:Honduras (1524–39)
1180:Mexico (1519–1821)
883:Battle of Cempoala
833:Battle of Cempoala
729:Pánfilo de Narváez
615:Aztec commanders:
590:Chichimecatecuhtli
196:Indigenous allies:
124:Annexation of the
10639:1521 in New Spain
10599:Conflicts in 1519
10559:
10558:
10555:
10554:
10428:
10427:
10333:Spanish conquests
10323:
10322:
10319:
10318:
10315:
10314:
10311:
10310:
10108:
10107:
9789:Pedro de Alvarado
9774:Gaspar de Portolà
9769:Pedro de Valdivia
9744:Francisco Pizarro
9696:Nicolás de Ovando
9691:Alonso de Ercilla
9666:Alonso de Salazar
9499:Ships of the line
9447:
9446:
9443:
9442:
9325:
9324:
9321:
9320:
9040:
9039:
9036:
9035:
8899:
8898:
8895:
8894:
8871:
8870:
8828:Northern Africa (
8824:Equatorial Guinea
8808:
8807:
8745:
8744:
8660:
8659:
8583:
8582:
8574:Spanish Caribbean
8547:Spanish Louisiana
8523:
8522:
8458:Crown of Castille
8422:
8421:
8399:Spanish Civil War
8374:Adams–Onís Treaty
8354:Nootka Convention
8302:Thirty Years' War
8292:Eighty Years' War
8213:Catholic Monarchs
8203:Timeline–immersed
8157:
8156:
8078:Pedro de Valdivia
8068:Francisco Pizarro
7988:Pedro de Alvarado
7852:Pacific Northwest
7537:Secondary sources
7511:Solis, Antonio de
7494:Solis, Antonio de
7479:Siepel, Kevin H.
6988:Frances Karttunen
6908:. Somosprimos.com
6803:978-1-4696-0179-3
6778:978-0-88295-245-1
6669:978-0-88295-245-1
6106:"Inventing a God"
6065:978-0-88295-245-1
5437:978-0-06-242727-4
5430:. HarperCollins.
5368:978-0-88295-245-1
5343:978-0-312-39355-7
5305:978-0-312-39355-7
4903:Mexican muralist
4887:Salvador Carrasco
4665:for noblemen and
4550:Pedro de Alvarado
4495:Pedro de Alvarado
4419:Cristobal de Olid
4226:Francisco Montejo
4038:Pedro de Alvarado
4015:Defeat of Narváez
3951:Juan de Escalante
3689:Pedro de Alvarado
3637:Pedro de Alvarado
3485:Francisco Montejo
3163:Maya civilization
2756:The Conquistadors
2748:Pedro de Alvarado
2607:Cristóbal de Olid
2444:Pedro de Alvarado
2223:Pedro de Alvarado
2087:hegemonic control
2053:
2052:
1883:
1882:
1865:Morocco (1957–58)
1860:Morocco (1920–26)
1855:Morocco (1911–12)
1818:Morocco (1893–94)
1766:Ecuador (1820–22)
1706:Bolivia (1809–25)
1639:Chile (1766–1767)
1587:Chile (1723–1726)
1520:Hispaniola (1655)
1427:Insulindia (1603)
1380:Insulindia (1585)
1375:Insulindia (1582)
1285:Chile (1546–1662)
1175:Algeria (1517–18)
1044:
1043:
921:
920:
899:Pedro de Alvarado
865:indigenous allies
796:indigenous allies
696:of Tlacopan
551:Juan de Escalante
536:Cristóbal de Olid
526:Pedro de Alvarado
144:
143:
16:(Redirected from
10686:
10434:
10433:
10400:Chibchan Nations
10329:
10328:
10298:Santiago de Cuba
10157:Guadalupe Island
10117:
10116:
9844:
9843:
9837:
9836:
9799:Diego de Almagro
9676:Antonio de Ulloa
9580:Ambrosio Spinola
9575:Pedro de Zubiaur
9545:Alfonso d'Avalos
9535:Antonio de Leyva
9479:Army of Flanders
9464:
9463:
9453:
9452:
9342:
9341:
9331:
9330:
9057:
9056:
9046:
9045:
8916:
8915:
8905:
8904:
8873:
8872:
8846:Peñón of Algiers
8810:
8809:
8747:
8746:
8662:
8661:
8585:
8584:
8567:
8525:
8524:
8439:
8438:
8428:
8427:
8349:Seven Years' War
8322:Queen Anne's War
8199:
8198:
8184:
8177:
8170:
8161:
8160:
8118:Amerigo Vespucci
8073:Hernando de Soto
7983:Diego de Almagro
7960:
7826:
7819:
7812:
7803:
7802:
7798:
7656:Todorov, Tzvetan
7651:978-0062-42726-7
7625:Restall, Matthew
7603:978-0745-61226-3
7591:Gruzinski, Serge
7523:978-0265-70774-6
7506:978-1385-12366-9
7489:978-0978-64662-2
7475:978-0312-39355-7
7458:978-0874-80311-2
7437:978-1607-81167-1
7429:Florentine Codex
7406:978-0520-00491-7
7389:978-1592-44681-0
7372:
7343:978-0806-14107-7
7306:978-0806-12562-6
7274:Cortés, Hernán.
7270:978-2717-71944-4
7264:
7259:Robert H. Barlow
7254:Codex Azcatitlan
7249:
7237:978-0874-04015-9
7208:
7180:
7179:
7172:
7166:
7165:
7163:
7161:
7137:
7131:
7130:
7086:
7080:
7079:
7069:
7061:
7053:
7047:
7044:
7038:
7027:
7021:
7014:
7008:
7001:
6995:
6985:
6979:
6969:
6963:
6956:
6950:
6940:
6934:
6924:
6918:
6917:
6915:
6913:
6906:"John P. Schmal"
6902:
6896:
6895:
6879:
6866:
6860:
6857:
6851:
6848:
6842:
6841:
6836:(3rd ed.).
6829:
6823:
6822:
6814:
6808:
6807:
6789:
6783:
6782:
6764:
6755:
6754:
6726:
6720:
6719:
6709:
6689:
6683:
6680:
6674:
6673:
6655:
6649:
6648:
6634:
6628:
6627:
6619:
6608:
6607:
6599:
6593:
6592:
6590:
6588:
6565:
6559:
6558:
6556:
6554:
6531:
6522:
6516:
6510:
6509:
6507:
6505:
6490:
6484:
6483:
6475:
6469:
6462:
6456:
6455:
6453:
6451:
6440:
6434:
6428:
6422:
6419:
6413:
6410:
6404:
6394:
6388:
6387:
6385:
6383:
6378:. Mexconnect.com
6371:
6365:
6355:
6349:
6348:
6346:
6344:
6333:
6327:
6326:
6308:
6302:
6298:
6292:
6287:James Lockhart,
6285:
6279:
6272:
6266:
6259:
6253:
6250:
6244:
6237:
6231:
6224:
6218:
6211:
6202:
6184:
6178:
6177:
6149:
6140:
6133:
6127:
6120:
6114:
6113:
6101:
6092:
6089:
6083:
6076:
6070:
6069:
6051:
6042:
6030:Diaz, B., 1963,
6028:
5891:
5890:
5882:
5871:
5864:
5858:
5848:
5842:
5835:
5829:
5811:
5784:
5779:James Lockhart,
5777:
5771:
5764:
5758:
5751:
5745:
5738:
5732:
5727:James Lockhart,
5725:
5719:
5712:
5706:
5699:
5693:
5686:
5680:
5677:
5671:
5665:
5656:
5649:
5643:
5636:
5630:
5623:
5617:
5614:
5608:
5605:
5599:
5596:
5590:
5587:
5581:
5578:
5572:
5569:
5563:
5560:
5554:
5548:
5542:
5536:
5530:
5524:
5515:
5512:
5506:
5499:
5493:
5492:
5456:
5450:
5449:
5421:
5410:
5409:
5407:
5405:
5382:
5373:
5372:
5354:
5348:
5347:
5329:
5323:
5316:
5310:
5309:
5291:
5285:
5284:
5282:
5280:
5257:
5248:
5245:
5239:
5238:
5236:
5234:
5220:
5211:
5210:
5208:
5206:
5183:
5177:
5166:
5160:
5145:
5139:
5133:
5122:
5115:
5106:
5102:
5100:
5098:
5083:
5077:
5071:
4992:
4987:
4986:
4985:
4978:
4973:
4972:
4971:
4964:
4959:
4958:
4957:
4790:Queen Isabella I
4752:and to halt the
4699:Florentine Codex
4687:Alonso de Molina
4448:Vasco de Quiroga
4404:Purépecha empire
4367:Purépecha Empire
4175:A page from the
4153:Battle of Otumba
3799:Valley of Mexico
3705:Cholula massacre
3653:pantheon of gods
3331:Codex Azcatitlan
3302:Gonzalo Guerrero
3254:Santiago de Cuba
3203:Juan de Grijalva
3160:Late Postclassic
3053:Juan de Grijalva
2826:Florentine Codex
2473:Battle of Otumba
2429:Florentine Codex
2364:Florentine Codex
2323:Juan de Grijalva
2187:Valley of Mexico
2122:Juan de Grijalva
2104:The invasion of
2045:
2038:
2031:
1916:Nahuatl language
1900:
1886:
1885:
1771:Mexico (1821–29)
1726:Mexico (1810–21)
1629:Nicaragua (1762)
1280:Halmahera (1545)
1250:Brazil (1534-36)
1185:Mexico (1519–21)
1083:
1081:
1071:
1064:
1057:
1048:
1047:
959:
957:
947:
940:
933:
924:
923:
912:
896:
856:15+ cannons lost
779:~80,000–200,000
741:
735:
716:
701:
690:
685:of Texcoco
678:
672:of Texcoco
665:
653:
641:
628:
607:Ixtlilxochitl II
576:
559:
495:
494:
493:
437:
430:
426:Purépecha Empire
424:
417:
411:
374:
357:
347:
337:
322:
314:
308:
307:
293:
278:
263:
249:
245:Purépecha Empire
243:
225:
215:
205:
187:
186:
174:
173:
161:
160:
137:Creation of the
130:Purépecha Empire
92:Purépecha Empire
78:
77:
72:
54:
30:
29:
21:
10694:
10693:
10689:
10688:
10687:
10685:
10684:
10683:
10604:1520s conflicts
10589:1520s in Mexico
10564:
10563:
10560:
10551:
10527:Old inquisition
10439:
10424:
10334:
10307:
10263:Trinidad (1797)
10233:La Noche Triste
10221:
10217:San Juan (1797)
10167:San Juan (1595)
10104:
9993:
9833:Notable battles
9828:
9794:Martín de Ursúa
9725:
9656:Alonso de Ojeda
9626:Juan de la Cosa
9611:Pinzón brothers
9594:
9565:John of Austria
9540:Martín de Goiti
9518:
9458:
9439:
9383:
9336:
9317:
9229:
9225:Terra Australis
9220:Río de la Plata
9165:Castilla de Oro
9151:
9093:
9089:Río de la Plata
9051:
9032:
8991:
8950:
8946:Santa Hermandad
8910:
8891:
8887:Terra Australis
8878:
8867:
8834:Spanish Morocco
8815:
8804:
8795:Northern Taiwan
8756:
8741:
8712:Río de la Plata
8667:
8656:
8590:
8589:Central America
8579:
8561:
8530:
8519:
8463:Crown of Aragon
8444:
8433:
8418:
8334:Bourbon Reforms
8204:
8193:
8188:
8158:
8153:
8127:
8123:Juan de la Cosa
8093:Pedro de Candia
7978:Alonso de Ojeda
7961:
7952:
7835:
7830:
7796:
7763:
7758:
7755:(1972): 467–68.
7735:(1992): 187–94.
7722:
7717:
7539:
7534:
7450:Howard F. Cline
7377:Lockhart, James
7369:
7317:– available as
7278:– available as
7262:
7220:
7218:Primary sources
7215:
7213:Further reading
7205:
7189:
7184:
7183:
7174:
7173:
7169:
7159:
7157:
7138:
7134:
7091:Economic Botany
7087:
7083:
7063:
7062:
7054:
7050:
7045:
7041:
7028:
7024:
7015:
7011:
7002:
6998:
6986:
6982:
6970:
6966:
6957:
6953:
6941:
6937:
6925:
6921:
6911:
6909:
6904:
6903:
6899:
6892:
6867:
6863:
6858:
6854:
6849:
6845:
6830:
6826:
6815:
6811:
6804:
6790:
6786:
6779:
6765:
6758:
6727:
6723:
6690:
6686:
6681:
6677:
6670:
6656:
6652:
6635:
6631:
6620:
6611:
6600:
6596:
6586:
6584:
6582:
6566:
6562:
6552:
6550:
6548:
6532:
6525:
6517:
6513:
6503:
6501:
6492:
6491:
6487:
6476:
6472:
6463:
6459:
6449:
6447:
6442:
6441:
6437:
6429:
6425:
6420:
6416:
6411:
6407:
6395:
6391:
6381:
6379:
6372:
6368:
6356:
6352:
6342:
6340:
6335:
6334:
6330:
6323:
6309:
6305:
6299:
6295:
6286:
6282:
6273:
6269:
6260:
6256:
6251:
6247:
6238:
6234:
6225:
6221:
6212:
6205:
6185:
6181:
6150:
6143:
6134:
6130:
6121:
6117:
6102:
6095:
6090:
6086:
6077:
6073:
6066:
6052:
6045:
6029:
5894:
5883:
5874:
5865:
5861:
5851:Lockhart, James
5849:
5845:
5836:
5832:
5812:
5787:
5778:
5774:
5765:
5761:
5752:
5748:
5739:
5735:
5726:
5722:
5713:
5709:
5700:
5696:
5687:
5683:
5678:
5674:
5666:
5659:
5650:
5646:
5637:
5633:
5625:Robert Ricard,
5624:
5620:
5615:
5611:
5606:
5602:
5597:
5593:
5588:
5584:
5579:
5575:
5570:
5566:
5561:
5557:
5549:
5545:
5537:
5533:
5525:
5518:
5513:
5509:
5500:
5496:
5473:10.2307/3317246
5457:
5453:
5438:
5422:
5413:
5403:
5401:
5399:
5383:
5376:
5369:
5355:
5351:
5344:
5330:
5326:
5317:
5313:
5306:
5292:
5288:
5278:
5276:
5274:
5258:
5251:
5246:
5242:
5232:
5230:
5222:
5221:
5214:
5204:
5202:
5200:
5184:
5180:
5167:
5163:
5157:La Noche Triste
5146:
5142:
5136:Clodfelter 2017
5134:
5125:
5116:
5109:
5096:
5094:
5093:on 4 March 2016
5085:
5084:
5080:
5072:
5068:
5063:
5058:
4988:
4983:
4981:
4974:
4969:
4967:
4960:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4898:History on Fire
4894:Daniele Bolelli
4832:Lorenzo Ferrero
4827:La Nueva España
4802:
4781:has persisted.
4588:
4580:Main articles:
4578:
4488:
4480:Main articles:
4478:
4462:
4456:
4373:
4365:Main articles:
4363:
4358:
4310:Huitzilopochtli
4252:
4246:
4169:
4142:La Noche Triste
4094:La Noche Triste
4087:
4085:La Noche Triste
4081:
4064:
4058:
4023:
4017:
3830:
3791:
3707:
3701:
3661:
3568:
3531:
3466:Captain-General
3450:Maundy Thursday
3418:
3290:
3231:
3191:
3186:
3180:
3120:Diego Velázquez
3105:
3081:
3041:
2969:Huitzilopochtli
2888:
2785:(1585) and the
2657:
2598:Arrival of the
2522:of Tenochtitlan
2471:9 or 10 July –
2464:La Noche Triste
2435:April or May –
2289:Diego Velázquez
2259:
2245:overseas, with
2228:La Noche Triste
2126:Hernándo Cortés
2114:
2049:
2020:
1960:
1946:Human sacrifice
1884:
1879:
1751:Chile (1812–27)
1612:Portugal (1762)
1505:Valdivia (1643)
1442:Petén (1618–97)
1084:
1079:
1077:
1075:
1045:
1040:
1017:La Noche Triste
960:
955:
953:
951:
908:
880:
878:
838:
828:
822:
813:
793:
783:
746:
725:
719:
704:
694:Tetlepanquetzal
674:
661:
637:
624:
555:
491:
489:
488:
428:
415:
312:
302:
247:
181:
168:
155:
136:
120:
106:
89:
64:
63:
62:, oil on canvas
55:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
10692:
10682:
10681:
10676:
10671:
10666:
10661:
10656:
10651:
10646:
10641:
10636:
10631:
10629:1521 in Mexico
10626:
10624:1520 in Mexico
10621:
10619:1519 in Mexico
10616:
10611:
10606:
10601:
10596:
10591:
10586:
10581:
10576:
10557:
10556:
10553:
10552:
10550:
10549:
10544:
10539:
10534:
10529:
10524:
10523:
10522:
10512:
10511:
10510:
10500:
10495:
10490:
10485:
10480:
10475:
10470:
10465:
10460:
10455:
10450:
10444:
10441:
10440:
10430:
10429:
10426:
10425:
10423:
10422:
10417:
10412:
10407:
10402:
10397:
10392:
10387:
10382:
10381:
10380:
10375:
10370:
10365:
10355:
10350:
10345:
10343:Canary Islands
10339:
10336:
10335:
10325:
10324:
10321:
10320:
10317:
10316:
10313:
10312:
10309:
10308:
10306:
10305:
10300:
10295:
10290:
10285:
10280:
10275:
10270:
10265:
10260:
10255:
10250:
10245:
10240:
10235:
10229:
10227:
10223:
10222:
10220:
10219:
10214:
10209:
10204:
10199:
10197:Túpac Amaru II
10194:
10189:
10184:
10179:
10174:
10169:
10164:
10159:
10154:
10149:
10144:
10142:Bogotá savanna
10139:
10134:
10129:
10123:
10121:
10114:
10110:
10109:
10106:
10105:
10103:
10102:
10097:
10092:
10087:
10082:
10077:
10072:
10067:
10062:
10057:
10052:
10050:Spanish Armada
10047:
10042:
10037:
10032:
10027:
10022:
10017:
10012:
10007:
10001:
9999:
9995:
9994:
9992:
9991:
9986:
9981:
9976:
9971:
9966:
9961:
9956:
9951:
9946:
9944:White Mountain
9941:
9939:Cape Celidonia
9936:
9934:English Armada
9931:
9926:
9921:
9916:
9911:
9906:
9901:
9896:
9891:
9886:
9881:
9876:
9871:
9866:
9861:
9856:
9850:
9848:
9841:
9834:
9830:
9829:
9827:
9826:
9821:
9816:
9811:
9806:
9801:
9796:
9791:
9786:
9781:
9776:
9771:
9766:
9761:
9756:
9751:
9746:
9741:
9735:
9733:
9727:
9726:
9724:
9723:
9718:
9713:
9711:Juan Fernández
9708:
9703:
9698:
9693:
9688:
9686:Diego Columbus
9683:
9678:
9673:
9668:
9663:
9658:
9653:
9648:
9643:
9638:
9633:
9628:
9623:
9618:
9613:
9608:
9602:
9600:
9596:
9595:
9593:
9592:
9587:
9582:
9577:
9572:
9567:
9562:
9557:
9552:
9547:
9542:
9537:
9532:
9526:
9524:
9520:
9519:
9517:
9516:
9514:Army of Africa
9511:
9506:
9501:
9496:
9494:Spanish Armada
9491:
9486:
9481:
9476:
9470:
9468:
9460:
9459:
9449:
9448:
9445:
9444:
9441:
9440:
9438:
9437:
9432:
9427:
9422:
9417:
9412:
9407:
9402:
9397:
9395:Manila galleon
9391:
9389:
9385:
9384:
9382:
9381:
9376:
9371:
9366:
9361:
9356:
9350:
9348:
9338:
9337:
9327:
9326:
9323:
9322:
9319:
9318:
9316:
9315:
9310:
9305:
9300:
9295:
9290:
9285:
9280:
9275:
9270:
9265:
9260:
9255:
9250:
9245:
9239:
9237:
9231:
9230:
9228:
9227:
9222:
9217:
9212:
9207:
9202:
9197:
9192:
9187:
9182:
9177:
9172:
9167:
9161:
9159:
9153:
9152:
9150:
9149:
9144:
9139:
9134:
9129:
9124:
9119:
9114:
9109:
9103:
9101:
9095:
9094:
9092:
9091:
9086:
9081:
9076:
9071:
9065:
9063:
9053:
9052:
9042:
9041:
9038:
9037:
9034:
9033:
9031:
9030:
9025:
9020:
9015:
9010:
9005:
8999:
8997:
8993:
8992:
8990:
8989:
8984:
8979:
8974:
8969:
8964:
8958:
8956:
8952:
8951:
8949:
8948:
8943:
8938:
8933:
8928:
8922:
8920:
8912:
8911:
8909:Administration
8901:
8900:
8897:
8896:
8893:
8892:
8890:
8889:
8883:
8880:
8879:
8869:
8868:
8866:
8865:
8830:Western Sahara
8826:
8820:
8817:
8816:
8806:
8805:
8803:
8802:
8797:
8792:
8761:
8758:
8757:
8743:
8742:
8740:
8739:
8728:Banda Oriental
8709:
8695:
8672:
8669:
8668:
8658:
8657:
8655:
8654:
8649:
8644:
8639:
8634:
8629:
8624:
8619:
8601:
8595:
8592:
8591:
8581:
8580:
8578:
8577:
8543:Coastal Alaska
8535:
8532:
8531:
8521:
8520:
8518:
8517:
8512:
8507:
8502:
8497:
8492:
8477:
8476:
8475:
8470:
8465:
8460:
8449:
8446:
8445:
8435:
8434:
8424:
8423:
8420:
8419:
8417:
8416:
8411:
8406:
8401:
8396:
8391:
8386:
8381:
8376:
8371:
8366:
8361:
8356:
8351:
8346:
8341:
8336:
8331:
8326:
8325:
8324:
8314:
8309:
8304:
8299:
8294:
8289:
8284:
8279:
8274:
8269:
8264:
8259:
8254:
8249:
8244:
8239:
8234:
8229:
8224:
8215:
8209:
8206:
8205:
8195:
8194:
8191:Spanish Empire
8187:
8186:
8179:
8172:
8164:
8155:
8154:
8152:
8151:
8146:
8141:
8135:
8133:
8129:
8128:
8126:
8125:
8120:
8115:
8110:
8105:
8100:
8095:
8090:
8088:Inés de Suárez
8085:
8080:
8075:
8070:
8065:
8060:
8055:
8050:
8045:
8040:
8035:
8030:
8025:
8020:
8015:
8010:
8005:
8000:
7995:
7990:
7985:
7980:
7975:
7969:
7967:
7963:
7962:
7955:
7953:
7951:
7950:
7945:
7940:
7935:
7934:
7933:
7928:
7923:
7918:
7908:
7903:
7898:
7893:
7892:
7891:
7886:
7876:
7875:
7874:
7864:
7859:
7854:
7849:
7843:
7841:
7837:
7836:
7829:
7828:
7821:
7814:
7806:
7800:
7799:
7791:
7782:
7776:
7770:
7762:
7761:External links
7759:
7757:
7756:
7747:
7740:
7736:
7727:
7723:
7721:
7718:
7716:
7715:
7698:
7670:
7653:
7639:
7622:
7605:
7588:
7576:Hassig, Ross.
7574:
7557:
7540:
7538:
7535:
7533:
7532:
7525:
7508:
7491:
7477:
7460:
7439:
7418:
7408:
7391:
7374:
7367:
7345:
7328:
7308:
7294:
7284:Anthony Pagden
7282:translated by
7272:
7250:
7239:
7221:
7219:
7216:
7214:
7211:
7210:
7209:
7204:978-0786474707
7203:
7188:
7185:
7182:
7181:
7178:. 25 May 2017.
7167:
7156:on 17 May 2008
7132:
7097:(3): 404–412.
7081:
7048:
7039:
7022:
7009:
6996:
6980:
6972:James Lockhart
6964:
6951:
6943:Charles Gibson
6935:
6927:Charles Gibson
6919:
6897:
6890:
6861:
6852:
6843:
6840:. p. 110.
6824:
6809:
6802:
6784:
6777:
6756:
6743:10.2307/481953
6721:
6684:
6675:
6668:
6650:
6629:
6609:
6594:
6580:
6560:
6546:
6523:
6511:
6485:
6470:
6457:
6435:
6423:
6414:
6405:
6389:
6366:
6350:
6328:
6322:978-0826334053
6321:
6303:
6293:
6280:
6274:Thomas, Hugh.
6267:
6261:Hassig, Ross,
6254:
6245:
6232:
6219:
6213:Hassig, Ross,
6203:
6179:
6166:10.2307/491417
6141:
6135:Thomas, Hugh.
6128:
6115:
6093:
6084:
6071:
6064:
6043:
5892:
5872:
5859:
5843:
5830:
5827:978-0807055014
5785:
5772:
5759:
5746:
5733:
5729:We People Here
5720:
5707:
5694:
5681:
5672:
5657:
5644:
5631:
5618:
5609:
5600:
5591:
5582:
5573:
5564:
5555:
5543:
5531:
5516:
5507:
5494:
5467:(4): 187–194.
5451:
5436:
5411:
5398:978-0806137933
5397:
5374:
5367:
5349:
5342:
5324:
5311:
5304:
5286:
5272:
5249:
5240:
5212:
5198:
5178:
5161:
5140:
5123:
5117:Thomas, Hugh.
5107:
5078:
5065:
5064:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5056:
5054:Spanish Empire
5051:
5046:
5041:
5036:
5031:
5026:
5021:
5016:
5011:
5006:
5001:
4995:
4994:
4993:
4979:
4965:
4949:
4946:
4921:in 1929–1930.
4885:, directed by
4851:Brian McCardie
4801:
4798:
4758:Manila Galleon
4743:gold placering
4655:James Lockhart
4628:Charles Gibson
4577:
4574:
4570:Chichimeca War
4482:Chichimeca War
4477:
4476:Chichimec Wars
4474:
4458:Main article:
4455:
4452:
4380:Nuño de Guzmán
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4248:Main article:
4245:
4242:
4222:Diego de Ordaz
4168:
4165:
4083:Main article:
4080:
4077:
4057:
4054:
4050:St. John's Day
4016:
4013:
3862:Tlacochcalcatl
3829:
3826:
3815:Constantinople
3790:
3787:
3703:Main article:
3700:
3697:
3681:Aztec religion
3660:
3657:
3643:respectively.
3567:
3564:
3530:
3527:
3473:Diego Columbus
3452:and landed on
3417:
3414:
3289:
3286:
3278:James Lockhart
3258:Trinidad, Cuba
3230:
3227:
3190:
3187:
3179:
3176:
3104:
3101:
3080:
3077:
3040:
3037:
3007:
3006:
2999:
2990:
2983:
2980:
2977:
2971:
2965:
2906:and Dominican
2887:
2884:
2853:James Lockhart
2803:James Lockhart
2695:and Dominican
2656:
2653:
2652:
2651:
2640:
2639:
2628:
2627:
2620:
2611:
2610:
2603:
2590:
2589:
2586:
2579:
2562:
2561:
2558:
2553:
2550:
2547:
2544:
2541:
2538:
2532:
2529:
2526:
2523:
2499:
2498:
2495:
2489:
2482:
2479:
2476:
2469:
2459:
2456:
2453:
2450:
2440:
2413:
2412:
2407:
2400:
2396:
2393:
2390:
2387:
2375:
2372:
2356:
2355:
2348:
2327:
2326:
2319:
2314:1517- City of
2312:
2305:
2295:
2292:
2285:
2282:
2279:
2272:
2266:
2263:
2258:
2255:
2243:Spanish Empire
2221:, Cortés left
2113:
2110:
2065:Spanish Empire
2051:
2050:
2048:
2047:
2040:
2033:
2025:
2022:
2021:
2019:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1972:
1969:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1959:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1912:
1909:
1908:
1902:
1901:
1893:
1892:
1881:
1880:
1878:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1850:Morocco (1909)
1846:
1845:
1841:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1823:Cuba (1895–98)
1820:
1815:
1813:Cuba (1879–80)
1810:
1808:Cuba (1868–78)
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1774:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1741:Uruguay (1811)
1738:
1733:
1731:Peru (1811–24)
1728:
1723:
1718:
1716:Florida (1810)
1713:
1708:
1698:
1692:
1691:
1687:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1674:Algiers (1784)
1671:
1669:Algiers (1783)
1666:
1661:
1659:Peru (1780–82)
1656:
1651:
1646:
1644:Algiers (1775)
1641:
1636:
1631:
1626:
1621:
1620:
1619:
1614:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1582:Bahamas (1720)
1579:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1563:
1562:
1560:Morocco (1689)
1557:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1535:Jamaica (1658)
1532:
1530:Jamaica (1657)
1527:
1525:Jamaica (1655)
1522:
1517:
1515:Tortuga (1654)
1512:
1507:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1463:
1454:
1449:
1444:
1439:
1437:Morocco (1614)
1434:
1432:Tunisia (1605)
1429:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1413:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1365:Tunisia (1574)
1362:
1360:Tunisia (1573)
1357:
1352:
1350:Florida (1565)
1347:
1342:
1340:Morocco (1564)
1337:
1335:Morocco (1563)
1332:
1330:Algeria (1563)
1327:
1322:
1320:Tunisia (1560)
1317:
1315:Algeria (1558)
1312:
1310:Algeria (1556)
1307:
1305:Algeria (1555)
1302:
1297:
1295:Tunisia (1550)
1292:
1290:Algeria (1547)
1287:
1282:
1277:
1275:Algeria (1543)
1272:
1270:Algeria (1541)
1267:
1262:
1260:Tunisia (1535)
1257:
1255:Algeria (1535)
1252:
1247:
1245:Tunisia (1534)
1242:
1240:Peru (1532–72)
1237:
1235:Algeria (1531)
1232:
1230:Algeria (1529)
1227:
1222:
1220:Morocco (1525)
1217:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1197:
1195:Tunisia (1520)
1192:
1190:Algeria (1519)
1187:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1170:Algeria (1516)
1167:
1162:
1160:Tunisia (1510)
1157:
1155:Tripoli (1510)
1152:
1150:Algeria (1510)
1147:
1145:Algeria (1509)
1142:
1140:Morocco (1508)
1137:
1135:Algeria (1507)
1132:
1130:Algeria (1505)
1126:
1125:
1121:
1120:
1118:Melilla (1497)
1115:
1113:Algeria (1497)
1110:
1105:
1100:
1094:
1093:
1089:
1086:
1085:
1074:
1073:
1066:
1059:
1051:
1042:
1041:
1039:
1038:
1032:
1026:
1020:
1014:
1008:
1002:
996:
990:
984:
978:
972:
965:
962:
961:
950:
949:
942:
935:
927:
919:
918:
907:
906:
890:
887:
886:
877:
876:
868:
858:
857:
854:
845:
844:
840:
839:
837:
836:
827:
826:
821:
820:
812:
811:
800:
798:
778:
777:
771:
768:
767:90–100 cavalry
765:
753:
752:
748:
747:
745:
744:
724:
723:
718:
717:
705:
703:
702:
691:
680:
667:
654:
643:
630:
612:
611:
610:
604:
598:
592:
587:
582:
577:
562:
561:
548:
546:Nuño de Guzmán
543:
541:Diego de Ordaz
538:
533:
528:
523:
512:
511:
507:
506:
487:
486:
479:
474:
468:
463:
458:
452:
447:
441:
431:
418:
395:
394:
379:
378:
368:
367:
366:
361:
351:
341:
331:
299:
298:
297:
287:
282:
272:
267:
251:
250:
237:
232:
229:
219:
209:
193:
192:
179:
163:Habsburg Spain
151:
150:
146:
145:
142:
141:
134:Spanish Empire
122:
116:
115:
112:
108:
107:
101:
99:
95:
94:
82:
74:
73:
47:
46:
35:
34:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10691:
10680:
10677:
10675:
10672:
10670:
10667:
10665:
10662:
10660:
10657:
10655:
10652:
10650:
10647:
10645:
10642:
10640:
10637:
10635:
10632:
10630:
10627:
10625:
10622:
10620:
10617:
10615:
10612:
10610:
10607:
10605:
10602:
10600:
10597:
10595:
10592:
10590:
10587:
10585:
10582:
10580:
10577:
10575:
10572:
10571:
10569:
10562:
10548:
10545:
10543:
10540:
10538:
10535:
10533:
10530:
10528:
10525:
10521:
10518:
10517:
10516:
10513:
10509:
10506:
10505:
10504:
10501:
10499:
10496:
10494:
10491:
10489:
10486:
10484:
10481:
10479:
10478:Tapada limeña
10476:
10474:
10471:
10469:
10466:
10464:
10461:
10459:
10456:
10454:
10451:
10449:
10446:
10445:
10442:
10435:
10431:
10421:
10418:
10416:
10413:
10411:
10408:
10406:
10403:
10401:
10398:
10396:
10393:
10391:
10388:
10386:
10383:
10379:
10376:
10374:
10371:
10369:
10366:
10364:
10361:
10360:
10359:
10356:
10354:
10351:
10349:
10346:
10344:
10341:
10340:
10337:
10330:
10326:
10304:
10301:
10299:
10296:
10294:
10291:
10289:
10286:
10284:
10281:
10279:
10276:
10274:
10271:
10269:
10266:
10264:
10261:
10259:
10256:
10254:
10251:
10249:
10246:
10244:
10241:
10239:
10236:
10234:
10231:
10230:
10228:
10224:
10218:
10215:
10213:
10210:
10208:
10205:
10203:
10200:
10198:
10195:
10193:
10190:
10188:
10185:
10183:
10180:
10178:
10175:
10173:
10170:
10168:
10165:
10163:
10160:
10158:
10155:
10153:
10150:
10148:
10145:
10143:
10140:
10138:
10135:
10133:
10130:
10128:
10125:
10124:
10122:
10118:
10115:
10111:
10101:
10098:
10096:
10093:
10091:
10088:
10086:
10083:
10081:
10078:
10076:
10073:
10071:
10070:Montes Claros
10068:
10066:
10063:
10061:
10058:
10056:
10053:
10051:
10048:
10046:
10043:
10041:
10038:
10036:
10033:
10031:
10028:
10026:
10023:
10021:
10018:
10016:
10013:
10011:
10010:Vienna (1529)
10008:
10006:
10003:
10002:
10000:
9996:
9990:
9987:
9985:
9982:
9980:
9977:
9975:
9972:
9970:
9967:
9965:
9962:
9960:
9957:
9955:
9952:
9950:
9947:
9945:
9942:
9940:
9937:
9935:
9932:
9930:
9927:
9925:
9922:
9920:
9917:
9915:
9912:
9910:
9907:
9905:
9902:
9900:
9897:
9895:
9892:
9890:
9887:
9885:
9882:
9880:
9877:
9875:
9872:
9870:
9867:
9865:
9862:
9860:
9857:
9855:
9852:
9851:
9849:
9845:
9842:
9838:
9835:
9831:
9825:
9822:
9820:
9817:
9815:
9812:
9810:
9807:
9805:
9802:
9800:
9797:
9795:
9792:
9790:
9787:
9785:
9782:
9780:
9777:
9775:
9772:
9770:
9767:
9765:
9762:
9760:
9757:
9755:
9752:
9750:
9747:
9745:
9742:
9740:
9739:Hernán Cortés
9737:
9736:
9734:
9732:
9731:Conquistadors
9728:
9722:
9719:
9717:
9714:
9712:
9709:
9707:
9704:
9702:
9701:Juan de Ayala
9699:
9697:
9694:
9692:
9689:
9687:
9684:
9682:
9679:
9677:
9674:
9672:
9669:
9667:
9664:
9662:
9659:
9657:
9654:
9652:
9649:
9647:
9644:
9642:
9639:
9637:
9634:
9632:
9629:
9627:
9624:
9622:
9619:
9617:
9614:
9612:
9609:
9607:
9604:
9603:
9601:
9597:
9591:
9588:
9586:
9583:
9581:
9578:
9576:
9573:
9571:
9568:
9566:
9563:
9561:
9558:
9556:
9555:Duke of Savoy
9553:
9551:
9548:
9546:
9543:
9541:
9538:
9536:
9533:
9531:
9528:
9527:
9525:
9521:
9515:
9512:
9510:
9507:
9505:
9502:
9500:
9497:
9495:
9492:
9490:
9487:
9485:
9482:
9480:
9477:
9475:
9472:
9471:
9469:
9465:
9461:
9454:
9450:
9436:
9433:
9431:
9428:
9426:
9423:
9421:
9418:
9416:
9413:
9411:
9408:
9406:
9403:
9401:
9398:
9396:
9393:
9392:
9390:
9386:
9380:
9377:
9375:
9372:
9370:
9367:
9365:
9362:
9360:
9357:
9355:
9354:Dollar (Peso)
9352:
9351:
9349:
9347:
9343:
9339:
9332:
9328:
9314:
9313:Santo Domingo
9311:
9309:
9306:
9304:
9301:
9299:
9296:
9294:
9291:
9289:
9286:
9284:
9281:
9279:
9276:
9274:
9271:
9269:
9266:
9264:
9261:
9259:
9256:
9254:
9251:
9249:
9246:
9244:
9241:
9240:
9238:
9236:
9232:
9226:
9223:
9221:
9218:
9216:
9213:
9211:
9208:
9206:
9203:
9201:
9198:
9196:
9193:
9191:
9190:New Andalusia
9188:
9186:
9183:
9181:
9178:
9176:
9173:
9171:
9168:
9166:
9163:
9162:
9160:
9158:
9154:
9148:
9145:
9143:
9140:
9138:
9137:Santo Domingo
9135:
9133:
9130:
9128:
9125:
9123:
9120:
9118:
9115:
9113:
9110:
9108:
9105:
9104:
9102:
9100:
9096:
9090:
9087:
9085:
9082:
9080:
9077:
9075:
9072:
9070:
9067:
9066:
9064:
9062:
9061:Viceroyalties
9058:
9054:
9047:
9043:
9029:
9026:
9024:
9021:
9019:
9016:
9014:
9011:
9009:
9006:
9004:
9001:
9000:
8998:
8994:
8988:
8985:
8983:
8980:
8978:
8975:
8973:
8970:
8968:
8965:
8963:
8960:
8959:
8957:
8953:
8947:
8944:
8942:
8939:
8937:
8934:
8932:
8929:
8927:
8924:
8923:
8921:
8917:
8913:
8906:
8902:
8888:
8885:
8884:
8881:
8874:
8863:
8859:
8855:
8851:
8847:
8843:
8839:
8835:
8831:
8827:
8825:
8822:
8821:
8818:
8811:
8801:
8798:
8796:
8793:
8790:
8786:
8782:
8778:
8774:
8770:
8766:
8763:
8762:
8759:
8754:
8748:
8737:
8733:
8729:
8725:
8721:
8717:
8713:
8710:
8707:
8703:
8699:
8696:
8693:
8689:
8685:
8681:
8677:
8674:
8673:
8670:
8666:South America
8663:
8653:
8650:
8648:
8645:
8643:
8640:
8638:
8635:
8633:
8630:
8628:
8625:
8623:
8620:
8617:
8613:
8609:
8605:
8602:
8600:
8597:
8596:
8593:
8586:
8575:
8571:
8565:
8560:
8556:
8552:
8551:Spanish Texas
8548:
8544:
8540:
8537:
8536:
8533:
8529:North America
8526:
8516:
8513:
8511:
8510:Franche-Comté
8508:
8506:
8503:
8501:
8498:
8496:
8493:
8490:
8486:
8482:
8478:
8474:
8471:
8469:
8466:
8464:
8461:
8459:
8456:
8455:
8454:
8451:
8450:
8447:
8440:
8436:
8429:
8425:
8415:
8412:
8410:
8407:
8405:
8402:
8400:
8397:
8395:
8392:
8390:
8387:
8385:
8382:
8380:
8377:
8375:
8372:
8370:
8367:
8365:
8362:
8360:
8357:
8355:
8352:
8350:
8347:
8345:
8342:
8340:
8337:
8335:
8332:
8330:
8327:
8323:
8320:
8319:
8318:
8315:
8313:
8310:
8308:
8305:
8303:
8300:
8298:
8295:
8293:
8290:
8288:
8285:
8283:
8280:
8278:
8275:
8273:
8270:
8268:
8265:
8263:
8260:
8258:
8255:
8253:
8250:
8248:
8245:
8243:
8240:
8238:
8235:
8233:
8230:
8228:
8225:
8223:
8219:
8216:
8214:
8211:
8210:
8207:
8200:
8196:
8192:
8185:
8180:
8178:
8173:
8171:
8166:
8165:
8162:
8150:
8147:
8145:
8142:
8140:
8137:
8136:
8134:
8130:
8124:
8121:
8119:
8116:
8114:
8111:
8109:
8106:
8104:
8101:
8099:
8096:
8094:
8091:
8089:
8086:
8084:
8081:
8079:
8076:
8074:
8071:
8069:
8066:
8064:
8061:
8059:
8056:
8054:
8053:Juan de Oñate
8051:
8049:
8046:
8044:
8041:
8039:
8036:
8034:
8031:
8029:
8026:
8024:
8021:
8019:
8018:Hernán Cortés
8016:
8014:
8011:
8009:
8006:
8004:
8001:
7999:
7996:
7994:
7991:
7989:
7986:
7984:
7981:
7979:
7976:
7974:
7971:
7970:
7968:
7964:
7959:
7949:
7946:
7944:
7941:
7939:
7936:
7932:
7929:
7927:
7924:
7922:
7919:
7917:
7914:
7913:
7912:
7909:
7907:
7904:
7902:
7899:
7897:
7894:
7890:
7887:
7885:
7882:
7881:
7880:
7877:
7873:
7870:
7869:
7868:
7865:
7863:
7860:
7858:
7855:
7853:
7850:
7848:
7847:Inter caetera
7845:
7844:
7842:
7838:
7834:
7827:
7822:
7820:
7815:
7813:
7808:
7807:
7804:
7795:
7792:
7790:
7786:
7783:
7780:
7777:
7774:
7771:
7768:
7765:
7764:
7754:
7753:
7748:
7745:
7741:
7737:
7734:
7733:
7728:
7725:
7724:
7714:
7713:0-7867-0271-0
7710:
7706:
7702:
7699:
7697:
7696:0-671-51104-1
7693:
7689:
7686:; (US title)
7685:
7684:0-091-77629-5
7681:
7678:
7674:
7671:
7669:
7668:0-06-132095-1
7665:
7661:
7657:
7654:
7652:
7648:
7645:. Ecco 2018.
7644:
7640:
7638:
7637:0-19-516077-0
7634:
7630:
7626:
7623:
7621:
7620:0-375-75803-8
7617:
7614:
7613:
7609:
7606:
7604:
7600:
7596:
7592:
7589:
7587:
7586:0-582-06828-2
7583:
7579:
7575:
7573:
7572:0-292-73139-6
7569:
7565:
7561:
7558:
7556:
7555:0-03-055736-4
7552:
7548:
7545:
7542:
7541:
7530:
7526:
7524:
7520:
7516:
7512:
7509:
7507:
7503:
7499:
7495:
7492:
7490:
7486:
7482:
7478:
7476:
7472:
7468:
7464:
7461:
7459:
7455:
7451:
7447:
7443:
7440:
7438:
7434:
7430:
7426:
7422:
7419:
7417:
7412:
7409:
7407:
7403:
7399:
7395:
7392:
7390:
7386:
7382:
7378:
7375:
7370:
7368:0-8070-5501-8
7364:
7360:
7356:
7355:
7350:
7346:
7344:
7340:
7336:
7332:
7329:
7327:
7326:0-306-81319-X
7323:
7320:
7316:
7312:
7309:
7307:
7303:
7299:
7295:
7293:
7292:0-300-09094-3
7289:
7285:
7281:
7277:
7273:
7271:
7267:
7260:
7256:
7255:
7251:
7247:
7246:
7240:
7238:
7234:
7230:
7226:
7223:
7222:
7206:
7200:
7196:
7191:
7190:
7177:
7171:
7155:
7151:
7147:
7143:
7136:
7128:
7124:
7120:
7116:
7112:
7108:
7104:
7100:
7096:
7092:
7085:
7077:
7073:
7067:
7059:
7052:
7043:
7036:
7032:
7026:
7019:
7013:
7006:
7000:
6993:
6989:
6984:
6977:
6973:
6968:
6961:
6955:
6948:
6944:
6939:
6932:
6928:
6923:
6907:
6901:
6893:
6887:
6883:
6878:
6877:
6871:
6865:
6856:
6847:
6839:
6835:
6828:
6820:
6813:
6805:
6799:
6795:
6788:
6780:
6774:
6770:
6763:
6761:
6752:
6748:
6744:
6740:
6736:
6732:
6725:
6717:
6713:
6708:
6703:
6699:
6695:
6688:
6679:
6671:
6665:
6661:
6654:
6646:
6642:
6641:
6633:
6625:
6618:
6616:
6614:
6605:
6598:
6583:
6581:9780299134334
6577:
6573:
6572:
6564:
6549:
6547:9781136968280
6543:
6539:
6538:
6530:
6528:
6520:
6515:
6499:
6495:
6489:
6481:
6474:
6467:
6461:
6445:
6439:
6432:
6427:
6418:
6409:
6402:
6398:
6393:
6377:
6370:
6363:
6359:
6354:
6338:
6332:
6324:
6318:
6314:
6307:
6297:
6290:
6284:
6277:
6271:
6264:
6258:
6249:
6242:
6236:
6229:
6223:
6216:
6210:
6208:
6201:
6200:0-19-516077-0
6197:
6193:
6189:
6183:
6175:
6171:
6167:
6163:
6159:
6155:
6148:
6146:
6138:
6132:
6125:
6119:
6111:
6107:
6100:
6098:
6088:
6081:
6075:
6067:
6061:
6057:
6050:
6048:
6041:
6037:
6033:
6027:
6025:
6023:
6021:
6019:
6017:
6015:
6013:
6011:
6009:
6007:
6005:
6003:
6001:
5999:
5997:
5995:
5993:
5991:
5989:
5987:
5985:
5983:
5981:
5979:
5977:
5975:
5973:
5971:
5969:
5967:
5965:
5963:
5961:
5959:
5957:
5955:
5953:
5951:
5949:
5947:
5945:
5943:
5941:
5939:
5937:
5935:
5933:
5931:
5929:
5927:
5925:
5923:
5921:
5919:
5917:
5915:
5913:
5911:
5909:
5907:
5905:
5903:
5901:
5899:
5897:
5888:
5881:
5879:
5877:
5869:
5863:
5856:
5852:
5847:
5840:
5834:
5828:
5824:
5820:
5818:
5817:Broken Spears
5810:
5808:
5806:
5804:
5802:
5800:
5798:
5796:
5794:
5792:
5790:
5782:
5776:
5769:
5763:
5756:
5750:
5743:
5737:
5730:
5724:
5717:
5711:
5704:
5698:
5691:
5685:
5676:
5670:
5664:
5662:
5654:
5648:
5641:
5635:
5628:
5622:
5613:
5604:
5595:
5586:
5577:
5568:
5559:
5553:
5547:
5541:
5535:
5529:
5523:
5521:
5511:
5504:
5498:
5490:
5486:
5482:
5478:
5474:
5470:
5466:
5462:
5455:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5433:
5429:
5428:
5420:
5418:
5416:
5400:
5394:
5390:
5389:
5388:Aztec Warfare
5381:
5379:
5370:
5364:
5360:
5353:
5345:
5339:
5335:
5328:
5321:
5315:
5307:
5301:
5297:
5290:
5275:
5273:9780190642402
5269:
5265:
5264:
5256:
5254:
5244:
5229:
5225:
5219:
5217:
5201:
5199:9780806121215
5195:
5191:
5190:
5182:
5175:
5171:
5165:
5158:
5154:
5150:
5144:
5138:, p. 32.
5137:
5132:
5130:
5128:
5120:
5114:
5112:
5105:
5092:
5088:
5082:
5075:
5070:
5066:
5055:
5052:
5050:
5047:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4999:Aztec warfare
4997:
4996:
4991:
4980:
4977:
4976:Mexico portal
4966:
4963:
4952:
4945:
4943:
4942:
4937:
4932:
4929:
4928:
4922:
4920:
4916:
4915:Cortés Palace
4912:
4911:
4906:
4901:
4899:
4895:
4890:
4888:
4884:
4883:
4877:
4875:
4871:
4867:
4866:
4860:
4858:
4854:
4852:
4848:
4844:
4840:
4835:
4833:
4829:
4828:
4823:
4822:
4813:
4812:
4806:
4797:
4795:
4791:
4787:
4782:
4780:
4779:
4774:
4770:
4766:
4761:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4746:
4744:
4738:
4736:
4727:
4723:
4721:
4716:
4713:
4707:
4704:
4700:
4696:
4692:
4688:
4684:
4680:
4675:
4673:
4668:
4664:
4660:
4656:
4651:
4650:New Philology
4647:
4644:
4639:
4637:
4633:
4629:
4623:
4621:
4617:
4616:Hernán Cortés
4613:
4609:
4605:
4601:
4597:
4593:
4587:
4583:
4573:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4559:
4555:
4551:
4547:
4543:
4539:
4534:
4532:
4528:
4524:
4520:
4516:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4487:
4483:
4473:
4471:
4467:
4461:
4451:
4449:
4445:
4440:
4436:
4432:
4428:
4423:
4420:
4415:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4389:
4385:
4382:, a rival of
4381:
4377:
4372:
4368:
4353:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4341:
4336:
4332:
4329:
4325:
4323:
4317:
4313:
4311:
4307:
4302:
4300:
4296:
4287:
4283:
4281:
4275:
4273:
4269:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4241:
4239:
4233:
4231:
4230:Santo Domingo
4228:on a ship to
4227:
4223:
4218:
4216:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4199:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4180:
4179:
4173:
4164:
4162:
4156:
4154:
4150:
4145:
4143:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4128:
4123:
4119:
4114:
4112:
4111:Huey Tlatoani
4108:
4103:
4095:
4091:
4086:
4076:
4073:
4069:
4063:
4053:
4051:
4047:
4042:
4039:
4034:
4032:
4028:
4022:
4012:
4010:
4006:
4001:
3999:
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2384:Cacique Gordo
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2350:Early 1519 –
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2300:
2299:Nezahualpilli
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2276:huey tlatoani
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2072:Hernán Cortés
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2046:
2041:
2039:
2034:
2032:
2027:
2026:
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2017:
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1994:
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1989:
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1984:
1982:
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1966:Aztec history
1964:
1963:
1957:
1954:
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1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
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1906:Aztec society
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1577:Chiloé (1712)
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1550:Panama (1671)
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1491:Taiwan (1641)
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1487:
1486:Brazil (1640)
1484:
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1479:
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1476:Brazil (1638)
1474:
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1471:Brazil (1631)
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1370:Brunei (1578)
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1127:
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1108:Guinea (1478)
1106:
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1029:Colhuacatonco
1027:
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521:Hernán Cortés
519:
518:
517:
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508:
504:
503:
498:
484:
480:
478:
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469:
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79:
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71:
67:
61:
60:
53:
48:
45:
41:
36:
31:
19:
10561:
10453:Architecture
10352:
10348:The Americas
10212:Newfoundland
10202:Túpac Katari
10192:Cuerno Verde
10127:Tenochtitlan
9959:Valenciennes
9716:Luis Fajardo
9585:Blas de Lezo
9530:Duke of Alba
9410:Spanish Road
9248:Buenos Aires
9157:Governorates
8926:Ayuntamiento
8919:Organization
8384:Carlist Wars
8232:Italian Wars
7906:Aztec Empire
7905:
7797:(in Spanish)
7750:
7743:
7730:
7704:
7687:
7676:
7673:Thomas, Hugh
7659:
7642:
7628:
7610:
7594:
7577:
7563:
7560:Hassig, Ross
7546:
7528:
7514:
7497:
7480:
7466:
7448:. Trans. by
7445:
7424:
7414:
7397:
7380:
7353:
7334:
7331:Durán, Diego
7318:
7314:
7297:
7279:
7275:
7252:
7244:
7228:
7194:
7170:
7158:. Retrieved
7154:the original
7149:
7145:
7135:
7094:
7090:
7084:
7057:
7051:
7042:
7034:
7030:
7025:
7017:
7012:
7004:
6999:
6991:
6983:
6975:
6967:
6959:
6954:
6946:
6938:
6930:
6922:
6910:. Retrieved
6900:
6875:
6864:
6855:
6846:
6833:
6827:
6818:
6812:
6793:
6787:
6768:
6737:(1): 97–99.
6734:
6731:Ethnohistory
6730:
6724:
6697:
6687:
6678:
6659:
6653:
6639:
6632:
6623:
6603:
6597:
6585:. Retrieved
6570:
6563:
6551:. Retrieved
6536:
6518:
6514:
6502:. Retrieved
6498:the original
6488:
6479:
6473:
6465:
6464:Hugh Tomas,
6460:
6448:. Retrieved
6438:
6426:
6417:
6408:
6400:
6392:
6380:. Retrieved
6369:
6361:
6353:
6341:. Retrieved
6331:
6312:
6306:
6296:
6288:
6283:
6275:
6270:
6262:
6257:
6248:
6240:
6235:
6227:
6222:
6214:
6187:
6182:
6160:(3): 21–30.
6157:
6153:
6136:
6131:
6123:
6118:
6109:
6087:
6079:
6074:
6055:
6031:
5886:
5867:
5862:
5854:
5846:
5838:
5833:
5814:
5780:
5775:
5767:
5762:
5754:
5749:
5741:
5736:
5728:
5723:
5715:
5710:
5702:
5697:
5689:
5684:
5675:
5652:
5647:
5639:
5634:
5626:
5621:
5612:
5603:
5594:
5585:
5576:
5567:
5558:
5546:
5534:
5510:
5502:
5497:
5464:
5460:
5454:
5426:
5402:. Retrieved
5387:
5358:
5352:
5333:
5327:
5319:
5314:
5295:
5289:
5277:. Retrieved
5262:
5243:
5231:. Retrieved
5227:
5203:. Retrieved
5188:
5181:
5169:
5164:
5143:
5118:
5103:
5095:. Retrieved
5091:the original
5081:
5069:
4990:Spain portal
4939:
4933:
4925:
4923:
4908:
4905:Diego Rivera
4902:
4897:
4891:
4880:
4878:
4874:Jim Cummings
4863:
4861:
4855:
4836:
4825:
4821:La Conquista
4819:
4817:
4811:La Conquista
4809:
4783:
4776:
4772:
4762:
4747:
4739:
4732:
4717:
4708:
4694:
4676:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4646:ethnohistory
4643:Mesoamerican
4640:
4635:
4631:
4624:
4589:
4562:
4535:
4512:
4506:
4463:
4438:
4424:
4416:
4412:Tzintzuntzan
4408:Aztec Empire
4400:Tangaxuan II
4396:Aztec Empire
4393:
4371:Tangaxuan II
4338:
4335:Tenochtitlan
4328:Conquistador
4326:
4318:
4314:
4303:
4292:
4276:
4265:
4234:
4220:Cortés sent
4219:
4211:Lake Texcoco
4203:Panuco River
4200:
4184:
4176:
4157:
4146:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4118:Tenochtitlan
4115:
4101:
4099:
4093:
4072:Great Temple
4065:
4043:
4035:
4024:
4004:
4002:
3991:
3986:
3982:
3974:
3967:
3960:
3947:
3930:
3923:Tezcatlipoca
3912:
3908:
3901:
3897:
3889:
3870:
3858:Itzcuauhtzin
3831:
3823:
3807:Tenochtitlan
3804:
3783:
3780:
3776:
3768:
3764:
3748:
3744:Quetzalcoatl
3728:
3685:
3677:
3662:
3645:
3632:
3630:
3614:
3607:
3584:
3577:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3540:
3519:
3516:Tenochtitlan
3513:
3509:
3497:
3493:King Charles
3476:
3470:
3458:town council
3442:
3438:Moctezuma II
3431:
3402:
3398:
3392:
3373:
3368:
3362:
3344:
3306:
3291:
3269:arquebusiers
3266:
3251:
3247:
3240:
3219:
3214:
3205:returned to
3201:Even before
3200:
3149:
3136:Cape Catoche
3117:
3093:Spanish Main
3082:
3072:
3060:
3057:
3049:Quetzalcoatl
3042:
3033:
3026:
3024:
3018:
3008:
3003:tlacantzolli
3002:
2994:
2975:Xiuhtecuhtli
2951:
2945:
2939:
2935:
2924:
2913:Aztec Empire
2901:
2879:
2869:
2860:
2846:
2841:
2821:
2815:
2806:
2786:
2779:
2760:
2755:
2739:
2736:Tierra Firme
2731:
2723:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2690:
2685:
2674:
2667:
2642:
2641:
2630:
2629:
2623:
2613:
2612:
2592:
2591:
2564:
2563:
2555:
2534:
2519:
2510:
2501:
2500:
2491:
2461:
2415:
2414:
2409:
2329:
2328:
2275:
2270:Spanish Main
2240:
2236:
2232:
2216:
2199:Tenochtitlan
2195:Moctezuma II
2183:Lake Texcoco
2163:Aztec Empire
2156:
2154:
2146:Aztec Empire
2129:
2115:
2106:Tenochtitlán
2103:
2083:Moctezuma II
2080:
2069:conquistador
2056:
2054:
2011:Moctezuma II
2005:
1996:Aztec Empire
1991:Aztec script
1956:Templo Mayor
1951:Tenochtitlan
1844:20th century
1690:19th century
1679:Chile (1792)
1566:18th century
1502:
1461:Nevis (1629)
1458:
1416:17th century
1300:Libya (1551)
1184:
1124:16th century
1092:15th century
1037: (1521)
1035:Tenochtitlan
1031: (1521)
1025: (1520)
1019: (1520)
1013: (1520)
1007: (1520)
1001: (1519)
995: (1519)
989: (1519)
983: (1519)
977: (1519)
971: (1519)
954:
910:
894:
870:
848:
756:
709:Tangaxuan II
675:
662:
657:Itzquauhtzin
638:
625:
620:Moctezuma II
614:
563:
556:
515:
500:
397:
396:
381:
380:
324:Tenochtitlan
301:
253:
252:
195:
194:
178:(until 1521)
154:
149:Belligerents
126:Aztec Empire
103:Aztec Empire
86:Aztec Empire
56:
38:Part of the
10420:Philippines
10385:El Salvador
10005:Capo d'Orso
9889:St. Quentin
9864:Rome (1527)
9523:Strategists
9273:Guadalajara
9200:New Navarre
9195:New Castile
9180:La Luisiana
9132:Puerto Rico
9122:Philippines
9079:New Granada
8769:Philippines
8730:(Uruguay),
8726:(Bolivia),
8676:New Granada
8616:Puerto Rico
8562: [
8432:Territories
8252:Encomiendas
7938:El Salvador
7867:Inca Empire
7263:(in French)
5205:6 September
4778:teonanácatl
4773:teonanácatl
4546:Guadalajara
4444:Lerma River
4322:Mexico City
4295:brigantines
4207:brigantines
4187:Maxixcatzin
3971:Huichilobos
3919:Huichilobos
3915:Virgin Mary
3797:Map of the
3772:Huexotzingo
3755:La Malinche
3740:Tlaxcalteca
3723:Felix Parra
3669:Huexotzinco
3618:Maxixcatzin
3610:Flower Wars
3599:Maxixcatzin
3546:his ships.
3454:Good Friday
3426:Mexico City
3410:La Malinche
3404:malinchista
3395:La Malinche
3351:La Malinche
3317:Bernal Díaz
3044:Hugh Thomas
3015:Matlalcueye
2987:Cihuatcoatl
2908:Diego Durán
2896:Diego Durán
2872:New England
2838:Diego Durán
2697:Diego Durán
2688:petitions.
2682:Good Friday
2583:Mexico City
2462:30 June – "
2380:Xicomecoatl
2371:expedition.
2340:La Malinche
2191:La Malinche
2179:Huejotzingo
2167:Tlaxcaltecs
2150:Mexico City
2076:Mesoamerica
1838:Guam (1898)
1624:Cuba (1762)
1592:Oran (1732)
1400:Cuba (1596)
861:Tlaxcaltecs
781:Tlaxcaltecs
775:brigantines
603:of Zaachila
601:Cosijopii I
597:of Cempoala
595:Xicomecoatl
472:Chichimecas
400:city-states
384:city-states
313:(1519–1521)
231:Huejotzingo
227:Totonacapan
191:(from 1521)
119:Territorial
10568:Categories
10090:Somosierra
10080:Manila Bay
9954:Nördlingen
9894:Gravelines
9374:Columnario
9346:Currencies
9263:Concepción
9235:Audiencias
9210:New Toledo
9175:La Florida
9008:Corregidor
8972:Papal bull
8877:Antarctica
8785:Micronesia
8242:Golden Age
8139:Encomienda
8098:Juan Pardo
7862:California
7146:Humanities
6912:31 October
6891:0691101582
6587:21 October
6553:21 October
6504:31 October
6450:31 October
6382:31 October
6343:31 October
6110:Roundtable
6040:0140441239
5446:1042102952
5404:6 December
5279:6 December
5153:0140441239
5097:20 October
4919:Cuernavaca
4892:Historian
4712:Encomienda
4679:mendicants
4677:The first
4542:Nochistlán
4531:Mixton War
4527:Tenamaxtli
4523:Chichimeca
4486:Mixton War
4306:Cuauhtémoc
4280:Tlatelolco
4272:Cuitlahuac
4161:Cacamatzin
4122:sacrifices
4107:Cuitláhuac
4060:See also:
4019:See also:
4009:Cuitláhuac
3979:Cacamatzin
3955:Qualpopoca
3877:Cacamatzin
3873:Cuitláhuac
3866:Tlatelolco
3864:, lord of
3852:, king of
3844:, king of
3842:Cacamatzin
3751:Cempoalans
3591:Tlaxcalans
3477:adelantado
3462:adelantado
3223:Valladolid
3215:caballeros
3182:See also:
3085:Hispaniola
2752:Mixtón War
2740:benemérito
2732:benemérito
2686:benemérito
2624:cihuacoatl
2605:Conqueror
2570:October –
2486:Cuitlahuac
2442:Mid-May –
2171:Tetzcocans
2142:Cuauhtémoc
2095:status quo
2001:Tlaxcallan
1931:Philosophy
1457:St. Kitts
670:Cacamatzin
646:Cuauhtémoc
633:Cuitláhuac
609:of Texcoco
450:Yopitzinco
439:Metztitlan
359:Xochimilco
339:Tlatelolco
295:Iztapalapa
280:Xochimilco
10654:New Spain
10395:Nicaragua
10373:Guatemala
10283:Pichincha
10268:Chacabuco
10207:Pensacola
10152:Mataquito
10132:Cajamarca
10113:New World
10085:Trafalgar
9989:Alhucemas
9869:Landriano
9854:Comuneros
9840:Old World
9784:Joan Orpí
9504:Royalists
9278:Guatemala
9205:New Spain
9142:Venezuela
9117:Guatemala
9074:New Spain
9069:Columbian
8962:Exequatur
8862:Cape Juby
8716:Argentina
8539:New Spain
8473:Gibraltar
8237:Habsburgs
7948:Nicaragua
7921:Guatemala
7351:(1992) .
7160:8 October
7119:1874-9364
7066:cite book
6716:252946638
5550:Cempoala
5104:(Spanish)
5029:New Spain
4900:podcast.
4870:El Dorado
4620:New Spain
4612:New Spain
4600:Charles V
4596:Audiencia
4565:Zacatecas
4470:epidemics
4435:Michoacán
4431:Audiencia
4398:, Irecha
4388:Tlaxcalan
4361:Michoacan
4343:that the
4031:Velázquez
3998:Chinantec
3975:totoloque
3963:Axayácatl
3942:Tlaxcalan
3904:Axayácatl
3735:Moctezuma
3559:Cempoalan
3399:Malintzin
3355:Malintzin
3347:Potonchán
3339:Moctezuma
3335:Tlaxcalan
3097:New World
3063:that the
2985:A woman,
2716:Charles V
2643:1527–1547
2576:New Spain
2316:Cholollan
2247:New Spain
2161:) of the
2134:Tlaxcalan
1926:Mythology
969:Potonchan
818:Purépecha
760:(total):
758:Spaniards
683:Coanacoch
585:Maxixcatl
444:Tututepec
392:Teotitlan
189:New Spain
10405:Colombia
10390:Honduras
10303:Asomante
10288:Ayacucho
10278:Carabobo
10253:Curalaba
10030:Ceresole
9924:Gembloux
9884:Mühlberg
9599:Mariners
9457:Military
9379:Doubloon
9364:Maravedí
9308:Santiago
9215:Paraguay
8941:Germania
8781:Caroline
8736:Malvinas
8720:Paraguay
8680:Colombia
8622:Trinidad
8489:Sardinia
8329:Bourbons
7943:Honduras
7879:Colombia
7127:22085876
6872:(1984).
6194:(2003),
5489:73637531
4948:See also
4941:Eternals
4794:mestizos
4765:amaranth
4509:("Sun").
4507:Tonatiuh
4439:de facto
4268:smallpox
4149:Zumpango
4127:Tlacopan
4102:en masse
3994:Tuxtepec
3987:caciques
3983:caciques
3854:Tlacopan
3846:Tetzcoco
3673:Tlaxcala
3633:Caciques
3580:Tlaxcala
3522:Caudillo
3500:Cempoala
3434:Veracruz
3321:Chetumal
3262:mutineer
3184:Morzillo
3168:El Petén
3156:polities
3019:Caciques
3011:Tlaxcala
2946:tlatoani
2678:Veracruz
2425:Smallpox
2257:Timeline
2207:Veracruz
2203:Totonacs
2175:Cempoala
2158:altepetl
2063:and the
1941:Medicine
1936:Calendar
1921:Religion
987:Tlaxcala
981:Cempoala
903:Mixtecos
901:against
816:100,000
803:200,000
790:Cempoala
784:~10,000
751:Strength
737:) (
477:Tonallan
455:Colliman
376:Tlacopan
364:Xaltocan
235:Zaachila
217:Tetzcoco
98:Location
10537:Asiento
10508:Mustang
10368:Yucatán
10363:Chiapas
10243:Tucapel
10075:Passaro
10025:Algiers
10015:Preveza
9984:Tetouan
9979:Vitoria
9969:Bitonto
9909:Antwerp
9904:Lepanto
9859:Bicocca
9335:Economy
9258:Charcas
9253:Caracas
9147:Yucatán
9018:Regidor
9003:Alcalde
8931:Cabildo
8838:Tripoli
8777:Mariana
8724:Charcas
8700:(Peru,
8684:Ecuador
8647:Bonaire
8642:Curazao
8627:Jamaica
8555:Florida
8132:Related
7931:Yucatán
7916:Chiapas
7896:Florida
7884:Chibcha
7840:History
7739:87–104.
7707:(1971)
7690:(1993)
7662:(1996)
7286:(1986)
7276:Letters
7187:Sources
7099:Bibcode
6433:pbs.org
5481:3317246
4845:series
4683:Nahuatl
4503:Nahuatl
4345:natives
4238:Texcoco
3838:Sahagún
3819:Seville
3731:Cholula
3725:, 1877.
3665:Cholula
3544:scuttle
3504:Totonac
3481:cabildo
3380:Nahuatl
3294:Cozumel
3273:Arawaks
3172:Tayasal
3158:of the
3128:Yucatán
3069:Nahuatl
2931:Nahuatl
2834:Sahagún
2830:Nahuatl
2811:Texcoco
2799:Nahuatl
2631:1525–30
2404:Cholula
2307:1517 –
2211:cacique
2130:entrada
2120:led by
2118:Yucatán
1986:Codices
1981:Warfare
1501:Chiloé
993:Cholula
917:(1521).
786:Totonac
770:32 guns
731: (
676:†
663:†
639:†
626:†
557:†
499:(1520,
461:Xalisco
382:Allied
329:Cholula
285:Mixquic
121:changes
66:Spanish
10515:Castas
10273:Boyacá
10248:Guiana
10238:Iguape
10162:Recife
10100:Mactan
10095:Annual
10060:Rocroi
10055:Leiden
10040:Djerba
9974:Bailén
9929:Ostend
9914:Azores
9509:Legión
9474:Tercio
9467:Armies
9369:Escudo
9298:Panamá
9293:Mexico
9288:Manila
9243:Bogotá
9028:Vecino
9023:Syndic
8854:Béjaïa
8814:Africa
8800:Tidore
8688:Panama
8652:Belize
8559:Mexico
8485:Sicily
8481:Naples
8443:Europe
7966:People
7889:Muisca
7775:(1911)
7711:
7694:
7682:
7666:
7649:
7635:
7618:
7601:
7584:
7570:
7553:
7521:
7504:
7487:
7473:
7465:, ed.
7456:
7435:
7404:
7387:
7365:
7341:
7324:
7304:
7290:
7268:
7235:
7201:
7125:
7117:
6888:
6800:
6775:
6751:481953
6749:
6714:
6666:
6578:
6544:
6468:, 1994
6319:
6278:p. 141
6198:
6174:491417
6172:
6139:p. 192
6062:
6038:
5825:
5487:
5479:
5444:
5434:
5395:
5365:
5340:
5302:
5270:
5196:
5170:before
5151:
5004:Aztecs
4927:Hernán
4814:, 2005
4735:Potosi
4672:Nahuas
4538:Mixtón
4505:name,
4384:Cortés
4349:canals
3811:Naples
3388:Martin
3384:Martin
3132:Mayans
3065:Nahuas
3061:teules
2878:. His
2251:Mexico
1976:Aztlán
1023:Otumba
999:Nautla
975:Centla
885:(1520)
835:(1520)
809:Aztecs
805:Mexica
711:
648:
635:
622:
571:
553:
470:Other
457:(1523)
446:(1522)
429:(1522)
416:(1519)
349:Chalco
270:Chalco
128:, the
111:Result
59:Cortés
10410:Chile
10378:Petén
10353:Aztec
10172:Bahia
10147:Penco
10137:Cusco
10065:Downs
10045:Tunis
9964:Ceuta
9949:Breda
9899:Malta
9879:Tunis
9874:Pavia
9388:Trade
9303:Quito
9268:Cusco
9107:Chile
8842:Tunis
8789:Palau
8706:Chile
8637:Aruba
8632:Haiti
8566:]
8495:Milan
8453:Spain
7926:Petén
7901:Texas
7872:Chile
7427:(The
7416:Spain
7123:S2CID
6884:–59.
6747:JSTOR
6712:S2CID
6446:. PBS
6339:. PBS
6170:JSTOR
5485:S2CID
5477:JSTOR
5233:6 May
5061:Notes
4938:film
4005:papas
3931:papas
3587:Otomi
3207:Spain
3073:teotl
3071:word
2795:Nahua
265:Otomi
10415:Inca
10358:Maya
10293:Guam
10226:Lost
9998:Lost
9919:Mons
9359:Real
9283:Lima
9170:Cuba
9112:Cuba
9084:Perú
8860:and
8858:Ifni
8850:Oran
8773:Guam
8702:Acre
8698:Peru
8608:Cuba
8487:and
7911:Maya
7709:ISBN
7692:ISBN
7680:ISBN
7664:ISBN
7647:ISBN
7633:ISBN
7616:ISBN
7599:ISBN
7582:ISBN
7568:ISBN
7551:ISBN
7519:ISBN
7502:ISBN
7485:ISBN
7471:ISBN
7454:ISBN
7433:ISBN
7402:ISBN
7385:ISBN
7363:ISBN
7339:ISBN
7322:ISBN
7302:ISBN
7288:ISBN
7266:ISBN
7233:ISBN
7199:ISBN
7162:2008
7115:ISSN
7076:link
7072:link
6914:2010
6886:ISBN
6798:ISBN
6773:ISBN
6664:ISBN
6647:–83.
6589:2016
6576:ISBN
6555:2016
6542:ISBN
6506:2010
6452:2010
6384:2010
6345:2010
6317:ISBN
6196:ISBN
6060:ISBN
6036:ISBN
5823:ISBN
5815:The
5442:OCLC
5432:ISBN
5406:2020
5393:ISBN
5363:ISBN
5338:ISBN
5300:ISBN
5281:2020
5268:ISBN
5235:2017
5207:2024
5194:ISBN
5149:ISBN
5099:2015
4667:doña
4602:the
4590:The
4584:and
4484:and
4464:The
4369:and
4193:and
3921:and
3893:Toci
3860:the
3813:and
3691:and
3639:and
3620:and
3597:and
3585:The
3487:and
3369:doña
3309:Maya
3300:and
3282:Peru
3243:Cuba
3145:Cuba
2859:'s,
2614:1525
2593:1524
2565:1522
2502:1521
2416:1520
2399:men.
2330:1519
2177:and
2169:and
2055:The
867:dead
863:and
81:Date
42:and
10120:Won
9847:Won
8955:Law
8852:,
8572:),
8553:),
7227:.
7107:doi
6739:doi
6702:doi
6162:doi
5469:doi
4917:in
4843:BBC
4663:don
4657:'s
4109:as
3649:God
3520:El
3134:at
2840:'s
2820:'s
2805:in
2789:by
2666:'s
2205:in
2078:.
773:13
740:POW
734:WIA
502:see
483:map
10570::
8856:,
8848:,
8844:,
8840:,
8836:,
8832:,
8787:,
8783:,
8779:,
8775:,
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8734:,
8722:,
8718:,
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