Spatial memory - Knowledge

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layout, especially in a large and unfamiliar place with many overwhelming stimuli. In these environments, people are still able to orient themselves, and find their way around using landmarks. This ability to "prioritize objects and regions in complex scenes for selection (and) recognition" was labeled by Chun and Jiang in 1998. Landmarks give people guidance by activating "learned associations between the global context and target locations." Mallot and Gillner (2000) showed that subjects learned an association between a specific landmark and the direction of a turn, thereby furthering the relationship between associations and landmarks. Shelton and McNamara (2001) succinctly summed up why landmarks, as markers, are so helpful: "location...cannot be described without making reference to the orientation of the observer."

307:) are able to use spatial memory to remember where, when and what type of food they have cached. Studies on rats and squirrels have also suggested that they are able to use spatial memory to locate previously hidden food. Experiments using the radial maze have allowed researchers to control for a number of variables, such as the type of food hidden, the locations where the food is hidden, the retention interval, as well as any odor cues that could skew results of memory research. Studies have indicated that rats have memory for where they have hidden food and what type of food they have hidden. This is shown in retrieval behavior, such that the rats are selective in going more often to the arms of the maze where they have previously hidden preferred food than to arms with less preferred food or where no food was hidden. 184:

defined by any kind of boundary, whether physical, perceptual or subjective (McNamara et al., 1989). Boundaries are among the most basic and endemic qualities in the world around us. These boundaries are nothing more than axial lines which are a feature that people are biased towards when relating to space; for example, one axial line determinant is gravity (McNamara & Shelton, 2001; Kim & Penn, 2004). Axial lines aid everyone in apportioning our perceptions into regions. This parceled world idea is further supported by the finding that items that get recalled together are more likely than not to also be clustered within the same region of one's larger cognitive map. Clustering shows that people tend to chunk information together according to smaller layouts within a larger cognitive map.

647: 176:. People remember the general layout of a particular space and then "cue target locations" within that spatial set. This paradigm includes an ordinal scale of features that an individual must attend to in order to inform his or her cognitive map. Recollection of spatial details is a top-down procedure that requires an individual to recall the superordinate features of a cognitive map, followed by the ordinate and subordinate features. Two spatial features are prominent in navigating a path: general layout and landmark orienting (Kahana et al., 2006). People are not only capable of learning about the spatial layout of their surroundings, but they can also piece together novel routes and new spatial relations through inference. 1190:(SWS), is supposed to have a salient role for the sleep-dependent creation of spatial memory in humans. Particularly in the study conducted by Plihal and Born (1999), the performance on mental rotation tasks was higher among participants who had early sleep intervals (23.00–02.00 am) after learning the task compared to the ones who had late sleep intervals (03.00–06.00 am). These results suggest that early sleep, which is rich in SWS, has certain benefits for the formation of spatial memory. When researchers examined whether early sleep would have such an impact on word stem priming task (verbal task), the results were the opposite. This was not surprising for researchers as priming tasks mostly rely on 221:

two sets of 21 faces presented as 3D portraits. After viewing these 21 faces for 5 minutes, followed by a brief rest period, the faces in the virtual environments were replaced with numbers, and participants recalled which face was at each location. The study found on average, those who used the head-mounted display recalled the faces 8.8% more accurately, and with a greater confidence. The participants state that leveraging their innate vestibular and proprioceptive senses with the head-mounted display and mapping aspects of the environment relative to their body, elements that are absent with the desktop, was key to their success.

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trial to test spatial memory (after 24 h). In this trial, the hidden platform was removed from the maze and the time animals spent in the target area (which was occupied by hidden platform before) was a measure of spatial memory persistence. The control rats, who had spontaneous sleep, spent significantly more time in the target quadrant compared to ones who had total sleep deprivation. In terms of spatial learning, which is indicated by the latency to find the hidden platform, there were no differences. For both control and sleep deprived rats, the time required to find a platform was decreasing with every new trial.

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potential impact of their reliance on GPS. In conclusion, GPS technology has revolutionized the way we navigate and explore our environment, but its impact on our spatial learning and memory is still a subject of debate. While GPS use can help people navigate more efficiently, confidently, and aid populations who would otherwise be significantly hindered; its use may lead to a decline in spatial cognitive skills over time. Therefore, it is essential for users to balance the benefits and drawbacks of GPS use and to be aware of its potential impact on their cognitive abilities.

542: 357:. A number of studies have shown that the retention of visual shapes or colors (i.e., visual information) is disrupted by the presentation of irrelevant pictures or dynamic visual noise. Conversely, the retention of location (i.e., spatial information) is disrupted only by spatial tracking tasks, spatial tapping tasks, and eye movements. For example, participants completed both the VPT and the Corsi Blocks Task in a selective interference experiment. During the retention interval of the VPT, the subject viewed irrelevant pictures (e.g., 604: 752: 995: 128: 449: 20: 1230:

that dreaming reflects memory processing in the sleeping brain. Moreover, according to the authors, one of the explanations is that maze‐related dreams are indicators that performance‐relevant components of task memory are being reactivated in the sleeping brain. Additionally, the study supports the idea that dream reports can include an experimental learning task during all stages of sleep, including REM and NREM.

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maze. The distance and the time they needed to swim to the visible platform were considered as non-spatial memory measures. No significant difference has been found between sleep deprived rats and control rats. Similarly, in terms of spatial learning, which is indicated by latency to reach the visible platform, there were no significant differences. TSD does not affect non-spatial learning and non-spatial memory.

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difficult to code verbally, forcing the participant to rely on visual spatial memory. Beginning with a small 2 x 2 matrix, participants copy the matrix pattern from memory into an empty matrix. The matrix patterns are increased in size and complexity at a rate of two cells until the participant's ability to replicate them breaks down. On average, participants' performance tends to break down at sixteen cells.

1236:(VR) has also been used to study the connection between dreams and spatial memory. Ribeiro, Gounden, and Quaglino (2021) proposed spatialized elements in a VR context and found that after a full night of sleep in a home setting, when the material studied was incorporated into the dream content, the recall performance of these elements was better than the performance obtained after a comparable wake period. 390:

pattern which participants must then replicate. The blocks are numbered on the experimenters' side to allow for efficient pattern demonstration. The sequence length increases each trial until the participant is no longer able to replicate the pattern correctly. The test can be used to measure both short-term and long-term spatial memory, depending on the length of time between test and recall.

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layout at first. Then, due to the concept's "rich correlational structure", a series of associations become activated. Eventually, the resulting cascade of activations will awaken the particular details that correspond with the region being recalled. This is how people encode many entities from varying ontological levels, such as the location of a stapler; in a desk; which is in the office.

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consequently enhances/improves behavioral performance. A period of wakefulness has no effect on stabilizing memory traces, in comparison to a period of sleep. Sleep after the first post-training night, i.e., on the second night, does not benefit spatial memory consolidation further. Therefore, sleeping in the first post-training night e.g. after learning a route, is most important.

1086:; or highlighting structural features that provide global orientation (not the details concerning the route taken by the study's participants, but landmarks of the larger area surrounding it). The study showed that accentuating local features in wayfinding maps (GPS) supports the acquisition of route knowledge, which was measured with a pointing and a global feature recall task. 896:

group of normal controls. The outcome of the experiment was that they found TD in 17 out of the 41 MCI patients (41.4%). The functional abilities were significantly impaired in MCI patients with TD compared to in MCI patients without TD and that the presence of TD in MCI patients is associated with loss of gray matter in the medial temporal regions, including the hippocampus.

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assumptions about the interaction between the two systems. For example, cognitive maps are not "absolute" but rather, as anyone can attest, are "used to provide a default...(which) modulated according to...task demands." Psychologists also think that cognitive maps are instance based, which accounts for "discriminative matching to past experience."

97:(WM) can be described as a limited capacity system that allows one to temporarily store and process information. This temporary store enables one to complete or work on complex tasks while being able to keep information in mind. For instance, the ability to work on a complicated mathematical problem utilizes one's working memory. 322:

traveled some 1,250 m (4,100 ft) from its home. Researchers initially thought this to be a GPS malfunction, but soon discovered that the cat's owners went out of town that weekend, and that the house the cat went to was the owner's old house. The owners and the cat had not lived in that house for well over a year.

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a pathway throughout the matrix. At the end, the participant is asked to indicate on a real matrix where the little man that he or she visualized finished. The length of the pathway varies depending on the level of difficulty (1-10) and the matrices themselves may vary in length from 2 x 2 cells to 6 x 6.

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Likewise, dreaming has an important role in spatial memory. A study conducted by Wamsley and Stickgold (2019) proved that participants, who incorporate a recent learning experience into their overnight dream content, show an increased overnight performance improvement. Thus, supporting the hypothesis

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for 12 trials in 6 hours to find a hidden platform (transparent and not visible in the water) by using spatial cues in the environment. In each trial, they started from a different point and were allowed to swim for a maximum of 120 s to reach the platform. After the learning phase, they gave a probe

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and sleep has also been a researched association. Sleep deprivation hinders memory performance improvement due to an active disruption of spatial memory consolidation. As a result, spatial memory is enhanced by a period of sleep. Similar results were confirmed by another study examining the impact of

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is broken down into two subcomponents, one visual and one spatial. These are the visual cache and the inner scribe, respectively. The visual cache is a temporary visual store including such dimensions as color and shape. Conversely, the inner scribe is a rehearsal mechanism for visual information and

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A study conducted at the University of Maryland compared the effect of different levels of immersion on spatial memory recall. In the study, 40 participants used both a traditional desktop and a head-mounted display to view two environments, a medieval town, and an ornate palace, where they memorized

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During a 2006 study, researchers designed three different virtual towns, each of which had its own "unique road layout and a unique set of five stores." However, the overall footprint of the different maps was exactly the same size, 80 sq. units. In this experiment, participants had to partake in two

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following the GPS instructions. This study has found that using single, simple auditory instructions with the absence of the visual output of the GPS could potentially help people with mild AD to improve their driving ability and reach their destination, therefore confirming that GPS use does reduce

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Rats are commonly used as models of schizophrenia patients. Experimenters create lesions in the ventral hippocampal area shortly after birth, a procedure known as neonatal ventral hippocampal lesioning (NVHL). Adult rats with NVHL show typical indicators of schizophrenia, such as hypersensitivity to

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Hemisphere specialization is found in this brain region. The left prefrontal cortex preferentially processes categorical spatial memory including source memory (reference to spatial relationships between a place or event), while the right prefrontal cortex preferentially processes coordinate spatial

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In most cases, the rat is placed in the center of the maze and needs to explore each arm individually to retrieve food while simultaneously remembering which arms it has already pursued. The maze is set up so the rat is forced to return to the center of the maze before pursuing another arm. Measures

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Dynamic mazes are intended for measuring spatial ability in children. With this test, an experimenter presents the participant with a drawing of a maze with a picture of a man in the center. While the participant watches, the experimenter uses his or her finger to trace a pathway from the opening of

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This task is designed to measure spatial memory abilities in children. The experimenter asks the participant to visualize a blank matrix with a little man. Through a series of directional instructions such as forwards, backwards, left or right, the experimenter guides the participant's little man on

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paintings). The spatial interference task required participants to follow, by touching the stimuli, an arrangement of small wooden pegs which were concealed behind a screen. Both the visual and spatial spans were shortened by their respective interference tasks, confirming that the Corsi Blocks Task

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Boundaries are not the only determinants of layout. Clustering also demonstrates another important property of relation to spatial conceptions, which is that spatial recall is a hierarchical process. When someone recalls an environment or navigates terrain, that person implicitly recalls the overall

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A cognitive map is "a mental model of objects' spatial configuration that permits navigation along optimal path between arbitrary pairs of points." This mental map is built upon two fundamental bedrocks: layout, also known as route knowledge, and landmark orientation. Layout is potentially the first

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Researchers investigated the role of spatial memory and visual memory in the ability to complete arithmetic word problems. Children in the study completed the Corsi block task (forward and backward series) and a spatial matrix task, as well as a visual memory task called the house recognition test.

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TD was assessed clinically in all participants. Neurological and neuropsychological evaluations were determined by a magnetic imaging scan which was performed on each participant. Voxel-based morphometry was used to compare patterns of gray-matter atrophy between patients with and without TD, and a

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In humans, damage to the retrosplenial cortex results in topographical disorientation. Most cases involve damage to the right retrosplenial cortex and include Brodmann area 30. Patients are often impaired at learning new routes and at navigating through familiar environments. However, most patients

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Lesions to the medial prefrontal cortex impair the performance of rats on a previously trained radial arm maze, but rats can gradually improve to the level of the controls as a function of experience. Lesions to this area also cause deficits on delayed nonmatching-to-positions tasks and impairments

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First pioneered by Olton and Samuelson in 1976, the radial arm maze is designed to test the spatial memory capabilities of rats. Mazes are typically designed with a center platform and a varying number of arms branching off with food placed at the ends. The arms are usually shielded from each other

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The visual pattern span is similar to the Corsi block tapping test but regarded as a more pure test of visual short-term recall. Participants are presented with a series of matrix patterns that have half their cells colored and the other half blank. The matrix patterns are arranged in a way that is

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People perceive objects in their environment relative to other objects in that same environment. Landmarks and layout are complementary systems for spatial recall, but it is unknown how these two systems interact when both types of information are available. As a result, people have to make certain

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Additionally, during a spatial visualisation task (which is related to executive functioning and not STM or WM) concurrent executive suppression impaired performance indicating that the effects were due to common demands on the central executive and not short-term storage. The researchers concluded

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people the use of GPS provide advantages in spatial learning and memory. Blind and visually impaired people often need to obtain information about locations ahead of time and practice along a specific route with the help of a relative, friend or specialized instructor before traveling the route to

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The function of NMDA receptors varies according to the subregion of the hippocampus. NMDA receptors are required in the CA3 of the hippocampus when spatial information needs to be reorganized, while NMDA receptors in the CA1 are required in the acquisition and retrieval of memory after a delay, as

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The Morris water navigation task is a classic test for studying spatial learning and memory in rats and was first developed in 1981 by Richard G. Morris for whom the test is named. The subject is placed in a round tank of translucent water with walls that are too high for it to climb out and water

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There are a variety of tasks psychologists use to measure spatial memory on adults, children and animal models. These tasks allow professionals to identify cognitive irregularities in adults and children and allows researchers to administer varying types of drugs and/or lesions in participants and

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is responsible for retaining visual shapes and colors (i.e., what), whereas spatial memory is responsible for information about locations and movement (i.e., where). This distinction is not always straightforward since part of visual memory involves spatial information and vice versa. For example,

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go when their owners let them outside reported that cats have substantial spatial memory. Some of the cats in the study demonstrated exceptional long term spatial memory. One of them, usually traveling no further than 200 m (660 ft) to 250 m (820 ft) from its home, unexpectedly

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In the second experiment, the rats were trained to swim to a visible platform whose location was changed in each trial. For every new trial, the rats started from the opposite side of the platform. After the training in a single trial, their memory was tested after 24 h. Platform was still in the

1140:(NVLD) is characterized by normal verbal abilities but impaired visuospatial abilities. Problem areas for children with nonverbal learning disability include arithmetic, geometry, and science. Impairments in spatial memory are linked to nonverbal learning disorder and other learning difficulties. 1021:

and explore our environment effectively. The use of GPS has been shown to have both positive and negative effects on spatial learning and memory. Research has shown that people who rely on GPS for navigation are less likely to develop and use mental maps and have a harder time remembering details

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encodes spatial information using an egocentric frame of reference. It is therefore involved in the transformation of sensory information coordinates into action or effector coordinates by updating the spatial representation of the body within the environment. As a result, lesions to the parietal

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provides animals with a spatial map of their environment. It stores information regarding non-egocentric space (egocentric means in reference to one's body position in space) and therefore supports viewpoint independence in spatial memory. This means that it allows for viewpoint manipulation from

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swimming directly to the platform almost immediately after being placed in the water. Due to the nature of task involving rats to swim, most researchers believe that habituation is required to decrease the stress levels of the animal. The stress of the animal may impair cognitive testing results.

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commonly used to determine the visual-spatial memory span and the implicit visual-spatial learning abilities of an individual. Participants sit with nine wooden 3x3-cm blocks fastened before them on a 25- x 30-cm baseboard in a standard random order. The experiment taps onto the blocks a sequence

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In practice, the two systems work together in some capacity but different tasks have been developed to highlight the unique abilities involved in either visual or spatial memory. For example, the visual patterns test (VPT) measures visual span whereas the Corsi Blocks Task measures spatial span.

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Hermer and Spelke (1994) determined that when toddlers begin to walk, around eighteen months, they navigate by their sense of the world's layout. McNamara, Hardy and Hirtle identified region membership as a major building block of anyone's cognitive map (1989). Specifically, region membership is

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suggesting that impairment on the spatial task was caused by the concurrent performance on a task that had extensive use of executive resources. Results have also found that performances were impaired on STM and WM tasks with executive suppression. This illustrates how, within the visuo-spatial

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is a form of memory responsible for the recording and recovery of information needed to plan a course to a location and to recall the location of an object or the occurrence of an event. Spatial memory is necessary for orientation in space. Spatial memory can also be divided into egocentric and

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spatial audio system similar to an auditory compass, where users are directed towards their destination without explicit directions. Rather than being led passively through verbal directions, users are encouraged to take an active role in their own spatial navigation. This led to more accurate

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Topographical disorientation (TD) is a cognitive disorder that results in the individual being unable to orient his or herself in the real or virtual environment. Patients also struggle with spatial-information dependent tasks. These problems could possibly be the result of a disruption in the

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Lesions to the retrosplenial cortex consistently impair tests of allocentric memory, while sparing egocentric memory. Animals with lesions to the caudal retrosplenial cortex show impaired performance on a radial arm maze only when the maze is rotated to remove their reliance on intramaze cues.

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The results of this study indicate that the taxi drivers' (experts') recall of streets was higher in both the route order condition and the map order condition than in the two random conditions. This indicates that the experts were able to use their prelearned spatial knowledge to organize the

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Within the literature, there is evidence that experts in a particular field are able to perform memory tasks in accordance with their skills at an exceptional level. The level of skill displayed by experts may exceed the limits of the normal capacity of both STM and WM. Because experts have an

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One can recall from only one region at a time (a bottleneck). A bottleneck in a person's cognitive navigational system could be an issue. For instance, if there were a need for a sudden detour on a long road trip. Lack of experience in a locale, or simply sheer size, can disorient one's mental

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The impact of GPS use on spatial learning and memory is not yet fully understood, and further research is needed to explore the long-term effects of GPS use on these cognitive processes. However, it is clear that GPS technology has both benefits and drawbacks, and users should be aware of the

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Typically, rats swim around the edge of the pool first before venturing out into the center in a meandering pattern before stumbling upon the hidden platform. However, as time spent in the pool increases experience, the amount of time needed to locate the platform decreases, with veteran rats

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in particular). One study demonstrated that the actual extent of reactivation during sleep correlated with the improvement in route retrieval and therefore memory performance the following day. The study established the idea that sleep enhances the systems-level process of consolidation that

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were impaired on the Corsi block tasks and the spatial matrix task, but performed normally on the house recognition test when compared to normally achieving children. The experiment demonstrated that poor problem solving is related specifically to deficient processing of spatial information.

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In contrast to the multi-component model, some researchers believe that STM should be viewed as a unitary construct. In this respect, visual, spatial, and verbal information are thought to be organized by levels of representation rather than the type of store to which they belong. Within the

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patients who suffer from a sleep disorder which features interrupted, non-restorative sleep and deficits in cognitive performance during the day, are documented to have a negative performance in a spatial task, in comparison with the healthy participants (Li et al., 2016; Chen et al., 2016;

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This field has traditionally been hampered by confounding variables, such as cost and the potential for previous exposure to an experimental environment. Technological advancements, including those in virtual reality technology, have made findings more accessible. Virtual reality affords

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A study was done to see if topographical disorientation had an effect on individuals who had mild cognitive impairment (MCI). The study was done by recruiting forty-one patients diagnosed with MCI and 24 healthy control individuals. The standards that were set for this experiment were:

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involve written text containing a set of data followed by one or more questions and require the use of the four basic arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division). Researchers suggest that successful completion of arithmetic word problems involves spatial

249:, examined the role of prelearned spatial knowledge. This study compared experts to a control group to determine how this prelearned knowledge in their skill domain allows them to overcome the capacity limitations of STM and WM. The study used four levels of spatial randomness: 5097: 195:

People use both the layout of a particular space and the presence of orienting landmarks in order to navigate. Psychologists have yet to explain whether layout affects landmarks or if landmarks determine the boundaries of a layout. Because of this, the concept suffers from a

1154:(involved in building schematic representations) which facilitates the creation of spatial relationships between objects. Creating spatial relationships between objects is an important part of solving word problems because mental operations and transformations are required. 279:. Additionally, the comments made by the experts during the procedure point towards their use of route knowledge in completing the task. To ensure that it was in fact spatial information that they were encoding, the researchers also presented lists in alphabetical order and 677:

landmarks during navigation and produces a delay-dependent deficit in spatial memory that is proportional to the length of the delay. Lesions to this region are also known to create retention deficits for tasks learned up to 4 weeks but not 6 weeks prior to the lesions.

78:, and comprehension. Spatial memory is a cognitive process that enables a person to remember different locations as well as spatial relations between objects. This allows one to remember where an object is in relation to another object; for instance, allowing someone to 577:

for which the drivers had no knowledge of their spatial location. This resulted in an activation of the right hippocampus solely during recall of the complex routes which indicates that the right hippocampus is used for navigation in large scale spatial environments.

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is responsible for information concerning movement sequences. Although a general lack of consensus regarding this distinction has been noted in the literature, there is a growing amount of evidence that the two components are separate and serve different functions.

1178:, elevating different pathways which are responsible for synaptic strength, control plasticity-related gene transcription and protein translation (Dominique Piber, 2021). Hippocampal areas activated in route-learning are reactivated during subsequent sleep ( 136:

literature, it is suggested that further research into the fractionation of STM and WM be explored. However, much of the research into the visuo-spatial memory construct have been conducted in accordance to the paradigm advanced by Baddeley and Hitch.

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that is too deep for it to stand in. The walls of the tank are decorated with visual cues to serve as reference points. The rat must swim around the pool until by chance it discovers just below the surface the hidden platform onto which it can climb.

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hippocampus. Lesions to the ventral hippocampus have no effect on spatial memory, while the dorsal hippocampus is required for retrieval, processing short-term memory and transferring memory from the short term to longer delay periods. Infusion of

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Monkeys with lesions to this area cannot learn object-place associations and rats also display spatial deficits by not reacting to spatial change. In addition, rats with hippocampal lesions were shown to have temporally ungraded (time-independent)

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of information during training trials of the Morris water maze. This accounts for the impairment in the initial acquisition of the task. Lesions also cause impairment on an object location task and reduce habituation to a novel environment.

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Silva-Gomez, A.B.; Bermudez, M.; Quirion, R.; Srivastava, L.K.; Picazo, O.; Flores, G. (2003). "Comparative behavioral changes between male and female postpubertal rats following neonatal excitotoxic lesions of the ventral hippocampus".

805:). In general, mammals require a functioning hippocampus (particularly area CA1) in order to form and process memories about space. There is some evidence that human spatial memory is strongly tied to the right hemisphere of the brain. 5374:

Peigneux, Philippe; Laureys, Steven; Fuchs, Sonia; Collette, Fabienne; Perrin, Fabien; Reggers, Jean; Phillips, Christophe; Degueldre, Christian; Del Fiore, Guy; Aerts, Joël; Luxen, André; Maquet, Pierre (October 2004).

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that is resistant to recognition of a learned platform task only when the entire hippocampus is lesioned, but not when it is partially lesioned. Deficits in spatial memory are also found in spatial discrimination tasks.

928:, working memory and set-shifting. Similar to schizophrenia, impaired rats fail to use environmental context in spatial learning tasks such as showing difficulty completing the radial arm maze and the Moris water maze. 870:

even familiar surroundings since birth and show no apparent neurological causes for this deficiency such as lesioning or brain damage. DTD is a relatively new disorder and can occur in varying degrees of severity.

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Martin, S. J.; de Hozl, L.; Morris, R. G. M. (2005). "Retrograde amnesia: neither partial nor complete hippocampal lesions in rats result in preferential sparing of remote spatial memory, even after reminding".

3835:"A comparison of the effects of medial prefrontal, cingulate cortex, and cingulum bundle lesions on tests of spatial memory: Evidence of a double dissociation between frontal and cingulum bundle contributions" 816:

receptors, consolidation requires NMDA receptors, and the retrieval of spatial memories requires AMPA receptors. In rodents, spatial memory has been shown to covary with the size of a part of the hippocampal

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However, this loss in confidence in one's own skills is counteracted by the knowledge that getting lost is no longer a problem, thanks to the GPS on our phones, which in turn restores our confidence in our

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Parron, C.; Save, E. (2004). "Comparison of the effects of entorhinal and retrosplenial cortical lesions on habituation, reaction to spatial and non-spatial changes during object exploration in the rat".

1050:. This can free up cognitive resources for other tasks, leading to better performance on such tasks and higher levels of concentration and focus. This allows to free up cognitive resources to facilitate 4678:

Marquis, J.P.; Goulet, S.; Dore, F.Y. (2008). "Neonatal ventral hippocampus lesions disrupt extra-dimensional shift and alter dendritic spine density in the medial prefrontal cortex of juvenile rats".

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The CA3 of the hippocampus plays an especially important role in the encoding and retrieval of spatial memories. The CA3 is innervated by two afferent paths known as the perforant path (PPCA3) and the

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the maze to the drawing of the man. The participant is then expected to replicate the demonstrated pathway through the maze to the drawing of the man. Mazes vary in complexity as difficulty increases.

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Save, E.; Poucet, B.; Foreman, N.; Buhot, M. (1992). "Object exploration and reactions to spatial and nonspatial changes in hooded rats following damage to parietal cortex or hippocampal formation".

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processes egocentric spatial information. It participates in the processing of short-term spatial memory used to guide planned search behavior and is believed to join spatial information with its

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Brun, V. H.; Otnaess, M. K.; Molden, S.; Steffenach, H.; Witter, M. P.; Moser, M.; Moser, E. I. (2002). "Place cells and place recognition maintained by direct entorhinal-hippocampal circuitry".

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Morris, R. G. M.; Anderson, E.; Lynch, G. S.; Baudry, M. (1986). "Selective impairment of learning and blockade of long-term potentiation by an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor anatagonist, AP5".

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Goodrich-Hunsaker NJ, Hunsaker MR, Kesner RP (2008). "The interactions and dissociations of the dorsal hippocampus subregions: how the dentate gyrus, CA3, and CA1 process spatial information".

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Save, E.; Moghaddam, M. (1996). "Effects of lesions of the associative parietal cortex on the acquisition and use of spatial memory in egocentric and allocentric navigation tasks in the rat".

70:(STM) can be described as a system allowing one to temporarily store and manage information that is necessary to complete complex cognitive tasks. Tasks which employ short-term memory include 331: 4418:

Lee, I.; Kesner, R. P. (2004). "Encoding versus retrieval of spatial memory: Double dissociation between the dentate gyrus and the perforant path inputs into CA3 in the dorsal hippocampus".

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Bannerman, D. M.; Deacon, R. M. J.; Offen, S.; Friswell, J.; Grubb, M.; Rawlins, J. N. P. (2002). "Double dissociation of function within the hippocampus: Spatial memory and hyponeophagia".

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categories. However, the researchers found that it was in fact spatial information that the experts were chunking, allowing them to surpass the limitations of both visuo-spatial STM and WM.

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said destination independently. GPS comes in by offering helpful information therefore allowing them to become more independent and confident with their travel to a specific destination.

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and working memory are dependent on executive resources and are not entirely distinct. For instance, performance on a working memory but not on a short-term memory task was affected by

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Liang, KC; Hon, W; Tyan, YM; Liao, WL (1994). "Involvement of hippocampal NMDA and AMPA receptors in acquisition, formation and retrieval of spatial memory in the Morris water maze".

59:. Research indicates that there are specific areas of the brain associated with spatial memory. Many methods are used for measuring spatial memory in children, adults, and animals. 1109:(AD) were administered 3 driving trials with different GPS settings (normal, visual-only and audio-only). The participants were required to perform a variety of driving tasks on a 1005:(GPS) technology has revolutionized the way we navigate and explore our environment. GPS has become an essential tool in our daily lives, providing real-time information about our 3925:

Cooper, B. G.; Manka, T. F.; Mizumori, S. J. Y. (2001). "Finding your way in the dark: The retrosplenial cortex contributes to spatial memory and navigation without visual cues".

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In reference to the effects of sleep deprivation on humans, Dominique Piber (2021) featured in his literature review the clinical observations which shows that people with severe

124:. One component of this model, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, is likely responsible for the temporary storage, maintenance, and manipulation of both visual and spatial information. 407:

task by replacing the numerical test items with spatial ones. On average, most participants achieve a span of five items on the Corsi span test and seven on the digit span task.

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patients with damage to the hippocampus cannot learn or remember spatial layouts, and patients having undergone hippocampal removal are severely impaired in spatial navigation.

40:

allocentric spatial memory. A person's spatial memory is required to navigate in a familiar city. A rat's spatial memory is needed to learn the location of food at the end of a

3661:

Pratt, W. E.; Mizumori, S. J. Y. (2001). "Neurons in rat medial prefrontal cortex show anticipatory rate changes to predictable differential rewards in a spatial memory task".

2325:

Della Sala, S., Gray, C., Baddeley, A., & Wilson, L. (1997). The Visual Patterns Test: A new test of short-term visual recall. Feltham, Suffolk: Thames Valley Test Company.

4922: 4600:

Marquis, J. P.; Goulet, S.; Dore, F. Y. (2008). "Dissociable onset of cognitive and motivational dysfunctions following neonatal lesions of the ventral hippocampus in rats".

755:

Medial view of the cerebral hemisphere. The retrosplenial cortex encompasses Brodmann areas 26, 29, and 30. The perirhinal cortex contains Brodmann area 35 and 36 (not shown)

514:

memory. It is important for long-term spatial memory of allocentric space (reference to external cues in space). Maintenance and retrieval of memories are thus relational or

4469:

Tae-Sung Lim, Giuseppe Iaria, So Young Moon. "Topographical Disorientation in Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Voxel-Based Morphometry Study." 9 August 2010. 16 April 2011 <

3960:

Vann, S. D.; Aggleton, J. P. (2002). "Extensive cytotoxic lesions of the rat retrosplenial cortex reveal consistent deficits on tasks that tax allocentric spatial memory".

1009:

and the directions we need to take to reach our destination. However, some researchers have raised concerns about the impact of GPS use on our spatial learning and memory.

589:(entohinal-dentate-CA3-CA1) is used for place recall memory and facilitation of plasticity at the entorhinal-dentate synapse in mice is sufficient to enhance place recall. 2139: 669:

The entorhinal cortex contributes to the processing and integration of geometric properties and information in the environment. Lesions to this region impair the use of

346:

Correlational studies of the two measures suggest a separation between visual and spatial abilities, due to a lack of correlation found between them in both healthy and

3575:

Nagahara, H. A.; Otto, T.; Gallagher, M. (1995). "Entorhinal-perirhinal lesions impair performance of rats on two versions of place learning in the Morris water maze".

792: 2226:

Passolunghi, M.C.; Mammarella, I.C.; et al. (2010). "Spatial and visual working memory ability in children with difficulties in arithmetic word problem solving".

1017:, on the other hand, involves our ability to store and retrieve information about the world around us. Both spatial learning and memory are crucial for our ability to 164:

Although studies suggest that the central executive is intimately involved in a number of spatial tasks, the exact way in which they are connected remains to be seen.

4203:

Tucker, DM; Hartry-Speiser, A; McDougal, L; Luu, P; Degrandpre, D (1999). "Mood and spatial memory: emotion and right hemisphere contribution to spatial cognition".

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ability to access one's cognitive map, a mental representation of the surrounding environment or the inability to judge objects' location in relation to one's self.

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Stark, M; Coslett, HB; Saffran, EM (1996). Impairment of an egocentric map of locations: implications for perception and action. 13. Cogn Neuropsychol. pp. 481–523.

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Liu, P.; Bilkey, D. K. (2001). "The effect of excitotoxic lesions centered on the hippocampus or perirhinal cortex in object recognition and spatial memory tasks".

310:

The evidence for the spatial memory of some species of animals, such as rats, indicates that they do use spatial memory to locate and retrieve hidden food stores.

700:

Medial view of the cerebral hemisphere showing the location of the prefrontal cortex and more specifically the medial and ventromedial prefrontal cortex in purple

208:

experimenters the luxury of extreme control over their test environment. Any variable can be manipulated, including things that would not be possible in reality.

3348:

Cho, Y. H.; Kesner, R. P. (1996). "Involvement of entorhinal cortex or parietal cortex in long-term spatial discrimination memory in rats: Retrograde amnesia".

5267:

Ferrara, Michele; Iaria, Giuseppe; Tempesta, Daniela; Curcio, Giuseppe; Moroni, Fabio; Marzano, Cristina; De Gennaro, Luigi; Pacitti, Claudio (August 2008).

4825:"Endonuclease VIII-like 1 (NEIL1) promotes short-term spatial memory retention and protects from ischemic stroke-induced brain dysfunction and death in mice" 3532:

Parron, C.; Poucet, B.; Save, E. (2004). "Entorhinal cortex lesions impair the use of distal but not proximal landmarks during place navigation in the rat".

2625:

Winocur, G.; Moscovitch, M.; Caruana, D. A.; Binns, M. A. (2005). "Retrograde amnesia in rats with lesions to the hippocampus on a test of spatial memory".

1589:

Jones, D.; Farrand, P.; Stuart, G.; Morris, N.; et al. (1995). "Functional equivalence of verbal and spatial information in serial short-term memory".

5209:

Mammarella, I.C.; Lucangeli, D.; Cornoldi, C. (2010). "Spatial working memory and arithmetic deficites in children with nonverbal learning difficulties".

113: 3995:

Vann, S. D.; Wilton, L. A.; Muir, J. L.; Aggleton, J. P. (2003). "Testing the importance of the caudal retrosplenial cortex for spatial memory in rats".

1186:

Further, it has been illustrated that early and late nocturnal sleep have different effects on spatial memory. N3 of the NREM sleep, also referred to as

662:. This brain region thus transforms sensory input from the environment and stores it as a durable allocentric representation in the brain to be used for 1038:

ability. Some beneficial outcomes attributed to GPS assistance are more efficient and accurate navigation, coupled with a significant reduction in the

581:

The hippocampus is known to contain two separate memory circuits. One circuit is used for recollection-based place recognition memory and includes the

342:

memory for object shapes usually involves maintaining information about the spatial arrangement of the features which define the object in question.

562:

into the dorsal hippocampus has also been shown to enhance memory for spatial locations learned previously. These findings indicate that there is a

980:. NEIL1 promotes short-term spatial memory retention. Mice lacking NEIL1 have impaired short-term spatial memory retention in a water maze test. 6409: 1633:

Della Sala, S.; Gray, C.; Baddeley, A.; Allamano, N.; Wilson, L.; et al. (1999). "Pattern span: a tool for unwelding visuo-spatial memory".

4733:

Levin, E.D.; Christopher, N.C. (2006). "Effects of clozapine on memory function in the rat neonatal hippocampal lesion model of schizophrenia".

775:

is associated with both spatial reference and spatial working memory. It processes relational information of environmental cues and locations.

275:

information in such a way that they surpassed STM and WM capacity limitations. The organization strategy that the drivers employed is known as

200:

paradox. McNamara has found that subjects use "clusters of landmarks as intrinsic frames of reference," which only confuses the issue further.

109: 5591:"Patients with chronic insomnia have selective impairments in memory that are modulated by cortisol: Memory impairment in chronic insomniacs" 121: 5793:"Enhancement of spatial memories at the associative and relational levels after a full night of sleep and likelihood of dream incorporation" 2499:

O'Keefe, J.; Dostrovsky, J. (1971). "The hippocampus as a spatial map. Preliminary evidence from unit activity in the freely-moving rat".

518:. The hippocampus makes use of reference and working memory and has the important role of processing information about spatial locations. 5992: 5534:

Li, Yongli; Liu, Liya; Wang, Enfeng; Zhang, Hongju; Dou, Shewei; Tong, Li; Cheng, Jingliang; Chen, Chuanliang; Shi, Dapeng (2016-01-20).

3747:

Slotnick, S. D.; Moo, L. R. (2006). "Prefrontal cortex hemispheric specialization for categorical and coordinate visual spatial memory".

5679:"Are Anti-Inflammatory Cytokines Associated with Cognitive Impairment in Patients with Insomnia Comorbid with Depression? A Pilot Study" 3704:

Kesner, R. P.; Holbrook, T. (1987). "Dissociation of item and order spatial memory in rats following medial prefrontal cortex lesions".

716:

in a spatial task support this hypothesis. The medial prefrontal cortex is also implicated in the temporal organization of information.

616:

cortex produce deficits in the acquisition and retention of egocentric tasks, whereas minor impairment is seen among allocentric tasks.

1205:

total sleep deprivation (TSD) on rats' spatial memory (Guan et al., 2004). In the first experiment conducted, the rats were trained in

863: 854: 2708:

Hebert, A. E.; Dash, P. K. (2004). "Nonredundant roles for hippocampal and entorhinal cortical plasticity in spatial memory storage".

836:(DG)-mediated mossy fibers (MFs). The first path is regarded as the retrieval index path while the second is concerned with encoding. 740:

in the environment. Inactivation of this region accounts for impaired navigation in the dark and it may be involved in the process of

6273: 1022:

about the environment, as GPS use can lead to a decline in those skills over time. Furthermore, GPS users tend to rely more on the

4324:

Lee, I.; Kesner, R. P. (2002). "Differential contribution of NMDA receptors in hippocampal subregions to spatial working memory".

628: 620: 5481:"Sleep deprivation impairs spatial memory and decreases extracellular signal-regulated kinase phosphorylation in the hippocampus" 1042:

required for navigation. When people use GPS devices, they do not have to worry about remembering the route, paying attention to

882:

Normal general cognitive function above the 16th percentile on the Korean version of the Mini-Mental State Examination (K-MMSE).

3383:

Hafting, T.; Fyhn, M.; Molden, S.; Moser, M.; Moser, E. I. (2005). "Microstructure of a spatial map in the entorhinal cortex".

2147: 1121:, and discourage "wandering". Overall, evidence is strongest about the use of GPS technologies for averting harm and promoting 674: 670: 4720:

Winocur, G. & Mills, J. A. (1970). Transfer between related and unrelated problems following hippocampal lesions in rats.

3882:

Lacroix, L.; White, I.; Feldon, J. (2002). "Effect of excitotoxic lesions of rat medial prefrontal cortex on spatial memory".

554: 1345: 1057:

To compensate for the issues that arise from GPS use, there has been substantial research that proposes alternative forms of

105: 5058:"Spatial Learning with Orientation Maps: The Influence of Different Environmental Features on Spatial Knowledge Acquisition" 4041:

Maguire, E. A. (2001). "The retrosplenial contribution to human navigation: A review of lesion and neuroimaging findings".

1366: 1146: 1850:

Chun, M.; Jiang, Y. (1998). "Contextual Cueing: implicit learning and memory of visual context guides spatial attention".

1117:

Since GPS use would help the patients with wayfinding, it would allow them to stay safe in public, reclaim their sense of

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Spatial memories are formed after an animal gathers and processes sensory information about its surroundings (especially

6483: 5733:"Dreaming of a learning task is associated with enhanced memory consolidation: Replication in an overnight sleep study" 4043: 1798:

Fisk, J. E.; Sharp, C. A.; et al. (2003). "The role of the executive system in visuo-spatial memory functioning".

1468: 1441: 778:

Lesions in the perirhinal cortex account for deficits in reference memory and working memory, and increase the rate of

525:

in this region results in problems in goal-directed navigation and impairs the ability to remember precise locations.

1411: 4991:

Clemenson, Gregory D.; Maselli, Antonella; Fiannaca, Alexander J.; Miller, Amos; Gonzalez-Franco, Mar (2021-01-01).

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or additions to the existing ones that have been shown to enhance spatial learning. A study from 2021 implemented a

180:

method of navigation that people learn to utilize; its workings reflect our most basic understandings of the world.

5868: 3612:"Extracellular signal-regulated kinase activity in the entorhinal cortex is necessary for long-term spatial memory" 4275:"Learning spatial orientation tasks in the radial-maze and structural variation in the hippocampus in inbred mice" 885:

Normal activities of daily living (ADL) assessed both clinically and on a standardized scale (as described below).

650:

Medial view of the right cerebral hemisphere showing the entorhinal cortex in red at the base of the temporal lobe

5677:

He, Shuo; Chen, Xi-Xi; Ge, Wei; Yang, Shuai; Chen, Jun-Tao; Niu, Jing-Wen; Xia, Lan; Chen, Gui-Hai (2021-06-29).

5123:"The Effect of the Global Positioning System on the Driving Performance of People with Mild Alzheimer's Disease" 2099:

Bird, L. R.; Roberts, W. A.; Abroms, B.; Kit, K. A.; Crupi, C. (2003). "Spatial memory for food hidden by rats (

6356: 3220:"NCS-1 in the dentate gyrus promotes exploration, synaptic plasticity, and rapid acquisition of spatial memory" 1267: 956:

by cleaving bases damaged by reactive oxygen species and then introducing a DNA strand break via an associated

563: 2539:

Squire, L. R. (1992). "Memory and the hippocampus: A synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans".

1948:"Learning Your Way Around Town: How Virtual Taxicab Drivers Learn to Use Both Layout and Landmark Information" 4164:"Differential spatial memory impairment after right temporal lobectomy demonstrated using temporal titration" 2174:

Klauer, K.C.; Zhao, Z.; et al. (2004). "Double dissociations in visual and spatial short-term memory".

6404: 6305: 6192: 5792: 1493:

Johnson, E.; Adamo-Villani, N. (2010). "A Study of the Effects of Immersion on Short-term Spatial Memory".

1179: 850: 478: 4078:

Liu, P.; Bilkey, D. K. (1998). "Perirhinal cortex contributions to performance in the Morris water maze".

1946:

Newman, E.L.; Caplan, J.B.; Kirschen, M.P.; Korolev, I.O.; Sekuler, R.; Kahana, M.J.; et al. (2007).

1391: 1137: 161:

enabling participants to both encode and maintain mental representations during short-term memory tasks.

4635:

Brady, A. M. (2009). "Neonatal ventral hippocampal lesions disrupt set-shifting ability in adult rats".

2985:"Time-dependent relationship between the dorsal hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex in spatial memory" 2008:

Gillner S, Mallot H (2000). "The role of global and local landmarks in virtual environment navigation".

646: 353:

Support for the division of visual and spatial memory components is found through experiments using the

82:

in a familiar city. Spatial memories are said to form after a person has already gathered and processed

6851: 6530: 6455: 6288: 5630:"Neurocognitive performance in insomnia disorder: The impact of hyperarousal and short sleep duration" 5480: 1013:

refers to our ability to perceive, remember, and use spatial information acquired in the environment.

1906:

McNamara, T.; Hardy, J.; Hirtle, S.; et al. (1989). "Subjective hierarchies in spatial memory".

1255: 1002: 818: 624: 2349: 2024: 6568: 6513: 6488: 6318: 6295: 6245: 6150: 5628:

Khassawneh, Basheer Y.; Bathgate, Christina J.; Tsai, Sheila C.; Edinger, Jack D. (December 2018).

5269:"Sleep to find your way: The role of sleep in the consolidation of memory for navigation in humans" 1969: 1864: 1195: 825:

well as in the formation of CA1 place fields. Blockade of the NMDA receptors prevents induction of

515: 380: 149: 6255: 6021: 1062: 5428: 1070:

of space, an improvement which was demonstrated when the participants of the study drew precise

144:

Research into the exact function of the visuo-spatial sketchpad has indicated that both spatial

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The retrosplenial cortex preferentially processes spatial information in the right hemisphere.

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memory including item memory (reference to spatial relationships between features of an item).

300: 173: 3790:

Becker, J. T.; Walker, J. A.; Olton, D. S. (1980). "Neuroanatomical bases of spatial memory".

1458: 259:

Map Order – street names forming a straight line on the map, but omitting intermediate streets

6677: 6392: 6278: 6250: 6235: 6230: 6068: 5536:"Abnormal Neural Network of Primary Insomnia: Evidence from Spatial Working Memory Task fMRI" 1431: 582: 386: 276: 4884:"GPS use negatively affects environmental learning through spatial transformation abilities" 3218:

Saab BJ, Georgiou J, Nath A, Lee FJ, Wang M, Michalon A, Liu F, Mansuy IM, Roder JC (2009).

1947: 6561: 6545: 6424: 6182: 6135: 6125: 5913: 5861: 5069: 5004: 4836: 4496: 4376: 3760: 3616: 3447: 3392: 3141: 3041: 2866: 2772: 2638: 2335:

Olton, D.S.; Samuelson, R.J. (1976). "Remembrance of places past: spatial memory in rats".

2010: 1175: 953: 733: 681: 28: 4882:

Ruginski, Ian T; Creem-Regehr, Sarah H; Stefanucci, Jeanine K; Cashdan, Elizabeth (2019).

2415:

Morris, R. G. (1981). "Spatial Localization Does Not Require the Presence of Local Cues".

1535:

Ang, S. Y.; Lee, K. (2008). "Central executive involvement in children's spatial memory".

1250: 108:. The most recent version of this model suggests that there are four subcomponents to WM: 8: 6692: 6592: 6283: 6167: 6115: 6083: 6063: 5590: 5268: 4115:"Memory for spatial and temporal order in aphasics and right hemisphere damaged patients" 1955: 1027: 925: 457:

in some way but not to the extent that external cues cannot be used as reference points.

197: 117: 5073: 5008: 4840: 4380: 3451: 3396: 3145: 3045: 2776: 6789: 6774: 6612: 6557: 6550: 6518: 6419: 6414: 6366: 6344: 6313: 6140: 5820: 5765: 5732: 5705: 5678: 5659: 5571: 5516: 5406: 5351: 5318: 5296: 5244: 5191: 5186: 5169: 5150: 5033: 4992: 4968: 4941: 4903: 4859: 4824: 4802: 4758: 4703: 4660: 4443: 4400: 4349: 4301: 4274: 4228: 4144: 4020: 3907: 3859: 3850: 3834: 3815: 3772: 3729: 3686: 3557: 3514: 3416: 3292: 3249: 3165: 3109: 3100: 3084: 3065: 3009: 3000: 2984: 2957: 2948: 2932: 2878: 2796: 2733: 2650: 2607: 2564: 2476: 2443: 2243: 2199: 2037: 1990: 1885: 1823: 1658: 1560: 1403: 913: 635: 573:

taxi drivers, asked drivers to recall complex routes around the city as well as famous

534: 354: 4790: 4577: 4560: 4536: 4519: 4216: 4131: 4114: 4008: 3895: 3674: 3638: 3611: 1811: 1646: 658:(dMEC) contains a topographically organized map of the spatial environment made up of 6825: 6813: 6784: 6632: 6503: 6478: 6434: 6361: 6339: 6240: 6177: 6145: 6120: 6088: 6073: 5983: 5953: 5891: 5824: 5812: 5770: 5752: 5710: 5651: 5610: 5563: 5555: 5508: 5500: 5456: 5448: 5398: 5356: 5338: 5288: 5236: 5195: 5142: 5038: 5020: 4973: 4907: 4883: 4864: 4794: 4750: 4695: 4652: 4617: 4582: 4541: 4500: 4435: 4392: 4341: 4306: 4255: 4220: 4185: 4136: 4095: 4060: 4012: 3977: 3942: 3899: 3864: 3807: 3803: 3764: 3721: 3717: 3678: 3643: 3592: 3549: 3506: 3465: 3408: 3365: 3327: 3284: 3241: 3200: 3157: 3114: 3085:"Recalling routes around London: Activation of the right hippocampus in taxi drivers" 3057: 3014: 2962: 2913: 2870: 2834: 2788: 2725: 2690: 2642: 2599: 2595: 2582:

Ramos, J. M. J. (2000). "Long-term spatial memory in rats with hippocampal lesions".

2556: 2516: 2512: 2481: 2463: 2428: 2397: 2247: 2191: 2120: 1982: 1923: 1877: 1815: 1780: 1650: 1606: 1552: 1464: 1437: 1407: 1341: 1206: 1201: 1191: 1110: 1094: 988: 977: 772: 705: 655: 231: 145: 67: 52: 5663: 5575: 5520: 5377:"Are Spatial Memories Strengthened in the Human Hippocampus during Slow Wave Sleep?" 5300: 5154: 4806: 4762: 4707: 4664: 4447: 4353: 4232: 4024: 3911: 3776: 3733: 3518: 3296: 3069: 2882: 2737: 2611: 2568: 2041: 1978: 1827: 1564: 1308: 1221:

frequently have abnormalities in spatial memory. As visible in the studies of both,

6764: 6717: 6687: 6642: 6498: 6429: 6382: 6187: 6162: 6048: 6008: 5896: 5804: 5760: 5744: 5700: 5690: 5641: 5602: 5547: 5496: 5492: 5440: 5410: 5388: 5346: 5330: 5280: 5248: 5226: 5218: 5181: 5134: 5077: 5028: 5012: 4963: 4953: 4895: 4854: 4844: 4823:

Canugovi C, Yoon JS, Feldman NH, Croteau DL, Mattson MP, Bohr VA (September 2012).

4786: 4742: 4687: 4644: 4609: 4572: 4531: 4492: 4483:

Lewis, D.A.; Levitt, P. (2002). "Schizophrenia as a disorder of neurodevelopment".

4427: 4404: 4384: 4333: 4296: 4286: 4212: 4175: 4148: 4126: 4087: 4052: 4004: 3969: 3934: 3891: 3854: 3846: 3819: 3799: 3756: 3713: 3690: 3670: 3633: 3625: 3584: 3541: 3498: 3455: 3420: 3400: 3357: 3319: 3280: 3276: 3253: 3231: 3192: 3169: 3149: 3104: 3096: 3049: 3004: 2996: 2952: 2944: 2905: 2862: 2826: 2800: 2780: 2763: 2717: 2682: 2654: 2634: 2591: 2548: 2508: 2471: 2455: 2424: 2387: 2354: 2287: 2279: 2235: 2203: 2183: 2112: 2068: 2029: 1974: 1915: 1889: 1869: 1807: 1770: 1706: 1698: 1662: 1642: 1598: 1544: 1399: 1333: 1245: 1118: 1010: 741: 663: 586: 550: 56: 3561: 2755: 1994: 1337: 888:

Objective cognitive decline below the 16th percentile on neuropsychological tests.

6846: 6702: 6682: 6657: 6647: 6602: 6597: 6351: 6323: 6058: 6041: 6036: 6031: 6026: 5901: 5854: 5589:

Chen, Gui-hai; Xia, Lan; Wang, Fang; Li, Xue-Wei; Jiao, Chuan-an (October 2016).

5393: 5376: 3938: 3236: 3219: 3053: 2307:

Corsi, P. M. (1972). "Human memory and the medial temporal region of the brain".

1277: 1233: 1187: 1159: 1101:

Another research paper claims that a GPS can be used for patients suffering from

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region of the posterior parietal cortex displayed no reaction to spatial change.

522: 443: 397: 158: 5808: 4899: 4746: 4613: 4559:

Lipska, B.K.; Aultman, J.M.; Verma, A.; Weinberger, D.R.; Moghaddam, B. (2002).

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Colby, C. L.; Goldberg, M. E. (1999). "Space and attention in parietal cortex".

2909: 2830: 2187: 2116: 1602: 1325: 994: 793:

Neurobiological effects of physical exercise § Cognitive control and memory

541: 6769: 6733: 6627: 6225: 6172: 5998: 5968: 5948: 5935: 5334: 5016: 3973: 3323: 3196: 2686: 2552: 1919: 1272: 1218: 1151: 1075: 1067: 1058: 1039: 969: 802: 401: 230:

enormous amount of prelearned and task-specific knowledge, they may be able to

94: 83: 5444: 4958: 4691: 4648: 4561:"Neonatal damage of the ventral hippocampus impairs working memory in the rat" 3588: 3545: 3502: 2721: 2459: 2239: 2073: 2056: 1548: 904:

Research with rats indicates that spatial memory may be adversely affected by

6840: 6748: 6738: 6712: 6707: 6667: 6652: 6617: 6540: 6387: 6215: 6078: 6053: 6016: 5973: 5963: 5958: 5943: 5816: 5756: 5559: 5504: 5452: 5342: 5222: 5121:

Yi, Jewel; Lee, Hoe Chung-Yeung; Parsons, Richard; Falkmer, Torbjorn (2014).

5024: 4520:"To model a psychiatric disorder in animals: Schizophrenia as a reality test" 4180: 4163: 2467: 2358: 2283: 1702: 1687:"Evidence for different components in children's visuospatial working memory" 1287: 1282: 1262: 1174:

has been found to benefit spatial memory, by enhancing hippocampal-dependent

961: 909: 833: 813: 809: 798: 713: 612: 569:

Hemispheric differences within the hippocampus are also observed. A study on

347: 338: 318: 101: 45: 5122: 4849: 4056: 3460: 3435: 3153: 2268:"Evidence of different components in children's visuospatial working memory" 2033: 684:

in the entorhinal cortex is achieved through extracellular signal-regulated

6779: 6743: 6697: 6607: 6450: 6265: 6220: 6207: 6197: 6157: 5877: 5774: 5714: 5655: 5614: 5567: 5512: 5460: 5402: 5360: 5292: 5240: 5146: 5042: 4993:"Rethinking GPS navigation: creating cognitive maps through auditory clues" 4977: 4868: 4798: 4754: 4699: 4656: 4621: 4586: 4545: 4504: 4439: 4345: 4310: 4224: 4189: 4064: 4016: 3981: 3946: 3903: 3768: 3682: 3647: 3553: 3510: 3469: 3412: 3288: 3245: 3204: 3161: 3061: 3018: 2917: 2874: 2729: 2694: 2646: 2603: 2485: 2401: 2195: 2124: 1986: 1873: 1819: 1784: 1654: 1556: 314: 127: 32: 4396: 4291: 4259: 4140: 4099: 3868: 3811: 3725: 3596: 3369: 3331: 3118: 2966: 2838: 2792: 2560: 2520: 1927: 1881: 1610: 603: 153:

domain, both STM and WM require similar utility of the central executive.

6637: 6508: 6462: 5429:"Effects of early and late nocturnal sleep on priming and spatial memory" 5231: 4470: 2933:"Distributed encoding and retrieval of spatial memory in the hippocampus" 2292: 1711: 559: 510: 404: 358: 5695: 5082: 5057: 3404: 6672: 6535: 6102: 5606: 5284: 4431: 2392: 2373: 1775: 1758: 1143: 1035: 1023: 941: 867: 779: 709: 592: 466: 304: 292: 79: 5791:

Ribeiro, Nicolas; Gounden, Yannick; Quaglino, Véronique (2021-04-15).

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Parietal cortex lesions are also known to produce temporally ungraded

385:

The Corsi block-tapping test, also known as the Corsi span rest, is a

5908: 4881: 4388: 3629: 3434:

Fyhn, M.; Molden, S.; Witter, M. P.; Moser, E. I.; Moser, M. (2004).

2784: 1122: 1090: 1079: 1043: 921: 712:

significance. The identification of neurons that anticipate expected

659: 462: 448: 394: 280: 5535: 4775: 2103:) on the radial maze: studies of memory for where, what, and when". 2055:

Krokos, Eric; Plaisant, Catherine; Varshney, Amitabh (16 May 2018).

1685:

Mammarella, I. C.; Pazzaglia, F.; Cornoldi, C.; et al. (2008).

501: 19: 6397: 5319:"The role of sleep disturbance and inflammation for spatial memory" 2442:

Sharma, Sunita; Rakoczy, Sharlene; Brown-Borg, Holly (2010-10-23).

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Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition

1222: 1102: 1018: 1006: 879:

Subjective cognitive complaint by the patient or his/her caregiver.

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in the acquisition of spatial memory tasks during training trials.

574: 296: 242: 71: 44:. In both humans and animals, spatial memories are summarized as a 4337: 751: 6110: 4036: 4034: 1457:

Poeppel, David; Mangun, George R.; Gazzaniga, Michael S. (2020).

526: 246: 238: 131:

The Working Memory Model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974, revised 2000)

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task. Another study suggested highlighting local features like

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Large differences in spatial impairment are found among the

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damage to the hippocampus in a way that closely resembles

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Spatial memory is required to navigate in an environment.

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is involved in the processing of allocentric memory and

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Brain slice showing areas CA1 and CA3 in the hippocampus

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measure the consequential effects on spatial memory.

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are usually taken to prevent the rat from using its

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This enzyme recognizes and removes 5862: 5588: 3660: 3309: 3266: 2807: 2162: 2007: 362:relates primarily to spatial working memory. 325: 5676: 5478: 5427:Plihal, Werner; Born, Jan (September 1999). 4813: 3959: 3211: 3176: 2973: 1505: 598: 566:between the dorsal and ventral hippocampus. 62: 5993:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two 4482: 3746: 2272:British Journal of Developmental Psychology 2261: 2259: 2257: 2176:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 1791: 1691:British Journal of Developmental Psychology 1571: 1226:Khassawneh et al., 2018; He et al., 2021). 924:, reduced social interactions and impaired 167: 5869: 5855: 5426: 3609: 3485: 2930: 2707: 2173: 864:Developmental topographical disorientation 855:Developmental topographical disorientation 86:information about her or his environment. 5764: 5704: 5694: 5645: 5392: 5350: 5230: 5185: 5081: 5032: 4967: 4957: 4858: 4848: 4576: 4535: 4417: 4323: 4300: 4290: 4179: 4130: 4077: 3858: 3637: 3459: 3347: 3235: 3108: 3008: 2982: 2956: 2672: 2475: 2391: 2348: 2291: 2072: 2023: 1968: 1863: 1849: 1797: 1774: 1710: 1488: 1486: 1484: 1482: 1480: 89: 5323:Brain, Behavior, & Immunity - Health 5161: 4914: 4875: 2254: 2228:European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 1132: 993: 912:. 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Encyclopædia Britannica. 998:Example of a hand held GPS 936:Endonuclease VIII-like 1 ( 848: 790: 607:Parietal lobe shown in red 476: 441: 378: 326:Visual–spatial distinction 217:different sets of trials. 6802: 6757: 6726: 6585: 6578: 6471: 6443: 6375: 6332: 6304: 6264: 6206: 6101: 6007: 5982: 5934: 5927: 5884: 5737:Journal of Sleep Research 5634:Journal of Sleep Research 5445:10.1111/1469-8986.3650571 4959:10.1186/s41235-019-0156-5 4692:10.1016/j.nlm.2008.04.005 4649:10.1016/j.bbr.2009.07.025 3589:10.1037/0735-7044.109.1.3 3546:10.1016/j.bbr.2004.03.006 3503:10.1016/j.nlm.2004.03.004 2722:10.1016/j.pbb.2004.06.016 2460:10.1016/j.lfs.2010.09.004 2240:10.1080/09541440903091127 2074:10.1007/s10055-018-0346-3 1549:10.1080/09658210802365347 1082:, along the route and at 1046:, or constantly checking 1003:Global Positioning System 625:posterior parietal cortex 619:Rats with lesions to the 599:Posterior parietal cortex 63:Short-term spatial memory 6569:The Seven Sins of Memory 6514:Intermediate-term memory 6319:Indirect tests of memory 6296:Recovered-memory therapy 6246:Misattribution of memory 5223:10.1177/0022219409355482 2359:10.1037/0097-7403.2.2.97 2284:10.1348/026151007X236061 1703:10.1348/026151007X236061 1324:Mehta, Mitul A. (2010), 1166: 931: 654:The dorsalcaudal medial 505:Hippocampus shown in red 393:The test was created by 381:Corsi block-tapping test 168:Long-term spatial memory 150:articulatory suppression 6256:Source-monitoring error 4850:10.1073/pnas.1204156109 4602:Behavioral Neuroscience 4565:Neuropsychopharmacology 4524:Neuropsychopharmacology 4080:Behavioral Neuroscience 4057:10.1111/1467-9450.00233 3962:Behavioral Neuroscience 3927:Behavioral Neuroscience 3577:Behavioral Neuroscience 3461:10.1126/science.1099901 3350:Behavioral Neuroscience 3312:Behavioral Neuroscience 3154:10.1126/science.1071089 2898:Behavioral Neuroscience 2819:Behavioral Neuroscience 2675:Behavioral Neuroscience 2417:Learning and Motivation 2379:Learning & Behavior 2034:10.1162/105474600566628 564:functional dissociation 332:visuo-spatial sketchpad 114:visuo-spatial sketchpad 6663:George Armitage Miller 6623:Patricia Goldman-Rakic 4181:10.1093/brain/122.1.47 1874:10.1006/cogp.1998.0681 1307:Burgess, Neil (2021). 1052:information processing 999: 891:Exclusion of dementia. 827:long-term potentiation 756: 701: 651: 608: 546: 506: 453: 301:black-capped chickadee 271: 174:hierarchical structure 132: 90:Spatial working memory 24: 6826:Philosophy portal 6814:Psychology portal 6678:Henry L. Roediger III 6279:False memory syndrome 6251:Misinformation effect 6231:Imagination inflation 4946:Cogn Res Princ Implic 4292:10.1186/1744-9081-1-3 3617:Learning & Memory 1430:Wang, Jin-Hu (2019). 1371:www.sciencedirect.com 1198:) rather than early. 1133:Learning difficulties 997: 754: 699: 649: 606: 583:entorhinal-CA1 system 544: 504: 451: 269: 130: 22: 6183:Motivated forgetting 2541:Psychological Review 1852:Cognitive Psychology 1763:Memory and Cognition 1398:. pp. 507–514. 1176:memory consolidation 954:base excision repair 738:geometric properties 734:retrosplenial cortex 728:Retrosplenial cortex 682:Memory consolidation 159:cognitive strategies 29:cognitive psychology 6693:Arthur P. Shimamura 6593:Richard C. Atkinson 6410:Effects of exercise 6284:Memory implantation 6168:Interference theory 6084:Selective retention 6064:Meaningful learning 5696:10.2147/NSS.S312272 5102:www.alleganaesa.org 5083:10.3390/ijgi8030149 5074:2019IJGI....8..149L 5009:2021NatSR..11.7764C 4841:2012PNAS..10914948C 4381:1986Natur.319..774M 4326:Nature Neuroscience 3452:2004Sci...305.1258F 3446:(5688): 1258–1264. 3405:10.1038/nature03721 3397:2005Natur.436..801H 3146:2002Sci...296.2243B 3140:(5576): 2243–2246. 3046:2000Sci...287..248M 2777:1982Natur.297..681M 2144:National Geographic 1800:Brain and Cognition 1107:Alzheimer's Disease 1074:after performing a 1028:cognitive abilities 966:formamidopyrimidine 926:prepulse inhibition 411:Visual pattern span 291:Certain species of 198:chicken and the egg 6790:Andriy Slyusarchuk 6613:Hermann Ebbinghaus 6519:Involuntary memory 6420:Memory improvement 6405:Effects of alcohol 6367:Transactive memory 6345:Politics of memory 6314:Exceptional memory 5607:10.1111/psyp.12700 5540:European Neurology 5285:10.1002/hipo.20444 4997:Scientific Reports 4432:10.1002/hipo.10167 2393:10.3758/BF03195996 2150:on August 10, 2014 1776:10.3758/BF03200464 1026:than on their own 1000: 962:oxidized DNA bases 914:neurodevelopmental 840:Disorders/deficits 757: 702: 652: 636:retrograde amnesia 609: 547: 535:retrograde amnesia 507: 454: 452:Simple Radial Maze 387:psychological test 355:dual-task paradigm 272: 133: 25: 6852:Spatial cognition 6834: 6833: 6798: 6797: 6785:Cosmos Rossellius 6633:Marcia K. Johnson 6504:Exosomatic memory 6489:Context-dependent 6479:Absent-mindedness 6362:Memory conformity 6340:Collective memory 6241:Memory conformity 6178:Memory inhibition 6097: 6096: 6089:Tip of the tongue 5749:10.1111/jsr.12749 5647:10.1111/jsr.12747 5601:(10): 1567–1576. 5552:10.1159/000443372 5139:10.1159/000365922 4375:(6056): 774–776. 3845:(11): 7270–7281. 3391:(7052): 801–806. 3095:(18): 7103–7110. 3040:(5451): 248–251. 2943:(18): 7535–7542. 2771:(5868): 681–683. 2633:(11): 1580–1590. 2101:Rattus norvegicus 1641:(10): 1189–1199. 1347:978-3-540-68706-1 1256:Spatial cognition 1207:Morris water maze 1202:Sleep deprivation 1192:procedural memory 1114:cognitive loads. 1111:driving simulator 1095:visually impaired 989:Spatial Cognition 978:5-hydroxycytosine 773:perirhinal cortex 767:Perirhinal cortex 706:prefrontal cortex 692:Prefrontal cortex 656:entorhinal cortex 642:Entorhinal cortex 516:context dependent 420:Pathway span task 398:neuropsychologist 225:Spatial expertise 146:short-term memory 118:central executive 110:phonological loop 68:Short-term memory 53:short-term memory 6859: 6824: 6823: 6822: 6812: 6811: 6810: 6765:Jonathan Hancock 6718:Robert Stickgold 6688:Richard Shiffrin 6643:Elizabeth Loftus 6583: 6582: 6499:Childhood memory 6306:Research methods 6188:Repressed memory 6163:Forgetting curve 6151:transient global 6022:Autobiographical 5932: 5931: 5871: 5864: 5857: 5848: 5847: 5829: 5828: 5788: 5779: 5778: 5768: 5728: 5719: 5718: 5708: 5698: 5674: 5668: 5667: 5649: 5625: 5619: 5618: 5595:Psychophysiology 5586: 5580: 5579: 5531: 5525: 5524: 5476: 5465: 5464: 5433:Psychophysiology 5424: 5415: 5414: 5396: 5371: 5365: 5364: 5354: 5314: 5305: 5304: 5264: 5253: 5252: 5234: 5206: 5200: 5199: 5189: 5165: 5159: 5158: 5118: 5112: 5111: 5109: 5108: 5094: 5088: 5087: 5085: 5053: 5047: 5046: 5036: 4988: 4982: 4981: 4971: 4961: 4937: 4931: 4930: 4918: 4912: 4911: 4879: 4873: 4872: 4862: 4852: 4835:(37): 14948–53. 4820: 4811: 4810: 4773: 4767: 4766: 4730: 4724: 4718: 4712: 4711: 4675: 4669: 4668: 4632: 4626: 4625: 4597: 4591: 4590: 4580: 4556: 4550: 4549: 4539: 4515: 4509: 4508: 4480: 4474: 4467: 4461: 4458: 4452: 4451: 4415: 4409: 4408: 4389:10.1038/319774a0 4364: 4358: 4357: 4321: 4315: 4314: 4304: 4294: 4270: 4264: 4263: 4243: 4237: 4236: 4200: 4194: 4193: 4183: 4159: 4153: 4152: 4134: 4110: 4104: 4103: 4075: 4069: 4068: 4038: 4029: 4028: 4003:(1–2): 107–118. 3992: 3986: 3985: 3957: 3951: 3950: 3933:(5): 1012–1028. 3922: 3916: 3915: 3879: 3873: 3872: 3862: 3830: 3824: 3823: 3787: 3781: 3780: 3755:(9): 1560–1568. 3749:Neuropsychologia 3744: 3738: 3737: 3706:Neuropsychologia 3701: 3695: 3694: 3658: 3652: 3651: 3641: 3630:10.1101/lm.48502 3607: 3601: 3600: 3572: 3566: 3565: 3529: 3523: 3522: 3483: 3474: 3473: 3463: 3431: 3425: 3424: 3380: 3374: 3373: 3345: 3336: 3335: 3307: 3301: 3300: 3264: 3258: 3257: 3239: 3215: 3209: 3208: 3180: 3174: 3173: 3129: 3123: 3122: 3112: 3080: 3074: 3073: 3029: 3023: 3022: 3012: 2995:(4): 1517–1523. 2980: 2971: 2970: 2960: 2928: 2922: 2921: 2893: 2887: 2886: 2855:Neuropsychologia 2849: 2843: 2842: 2814: 2805: 2804: 2785:10.1038/297681a0 2760: 2751: 2742: 2741: 2705: 2699: 2698: 2670: 2659: 2658: 2627:Neuropsychologia 2622: 2616: 2615: 2590:(9): 3375–3384. 2579: 2573: 2572: 2536: 2525: 2524: 2496: 2490: 2489: 2479: 2439: 2433: 2432: 2412: 2406: 2405: 2395: 2369: 2363: 2362: 2352: 2332: 2326: 2323: 2317: 2316: 2304: 2298: 2297: 2295: 2263: 2252: 2251: 2223: 2208: 2207: 2171: 2160: 2159: 2157: 2155: 2146:. Archived from 2135: 2129: 2128: 2096: 2079: 2078: 2076: 2052: 2046: 2045: 2027: 2005: 1999: 1998: 1972: 1952: 1943: 1932: 1931: 1903: 1894: 1893: 1867: 1847: 1832: 1831: 1795: 1789: 1788: 1778: 1754: 1717: 1716: 1714: 1682: 1667: 1666: 1635:Neuropsychologia 1630: 1615: 1614: 1597:(4): 1008–1018. 1586: 1569: 1568: 1532: 1503: 1502: 1490: 1475: 1474: 1454: 1448: 1447: 1427: 1418: 1417: 1387: 1381: 1380: 1378: 1377: 1363: 1357: 1356: 1355: 1354: 1321: 1315: 1314: 1304: 1246:Animal cognition 1119:self-sufficiency 1011:Spatial learning 922:psychostimulants 742:path integration 664:path integration 587:trisynaptic loop 57:long-term memory 6867: 6866: 6862: 6861: 6860: 6858: 6857: 6856: 6837: 6836: 6835: 6830: 6820: 6818: 6808: 6806: 6794: 6775:Dominic O'Brien 6753: 6722: 6703:Susumu Tonegawa 6683:Daniel Schacter 6658:Eleanor Maguire 6648:Geoffrey Loftus 6603:Stephen J. Ceci 6598:Robert A. Bjork 6574: 6493:state-dependent 6467: 6439: 6371: 6352:Cultural memory 6328: 6324:Memory disorder 6300: 6260: 6202: 6093: 6003: 5978: 5923: 5880: 5875: 5838: 5833: 5832: 5789: 5782: 5729: 5722: 5675: 5671: 5626: 5622: 5587: 5583: 5532: 5528: 5477: 5468: 5425: 5418: 5372: 5368: 5315: 5308: 5265: 5256: 5207: 5203: 5166: 5162: 5119: 5115: 5106: 5104: 5096: 5095: 5091: 5054: 5050: 4989: 4985: 4938: 4934: 4919: 4915: 4880: 4876: 4821: 4814: 4774: 4770: 4731: 4727: 4719: 4715: 4676: 4672: 4633: 4629: 4598: 4594: 4557: 4553: 4516: 4512: 4481: 4477: 4468: 4464: 4459: 4455: 4416: 4412: 4365: 4361: 4322: 4318: 4271: 4267: 4244: 4240: 4201: 4197: 4160: 4156: 4111: 4107: 4076: 4072: 4039: 4032: 3993: 3989: 3958: 3954: 3923: 3919: 3880: 3876: 3831: 3827: 3788: 3784: 3745: 3741: 3702: 3698: 3659: 3655: 3608: 3604: 3573: 3569: 3530: 3526: 3484: 3477: 3432: 3428: 3381: 3377: 3346: 3339: 3308: 3304: 3265: 3261: 3216: 3212: 3185:Behav. Neurosci 3181: 3177: 3130: 3126: 3081: 3077: 3030: 3026: 2981: 2974: 2929: 2925: 2894: 2890: 2850: 2846: 2815: 2808: 2758: 2752: 2745: 2706: 2702: 2671: 2662: 2623: 2619: 2580: 2576: 2537: 2528: 2497: 2493: 2454:(17): 521–536. 2440: 2436: 2413: 2409: 2370: 2366: 2350:10.1.1.456.3110 2333: 2329: 2324: 2320: 2305: 2301: 2264: 2255: 2224: 2211: 2172: 2163: 2153: 2151: 2136: 2132: 2097: 2082: 2061:Virtual Reality 2053: 2049: 2025:10.1.1.138.8266 2006: 2002: 1950: 1944: 1935: 1904: 1897: 1848: 1835: 1796: 1792: 1755: 1720: 1683: 1670: 1631: 1618: 1587: 1572: 1533: 1506: 1491: 1478: 1471: 1455: 1451: 1444: 1428: 1421: 1414: 1388: 1384: 1375: 1373: 1365: 1364: 1360: 1352: 1350: 1348: 1322: 1318: 1305: 1301: 1296: 1278:Spatial ability 1242: 1234:Virtual reality 1219:sleep disorders 1188:slow wave sleep 1169: 1160:problem-solvers 1135: 1084:decision points 992: 974:5-hydroxyuracil 950:DNA glycosylase 934: 902: 857: 849:Main articles: 847: 842: 795: 789: 787:Neuroplasticity 769: 730: 694: 644: 613:parietal cortex 601: 499: 494: 481: 475: 446: 444:Radial arm maze 440: 438:Radial arm maze 431: 422: 413: 383: 377: 368: 328: 289: 287:Animal research 227: 214: 212:Virtual reality 170: 142: 122:episodic buffer 92: 65: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6865: 6855: 6854: 6849: 6832: 6831: 6829: 6828: 6816: 6803: 6800: 6799: 6796: 6795: 6793: 6792: 6787: 6782: 6777: 6772: 6770:Paul R. McHugh 6767: 6761: 6759: 6755: 6754: 6752: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6730: 6728: 6724: 6723: 6721: 6720: 6715: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6665: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6628:Ivan Izquierdo 6625: 6620: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6589: 6587: 6580: 6576: 6575: 6573: 6572: 6565: 6555: 6554: 6553: 6543: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6527: 6526: 6516: 6511: 6506: 6501: 6496: 6486: 6481: 6475: 6473: 6469: 6468: 6466: 6465: 6460: 6459: 6458: 6447: 6445: 6441: 6440: 6438: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6401: 6400: 6395: 6385: 6379: 6377: 6373: 6372: 6370: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6348: 6347: 6336: 6334: 6330: 6329: 6327: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6310: 6308: 6302: 6301: 6299: 6298: 6293: 6292: 6291: 6281: 6276: 6270: 6268: 6262: 6261: 6259: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6226:Hindsight bias 6223: 6218: 6212: 6210: 6204: 6203: 6201: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6180: 6175: 6173:Memory erasure 6170: 6165: 6160: 6155: 6154: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6138: 6133: 6131:post-traumatic 6128: 6123: 6118: 6107: 6105: 6099: 6098: 6095: 6094: 6092: 6091: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6069:Personal-event 6066: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6045: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6024: 6019: 6013: 6011: 6005: 6004: 6002: 6001: 5999:Working memory 5996: 5988: 5986: 5980: 5979: 5977: 5976: 5971: 5969:Motor learning 5966: 5961: 5956: 5951: 5946: 5940: 5938: 5929: 5925: 5924: 5922: 5921: 5916: 5911: 5905: 5904: 5899: 5894: 5888: 5886: 5885:Basic concepts 5882: 5881: 5874: 5873: 5866: 5859: 5851: 5845: 5844: 5842:gettinglost.ca 5837: 5836:External links 5834: 5831: 5830: 5780: 5720: 5669: 5620: 5581: 5546:(1–2): 48–57. 5526: 5485:Brain Research 5466: 5439:(5): 571–582. 5416: 5387:(3): 535–545. 5366: 5306: 5279:(8): 844–851. 5254: 5217:(5): 455–468. 5201: 5160: 5113: 5089: 5048: 4983: 4932: 4913: 4874: 4812: 4785:(2): 285–292. 4779:Brain Research 4768: 4741:(2): 223–229. 4725: 4713: 4686:(2): 339–346. 4670: 4643:(1): 294–298. 4627: 4608:(3): 629–642. 4592: 4551: 4530:(3): 223–239. 4510: 4475: 4462: 4453: 4410: 4359: 4332:(2): 162–168. 4316: 4265: 4248:Chin J Physiol 4238: 4195: 4154: 4105: 4086:(2): 304–315. 4070: 4051:(3): 225–238. 4030: 3987: 3952: 3917: 3874: 3825: 3798:(2): 307–320. 3792:Brain Research 3782: 3739: 3712:(4): 653–664. 3696: 3669:(2): 165–183. 3653: 3624:(4): 156–166. 3602: 3567: 3540:(2): 345–352. 3524: 3475: 3426: 3375: 3356:(3): 436–442. 3337: 3302: 3259: 3210: 3175: 3124: 3075: 3024: 2972: 2923: 2904:(5): 884–901. 2888: 2861:(4): 609–624. 2844: 2825:(3): 447–456. 2806: 2743: 2716:(1): 143–153. 2700: 2660: 2617: 2574: 2547:(2): 195–231. 2526: 2507:(1): 171–175. 2501:Brain Research 2491: 2434: 2423:(2): 239–260. 2407: 2386:(4): 349–368. 2364: 2327: 2318: 2299: 2278:(3): 337–355. 2253: 2234:(6): 944–963. 2209: 2182:(3): 355–381. 2161: 2130: 2111:(2): 176–187. 2080: 2047: 2000: 1970:10.1.1.69.5387 1963:(2): 231–253. 1933: 1914:(2): 211–227. 1895: 1865:10.1.1.25.5066 1833: 1806:(3): 364–381. 1790: 1769:(4): 634–638. 1718: 1697:(3): 337–355. 1668: 1616: 1570: 1543:(8): 918–933. 1504: 1476: 1470:978-0262043250 1469: 1449: 1443:978-9811395017 1442: 1419: 1412: 1382: 1358: 1346: 1316: 1310:Spatial memory 1298: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1291: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1275: 1273:Method of loci 1270: 1265: 1260: 1259: 1258: 1253: 1241: 1238: 1168: 1165: 1152:working memory 1134: 1131: 1076:scavenger hunt 1068:cognitive maps 1059:GPS navigation 1054:and learning. 1040:cognitive load 991: 982: 970:thymine glycol 948:. NEIL1 is a 933: 930: 901: 898: 893: 892: 889: 886: 883: 880: 846: 843: 841: 838: 803:proprioception 788: 785: 768: 765: 729: 726: 693: 690: 643: 640: 623:region of the 600: 597: 498: 495: 493: 490: 477:Main article: 474: 471: 442:Main article: 439: 436: 430: 427: 421: 418: 412: 409: 379:Main article: 376: 373: 367: 364: 327: 324: 313:A study using 288: 285: 264: 263: 260: 257: 254: 226: 223: 213: 210: 169: 166: 141: 138: 95:Working memory 91: 88: 64: 61: 37:spatial memory 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6864: 6853: 6850: 6848: 6845: 6844: 6842: 6827: 6817: 6815: 6805: 6804: 6801: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6762: 6760: 6756: 6750: 6749:Clive Wearing 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6732: 6731: 6729: 6725: 6719: 6716: 6714: 6713:Endel Tulving 6711: 6709: 6708:Anne Treisman 6706: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6668:Brenda Milner 6666: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6653:James McGaugh 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6618:Sigmund Freud 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6590: 6588: 6584: 6581: 6577: 6571: 6570: 6566: 6563: 6562:retrospective 6559: 6556: 6552: 6549: 6548: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6541:Muscle memory 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6525: 6522: 6521: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6502: 6500: 6497: 6494: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6476: 6474: 6470: 6464: 6461: 6457: 6454: 6453: 6452: 6449: 6448: 6446: 6442: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6390: 6389: 6388:Art of memory 6386: 6384: 6381: 6380: 6378: 6374: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6346: 6343: 6342: 6341: 6338: 6337: 6335: 6331: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6311: 6309: 6307: 6303: 6297: 6294: 6290: 6287: 6286: 6285: 6282: 6280: 6277: 6275: 6272: 6271: 6269: 6267: 6263: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6236:Memory biases 6234: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6216:Confabulation 6214: 6213: 6211: 6209: 6208:Memory errors 6205: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6161: 6159: 6156: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6129: 6127: 6126:post-hypnotic 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6113: 6112: 6109: 6108: 6106: 6104: 6100: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6080: 6079:Rote learning 6077: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6054:Hyperthymesia 6052: 6050: 6047: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6030: 6029: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6017:Active recall 6015: 6014: 6012: 6010: 6006: 6000: 5997: 5994: 5990: 5989: 5987: 5985: 5981: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5965: 5962: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5952: 5950: 5947: 5945: 5942: 5941: 5939: 5937: 5933: 5930: 5926: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5914:Consolidation 5912: 5910: 5907: 5906: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5889: 5887: 5883: 5879: 5872: 5867: 5865: 5860: 5858: 5853: 5852: 5849: 5843: 5840: 5839: 5826: 5822: 5818: 5814: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5787: 5785: 5776: 5772: 5767: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5750: 5746: 5743:(1): e12749. 5742: 5738: 5734: 5727: 5725: 5716: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5692: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5673: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5648: 5643: 5640:(6): e12747. 5639: 5635: 5631: 5624: 5616: 5612: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5585: 5577: 5573: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5530: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5506: 5502: 5498: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5475: 5473: 5471: 5462: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5423: 5421: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5386: 5382: 5378: 5370: 5362: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5344: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5313: 5311: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5286: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5263: 5261: 5259: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5233: 5232:11577/2453526 5228: 5224: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5205: 5197: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5164: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5117: 5103: 5099: 5093: 5084: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5052: 5044: 5040: 5035: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4987: 4979: 4975: 4970: 4965: 4960: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4936: 4928: 4924: 4917: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4878: 4870: 4866: 4861: 4856: 4851: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4819: 4817: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4772: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4729: 4723: 4717: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4674: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4631: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4596: 4588: 4584: 4579: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4555: 4547: 4543: 4538: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4514: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4479: 4472: 4466: 4457: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4414: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4363: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4338:10.1038/nn790 4335: 4331: 4327: 4320: 4312: 4308: 4303: 4298: 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1044:landmarks 629:posterior 575:landmarks 521:Blocking 463:olfactory 305:scrub jay 76:reasoning 6727:Patients 6398:mnemonic 6393:chunking 6059:Implicit 6042:Semantic 6037:Episodic 6027:Explicit 5892:Encoding 5775:30091247 5715:34234602 5664:51892240 5656:30069961 5615:27412857 5576:27938150 5568:26784899 5521:30718458 5513:15262203 5461:10442025 5403:15504332 5361:34589818 5301:25998045 5293:18493970 5241:20375290 5155:27190155 5147:25342271 5043:33833290 4978:30758681 4952:(1): 5. 4869:22927410 4807:17456907 4799:12738072 4763:23594752 4755:16356617 4708:26066133 4700:18490183 4665:29943421 4657:19646488 4622:18513133 4587:12062906 4546:10942847 4505:12052915 4448:21361912 4440:15058484 4354:17727921 4346:11780144 4311:15916698 4285:(1): 3. 4233:42669695 4225:10403200 4190:10050894 4065:11501737 4025:10400806 4017:12644284 3982:11895186 3947:11584914 3912:24280276 3904:12048175 3777:14396813 3769:16516248 3734:23596034 3683:11399329 3648:12177229 3554:15313022 3519:36475737 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