1213:" term is introduced which promotes the spherical shape of the nucleus. Acting in opposition is coulombic repulsion term, which acts to increase the distance between repelling proton pairs and thus promotes elongation of the nucleus into an oval shape. As the deformation of the nucleus increases, and particularly for large nuclei due to their stronger coulombic repulsion, the nucleus may find itself in a state where a thin 'neck' develops, forming a bridge between two clusters of nuclear matter which may exceed the ability of the surface tension to restore the undeformed shape, eventually breaking into two fragments at the "scission point". Introducing the effects of quantum tunnelling, the nucleus always has a chance to scission which increases with increasing deformation, and may do so even if the deformation is insufficient to trigger rupture of the neck. After separation, both fragments are highly positively charged and therefore gain significant kinetic energy via their mutual repulsion as they accelerate away from each other.
1223:) are excited nuclear states existing before scission which may deviate from the spherical geometry, increasing nuclear deformation compared to the ground state without undergoing full fission. These states are 'metastable' – a nucleus is this state may, on timescales between nanoseconds and microseconds, either decay back to the ground state via gamma-emission, or tunnel through the scission barrier and break apart. Should the nucleus find itself in this state, either through quantum tunnelling or via random statistical fluctuation, the barrier for fission is much reduced, as shape isomers are always at a higher energy level than the ground sate and therefore are no longer required to tunnel through the entire barrier. The resulting increased probability for fission reduces the effective half-life of the nuclide. Triple-humped barriers have been suggested for some nuclear species such as
805:
1343:
818:
33:
1286:, mostly observed as kinetic energy of the fission fragments, with the lighter fragment receiving the larger proportion of energy. For a given decay path, the number of emitted neutrons is not consistent, and instead follows a gaussian distribution. The distribution about the average, however, is consistent across all decay paths. Prompt neutrons are emitted with energies approximated by (but not precisely fitting) a
1279: ≈ 140. Spontaneous fission does not favour equal-mass fragments, and no convincing explanation has been found to explain this. In rare instances (0.3%), three or more fission fragments may be created. Ternary products are usually alpha-particles, though can be as massive as oxygen nuclei.
1250:
Fission fragments are usually neutron-rich and always generated in excited states. Thus, daughter decays occur rapidly after scission. Decays occurring within 10s of scission are termed "prompt" and are initially dominated by a series of neutron emissions which remain the dominant decay mode until
1205:
provides a primarily qualitative description of the phenomenology by treating the nucleus as a classical drop of liquid to which quantum corrections can be applied, which provides a useful conceptual picture that matches in part with experimental data, but ignores much of the quantum nature of the
962:
began conducting experiments to explore the effects of incident neutron energy on uranium nuclei. Their equipment recorded fission fragments even when no neutrons were present to induce the decay, and the effect persisted even after the equipment was moved 60 meters underground into the tunnels of
1984:
Bender, Michael; Bernard, Rémi; Bertsch, George; Chiba, Satoshi; Dobaczewski, Jacek; Dubray, Noël; Giuliani, Samuel A; Hagino, Kouichi; Lacroix, Denis; Li, Zhipan; Magierski, Piotr; Maruhn, Joachim; Nazarewicz, Witold; Pei, Junchen; Péru, Sophie; Pillet, Nathalie; Randrup, Jørgen; Regnier, David;
1266:
and x-ray emission complete the prompt emissions. Daughter products created by prompt decays are often unstable against beta-decay, and further photon and neutron emissions are also expected. Such emissions are termed 'delayed emissions' and take place with half-lives ranging from picoseconds to
2099:
Capote, R.; Chen, Y.-J.; Hambsch, F.-J.; Kornilov, N.V.; Lestone, J.P.; Litaize, O.; Morillon, B.; Neudecker, D.; Oberstedt, S.; Ohsawa, T.; Otuka, N.; Pronyaev, V.G.; Saxena, A.; Serot, O.; Shcherbakov, O.A.; Shu, N.-C.; Smith, D.L.; Talou, P.; Trkov, A.; Tudora, A.C.; Vogt, R.; Vorobyev, A.S.
1985:
Reinhard, Paul-Gerhard; Robledo, Luis M; Ryssens, Wouter; Sadhukhan, Jhilam; Scamps, Guillaume; Schunck, Nicolas; Simenel, Cédric; Skalski, Janusz; Stetcu, Ionel; Stevenson, Paul; Umar, Sait; Verriere, Marc; Vretenar, Dario; Warda, Michał; Åberg, Sven (1 November 2020).
1329:
In crystals containing high proportions of uranium, fission products generated via spontaneous fission produce damage trails as the fragments recoil through the crystal structure. The number of trails, or fission tracks, may be used to estimate the age of a sample via
1258:), when photon emission becomes competitive. Below the neutron separation energy, gamma emission is dominant, characterised by a disordered spectrum of gamma energies with characteristic low-energy peaks corresponding to specific decays as the daughter descends the
971:. The discovery of induced fission itself had come as a surprise, and no other mechanism was known that could account for the observed decays. Such an effect could only be explained by spontaneous fission of the uranium nuclei without external influence.
1262:, each decay carrying away excess angular momentum. Average total prompt gamma emission is 30% higher from the lighter fragment compared to the heavier, implying the heavier fragment is created with higher initial angular momentum. Finally,
884:, with nuclear stability generally falling as nuclear mass increases. It thus forms a practical limit to heavy element nucleon number. Heavier nuclides may be created instantaneously by physical processes, both natural (via the
2169:
995:(Z) squared. Thus, at high mass and proton numbers, coulombic repulsion overpowers the nuclear binding forces, and the nucleus is energetically more stable as two separate fragments than as a single bound system.
1085:
1270:
As a result of the large number of decay pathways presented to a fissioning nucleus, there is a large variation in the final products. Fragment masses are normally distributed about two peaks centred at
1174:
may further affect observed half-lives. Decays of odd-A nuclides are hindered by 3–5 orders of magnitude compared to even–even nuclides. The barrier to fission is expected to be zero around
891:) and artificial, though rapidly decay to more stable nuclides. As such, apart from minor decay branches in primordial radionuclides, spontaneous fission is not observed in nature.
1128:
1154:
2226:
1160:
is small and a sizeable fission barrier exists. As nuclear mass increases, so too does the fissility parameter, eventually approaching and exceeding
1020:
1314:
The most common application for spontaneous fission is as neutron source for further use. These neutrons may be used for applications such as
1002:
through a potential barrier, with a probability determined by the height of the barrier. Such a barrier is energetically possible for all
2263:
1355:
1201:
approaches have been developed, however computational complexity makes it difficult to reproduce the full behaviour. The semi-classical
998:
Spontaneous fission is usually a slow process, as the nucleus cannot simply jump to the lower energy (divided) state. Instead it must
849:
763:
1354:
ratio. Nuclides of the same element are linked with a red line. The green line shows the upper limit of half-life. Data taken from
1013:
The stability of a nuclide against fission is expressed as the ratio of the
Coulomb energy to the surface energy, which can be
2183:
1193:
To date, true ab initio models describing the complete fission process are not possible. Computational theories based on
112:
2235:
2152:
1006: ≥ 93, though its height generally decreases with increasing Z, and fission is only practically observed for
1857:
416:
2080:
804:
2256:
1717:
608:
1342:
313:
1318:, or may drive additional nuclear reactions, including initiating induced fission of a target as is common in
1298:. Prompt gamma emission constitutes a further 8 MeV, while beta decay and delayed-gammas contribute a further
1251:
the fragment energy is reduced to the same order of magnitude as the neutron separation energy (approximately
1873:
842:
941:
2079:
Ivanov, M. P; Buklanov, G. V; David, I.; Kushniruk, V. F; Sobolev, Yu. G.; Fomichev, A. S. (1 July 2000).
1090:
626:
596:
97:
2249:
1171:
1133:
673:
223:
1198:
559:
2536:
2531:
2526:
835:
822:
554:
258:
1216:
2415:
2380:
2360:
2315:
1194:
549:
446:
411:
107:
2541:
2410:
2400:
1896:
Schunck, N; Robledo, L M (1 November 2016). "Microscopic theory of nuclear fission: a review".
979:
Spontaneous fission arises as a result of competition between the attractive properties of the
603:
253:
218:
2209:
2198:
964:
728:
613:
505:
2082:
Simultaneous
Emission of Two Light Charged Particles in the Spontaneous Fission of Cm and Cf
877:, there is no inciting particle to trigger the decay; it is a purely probabilistic process.
668:
2405:
2395:
2109:
2051:
1915:
1785:
1331:
1287:
980:
738:
713:
530:
8:
2459:
2330:
2325:
1927:
1813:
1263:
1179:
1167:
959:
633:
512:
342:
332:
273:
268:
102:
2113:
2055:
1919:
1789:
2041:
1905:
1775:
1014:
988:
881:
576:
571:
386:
2340:
2310:
2280:
2179:
2148:
2125:
1963:
1931:
1853:
1202:
999:
866:
748:
743:
703:
581:
320:
308:
291:
263:
233:
74:
2370:
2335:
2320:
2272:
2117:
2059:
2008:
1998:
1923:
1793:
1763:
1319:
984:
951:
768:
758:
688:
441:
359:
327:
147:
79:
2480:
2375:
2345:
1712:
1659:
1377:
1323:
1315:
1210:
874:
753:
733:
708:
638:
525:
453:
399:
364:
24:
1306:
respectively. Less than 1% of emitted neutrons are emitted as delayed neutrons.
2501:
2485:
2064:
2029:
2003:
1986:
1798:
955:
870:
809:
663:
658:
537:
470:
278:
213:
190:
177:
164:
64:
42:
2121:
987:
of the constituent protons. Nuclear binding energy increases in proportion to
2520:
2390:
2305:
1727:
1565:
1518:
992:
788:
783:
778:
773:
723:
381:
354:
198:
137:
90:
69:
2464:
1935:
1254:
718:
693:
678:
423:
371:
228:
2030:"Third minima in thorium and uranium isotopes in a self-consistent theory"
1962:. Lawrence Livermore National Lab. (LLNL), Livermore, CA (United States).
2290:
1722:
1471:
1424:
968:
683:
376:
298:
151:
2441:
2295:
2013:
1609:
653:
643:
500:
480:
303:
173:
2129:
1967:
1957:
2436:
2428:
2420:
2385:
2300:
2230:
2175:
1346:
Spontaneous fission half-life of various nuclides depending on their
947:
885:
698:
648:
475:
463:
458:
337:
2241:
1910:
1780:
2046:
32:
160:
133:
125:
57:
47:
1817:
2225:
2100:(January 2016). "Prompt Fission Neutron Spectra of Actinides".
2028:
McDonnell, J. D.; Nazarewicz, W.; Sheikh, J. A. (22 May 2013).
52:
1080:{\displaystyle x\approx {\frac {Z^{2}}{50.88A(1-\eta I^{2})}}}
1259:
2078:
1290:, peaking between 0.5 and 1 MeV, with an average energy of
1282:
Total energy release across all products is approximately
2143:
Shultis, J. Kenneth; Faw, Richard E. (7 September 2007).
2098:
2027:
1983:
1161:
894:
Observed fission half-lives range from 4.1 microseconds (
2088:. XIV International Workshop on Nuclear Fission Physics.
873:
splits into two or more lighter nuclei. In contrast to
1164:, where stability against fission is lost altogether.
1101:
1136:
1093:
1023:
1209:
In this model, as with a classical liquid drop, a "
913:) to greater than the current age of the universe (
1991:Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics
1148:
1122:
1079:
880:Spontaneous fission is a dominant decay mode for
2518:
1762:Schunck, Nicolas; Regnier, David (1 July 2022).
991:(A), however coulombic repulsion increases with
967:in an effort to insulate it from the effects of
2171:Fundamentals of Nuclear Science and Engineering
2145:Fundamentals of Nuclear Science and Engineering
1206:system and fails at more rigorous predictions.
1895:
1761:
946:Following the discovery of induced fission by
2257:
2168:Shultis, J. Kenneth; Faw, Richard E. (2008).
1891:
1889:
1887:
1757:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1745:
1743:
843:
1818:"How the spontaneous fission was discovered"
1337:
1955:
1242:, further reducing its observed half-life.
2264:
2250:
2238:, with filter on spontaneous fission decay
2167:
2142:
1884:
1874:"What is Spontaneous Fission - Definition"
1740:
1017:estimated as the fissility parameter, x:
850:
836:
2063:
2045:
2012:
2002:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1909:
1797:
1779:
1979:
1977:
1956:Randrup, J.; Vogt, R. (3 October 2012).
1768:Progress in Particle and Nuclear Physics
1341:
1843:
1841:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1833:
1831:
1829:
1827:
2519:
1942:
2271:
2245:
1974:
1847:
1635:
1824:
1812:
1294:and maximum energy of approximately
1123:{\displaystyle I={\tfrac {N-Z}{A}}}
13:
1987:"Future of nuclear fission theory"
14:
2553:
2218:
1149:{\displaystyle \eta \approx 1.78}
2224:
817:
816:
803:
31:
2203:
2192:
2161:
2136:
2092:
1718:Natural nuclear fission reactor
1309:
2072:
2021:
1928:10.1088/0034-4885/79/11/116301
1898:Reports on Progress in Physics
1866:
1806:
1071:
1049:
1:
2178:. pp. 141 (table 6.2).
1850:Introductory nuclear physics
1178: = 300, though an
974:
942:Discovery of nuclear fission
7:
1764:"Theory of nuclear fission"
1706:
1245:
954:in 1938, Soviet physicists
597:High-energy nuclear physics
10:
2558:
2210:Entry at periodictable.com
2199:Entry at periodictable.com
2147:. CRC Press. p. 148.
2065:10.1103/PhysRevC.87.054327
1848:Krane, Kenneth S. (1988).
1799:10.1016/j.ppnp.2022.103963
1363:Spontaneous fission rates
939:
935:
2494:
2473:
2450:
2359:
2279:
2231:The LIVEChart of Nuclides
2122:10.1016/j.nds.2015.12.002
1391:
1386:
1383:
1375:
1370:
1367:
1338:Spontaneous fission rates
1199:density-functional theory
1182:may exist centred around
16:Form of radioactive decay
2004:10.1088/1361-6471/abab4f
1733:
2316:Double electron capture
1172:nucleon pairing effects
108:Interacting boson model
1852:. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
1359:
1150:
1124:
1081:
1345:
1151:
1125:
1082:
495:High-energy processes
193:– equal all the above
91:Models of the nucleus
1814:Petrzhak, Konstantin
1332:fission track dating
1288:Maxwell distribution
1275: ≈ 95 and
1156:. For light nuclei,
1134:
1091:
1021:
981:strong nuclear force
531:nuclear astrophysics
2460:Photodisintegration
2381:Proton–proton chain
2351:Spontaneous fission
2331:Isomeric transition
2326:Internal conversion
2114:2016NDS...131....1C
2102:Nuclear Data Sheets
2056:2013PhRvC..87e4327M
1920:2016RPPh...79k6301S
1880:. 14 December 2019.
1878:Radiation Dosimetry
1790:2022PrPNP.12503963S
1364:
1264:internal conversion
1180:island of stability
985:coulombic repulsion
963:the Moscow Metro's
960:Konstantin Petrzhak
882:superheavy elements
863:Spontaneous fission
513:Photodisintegration
436:Capturing processes
350:Spontaneous fission
343:Internal conversion
274:Valley of stability
269:Island of stability
103:Nuclear shell model
1362:
1360:
1190: = 184.
1186: = 114,
1146:
1120:
1118:
1077:
1010: ≥ 232.
989:atomic mass number
865:(SF) is a form of
810:Physics portal
604:Quark–gluon plasma
387:Radiogenic nuclide
2514:
2513:
2510:
2509:
2341:Positron emission
2311:Double beta decay
2273:Nuclear processes
2185:978-1-4200-5135-3
2034:Physical Review C
1704:
1703:
1203:liquid-drop model
1117:
1075:
869:in which a heavy
867:radioactive decay
860:
859:
546:
292:Radioactive decay
248:Nuclear stability
75:Nuclear structure
2549:
2471:
2470:
2371:Deuterium fusion
2336:Neutron emission
2321:Electron capture
2266:
2259:
2252:
2243:
2242:
2228:
2212:
2207:
2201:
2196:
2190:
2189:
2165:
2159:
2158:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2096:
2090:
2089:
2087:
2076:
2070:
2069:
2067:
2049:
2025:
2019:
2018:
2016:
2006:
1981:
1972:
1971:
1953:
1940:
1939:
1913:
1893:
1882:
1881:
1870:
1864:
1863:
1845:
1822:
1821:
1810:
1804:
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1801:
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1587:
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1572:
1571:
1552:
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1535:
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1525:
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1505:
1502:
1488:
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1485:
1478:
1477:
1458:
1455:
1441:
1439:
1438:
1431:
1430:
1410:
1408:
1407:
1402:
1399:
1389:half-life (yrs)
1365:
1361:
1356:French Knowledge
1320:nuclear reactors
1305:
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1086:
1084:
1083:
1078:
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1074:
1070:
1069:
1041:
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1031:
952:Fritz Strassmann
931:
930:
929:
922:
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911:
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902:
852:
845:
838:
825:
820:
819:
812:
808:
807:
684:Skłodowska-Curie
544:
360:Neutron emission
128:' classification
80:Nuclear reaction
35:
21:
20:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2547:
2546:
2537:Neutron sources
2532:Nuclear fission
2527:Nuclear physics
2517:
2516:
2515:
2506:
2490:
2481:Neutron capture
2469:
2452:
2446:
2363:nucleosynthesis
2362:
2355:
2346:Proton emission
2301:Gamma radiation
2282:
2275:
2270:
2221:
2216:
2215:
2208:
2204:
2197:
2193:
2186:
2166:
2162:
2155:
2141:
2137:
2097:
2093:
2085:
2077:
2073:
2026:
2022:
1982:
1975:
1959:Nuclear Fission
1954:
1943:
1894:
1885:
1872:
1871:
1867:
1860:
1846:
1825:
1811:
1807:
1760:
1741:
1736:
1713:Nuclear fission
1709:
1691:
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1574:
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1568:
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1550:
1547:
1531:
1529:
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1527:
1523:
1521:
1520:
1519:
1517:
1503:
1500:
1484:
1482:
1481:
1480:
1476:
1474:
1473:
1472:
1470:
1456:
1453:
1437:
1435:
1434:
1433:
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1427:
1426:
1425:
1423:
1403:
1400:
1395:
1394:
1392:
1388:
1380:
1378:branching ratio
1372:
1340:
1324:nuclear weapons
1316:neutron imaging
1312:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1283:
1252:
1248:
1238:
1236:
1235:
1234:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1221:fission isomers
1211:surface tension
1135:
1132:
1131:
1103:
1100:
1092:
1089:
1088:
1065:
1061:
1042:
1036:
1032:
1030:
1022:
1019:
1018:
983:and the mutual
977:
944:
938:
928:
926:
925:
924:
920:
917:
916:
915:
914:
909:
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906:
905:
901:
898:
897:
896:
895:
875:induced fission
856:
815:
802:
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793:
629:
619:
618:
599:
589:
588:
533:
529:
526:Nucleosynthesis
518:
517:
496:
488:
487:
437:
429:
428:
402:
400:Nuclear fission
392:
391:
365:Proton emission
294:
284:
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142:
129:
118:
117:
93:
25:Nuclear physics
17:
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11:
5:
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2545:
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2512:
2511:
2508:
2507:
2505:
2504:
2502:(n-p) reaction
2498:
2496:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2488:
2486:Proton capture
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2477:
2475:
2468:
2467:
2462:
2456:
2454:
2448:
2447:
2445:
2444:
2439:
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2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
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2388:
2383:
2378:
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2318:
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2298:
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2240:
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2220:
2219:External links
2217:
2214:
2213:
2202:
2191:
2184:
2160:
2154:978-1439894088
2153:
2135:
2091:
2071:
2020:
1997:(11): 113002.
1973:
1941:
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1730:
1725:
1720:
1715:
1708:
1705:
1702:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1689:
1686:
1683:
1677:
1671:
1663:
1655:
1654:
1651:
1648:
1642:
1639:
1633:
1627:
1621:
1613:
1605:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1583:
1577:
1569:
1561:
1560:
1557:
1554:
1545:
1542:
1539:
1536:
1530:
1522:
1514:
1513:
1510:
1507:
1498:
1495:
1492:
1489:
1483:
1475:
1467:
1466:
1463:
1460:
1451:
1448:
1445:
1442:
1436:
1428:
1420:
1419:
1416:
1412:
1411:
1390:
1385:
1382:
1381:(% of decays)
1374:
1369:
1339:
1336:
1311:
1308:
1247:
1244:
1237:
1228:
1145:
1142:
1139:
1116:
1112:
1109:
1106:
1099:
1096:
1073:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1039:
1035:
1029:
1026:
976:
973:
965:Dinamo station
956:Georgy Flyorov
937:
934:
927:
918:
908:
899:
871:atomic nucleus
858:
857:
855:
854:
847:
840:
832:
829:
828:
827:
826:
813:
796:
795:
792:
791:
786:
781:
776:
771:
766:
761:
756:
751:
746:
741:
736:
731:
726:
721:
716:
711:
706:
701:
696:
691:
686:
681:
676:
671:
666:
661:
656:
651:
646:
641:
636:
630:
625:
624:
621:
620:
617:
616:
611:
606:
600:
595:
594:
591:
590:
587:
586:
585:
584:
579:
574:
565:
564:
563:
562:
557:
552:
541:
540:
538:Nuclear fusion
534:
524:
523:
520:
519:
516:
515:
510:
509:
508:
497:
494:
493:
490:
489:
486:
485:
484:
483:
478:
468:
467:
466:
461:
451:
450:
449:
438:
435:
434:
431:
430:
427:
426:
421:
420:
419:
409:
403:
398:
397:
394:
393:
390:
389:
384:
379:
374:
368:
367:
362:
357:
352:
347:
346:
345:
340:
330:
325:
324:
323:
318:
317:
316:
301:
295:
290:
289:
286:
285:
282:
281:
279:Stable nuclide
276:
271:
266:
261:
256:
254:Binding energy
250:
247:
246:
243:
242:
239:
238:
237:
236:
226:
221:
216:
210:
209:
195:
194:
187:
186:
170:
169:
157:
156:
144:
143:
130:
124:
123:
120:
119:
116:
115:
110:
105:
100:
94:
89:
88:
85:
84:
83:
82:
77:
72:
67:
65:Nuclear matter
62:
61:
60:
55:
45:
37:
36:
28:
27:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2554:
2543:
2542:Radioactivity
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2503:
2500:
2499:
2497:
2493:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2478:
2476:
2472:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2457:
2455:
2449:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2431:
2427:
2425:
2423:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2368:
2366:
2364:
2358:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2306:Cluster decay
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2288:
2286:
2284:
2278:
2274:
2267:
2262:
2260:
2255:
2253:
2248:
2247:
2244:
2237:
2233:
2232:
2227:
2223:
2222:
2211:
2206:
2200:
2195:
2187:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2172:
2164:
2156:
2150:
2146:
2139:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2095:
2084:
2083:
2075:
2066:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2040:(5): 054327.
2039:
2035:
2031:
2024:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1980:
1978:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1960:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1892:
1890:
1888:
1879:
1875:
1869:
1861:
1859:9780471805533
1855:
1851:
1844:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1836:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1828:
1820:(in Russian).
1819:
1815:
1809:
1800:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1758:
1756:
1754:
1752:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1739:
1729:
1728:Cluster decay
1726:
1724:
1721:
1719:
1716:
1714:
1711:
1710:
1699:
1696:
1690:
1687:
1684:
1678:
1675:
1657:
1656:
1652:
1649:
1643:
1640:
1634:
1628:
1625:
1607:
1606:
1602:
1599:
1596:
1593:
1590:
1584:
1581:
1563:
1562:
1558:
1555:
1546:
1543:
1540:
1537:
1534:
1516:
1515:
1511:
1508:
1499:
1496:
1493:
1490:
1487:
1469:
1468:
1464:
1461:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1422:
1421:
1417:
1414:
1413:
1406:
1398:
1384:Neutrons per
1379:
1366:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1344:
1335:
1333:
1327:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1307:
1289:
1280:
1278:
1274:
1268:
1265:
1261:
1256:
1243:
1222:
1219:(also called
1218:
1217:Shape isomers
1214:
1212:
1207:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1191:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1168:Shell effects
1165:
1163:
1159:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1114:
1110:
1107:
1104:
1097:
1094:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1055:
1052:
1046:
1043:
1037:
1033:
1027:
1024:
1016:
1011:
1009:
1005:
1001:
996:
994:
993:proton number
990:
986:
982:
972:
970:
966:
961:
957:
953:
949:
943:
933:
892:
890:
888:
883:
878:
876:
872:
868:
864:
853:
848:
846:
841:
839:
834:
833:
831:
830:
824:
814:
811:
806:
800:
799:
798:
797:
790:
787:
785:
782:
780:
777:
775:
772:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
730:
727:
725:
722:
720:
717:
715:
712:
710:
707:
705:
702:
700:
697:
695:
692:
690:
687:
685:
682:
680:
677:
675:
672:
670:
667:
665:
662:
660:
657:
655:
652:
650:
647:
645:
642:
640:
637:
635:
632:
631:
628:
623:
622:
615:
612:
610:
607:
605:
602:
601:
598:
593:
592:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
569:
567:
566:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
547:
543:
542:
539:
536:
535:
532:
527:
522:
521:
514:
511:
507:
506:by cosmic ray
504:
503:
502:
499:
498:
492:
491:
482:
479:
477:
474:
473:
472:
469:
465:
462:
460:
457:
456:
455:
452:
448:
445:
444:
443:
440:
439:
433:
432:
425:
422:
418:
417:pair breaking
415:
414:
413:
410:
408:
405:
404:
401:
396:
395:
388:
385:
383:
382:Decay product
380:
378:
375:
373:
370:
369:
366:
363:
361:
358:
356:
355:Cluster decay
353:
351:
348:
344:
341:
339:
336:
335:
334:
331:
329:
326:
322:
319:
315:
312:
311:
310:
307:
306:
305:
302:
300:
297:
296:
293:
288:
287:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
252:
251:
245:
244:
235:
232:
231:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
211:
208:
204:
200:
199:Mirror nuclei
197:
196:
192:
189:
188:
185:
184:
181: −
180:
175:
172:
171:
168:
167:
162:
159:
158:
155:
154:
149:
146:
145:
141:
140:
135:
132:
131:
127:
122:
121:
114:
111:
109:
106:
104:
101:
99:
96:
95:
92:
87:
86:
81:
78:
76:
73:
71:
70:Nuclear force
68:
66:
63:
59:
56:
54:
51:
50:
49:
46:
44:
41:
40:
39:
38:
34:
30:
29:
26:
23:
22:
19:
2465:Photofission
2429:
2421:
2350:
2229:
2205:
2194:
2170:
2163:
2144:
2138:
2105:
2101:
2094:
2081:
2074:
2037:
2033:
2023:
1994:
1990:
1958:
1901:
1897:
1877:
1868:
1849:
1808:
1771:
1767:
1404:
1396:
1351:
1347:
1328:
1313:
1310:Applications
1284:200 MeV
1281:
1276:
1272:
1269:
1249:
1220:
1215:
1208:
1195:Hartree–Fock
1192:
1187:
1183:
1175:
1166:
1157:
1012:
1007:
1003:
997:
978:
945:
893:
886:
879:
862:
861:
424:Photofission
406:
372:Decay energy
349:
299:Alpha α
206:
202:
182:
178:
165:
152:
138:
18:
2291:Alpha decay
2281:Radioactive
2014:1885/224561
1723:Alpha decay
1387:Spontaneous
1300:19 MeV
1296:10 MeV
1015:empirically
969:cosmic rays
729:Oppenheimer
407:Spontaneous
377:Decay chain
328:K/L capture
304:Beta β
174:Isodiaphers
98:Liquid drop
2521:Categories
2442:rp-process
2416:Si burning
2406:Ne burning
2376:Li burning
2296:Beta decay
1911:1511.07517
1781:2201.02719
1304:7 MeV
1292:2 MeV
1260:yrast line
940:See also:
759:Strassmann
749:Rutherford
627:Scientists
582:Artificial
577:Cosmogenic
572:Primordial
568:Nuclides:
545:Processes:
501:Spallation
2453:processes
2437:p-process
2411:O burning
2401:C burning
2391:α process
2386:CNO cycle
2176:CRC Press
2108:: 1–106.
2047:1302.1165
1418:Gram-sec
1371:Half-life
1141:≈
1138:η
1108:−
1059:η
1056:−
1028:≈
975:Mechanism
948:Otto Hahn
764:Świątecki
679:Pi. Curie
674:Fr. Curie
669:Ir. Curie
664:Cockcroft
639:Becquerel
560:Supernova
264:Drip line
259:p–n ratio
234:Borromean
113:Ab initio
2495:Exchange
2432:-process
2424:-process
2396:Triple-α
1936:27727148
1707:See also
1650:1.12·10
1600:1.16·10
1491:4.47·10
1444:7.04·10
1415:Fission
1376:Fission
1368:Nuclide
1246:Products
889:-process
823:Category
724:Oliphant
709:Lawrence
689:Davisson
659:Chadwick
555:Big Bang
442:electron
412:Products
333:Isomeric
224:Even/odd
201: –
176:– equal
163:– equal
161:Isotones
150:– equal
136:– equal
134:Isotopes
126:Nuclides
48:Nucleons
2474:Capture
2361:Stellar
2130:1239564
2110:Bibcode
2052:Bibcode
1968:1124864
1916:Bibcode
1786:Bibcode
1694:2.3·10
1682:2.6468
1647:1.6·10
1591:5.0·10
1556:5.5·10
1541:4.4·10
1509:8.4·10
1506:0.0136
1494:5.4·10
1462:3.5·10
1459:0.0003
1447:2.0·10
1409:
1393:
1267:years.
1253:7
936:History
779:Thomson
769:Szilárd
739:Purcell
719:Meitner
654:N. Bohr
649:A. Bohr
634:Alvarez
550:Stellar
454:neutron
338:Gamma γ
191:Isomers
148:Isobars
43:Nucleus
2182:
2151:
2128:
1966:
1934:
1904:(11).
1856:
1553:0.022
1538:24100
1373:(yrs)
1000:tunnel
821:
789:Wigner
784:Walton
774:Teller
704:Jensen
471:proton
214:Stable
2451:Other
2283:decay
2086:(PDF)
2042:arXiv
1906:arXiv
1776:arXiv
1734:Notes
1700:38.1
1697:85.7
1688:3.73
1685:3.09
1653:36.9
1641:3.31
1632:8300
1603:36.8
1594:2.21
1588:6569
1559:37.0
1544:2.16
1512:35.6
1497:2.07
1465:36.0
1450:1.86
1162:unity
1087:with
1044:50.88
754:Soddy
734:Proca
714:Mayer
694:Fermi
644:Bethe
219:Magic
2236:IAEA
2180:ISBN
2149:ISBN
2126:OSTI
1964:OSTI
1932:PMID
1854:ISBN
1597:920
1322:and
1302:and
1170:and
1144:1.78
1130:and
958:and
950:and
744:Rabi
699:Hahn
609:RHIC
229:Halo
2234:at
2118:doi
2106:131
2060:doi
2009:hdl
1999:doi
1924:doi
1794:doi
1772:125
1638:74
1255:MeV
1197:or
932:).
900:102
614:LHC
528:and
2523::
2174:.
2124:.
2116:.
2104:.
2058:.
2050:.
2038:87
2036:.
2032:.
2007:.
1995:47
1993:.
1989:.
1976:^
1944:^
1930:.
1922:.
1914:.
1902:79
1900:.
1886:^
1876:.
1826:^
1816:.
1792:.
1784:.
1774:.
1770:.
1766:.
1742:^
1667:Cf
1617:Cm
1573:Pu
1526:Pu
1334:.
1326:.
1233:Th
1229:90
923:Th
919:90
904:No
481:rp
447:2×
314:0v
309:2β
205:↔
2430:s
2422:r
2265:e
2258:t
2251:v
2188:.
2157:.
2132:.
2120::
2112::
2068:.
2062::
2054::
2044::
2017:.
2011::
2001::
1970:.
1938:.
1926::
1918::
1908::
1862:.
1802:.
1796::
1788::
1778::
1692:0
1680:0
1645:0
1636:~
1630:0
1586:0
1551:0
1548:0
1504:0
1501:0
1479:U
1457:0
1454:0
1432:U
1405:A
1401:/
1397:Z
1358:.
1352:A
1350:/
1348:Z
1277:A
1273:A
1188:N
1184:Z
1176:A
1158:x
1115:A
1111:Z
1105:N
1098:=
1095:I
1072:)
1067:2
1063:I
1053:1
1050:(
1047:A
1038:2
1034:Z
1025:x
1008:A
1004:A
887:r
851:e
844:t
837:v
476:p
464:r
459:s
321:β
207:N
203:Z
183:Z
179:N
166:N
153:A
139:Z
58:n
53:p
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
