Stainless steel - Knowledge

1642:(also called "dissimilar-metal corrosion") refers to corrosion damage induced when two dissimilar materials are coupled in a corrosive electrolyte. The most common electrolyte is water, ranging from freshwater to seawater. When a galvanic couple forms, one of the metals in the couple becomes the anode and corrodes faster than it would alone, while the other becomes the cathode and corrodes slower than it would alone. Stainless steel, due to having a more positive electrode potential than for example carbon steel and aluminium, becomes the cathode, accelerating the corrosion of the anodic metal. An example is the corrosion of aluminium rivets fastening stainless steel sheets in contact with water. The relative surface areas of the anode and the cathode are important in determining the rate of corrosion. In the above example, the surface area of the rivets is small compared to that of the stainless steel sheet, resulting in rapid corrosion. However, if stainless steel fasteners are used to assemble aluminium sheets, galvanic corrosion will be much slower because the galvanic current density on the aluminium surface will be many orders of magnitude smaller. A frequent mistake is to assemble stainless steel plates with carbon steel fasteners; whereas using stainless steel to fasten carbon-steel plates is usually acceptable, the reverse is not. Providing electrical insulation between the dissimilar metals, where possible, is effective at preventing this type of corrosion. 1787:, with weld properties similar to those of the base metal (not cold-worked). Martensitic stainless steels can also be welded by electric-arc but, as the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and the fusion zone (FZ) form martensite upon cooling, precautions must be taken to avoid cracking of the weld. Improper welding practices can additionally cause sugaring (oxide scaling) and/or heat tint on the backside of the weld. This can be prevented with the use of back-purging gases, backing plates, and fluxes. Post-weld heat treatment is almost always required while preheating before welding is also necessary in some cases. Electric arc welding of type 430 ferritic stainless steel results in grain growth in the HAZ, which leads to brittleness. This has largely been overcome with stabilized ferritic grades, where niobium, titanium, and zirconium form precipitates that prevent grain growth. Duplex stainless steel welding by electric arc is a common practice but requires careful control of the process parameters. Otherwise, the precipitation of unwanted intermetallic phases occurs, which reduces the toughness of the welds. 60: 577:, sometimes called cold welding, is a form of severe adhesive wear, which can occur when two metal surfaces are in relative motion to each other and under heavy pressure. Austenitic stainless steel fasteners are particularly susceptible to thread galling, though other alloys that self-generate a protective oxide surface film, such as aluminum and titanium, are also susceptible. Under high contact-force sliding, this oxide can be deformed, broken, and removed from parts of the component, exposing the bare reactive metal. When the two surfaces are of the same material, these exposed surfaces can easily fuse. Separation of the two surfaces can result in surface tearing and even complete seizure of metal components or fasteners. Galling can be mitigated by the use of dissimilar materials (bronze against stainless steel) or using different stainless steels (martensitic against austenitic). Additionally, threaded joints may be 41: 1317: 1132:

standard duplex, and super duplex. The properties of duplex stainless steels are achieved with an overall lower alloy content than similar-performing super-austenitic grades, making their use cost-effective for many applications. The pulp and paper industry was one of the first to extensively use duplex stainless steel. Today, the oil and gas industry is the largest user and has pushed for more corrosion resistant grades, leading to the development of super duplex and hyper duplex grades. More recently, the less expensive (and slightly less corrosion-resistant) lean duplex has been developed, chiefly for structural applications in building and construction (concrete reinforcing bars, plates for bridges, coastal works) and in the

33: 1689: 2766:, the per capita stock of stainless steel in use in society is 80 to 180 kg (180 to 400 lb) in more developed countries and 15 kg (33 lb) in less-developed countries. There is a secondary market that recycles usable scrap for many stainless steel markets. The product is mostly coil, sheet, and blanks. This material is purchased at a less-than-prime price and sold to commercial quality stampers and sheet metal houses. The material may have scratches, pits, and dents but is made to the current specifications. 1624: 602: 505:, in which iron atoms are arranged in cubes (with one iron atom at each corner) and an additional iron atom in the center. This central iron atom is responsible for ferritic steel's magnetic properties. This arrangement also limits the amount of carbon the steel can absorb to around 0.025%. Grades with low coercive field have been developed for electro-valves used in household appliances and for injection systems in internal combustion engines. Some applications require non-magnetic materials, such as 1244: 1286:, spontaneously forming a microscopically thin inert surface film of chromium oxide by reaction with the oxygen in the air and even the small amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. This passive film prevents further corrosion by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and thus prevents corrosion from spreading into the bulk of the metal. This film is self-repairing, even when scratched or temporarily disturbed by conditions that exceed the inherent corrosion resistance of that grade. 471:(ECR) of stainless steel arises as a result of the dense protective oxide layer and limits its functionality in applications as electrical connectors. Copper alloys and nickel-coated connectors tend to exhibit lower ECR values and are preferred materials for such applications. Nevertheless, stainless steel connectors are employed in situations where ECR poses a lower design criteria and corrosion resistance is required, for example in high temperatures and oxidizing environments. 6772: 1892: 755: 2770:

Some scrap is produced and enters the recycling loop. Assembly of final goods and their use does not generate any material loss. The fourth step is the collection of stainless steel for recycling at the end of life of the goods (such as kitchenware, pulp and paper plants, or automotive parts). This is where it is most difficult to get stainless steel to enter the recycling loop, as shown in the table below:

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yield strength. This outstanding strength level is used in high-tech applications such as aerospace (usually after remelting to eliminate non-metallic inclusions, which increases fatigue life). Another major advantage of this steel is that aging, unlike tempering treatments, is carried out at a temperature that can be applied to (nearly) finished parts without distortion and discoloration.

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minimum 10.5% chromium in stainless steels provides resistance to approximately 700 °C (1,300 °F), while 16% chromium provides resistance up to approximately 1,200 °C (2,200 °F). Type 304, the most common grade of stainless steel with 18% chromium, is resistant to approximately 870 °C (1,600 °F). Other gases, such as

2758:. An average stainless steel object is composed of about 60% recycled material of which approximately 40% originates from end-of-life products, while the remaining 60% comes from manufacturing processes. What prevents a higher recycling content is the availability of stainless steel scrap, in spite of a very high recycling rate. According to the 2655: 1676:, also attack stainless steel. Resistance to other gases is dependent on the type of gas, the temperature, and the alloying content of the stainless steel. With the addition of up to 5% aluminium, ferritic grades Fe-Cr-Al are designed for electrical resistance and oxidation resistance at elevated temperatures. Such alloys include 1112:(PESR) process, in which melting is carried out under high nitrogen pressure. Steel containing up to 0.4% nitrogen has been achieved, leading to higher hardness and strength and higher corrosion resistance. As PESR is expensive, lower but significant nitrogen contents have been achieved using the standard AOD process. 1977:(HR): slabs and blooms are reheated in a furnace and hot-rolled. Hot rolling reduces the thickness of the slabs to produce about 3 mm (0.12 in)-thick coils. Blooms, on the other hand, are hot-rolled into bars, which are cut into lengths at the exit of the rolling mill, or wire rod, which is coiled. 6243: 1173:. At this point, the structure remains austenitic. Martensitic transformation is then obtained either by a cryogenic treatment at −75 °C (−103 °F) or by severe cold work (over 70% deformation, usually by cold rolling or wire drawing). Aging at 510 °C (950 °F) — which precipitates the Ni 1301:

Uniform corrosion takes place in very aggressive environments, typically where chemicals are produced or heavily used, such as in the pulp and paper industries. The entire surface of the steel is attacked, and the corrosion is expressed as corrosion rate in mm/year (usually less than 0.1 mm/year

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Ti precipitates and increases the yield strength to about 650 MPa (94,000 psi) at room temperature. Unlike the above grades, the mechanical properties and creep resistance of this steel remain very good at temperatures up to 700 °C (1,300 °F). As a result, A286 is classified as an

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Duplex stainless steels have a mixed microstructure of austenite and ferrite, the ideal ratio being a 50:50 mix, though commercial alloys may have ratios of 40:60. They are characterized by higher chromium (19–32%) and molybdenum (up to 5%) and lower nickel contents than austenitic stainless steels.

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However, "forming temperature is an essential factor for metastable austenitic stainless steel (M-ASS) products to accommodate microstructures and cryogenic mechanical performance. ... Metastable austenitic stainless steels (M-ASSs) are widely used in manufacturing cryogenic pressure vessels (CPVs),

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The stainless steel cycle starts with carbon steel scrap, primary metals, and slag. The next step is the production of hot-rolled and cold-finished steel products in steel mills. Some scrap is produced, which is directly reused in the melting shop. The manufacturing of components is the third step.

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At elevated temperatures, all metals react with hot gases. The most common high-temperature gaseous mixture is air, of which oxygen is the most reactive component. To avoid corrosion in air, carbon steel is limited to approximately 480 °C (900 °F). Oxidation resistance in stainless steels

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Though the PREN of certain steel may be theoretically sufficient to resist pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion can still occur when the poor design has created confined areas (overlapping plates, washer-plate interfaces, etc.) or when deposits form on the material. In these select areas, the PREN

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Solution treatment at about 1,040 °C (1,900 °F) followed by quenching results in a relatively ductile martensitic structure. Subsequent aging treatment at 475 °C (887 °F) precipitates Nb and Cu-rich phases that increase the strength up to above 1,000 MPa (150,000 psi)

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Brearley initially called his new alloy "rustless steel". The alloy was sold in the US under different brand names like "Allegheny metal" and "Nirosta steel". Even within the metallurgy industry, the name remained unsettled; in 1921, one trade journal called it "unstainable steel". Brearley worked

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The addition of nitrogen also improves resistance to pitting corrosion and increases mechanical strength. Thus, there are numerous grades of stainless steel with varying chromium and molybdenum contents to suit the environment the alloy must endure. Corrosion resistance can be increased further by

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per kg of stainless steel produced, of which 1.92 kg are emissions from raw materials (Cr, Ni, Mo); 0.54 kg from electricity and steam, and 0.44 kg are direct emissions (i.e., by the stainless steel plant). Note that stainless steel produced in countries that use cleaner sources of

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Stainless steel used in projects often results in lower LCC values compared to other materials. The higher acquisition cost (AC) of stainless steel components are often offset by improvements in operating and maintenance costs, reduced loss of production (LP) costs, and the higher resale value of

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increase the adhesion of the oxide layer on the surface. The addition of chromium remains the most common method to increase high-temperature corrosion resistance in stainless steels; chromium reacts with oxygen to form a chromium oxide scale, which reduces oxygen diffusion into the material. The

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crystal structure, and contain between 10.5% and 27% chromium with very little or no nickel. This microstructure is present at all temperatures due to the chromium addition, so they are not capable of being hardened by heat treatment. They cannot be strengthened by cold work to the same degree as

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World stainless steel production figures are published yearly by the International Stainless Steel Forum. Of the EU production figures, Italy, Belgium and Spain were notable, while Canada and Mexico produced none. China, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, India the US and Indonesia were large producers

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The resistance of this film to corrosion depends upon the chemical composition of the stainless steel, chiefly the chromium content. It is customary to distinguish between four forms of corrosion: uniform, localized (pitting), galvanic, and SCC (stress corrosion cracking). Any of these forms of

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of austenitic stainless steel. Their mixed microstructure provides improved resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking in comparison to austenitic stainless steel types 304 and 316. Duplex grades are usually divided into three sub-groups based on their corrosion resistance: lean duplex,

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These events led to the first American production of chromium-containing steel by J. Baur of the Chrome Steel Works of Brooklyn for the construction of bridges. A US patent for the product was issued in 1869. This was followed with recognition of the corrosion resistance of chromium alloys by

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of stainless steel is expressed in the form of a range of temperatures, and not a single temperature. This temperature range goes from 1,400 to 1,530 °C (2,550 to 2,790 °F; 1,670 to 1,800 K; 3,010 to 3,250 °R) depending on the specific consistency of the alloy in question.

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Chloride ion concentration. Even when chloride solution concentration is known, it is still possible for localized corrosion to occur unexpectedly. Chloride ions can become unevenly concentrated in certain areas, such as in crevices (e.g. under gaskets) or on surfaces in vapor spaces due to

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and concentrated sulfuric acid. Increasing chromium and molybdenum content provides increased resistance to reducing acids while increasing chromium and silicon content provides increased resistance to oxidizing acids. Sulfuric acid is one of the most-produced industrial chemicals. At room

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Over any product life, maintenance, repairs or early end of life (planned obsolescence) can increase its overall footprint far beyond initial material differences. In addition, loss of service (typically for bridges) may induce large hidden costs, such as queues, wasted fuel, and loss of

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Stainless steel nanoparticles have been produced in the laboratory. These may have applications as additives for high-performance applications. For example, sulfurization, phosphorization, and nitridation treatments to produce nanoscale stainless steel based catalysts could enhance the

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There is extensive research indicating some probable increased risk of cancer (particularly lung cancer) from inhaling fumes while welding stainless steel. Stainless steel welding is suspected of producing carcinogenic fumes from cadmium oxides, nickel, and chromium. According to

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300 series are chromium-nickel alloys that achieve their austenitic microstructure almost exclusively by nickel alloying; some very highly alloyed grades include some nitrogen to reduce nickel requirements. 300 series is the largest group and the most widely used.

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may not be high enough for the service conditions. Good design, fabrication techniques, alloy selection, proper operating conditions based on the concentration of active compounds present in the solution causing corrosion, pH, etc. can prevent such corrosion.

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in London in 1929. Brearley applied for a US patent during 1915 only to find that Haynes had already registered one. Brearley and Haynes pooled their funding and, with a group of investors, formed the American Stainless Steel Corporation, with headquarters in

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The most common type of stainless steel, 304, has a tensile yield strength around 210 MPa (30,000 psi) in the annealed condition. It can be strengthened by cold working to a strength of 1,050 MPa (153,000 psi) in the full-hard condition.

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200 series are chromium-manganese-nickel alloys that maximize the use of manganese and nitrogen to minimize the use of nickel. Due to their nitrogen addition, they possess approximately 50% higher yield strength than 300-series stainless sheets of steel.

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Stainless steel is generally considered to be biologically inert. However, during cooking, small amounts of nickel and chromium leach out of new stainless steel cookware into highly acidic food. Nickel can contribute to cancer risks—particularly

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Indirect societal costs (with possible political fallout) may be incurred in some situations such as closing or reducing traffic on bridges, creating queues, delays, loss of working hours to the people, and increased pollution by idling

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stainless steels have corrosion resistance comparable to austenitic varieties, but can be precipitation hardened to even higher strengths than other martensitic grades. There are three types of precipitation hardening stainless steels:

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Englishmen John T. Woods and John Clark, who noted ranges of chromium from 5–30%, with added tungsten and "medium carbon". They pursued the commercial value of the innovation via a British patent for "Weather-Resistant Alloys".

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are resistant to sulfuric acid at even higher concentrations above room temperature. Concentrated sulfuric acid possesses oxidizing characteristics like nitric acid, and thus silicon-bearing stainless steels are also useful.

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where LCC is the overall life cycle cost, AC is the acquisition cost, IC the installation cost, OC the operating and maintenance costs, LP the cost of lost production due to downtime, and RC the replacement materials cost.

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Despite the evidence of the use of Baur's "chrome steel" in bridgeworks, others have argued that metallurgists of the 19th century were unable to produce anything but high-chromium alloys that were "too brittle to be

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Shaigan, Nima; Qu, Wei; Ivey, Douglas; Chen, Weixing (2010). "A review of recent progress in coatings, surface modifications and alloy developments for solid oxide fuel cell ferritic stainless steel interconnects".

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only affect type 304 at temperatures above 150 °C (300 °F) and type 316 SS above 260 °C (500 °F), while type 317 SS is unaffected at all temperatures. Type 316L is required for the processing of

1951:(EAF): stainless steel scrap, other ferrous scrap, and ferrous alloys (Fe Cr, Fe Ni, Fe Mo, Fe Si) are melted together. The molten metal is then poured into a ladle and transferred into the AOD process (see below). 5365: 5334: 5273: 1588:

Whereas pitting usually leads to unsightly surfaces and, at worst, to perforation of the stainless sheet, failure by SCC can have severe consequences. It is therefore considered as a special form of corrosion.

957:: The second most common austenitic stainless steel is type 316. The addition of 2% molybdenum provides greater resistance to acids and localized corrosion caused by chloride ions. Low-carbon versions, such as 5492: 1987:

rolling mills and annealed in a protective atmosphere until the desired thickness and surface finish is obtained. Further operations such as slitting and tube forming can be performed in downstream facilities.

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Austenitizing, in which the steel is heated to a temperature in the range 980–1,050 °C (1,800–1,920 °F), depending on grade. The resulting austenite has a face-centered cubic crystal structure.

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A cryogenic treatment is the process of treating workpieces to cryogenic temperatures in order to remove residual stresses and improve wear resistance in steels and other metal alloys, such as aluminum.

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crystal structure. This microstructure is achieved by alloying steel with sufficient nickel and/or manganese and nitrogen to maintain an austenitic microstructure at all temperatures, ranging from the

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is used to convert expenses from different years to their present value (a method widely used by banks and insurance companies) so they can be added and compared fairly. The usage of the sum formula (

1026:-resistant steels. They are magnetic, and not as corrosion-resistant as ferritic and austenitic stainless steels due to their low chromium content. They fall into four categories (with some overlap): 6474: 1535:

where the terms correspond to the proportion of the contents by mass of chromium, molybdenum, and nitrogen in the steel. For example, if the steel consisted of 15% chromium %Cr would be equal to 15.

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Fe-Cr-Ni-C grades. Some carbon is replaced by nickel. They offer higher toughness and higher corrosion resistance. Grade EN 1.4303 (Casting grade CA6NM) with 13% Cr and 4% Ni is used for most

5580: 2650:{\displaystyle {\text{LCC}}={\text{AC}}+{\text{IC}}+\sum _{n=1}^{N}{\frac {\text{OC}}{(1+i)^{n}}}+\sum _{n=1}^{N}{\frac {\text{LP}}{(1+i)^{n}}}+\sum _{n=1}^{N}{\frac {\text{RC}}{(1+i)^{n}}}} 5219: 2716:

Utilities, such as power plants, water supply & wastewater treatment, and hospitals, cannot be shut down. Any maintenance will require extra costs associated with continuing service.

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Austenitic stainless steel is the largest family of stainless steels, making up about two-thirds of all stainless steel production. They possess an austenitic microstructure, which is a

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Martensitic stainless steels have a body-centered cubic crystal structure, and offer a wide range of properties and are used as stainless engineering steels, stainless tool steels, and

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cycle, where the final temperature of the material before full-load use is taken down to a cryogenic temperature range. This can remove residual stresses and improve wear resistance.

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Scientists researching steel corrosion in the second half of the 19th century didn't pay attention to the amount of carbon in the alloyed steels they were testing until in 1898

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and copper, and comparable to glass. Its cleanability, strength, and corrosion resistance have prompted the use of stainless steel in pharmaceutical and food processing plants.

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Wire rod coils are subsequently processed to produce cold-finished bars on drawing benches, fasteners on boltmaking machines, and wire on single or multipass drawing machines.

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The higher the PREN, the higher the pitting corrosion resistance. Thus, increasing chromium, molybdenum, and nitrogen contents provide better resistance to pitting corrosion.

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Stainless steel is used in a multitude of fields including architecture, art, chemical engineering, food and beverage manufacture, vehicles, medicine, energy and firearms.

987:(Zr) to type 430 allow good weldability. Due to the near-absence of nickel, they are less expensive than austenitic steels and are present in many products, which include: 1313:

and the solution temperature. Uniform corrosion is typically easy to avoid because of extensive published corrosion data or easily performed laboratory corrosion testing.

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Pitting corrosion is considered the most common form of localized corrosion. The corrosion resistance of stainless steels to pitting corrosion is often expressed by the

5413: 5277: 3766: 2448:(LCC) calculations are used to select the design and the materials that will lead to the lowest cost over the whole life of a project, such as a building or a bridge. 5484: 3383: 1389:

at high concentrations and high temperatures will likely experience some etching and cracking. Increasing chromium and nickel contents provide increased resistance.

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This is typically the case when stainless steels are exposed to acidic or basic solutions. Whether stainless steel corrodes depends on the kind and concentration of

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region to the melting point. Thus, austenitic stainless steels are not hardenable by heat treatment since they possess the same microstructure at all temperatures.

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How much material is used to provide a given service varies with the performance, particularly the strength level, which allows lighter structures and components.

5855: 3906: 3805: 2698: 735: 6241:, Maye, Mathew M. & Wu, Wenjie, "Method to control void formation in nanomaterials using core/alloy nanoparticles with stainless interfaces" 5904: 5735: 4528: 3836: 1967:(CC): the molten metal is solidified into slabs for flat products (a typical section is 20 centimetres (7.9 in) thick and 2 metres (6.6 ft) wide) or 5169: 3667: 1467: 727: 6471: 4573: 6271: 3052: 6602: 446:

Melting point of stainless steel is near that of ordinary steel, and much higher than the melting points of aluminium or copper. As with most alloys, the

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footprint than austenitics with 8% Ni or more. Carbon footprint must not be the only sustainability-related factor for deciding the choice of materials:

521:. Sometimes, if austenitic steel is bent or cut, magnetism occurs along the edge of the stainless steel because the crystal structure rearranges itself. 1700:

can be applied to flat rolled stainless steel directly by the rollers and by mechanical abrasives. Steel is first rolled to size and thickness and then

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is resistant to 3% acid up to 50 °C (120 °F) and 20% acid at room temperature. Thus type 304 SS is rarely used in contact with sulfuric acid.

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at room temperature. At high concentrations and elevated temperatures, attack will occur, and higher-alloy stainless steels are required. In general,

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Reck, Barbara; Chambon, Martine; Hashimoto, Seiji; Graedel, T.E. (2010). "Global Stainless Steel Cycle exemplifies China's rise to metal dominance".

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surface layer is porous and fragile. In addition, as iron oxide occupies a larger volume than the original steel, this layer expands and tends to

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Replacing some carbon in martensitic stainless steels by nitrogen is a recent development. The limited solubility of nitrogen is increased by the

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Tempering. Martensite is heated to around 500 °C (930 °F), held at temperature, then air-cooled. Higher tempering temperatures decrease

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Although stainless steel does rust, this only affects the outer few layers of atoms, its chromium content shielding deeper layers from oxidation.

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LCC calculations are usually limited to the project itself. However, there may be other costs that a project stakeholder may wish to consider:

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Liu, Xuan (2017). "Facile Surface Modification of Ubiquitous Stainless Steel Led to Competent Electrocatalysts for Overall Water Splitting".

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Gorodin D.; Manes L.; Monicault J-M (2002). "Characterization of the XD15N High Nitrogen Martensitic Stainless Steel for Aerospace Bearing".

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Martensitic stainless steels can be heat treated to provide better mechanical properties. The heat treatment typically involves three steps:

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discovered chromium's resistance to strong acids. The corrosion resistance of iron-chromium alloys may have been first recognized in 1821 by

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Fofanov, D.; Riedner, S. (29 November 2011). "Magnetic properties of Stainless Steels: applications, opportunities, and new developments".

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when exposed to wet environments. Unprotected carbon steel rusts readily when exposed to a combination of air and moisture. The resulting

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The alloy's properties, such as luster and resistance to corrosion, are useful in many applications. Stainless steel can be rolled into

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and fall away, exposing the underlying steel to further attack. In comparison, stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to undergo

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Over 150 grades of stainless steel are recognized, of which 15 are the most widely used. Many grading systems are in use, including US

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Precipitation hardening grades. Grade EN 1.4542 (also known as 17-4 PH), the best-known grade, combines martensitic hardening and

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three-digit number. The ISO 15510 standard lists the chemical compositions of stainless steels of the specifications in existing ISO,

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electricity (such as France, which uses nuclear energy) will have a lower carbon footprint. Ferritics without Ni will have a lower CO

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Type 202 is general-purpose stainless steel. Decreasing nickel content and increasing manganese results in weak corrosion resistance.

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The invention of stainless steel followed a series of scientific developments, starting in 1798 when chromium was first shown to the

3959: 3572: 6249: 5444: 4104: 950:: The most common is type 304, also known as 18/8 and 18/10 for its composition of 18% chromium and 8% or 10% nickel, respectively. 5274:"Alloy Selection for Service in Chlorine, Hydrogen Chloride and Hydrochloric Acid: A Guide to the Use of Nickel-Containing Alloys" 5134:

Olsson, Clas; Herting, Gunilla; Odnevall Wallinder, Inger (2006). "Passive Films on Stainless Steel: Recent Nano-Range Research".

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Typical heat treatment involves solution treatment and quenching, followed by aging at 715 °C (1,319 °F). Aging forms Ni

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crystal structure. The quenched martensite is very hard and too brittle for most applications. Some residual austenite may remain.

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The ease of welding largely depends on the type of stainless steel used. Austenitic stainless steels are the easiest to weld by

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in "Cancer-Causing Substances", in "Risk Factors," in "Cancer Causes and Prevention," in "About Cancer," at the website of the

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Automobile exhaust pipes (type 409 and 409 Cb are used in North America; stabilized grades type 439 and 441 are used in Europe)

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The density of stainless steel ranges from 7.5 to 8.0 g/cm (0.27 to 0.29 lb/cu in) depending on the alloy.

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Hot-rolled coils are pickled in acid solutions to remove the oxide scale on the surface, then subsequently cold rolled in

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Assessing the aggressiveness of the environment (high chloride content, temperature above 50 °C (120 °F), etc.).

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Fe-Cr-C grades. These were the first grades used and are still widely used in engineering and wear-resistant applications.

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In 1929, before the Great Depression, over 25,000 tons of stainless steel were manufactured and sold in the US annually.

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Wu, Wenjie; Maye, Mathew M. (1 January 2014). "Void Coalescence in Core/Alloy Nanoparticles with Stainless Interfaces".

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alloy, today known as AISI type 420. The discovery was announced two years later in a January 1915 newspaper article in

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Stainless steel is used for industrial equipment when it is important that the equipment be durable and easy to clean.

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Hamano S.; Shimizu T.; Noda Toshiharu (2007). "Properties of Low Carbon High Nitrogen Martensitic Stainless Steels".

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Major technological advances in the 1950s and 1960s allowed the production of large tonnages at an affordable cost:

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and Custom 465. These can be heat treated to have tensile yield strengths up to 1,730 MPa (251,000 psi).

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No. 2BA (2R): Bright annealed (BA or 2R) same as above then bright annealed under oxygen-free atmospheric condition

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60, made by selective alloying with manganese, silicon, and nitrogen, has demonstrated a reduced tendency to gall.

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As SCC requires several conditions to be met, it can be counteracted with relatively easy measures, including:

1453:

Oxidizing species: the presence of oxidizing species, such as ferric and cupric ions, increases susceptibility.

7462: 6458: 6427: 6396: 6322: 4597:"Enhancing combined cryogenic mechanical properties of metastable austenitic stainless steel by warm forming" 1560:

The environment is aggressive (high chloride level, temperature above 50 °C (120 °F), presence of H

694: 671:

and E. Goutal noted that chromium steels better resist to oxidation with acids the less carbon they contain.

383: 6497: 1596:

Reducing the stress level (the oil and gas specifications provide requirements for maximal stress level in H

8578: 7972: 7369: 7080: 6792: 6067:

Johnson, J.; Reck, B.K.; Wang, T.; Graede, T.E. (2008), "The energy benefit of stainless steel recycling",

4595:

Lu, Qunjie; Zheng, Jinyang; Huang, Gai; Li, Keming; Ding, Huiming; Wang, Zhenyu; Cheng, Shaoan (May 2021).

2759: 1974: 1954: 1860: 1366:

damages any kind of stainless steel and should be avoided. All types of stainless steel resist attack from

840: 830: 4596: 3275: 1385:, even in high concentrations and at high temperatures. The same grades exposed to stronger bases such as 1185:

Austenitic A286(ASTM 660 EN 1.4980) contains about Cr 15%, Ni 25%, Ti 2.1%, Mo 1.2%, V 1.3%, and B 0.005%.

464: 9771: 9761: 9751: 8523: 8008: 7863: 7512: 7437: 6882: 5987:

Al-Wazeer, Adel; Harris, Bobby; Nutakor, Christopher (2005). Federal Highway Administration (USA) (ed.).

4750:

K4X: A new ferritic stainless steel grade with improved durability for high temperature exhaust manifolds

3940: 3665: 1017: 961:

or 304L, have carbon contents below 0.03% and are used to avoid corrosion problems caused during welding.

783: 656:

of Germany were producing chromium steel with the latter employing it for cannons in the 1850s. In 1861,

479: 6924: 1007:

operating at temperatures around 700 °C (1,300 °F) (high-chromium ferritics containing 22% Cr)

9776: 8500: 8257: 8199: 7753: 6238: 3928:

s:fr:Page:Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l’Académie des sciences, tome 126, 1898.djvu/1243

3626: 3547:"LaCrO3-based coatings on ferritic stainless steel for solid oxide fuel cell interconnect applications" 3106: 1816: 1177:

Al intermetallic phase—is carried out as above on nearly finished parts. Yield stress levels above 1400

895: 716: 682:) process for producing carbon-free chromium. Between 1904 and 1911, several researchers, particularly 510: 506: 495: 5192: 9212: 8515: 7871: 7595: 7452: 6610: 6018: 5063:

4th International Conference on Launcher Technology "Space Launcher Liquid Propulsion, Liège, Belgium

1971:(sections vary widely but 25 by 25 centimetres (9.8 in × 9.8 in) is the average size). 1550: 1101: 3545:

Zhu, J.H.; Zhang, Y.; Basu, A.; Lu, Z.G.; Paranthaman, M.; Lee, D.F.; Payzant, E.A. (January 2004).

1436:

Localized corrosion can be difficult to predict because it is dependent on many factors, including:

707:

reported on the relationship between chromium content and corrosion resistance. On 17 October 1912,

348:), and storage tanks and tankers for chemicals and food products. Some grades are also suitable for 9766: 9746: 9048: 8870: 8490: 7922: 7585: 7296: 7137: 6919: 6622: 6508: 6015:"ISO 15686-5 Standard: Buildings and constructed assets. Service life planning. Life cycle costing" 3506:

André, Johan; Antoni, Laurent; Petit, Jean-Pierre; De Vito, Eric; Montani, Alexandre (April 2009).

3048: 1800: 1607: 1354: 1350: 1090: 973: 958: 487: 6135: 4963: 1606:

Selecting the right type of stainless steel: super austenitic such as grade 904L or super-duplex (

912:

owing to their high cryogenic toughness, ductility, strength, corrosion-resistance, and economy."

746:

applied for a US patent on a martensitic stainless steel alloy, which was not granted until 1919.

139: 9679: 8772: 8748: 8717: 8465: 7675: 7660: 7600: 7562: 7502: 7167: 7142: 7132: 5101: 3546: 3507: 3096: 3091: 1902: 1867: 1845: 1840: 1346: 1290:

corrosion can occur when the grade of stainless steel is not suited for the working environment.

1283: 1144: 1060:. It achieves high strength and good toughness and is used in aerospace among other applications. 1057: 947: 865:

Stainless steel is classified into five main families that are primarily differentiated by their

618: 306: 9053: 6577: 6410:"Lung cancer mortality in stainless steel and mild steel welders: a nested case-referent study," 5926: 5787:

Gordon, Wayne; van Bennekom, A. (1996). "Review of stabilization of ferritic stainless steels".

32: 8573: 8480: 8053: 7705: 7685: 7580: 7192: 7187: 7127: 7122: 7076: 6904: 5957: 5618: 4876: 4390: 1811: 1701: 1611: 1121: 1109: 954: 920: 657: 525:

Magnetic permeability of some austenitic stainless steel grades after annealing 2 hours at 1050

483: 5220:"The Corrosion Resistance of Nickel-Containing Alloys in Sulphuric Acid and Related Compounds" 5082:. Pohang University of Science and Technology Korea Graduate Institute of Ferrous Technology. 4252: 4164: 1961:

gas) and other compositional adjustments are made to achieve the desired chemical composition.

983:

austenitic stainless steels. They are magnetic. Additions of niobium (Nb), titanium (Ti), and

645:, who noted their resistance against attack by some acids and suggested their use in cutlery. 9756: 9579: 8558: 8553: 8528: 8505: 8485: 8380: 7804: 7665: 7364: 6985: 6965: 4300: 4138: 3081: 1964: 1822: 1794: 1004: 866: 434:

The strongest commonly available stainless steels are precipitation hardening alloys such as

310: 815:

with a local cutlery manufacturer, who gave it the name "stainless steel". As late as 1932,

9416: 9073: 8624: 8568: 7789: 7695: 7394: 7177: 6960: 6909: 6482: 6344: 6169: 6076: 5796: 5027: 4816: 3519: 3225: 3067:. However, no connection between stainless steel cookware and cancer has been established. 2416:

Austenitic stainless steels Cr-Ni (also called 300-series, see "Grades" section above): 54%

1948: 1153: 499: 463:, stainless steels are relatively poor conductors of electricity, with significantly lower 435: 302: 5822:

Singh, Ramesh (2012). "Chapter 6 - Welding corrosion resistant Alloys - Stainless Steel".

5697: 4752:. Proceedings of 7th European Stainless Steel Science & Market (Como, Italy) Paper 25. 4214: 114: 8: 9411: 8533: 8307: 8164: 8013: 7982: 7718: 7645: 7497: 7006: 3963: 3602:"What Is The Difference Between Ferritic, Austenitic & Martensitic Stainless Steels?" 1165:

Semi-austenitic 17-7 PH (AISI 631 EN 1.4568) contains about 17% Cr, 7.2% Ni, and 1.2% Al.

1023: 979: 978:

Ferritic stainless steels possess a ferrite microstructure like carbon steel, which is a

901: 329: 6379:"Cancer incidence among mild steel and stainless steel welders and other metal workers," 6348: 6173: 6080: 5800: 5758:"Ultimate Guide - Stainless Steel - Fabrication, Grinding, and Finishing with Abrasives" 5276:(2nd ed.). Toronto, CA: Nickel Development Institute. pp. 8–10. Archived from 5031: 4820: 4488:

Practical Guidelines for the Fabrication of High Performance Austenitic Stainless Steels

3523: 3229: 1719:

The following designations are used in the U.S. to describe stainless steel finishes by

782:

research laboratory in Sheffield, England, discovered and subsequently industrialized a

8820: 8800: 8741: 8650: 8588: 8563: 8538: 8495: 8470: 8347: 8312: 8267: 8252: 8066: 7809: 7615: 7572: 7477: 7340: 6899: 6872: 6555: 6522: 5831: 5043: 4967: 4616: 2683: 1944:

Most of the world's stainless steel production is produced by the following processes:

1855: 1806: 1720: 1639: 1524:{\displaystyle {\text{PREN}}=\%{\text{Cr}}+3.3\cdot \%{\text{Mo}}+16\cdot \%{\text{N}}} 1382: 836: 816: 779: 763: 468: 76: 6132:"The Recycling of Stainless Steel ("Recycled Content" and "Input Composition" slides)" 9267: 8850: 8692: 8687: 7379: 7253: 7147: 7096: 6975: 6892: 6887: 6731: 6703: 6672: 6662: 6560: 6542: 6441:"Follow-up examination of Danish stainless steel welders previously examined in 1987" 6360: 6356: 6265: 6220: 6185: 5894: 5835: 5725: 5676: 5608: 5143: 5077: 5047: 5003: 4986: 4971: 4940: 4688: 4620: 4612: 4492: 4453: 4427: 4343: 4308: 4196: 4175: 3870: 3795: 3756: 3249: 3241: 3180: 1990:

Hot-rolled bars are straightened, then machined to the required tolerance and finish.

1984: 1697: 1426: 1422: 1401: 1363: 1329: 502: 418: 387: 336:, vehicles, construction material in large buildings, industrial equipment (e.g., in 221: 2733:

of stainless steel (all grades, all countries) is estimated to be 2.90 kg of CO

915:

Cryogenic cold-forming of austenitic stainless steel is an extension of the heating-

9177: 9006: 8960: 8880: 8548: 8449: 8287: 8096: 8091: 7904: 7794: 7557: 7547: 7522: 7517: 7384: 7359: 6550: 6534: 6352: 6294: 6212: 6177: 6084: 5827: 5804: 5083: 5035: 5018:

Krasokha N., Berns H. (2011). "Study on nitrogen in martensitic stainless steels".

4998: 4984: 4959: 4936: 4897: 4828: 4824: 4776: 4608: 4022: 3986: 3558: 3554: 3531: 3527: 3287: 3233: 3116: 2730: 1764: 1713: 1665: 1386: 1310: 1255: 1220: 1214: 1075:

increase the strength and creep resistance up to about 650 °C (1,200 °F).

1046: 731: 699: 675: 634: 190: 185: 6298: 4901: 3666:

Committee of Stainless Steel Producers. American Iron and Steel Institute (1978).

1688: 819:

continued calling the alloy "rustless steel" in automobile promotional materials.

9207: 9018: 8991: 8660: 8023: 7492: 7427: 7422: 7228: 7172: 6980: 6950: 6725: 6693: 6629: 6606: 6584: 6504: 6478: 6447: 6416: 6385: 5514: 4662: 4171: 3990: 3864: 3291: 3174: 3035: 2676:

the year in which a particular OC or LP or RC is taking place. The interest rate

2445: 1958: 1677: 1669: 1651:

increases with additions of chromium, silicon, and aluminium. Small additions of

1623: 1581:

Cracks then propagate through the metal in a transgranular or intergranular mode.

1367: 1328:

Acidic solutions can be put into two general categories: reducing acids, such as

1042: 642: 626: 622: 345: 333: 6088: 4421: 3791:

The Metallurgic Age: The Victorian Flowering of Invention and Industrial Science

3701: 2004:

World stainless steel production in flat and long products (metric tons, '000s)

1049:

because it has good casting properties, good weldability and good resistance to

601: 9625: 9569: 9557: 9486: 9130: 9068: 8655: 8619: 8277: 8214: 8174: 8043: 7962: 7899: 7768: 7728: 7650: 7527: 7276: 7197: 7001: 6440: 3101: 1736:

No. 2B (2B): Same as above with additional pass through highly polished rollers

1661: 1628: 1337: 1133: 1128: 1097: 1038: 856:(CLU) and related processes which use steam instead of some or all of the argon 775: 759: 668: 518: 341: 231: 175: 155: 105: 67: 8845: 6409: 6378: 6312: 5808: 5087: 4780: 4566:"Microstructures in Austenitic Stainless Steels :: Total Materia Article" 4274: 3340: 3237: 1378:

are less corrosive than mineral acids such as hydrochloric and sulfuric acid.

1243: 9740: 9700: 9630: 9589: 9257: 9011: 8996: 8945: 8634: 8629: 8593: 8543: 8475: 8352: 8337: 8297: 8194: 8179: 8028: 8018: 7927: 7889: 7784: 7748: 7733: 7552: 7507: 7487: 7482: 7271: 7266: 6955: 6929: 6853: 6546: 6521:

Kamerud, Kristin L.; Hobbie, Kevin A.; Anderson, Kim A. (19 September 2013).

6041: 5253:. NiDI Technical Series No. 10 057. Toronto, CA: Nickel Development Institute 5147: 4764: 4312: 3444:. United States Department of Defense. 31 January 2003. p. 2-153, 2-222. 3245: 3076: 1850: 1776:

A wide range of joining processes are available for stainless steels, though

1333: 1259: 743: 739: 638: 630: 447: 379: 5640: 4643:

Cryogenic Treatment: Warfighter Lethality, Are your military metals at risk?

4363: 3213: 1381:

Type 304 and type 316 stainless steels are unaffected by weak bases such as

9725: 9720: 9715: 9667: 9620: 9450: 9396: 9182: 9063: 9023: 8915: 8614: 8583: 8395: 8342: 8332: 8317: 8292: 8282: 8262: 8242: 8209: 8189: 8151: 8111: 8101: 8086: 8061: 7957: 7763: 7743: 7630: 7207: 7162: 6970: 6934: 6914: 6815: 6676: 6564: 6402: 6328: 6224: 6216: 6189: 4842: 4248: 3253: 1835: 1784: 1375: 1321: 1267: 1210: 1034: 994:

Architectural and structural applications (type 430, which contains 17% Cr)

686:

of France, prepared alloys that would be considered stainless steel today.

683: 360: 236: 226: 165: 160: 6683: 6616: 6364: 5414:"Resistance of Stainless Steel to Corrosion in Naturally Occurring Waters" 3342: 3274:

Zaffora, Andrea; Di Franco, Francesco; Santamaria, Monica (October 2021).

9673: 9662: 9552: 9391: 9341: 9336: 9252: 9094: 8970: 8920: 8795: 8790: 8665: 8457: 8405: 8400: 8302: 8272: 8159: 8121: 8038: 8033: 7987: 7952: 7942: 7937: 7713: 7640: 7532: 7442: 7106: 6877: 6066: 3060: 1371: 1341: 1279: 798: 578: 317: 170: 6771: 1871: 1320:

Stainless steel is not completely immune to corrosion, as shown in this

1293:

The designation "CRES" refers to corrosion-resistant (stainless) steel.

9496: 9441: 9316: 9229: 9187: 9089: 9038: 8975: 8950: 8825: 8712: 8707: 8385: 8362: 8232: 8184: 7738: 7655: 7447: 7101: 6523:"Stainless Steel Leaches Nickel and Chromium into Foods during Cooking" 5039: 2755: 2422:

Ferritic and martensitic stainless steels (also called 400-series): 23%

1916: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1709: 1433:. Higher chloride levels require more highly alloyed stainless steels. 1405: 1275: 1248: 1198: 1050: 803: 633:

observed the resistance of chromium-iron alloys ("chromium steels") to

337: 286: 195: 129: 91: 9197: 6538: 6371: 6181: 1156:(AISI 630 EN 1.4542) contains about 17% Cr, 4% Ni, 4% Cu, and 0.3% Nb. 9642: 9635: 9506: 9501: 9481: 9406: 9331: 9325: 9306: 9202: 9143: 9058: 8955: 8890: 8865: 8855: 8785: 8764: 8702: 8697: 8609: 8136: 8071: 7894: 7819: 7814: 7635: 7625: 7610: 7542: 7417: 7261: 7238: 7152: 6305: 5327:"Corrosion Resistance of Nickel-Containing Alloys in Phosphoric Acid" 1705: 1271: 1251: 1170: 1086: 984: 916: 905: 767: 649: 610: 364: 278: 216: 211: 86: 81: 6493: 6491: 4660: 3835:. Vol. 98. New York City: David Williams Co. pp. 838–839. 3668:"Review of the Wear and Galling Characteristics of Stainless Steels" 1891: 1302:

is acceptable for such cases). Corrosion tables provide guidelines.

997:

Building components, such as slate hooks, roofing, and chimney ducts

9710: 9684: 9610: 9537: 9476: 9466: 9461: 9421: 9361: 9351: 9311: 9293: 9282: 9277: 9192: 9148: 9033: 9028: 8965: 8905: 8895: 8860: 8835: 8810: 8805: 8390: 8327: 8237: 7992: 7947: 7884: 7605: 7472: 7432: 7407: 7182: 6039: 5485:"Stainless Steels in Waters; Galvanic Corrosion and its Prevention" 3699: 3407: 3374: 1980:

Cold finishing (CF) depends on the type of product being finished:

1673: 1430: 1393: 1358: 1064: 774:

While seeking a corrosion-resistant alloy for gun barrels in 1912,

726:

Similar developments were taking place in the United States, where

679: 582: 321: 298: 282: 119: 96: 4985:

Horowitz M.B.; Neto F.B.; Garbogini A.; Tschiptschin A.P. (1996).

3276:"Corrosion of stainless steel in food and pharmaceutical industry" 926:

Austenitic stainless steel sub-groups, 200 series and 300 series:

498:

is usually non-magnetic. Ferritic steel owes its magnetism to its

9705: 9615: 9527: 9436: 9401: 9386: 9371: 9356: 9346: 9219: 9153: 9104: 9043: 8900: 8875: 8840: 8722: 8682: 8204: 8116: 8076: 7967: 7879: 7758: 7690: 7620: 7537: 7291: 7286: 7243: 7223: 7202: 7157: 7016: 6691: 6488: 6464: 5539: 4953: 4278: 3179:. ASM Specialty Handbook. Materials Park, OH: ASM International. 3111: 1957:(AOD): carbon in the molten steel is removed (by turning it into 1777: 1656: 1571:

The SCC mechanism results from the following sequence of events:

794: 754: 712: 574: 353: 349: 325: 124: 3370: 3368: 3366: 3364: 1557:

The part is stressed (by an applied load or by residual stress).

1400:, though in the latter case type 316 is preferable to type 304; 305:

results from the 10.5%, or more, chromium content which forms a

9605: 9511: 9471: 9446: 9381: 9366: 9262: 9247: 9242: 9158: 9109: 9099: 8815: 8780: 8169: 8141: 8106: 8081: 7977: 7932: 7723: 7680: 7670: 7374: 7281: 6784: 6759: 6702:] (in French). Paris: Ed. de physique. Chapters 14 and 15. 5133: 5060: 4526: 4007:"Handbook of Stainless Steel". Outokumpu Oyj. 2013. p. 12. 2419:

Austenitic stainless steels Cr-Mn (also called 200-series): 21%

1866:

Stainless steel may be bonded with adhesives such as silicone,

1652: 1072: 846: 294: 290: 3312:

ASM International (2000). "Introduction to Stainless Steels".

2412:

Breakdown of production by stainless steels families in 2017:

1404:

damages type 304 unless the temperature is kept low. Fats and

9584: 9574: 9564: 9547: 9542: 9532: 9491: 9321: 9301: 9237: 9169: 8910: 8885: 8830: 8375: 8370: 8322: 8126: 7799: 7412: 7233: 7021: 7011: 6433: 3361: 1444:

Temperature: increasing temperature increases susceptibility.

1429:. These localized attacks are most common in the presence of 1397: 1068: 708: 690: 653: 581:

to provide a film between the two parts and prevent galling.

460: 266: 51: 8733: 6042:"Stainless Steel and CO2: Facts and scientific observations" 5217: 4927:

Leda H. (1995). "Nitrogen in Martensitic stainless steels".

4391:"Technical Progress of Stainless Steel and its future trend" 3051:, "In 2017, all types of welding fumes were classified as a 797:

in England and was used for the new entrance canopy for the

793:

The metal was later marketed under the "Staybrite" brand by

9456: 9431: 9426: 9376: 9138: 8131: 7031: 6159: 6134:. International Stainless Steel Forum. 2006. Archived from 5991:. Publication FHWA-HRT-06-001 Vol. 69 No. 3, Nov-Dec 2005. 3341:

International Organization for Standardization (May 2014).

1632: 1410: 1306: 1228: 703:

featuring a chrome-nickel steel hull, in Germany. In 1911,

375: 274: 270: 6723: 4748:

Santacreu, P-O; Faivre, L.; Acher, A.; Leseux, J. (2011).

4747: 3977:

Chezeau, N. (1997). "Léon Alexandre Guillet (1873–1946)".

3273: 1751:

No. 6 (1K-2K): Matte finish (brushed but smoother than #4)

1733:

No. 2D (2D): Cold rolled, annealed, pickled and passivated

301:

depending on its specific use and cost. Stainless steel's

5607:. ISSF, International Stainless Steel Forum. April 2017. 4422:

India: National Institute of Industrial Research (2017).

3408:

International Stainless Steel Forum (21 September 2018).

1742:

No. 3 (G-2G:) Coarse abrasive finish applied mechanically

625:. In the early 1800s, British scientists James Stoddart, 5604:

The ferritic solution Properties/advantages/applications

5324: 5301:"Alloy selection in wet-process phosphoric acid (10015)" 3343:"ISO 15510:2014 Stainless steels – Chemical composition" 1450:

Stagnation: stagnant conditions increase susceptibility.

742:

were industrializing ferritic stainless steel. In 1912,

320:, plates, bars, wire, and tubing. These can be used in 7074: 6335:

Langård, S (1994). "Nickel-related cancer in welders".

5442: 4720:"Welding of stainless steels and other joining methods" 4452:. ASM International. 2008. pp. 69–78 (Chapter 6). 3573:"Atlas Tech Note: qualitative sorting tests for steels" 3505: 3147:"Cb" refers to colombium, the American name for niobium 1763:

No. 10: Heat colored finish – offering a wide range of

1169:

Typical heat treatment involves solution treatment and

1089:. The austenite is transformed into martensite, a hard 370:

Different types of stainless steel are labeled with an

5986: 4765:"Ferritic stainless steels in structural applications" 4364:"Sendzimir | Company Info | Company History" 2686: 1828:

MIG, MAG and TIG welding are the most common methods.

1567:

The stainless steel is not sufficiently SCC-resistant.

1201:, used in jet engines, gas turbines, and turbo parts. 1189:

The structure remains austenitic at all temperatures.

711:

engineers Benno Strauss and Eduard Maurer patented as

6520: 5542:"High Temperature Characteristics of Stainless Steel" 5017: 4893:

ASM Handbook Vol 4D Heat treating of irons and steels

4875:. International Stainless Steel Forum. Archived from 3962:. British Stainless Steel Association. Archived from 2724: 2460: 1692:

316L stainless steel, with an unpolished, mill finish

1470: 1447:

Acidity: increasing acidity increases susceptibility.

417:

adding molybdenum (which also improves resistance to

6578:

Safe Cookware: Does Stainless Steel Leach Chemicals?

6472:"More evidence welding fumes raise lung cancer risk" 5698:"Stainless Steel Finishes Explained – EN & ASTM" 5162:"Chapter 5 corrosion resistance of stainless steels" 4889: 4661:

Bristish Stainless Steel Association (August 2006).

4424:

The Complete Technology Book on Hot Rolling of Steel

4307:. Bonnier Corporation. December 1930. pp. 31–. 4251:: Korea Iron & Steel Association. Archived from 3903:"It's Complicated: The Discovery of Stainless Steel" 3702:"Galling and Galling Resistance of Stainless Steels" 3375:

International Stainless Steel Forum (8 March 2020).

3034:

electrocatalytic performance of stainless steel for

1704:

to change the properties of the final material. Any

1421:

Localized corrosion can occur in several ways, e.g.

1349:

stainless steel is only resistant to 3% acid, while

1063:

Creep-resisting grades. Small additions of niobium,

5713: 5711: 4714: 4712: 4710: 605:An announcement, as it appeared in a 1915 issue of 6593: 5786: 5445:"Stainless steels in contact with other materials" 5386: 3858: 3856: 3854: 3787: 3627:"Why don't magnets work on some stainless steels?" 2692: 2649: 1523: 1104:but increase the elongation and impact resistance. 6168:(10). Environ. Sci. Technol., 44, 10: 3940–3946. 4805: 3311: 3211: 2451:The formula, in a simple form, is the following: 9738: 6730:. McGraw-Hill Handbooks. New York: McGraw-Hill. 6270:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 6252:. Archived from the original on 21 November 2005 5708: 5540:American Iron and Steel Institute (April 1979). 4707: 2774:Estimates of collection for recycling by sector 1803:, also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding 660:took out a patent on chromium steel in Britain. 5675:. Brussels. Belgium: Euro Inox. pp. 4–23. 5271: 5251:"Alloy selection for service in sulphuric acid" 4987:"Nitrogen-Bearing Martensitic Stainless Steels" 4560: 4558: 4556: 4449:Stainless steels for design engineers (#05231G) 3851: 3456:"What is the melting point of stainless steel?" 1730:No. 1 (1D): Hot-rolled, annealed and passivated 1127:Duplex stainless steels have roughly twice the 6692:Lacombe, P.; Baroux, B.; Béranger, G. (1990). 6571: 6377:Lauritsen, J.M., K.S. Hansen, and A. Skytthe: 5665: 5355: 5154: 4594: 4165:Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries 4105:"The Naming and Numbering of Stainless Steels" 3650: 3544: 1225:Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys 8749: 8434: 7848: 7325: 7060: 6838: 6800: 5065:– via Centre National Etudes Spatiales. 4762: 4139:"Frederick Mark Becket American metallurgist" 6040:International Stainless Steel Forum (2015). 5573:"Practical Guide to High Temperature Alloys" 5358:"Alloy Selection for Service in Nitric Acid" 4553: 4522: 4520: 4275:"1932 – The Invention of the Ford V8 Engine" 4141:. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 7 January 2021. 3700:British Stainless Steel Association (2001). 3695: 3693: 3481:"What Is the Stainless Steel Melting Point?" 3028: 1878:adhesives are also used in some situations. 934:Type 201 is hardenable through cold working. 411:increasing chromium content to more than 11% 7339: 6321:1984;(53):95-103, summarized on website of 6287:ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 5856:"Duplex stainless steel welding guidelines" 5717: 5020:HTM Journal of Heat Treatment and Materials 4964:10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.539-543.4975 3954: 3952: 3168: 3166: 3164: 1727:No. 0: Hot-rolled, annealed, thicker plates 1680:, produced in the form of wire or ribbons. 609:, of the development of stainless steel in 8756: 8742: 8441: 8427: 7855: 7841: 7332: 7318: 7067: 7053: 6845: 6831: 6807: 6793: 6656: 6527:Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 5931:World Stainless ( www.worldstainless.org ) 5515:"Oxidation resistance of stainless steels" 5389:"Alloy Selection for Caustic Soda Service" 4929:Journal of Materials Processing Technology 4663:"200 Series Stainless Steels. An overview" 4601:Journal of Materials Processing Technology 4212: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4092: 4002: 4000: 3788:Quentin r. Skrabec, Jr (24 January 2015). 3410:"Corrosion Resistance of Stainless Steels" 1631:on the left is not stainless steel and is 1139: 6554: 6457:165(29):2882-6, summarized on website of 5666:Cochrane, David; Helzel, Martina (2005). 5595: 5272:Davies, Michael (2018). Moe, Geir (ed.). 5075: 5002: 4689:"Data sheet on 201 Stainless Steel Alloy" 4634: 4517: 4193:A Photographic History of Sheffield Steel 4011: 3970: 3938: 3869:. Materials Park, OH: ASM International. 3690: 3315:Alloy Digest Sourcebook: Stainless Steels 2704:Application of LCC in materials selection 2000:while Russia reported little production. 1932:Learn how and when to remove this message 1270:, stainless steels do not suffer uniform 1238: 390:standards in a useful interchange table. 5669:Guide to Stainless Steel Finishes 3rd Ed 5478: 5476: 5474: 5472: 5298: 4873:"Stainless teel in Micro Hydro turbines" 4588: 4131: 3949: 3512:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 3161: 1790:Electric arc welding processes include: 1687: 1622: 1578:Cracks start from a pit initiation site. 1315: 1242: 753: 600: 517:, can be made slightly magnetic through 39: 31: 6641:University of Pittsburgh Medical Center 6422:American Journal of Industrial Medicine 6391:American Journal of Industrial Medicine 6334: 5695: 5570: 5517:. British Stainless Steel Association. 5129: 5127: 5076:De Cooman, Bruno Charles (April 2016). 4926: 4896:. 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In particular, the 441: 58: 8501:Shielded metal (Stick/MMA/SMAW) 8491:Gas tungsten (Heliarc/TIG/GTAW) 6250:"Patent Database Search: Error" 6048:from the original on 8 May 2020 6033: 6007: 5980: 5949: 5919: 5880: 5848: 5815: 5780: 5750: 5721:The Welding of Stainless Steels 5689: 5659: 5633: 5564: 5533: 5507: 5436: 5406: 5380: 5349: 5318: 5292: 5265: 5242: 5211: 5184: 5094: 5069: 5054: 5011: 4978: 4947: 4920: 4883: 4865: 4835: 4815:(6). 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Stern, 5102:"A-286 - Rolled Alloys, Inc" 5079:Lecture on stainless steel_9 4941:10.1016/0924-0136(95)01984-M 4665:. Stainless Steel Industry. 4485:McGuire, Michael F. (2008). 3485:Kloeckner Metals Corporation 3377:"The Stainless Steel Family" 3292:10.1016/j.coelec.2021.100760 2828:Building and infrastructure 2820:Of which as stainless steel 2760:International Resource Panel 2709:stainless steel components. 1955:Argon oxygen decarburization 1416: 1231:in 1970. Europe has adopted 831:argon oxygen decarburization 474: 414:adding nickel to at least 8% 7: 8448: 7438:List of drill and tap sizes 6852: 6439:Knudsen, L.E. and H. Burr, 6089:10.1016/j.enpol.2007.08.028 5824:Applied Welding Engineering 5718:Pierre-Jean, Cunat (2007). 5387:C. M. Schillmoller (1988). 4219:Mining and Scientific Press 4163:Carlisle, Rodney P. (2004) 3070: 1780:is by far the most common. 1708:that forms on the surface ( 1618: 1614:are very resistant to SCC). 1600:S-containing environments). 1227:(UNS) was developed by the 1018:Martensitic stainless steel 967: 784:martensitic stainless steel 425: 313:in the presence of oxygen. 285:and other elements such as 10: 9793: 8200:Magnetic switchable device 7754:Magnetic switchable device 6643:), retrieved 16 March 2020 6590:, accessed 28 January 2019 6588:healthybuildingscience.com 5989:"Applying LCCA to Bridges" 5958:"Life Cycle Cost Analysis" 5956:Fuller, Sieglinde (2016). 4775:. 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(2014). 4115:(9). ASM International. 3942:Stainless Iron And Steel 3863:Cobb, Harold M. (2010). 3749:Cobb, Harold M. (2010). 3122: 3049:Cancer Council Australia 2812:Collected for recycling 2754:Stainless steel is 100% 1801:Gas tungsten arc welding 1760:No. 9: Bead blast finish 1091:body-centered tetragonal 974:Ferritic stainless steel 860: 281:. It contains iron with 140:Widmanstätten structures 9258:Nickel silver (alpacca) 8258:Engineer's spirit level 7676:Rotary transfer machine 7661:Photochemical machining 7601:Electron-beam machining 7563:Tool and cutter grinder 7143:Electromagnetic forming 6687:(subscription required) 5887:Kosmac, Alenka (2013). 4956:Materials Science Forum 4389:Ikeda, Satoshi (2010). 4191:Howse, Geoffrey (2011) 3734:"A non-rusting steel". 3097:List of steel producers 3092:List of blade materials 2883:Of which passenger cars 2857:Transportation (total) 2672:the interest rate, and 1868:silyl modified polymers 1846:Resistance seam welding 1841:Resistance spot welding 1612:duplex stainless steels 1145:Precipitation hardening 1140:Precipitation hardening 1058:precipitation hardening 885:Precipitation hardening 569: 303:resistance to corrosion 7973:Oxy-fuel cutting torch 7128:Casting (metalworking) 6695:Les aciers inoxydables 6605:15 August 2021 at the 6446:1 October 2021 at the 6384:1 October 2021 at the 6239:US patent 10695831 6217:10.1002/smll.201301420 6017:. 2008. Archived from 5166:www.worldstainless.org 4958:. 539–543: 4975–4980. 4769:Thin-walled Structures 4340:Primer on flat rolling 3107:Pilling–Bedworth ratio 2694: 2651: 2615: 2560: 2505: 1812:Flux-cored arc welding 1693: 1636: 1525: 1325: 1263: 1181:MPa are then reached. 1122:Duplex stainless steel 1005:solid oxide fuel cells 854:Creusot-Loire Uddeholm 771: 658:Robert Forester Mushet 614: 45: 37: 9599:Other natural objects 8718:Tools and terminology 8225:Measuring instruments 6900:Investment (Lost wax) 6661:. London: E. Arnold. 6628:13 April 2021 at the 6498:"Welding and cancer," 6477:14 April 2021 at the 6415:10 April 2014 at the 4641:Sabry, Fouad (2022). 4491:. ASM International. 4170:13 April 2021 at the 3755:. ASM International. 3382:. Brussels, Belgium. 3082:Corrosion engineering 2940:Industrial machinery 2695: 2652: 2595: 2540: 2485: 1861:Oxy-acetylene welding 1823:Submerged arc welding 1795:Gas metal arc welding 1723:A480/A480M-18 (DIN): 1691: 1626: 1526: 1319: 1246: 867:crystalline structure 757: 652:steelmakers and then 604: 407:the following means: 273:that is resistant to 43: 35: 9074:Wire wrapped jewelry 9054:Repoussé and chasing 7790:Machining vibrations 7696:Ultrasonic machining 7178:Progressive stamping 6767:at Wikimedia Commons 6583:26 June 2021 at the 6503:20 June 2020 at the 6483:Reuters News Service 5927:"Life cycle Costing" 5356:C. M. Schillmoller. 5106:www.rolledalloys.com 4879:on 21 December 2019. 4849:. 21 November 2017. 4722:. Nickel Institute. 4570:www.totalmateria.com 4366:. 23 February 2021. 4342:. Elsevier Science. 4245:Stainless Steel Club 3979:Revue de Métallurgie 2785:Use, global average 2684: 2458: 2028:Asia excluding China 1949:Electric arc furnace 1910:improve this article 1757:No. 8: Mirror finish 1468: 1262:alloys (middle row). 1239:Corrosion resistance 399:Corrosion resistance 330:surgical instruments 9616:Ebonite (vulcanite) 8554:Friction stir (FSW) 8529:Electron-beam (EBW) 7810:Tool and die making 7498:Cylindrical grinder 7254:Finishing processes 6883:Evaporative-pattern 6600:"Nickel Compounds," 6349:1994ScTEn.148..303L 6174:2010EnST...44.3940R 6081:2008EnPol..36..181J 5801:1996MatST..12..126G 5299:Schillmoller, C.M. 5032:2011HJHTM..66..150K 4847:worldstainless.org/ 4821:2010JPS...195.1529S 4221:. pp. 442, 463 4215:"Unstainable Steel" 4025:on 2 September 2007 3966:on 12 January 2012. 3631:Scientific American 3524:2009IJHE...34.3125A 3230:1996Biofo..10..275B 2775: 2005: 1819:(covered electrode) 1748:No. 5: Satin finish 980:body-centered cubic 902:face-centered cubic 728:Christian Dantsizen 530: 500:body-centered cubic 135:Tempered martensite 9772:English inventions 9762:Building materials 9752:1916 introductions 8961:Jewellery designer 8651:Heat-affected zone 8579:Oxyacetylene (OAW) 8348:Thread pitch gauge 8313:Optical comparator 8067:Combination square 7864:Metalworking tools 7478:Abrasive machining 6141:on 27 January 2011 6102:"Nickel Recycling" 5647:. 21 December 2018 5645:ASTM International 5621:on 12 October 2018 5280:on 5 December 2017 5193:"Corrosion Tables" 5040:10.3139/105.110099 4991:ISIJ International 4281:. 18 November 2015 3738:. 31 January 1915. 3553:. 177–178: 65–72. 3487:. 29 November 2021 3286:: Article 100760. 3053:Group 1 carcinogen 2773: 2693:{\textstyle \sum } 2690: 2647: 2003: 1965:Continuous casting 1856:Laser beam welding 1807:Plasma arc welding 1694: 1640:Galvanic corrosion 1637: 1521: 1383:ammonium hydroxide 1326: 1264: 837:Continuous casting 817:Ford Motor Company 788:The New York Times 772: 723:or AISI type 304. 615: 607:The New York Times 524: 46: 38: 9777:Roofing materials 9734: 9733: 9651: 9650: 9521:Organic gemstones 9118: 9117: 8731: 8730: 8674: 8673: 8534:Electroslag (ESW) 8481:Flux-cored (FCAW) 8414: 8413: 7828: 7827: 7305: 7304: 7217:Joining processes 7148:Explosive forming 7116:Forming processes 7040: 7039: 6763:Media related to 6632:8 February 2015, 6539:10.1021/jf402400v 6533:(39): 9495–9501. 6337:Sci Total Environ 6182:10.1021/es903584q 5900:978-2-87997-388-3 5731:978-2-87997-180-3 5614:978-2-930069-51-7 5483:Bauer, Alfred E. 4498:978-0-87170-717-8 4459:978-0-87170-717-8 4349:978-0-08-099418-5 4255:on 27 August 2005 4195:, History Press, 3026: 3025: 2799:Average lifetime 2645: 2620: 2590: 2565: 2535: 2510: 2480: 2472: 2464: 2410: 2409: 1942: 1941: 1934: 1684:Standard finishes 1519: 1502: 1485: 1474: 1427:crevice corrosion 1423:pitting corrosion 1402:cellulose acetate 1364:Hydrochloric acid 1330:hydrochloric acid 841:hot strip rolling 567: 566: 503:crystal structure 419:pitting corrosion 244: 243: 16:(Redirected from 9784: 9178:Britannia silver 9127: 9126: 8936: 8935: 8758: 8751: 8744: 8735: 8734: 8564:Laser beam (LBW) 8471:Electrogas (EGW) 8443: 8436: 8429: 8420: 8419: 8288:Machinist square 8097:Needlegun scaler 8092:Machinist square 7905:Water jet cutter 7872:Cutting machines 7857: 7850: 7843: 7834: 7833: 7795:Speeds and feeds 7548:Sharpening stone 7523:Grinding machine 7518:Grinding dresser 7385:Stewart platform 7334: 7327: 7320: 7311: 7310: 7084: 7069: 7062: 7055: 7046: 7045: 6920:Semi-solid metal 6847: 6840: 6833: 6824: 6823: 6809: 6802: 6795: 6786: 6785: 6774: 6762: 6748: 6746: 6744: 6720: 6718: 6716: 6700:Stainless Steels 6688: 6680: 6644: 6620: 6614: 6597: 6591: 6575: 6569: 6568: 6558: 6518: 6512: 6495: 6486: 6470:Rapaport, Lisa, 6468: 6462: 6437: 6431: 6419:, October 1996, 6406: 6400: 6375: 6369: 6368: 6332: 6326: 6309: 6303: 6302: 6293:(6): 4778–4784. 6282: 6276: 6275: 6269: 6261: 6259: 6257: 6247: 6246: 6242: 6235: 6229: 6228: 6200: 6194: 6193: 6157: 6151: 6150: 6148: 6146: 6140: 6128: 6122: 6121: 6119: 6117: 6106:Nickel Institute 6098: 6092: 6091: 6064: 6058: 6057: 6055: 6053: 6037: 6031: 6030: 6028: 6026: 6021:on 14 April 2021 6011: 6005: 6004: 6002: 6000: 5984: 5978: 5977: 5975: 5973: 5953: 5947: 5946: 5944: 5942: 5923: 5917: 5916: 5914: 5912: 5884: 5878: 5877: 5875: 5873: 5867: 5860: 5852: 5846: 5845: 5819: 5813: 5812: 5784: 5778: 5777: 5775: 5773: 5762:Empire Abrasives 5754: 5748: 5747: 5745: 5743: 5715: 5706: 5705: 5693: 5687: 5686: 5674: 5663: 5657: 5656: 5654: 5652: 5637: 5631: 5630: 5628: 5626: 5617:. Archived from 5599: 5593: 5592: 5590: 5588: 5577:Nickel Institute 5568: 5562: 5561: 5559: 5557: 5546:Nickel Institute 5537: 5531: 5530: 5528: 5526: 5511: 5505: 5504: 5502: 5500: 5491:. pp. 7–9. 5489:Nickel Institute 5480: 5467: 5466: 5464: 5462: 5456: 5449: 5440: 5434: 5433: 5431: 5429: 5418:Nickel Institute 5410: 5404: 5403: 5401: 5399: 5393:Nickel Institute 5384: 5378: 5377: 5375: 5373: 5362:Nickel Institute 5353: 5347: 5346: 5344: 5342: 5331:Nickel Institute 5322: 5316: 5315: 5313: 5311: 5305:Nickel Institute 5296: 5290: 5289: 5287: 5285: 5269: 5263: 5262: 5260: 5258: 5246: 5240: 5239: 5237: 5235: 5224:Nickel Institute 5215: 5209: 5208: 5206: 5204: 5188: 5182: 5181: 5179: 5177: 5158: 5152: 5151: 5131: 5122: 5121: 5119: 5117: 5098: 5092: 5091: 5073: 5067: 5066: 5058: 5052: 5051: 5015: 5009: 5008: 5006: 4982: 4976: 4975: 4951: 4945: 4944: 4935:(1–2): 263–272. 4924: 4918: 4917: 4915: 4913: 4887: 4881: 4880: 4869: 4863: 4862: 4860: 4858: 4839: 4833: 4832: 4803: 4797: 4796: 4794: 4792: 4760: 4754: 4753: 4745: 4739: 4738: 4736: 4734: 4728: 4716: 4705: 4704: 4702: 4700: 4685: 4679: 4678: 4676: 4674: 4658: 4652: 4651: 4638: 4632: 4631: 4629: 4627: 4592: 4586: 4585: 4583: 4581: 4562: 4551: 4550: 4548: 4546: 4540: 4533: 4524: 4515: 4514: 4512: 4510: 4482: 4476: 4475: 4473: 4471: 4444: 4438: 4437: 4419: 4413: 4412: 4410: 4408: 4402: 4396:. Nippon Steel. 4395: 4386: 4380: 4379: 4377: 4375: 4360: 4354: 4353: 4335: 4329: 4328: 4326: 4324: 4297: 4291: 4290: 4288: 4286: 4271: 4265: 4264: 4262: 4260: 4237: 4231: 4230: 4228: 4226: 4210: 4204: 4189: 4183: 4161: 4155: 4154: 4152: 4150: 4135: 4129: 4128: 4126: 4124: 4100: 4087: 4086: 4084: 4082: 4067: 4061: 4060: 4058: 4056: 4041: 4035: 4034: 4032: 4030: 4021:. Archived from 4015: 4009: 4008: 4004: 3995: 3994: 3974: 3968: 3967: 3956: 3947: 3946: 3936: 3930: 3925: 3919: 3918: 3916: 3914: 3899: 3893: 3892: 3890: 3888: 3860: 3849: 3848: 3846: 3844: 3824: 3818: 3817: 3815: 3813: 3785: 3779: 3778: 3776: 3774: 3746: 3740: 3739: 3731: 3722: 3721: 3719: 3717: 3697: 3688: 3687: 3685: 3683: 3672:Nickel Institute 3663: 3657: 3656: 3648: 3642: 3641: 3639: 3637: 3623: 3617: 3616: 3614: 3612: 3598: 3592: 3591: 3589: 3587: 3577: 3569: 3563: 3562: 3542: 3536: 3535: 3518:(7): 3125–3133. 3503: 3497: 3496: 3494: 3492: 3477: 3471: 3470: 3468: 3466: 3452: 3446: 3445: 3438: 3432: 3431: 3429: 3427: 3421: 3414: 3405: 3399: 3398: 3396: 3394: 3388: 3381: 3372: 3359: 3358: 3356: 3354: 3338: 3332: 3331: 3329: 3327: 3309: 3303: 3302: 3300: 3298: 3271: 3265: 3264: 3262: 3260: 3209: 3203: 3202: 3200: 3198: 3176:Stainless Steels 3170: 3148: 3145: 3139: 3138: 3133: 3117:Weathering steel 2776: 2772: 2731:carbon footprint 2699: 2697: 2696: 2691: 2656: 2654: 2653: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2643: 2642: 2618: 2617: 2614: 2609: 2591: 2589: 2588: 2587: 2563: 2562: 2559: 2554: 2536: 2534: 2533: 2532: 2508: 2507: 2504: 2499: 2481: 2478: 2473: 2470: 2465: 2462: 2406: 2405: 2398: 2393: 2388: 2387: 2380: 2375: 2365: 2364: 2357: 2352: 2347: 2346: 2339: 2334: 2324: 2323: 2316: 2311: 2306: 2305: 2298: 2293: 2283: 2282: 2275: 2270: 2265: 2264: 2257: 2252: 2242: 2241: 2234: 2229: 2224: 2223: 2216: 2211: 2201: 2200: 2193: 2188: 2183: 2182: 2175: 2170: 2160: 2159: 2152: 2147: 2142: 2141: 2134: 2129: 2119: 2118: 2111: 2106: 2101: 2100: 2093: 2088: 2078: 2077: 2070: 2065: 2060: 2059: 2052: 2047: 2006: 2002: 1937: 1930: 1926: 1923: 1917: 1894: 1886: 1712:) is removed by 1666:hydrogen sulfide 1646:High-temperature 1530: 1528: 1527: 1522: 1520: 1517: 1503: 1500: 1486: 1483: 1475: 1472: 1387:sodium hydroxide 1256:aluminium-bronze 1221:SAE steel grades 1215:SAE steel grades 1180: 1043:Francis turbines 1003:Power plates in 806:, Pennsylvania. 736:Frederick Becket 732:General Electric 676:Hans Goldschmidt 635:oxidizing agents 531: 528: 523: 334:major appliances 249:, also known as 191:Weathering steel 186:High-speed steel 62: 48: 47: 21: 9792: 9791: 9787: 9786: 9785: 9783: 9782: 9781: 9767:Chromium alloys 9747:Stainless steel 9737: 9736: 9735: 9730: 9689: 9647: 9636:Spondylus shell 9594: 9516: 9287: 9273:Stainless steel 9224: 9208:Sterling silver 9168:Precious metal 9163: 9131:Precious metals 9114: 9078: 8980: 8927: 8767: 8762: 8732: 8727: 8670: 8661:Residual stress 8639: 8598: 8516:Other processes 8510: 8506:Submerged (SAW) 8452: 8447: 8410: 8357: 8253:Engineer's blue 8219: 8152:Machine tooling 8146: 8048: 8024:Hydraulic press 7997: 7909: 7866: 7861: 7824: 7773: 7700: 7567: 7558:Surface grinder 7493:Coated abrasive 7464: 7457: 7428:Drill bit sizes 7423:Drill bit shank 7398: 7389: 7351: 7344: 7338: 7301: 7248: 7212: 7173:Press hardening 7111: 7085: 7083:, and finishing 7075: 7073: 7036: 7002:Casting defects 6990: 6939: 6856: 6851: 6818: 6813: 6778:stainless steel 6765:Stainless steel 6755: 6742: 6740: 6738: 6714: 6712: 6710: 6686: 6669: 6653: 6651:Further reading 6648: 6647: 6635:UPMC HealthBeat 6630:Wayback Machine 6621: 6617: 6607:Wayback Machine 6598: 6594: 6585:Wayback Machine 6576: 6572: 6519: 6515: 6505:Wayback Machine 6496: 6489: 6481:, 21 May 2019, 6479:Wayback Machine 6469: 6465: 6448:Wayback Machine 6438: 6434: 6417:Wayback Machine 6407: 6403: 6386:Wayback Machine 6376: 6372: 6333: 6329: 6310: 6306: 6283: 6279: 6263: 6262: 6255: 6253: 6248: 6244: 6236: 6232: 6201: 6197: 6158: 6154: 6144: 6142: 6138: 6130: 6129: 6125: 6115: 6113: 6100: 6099: 6095: 6065: 6061: 6051: 6049: 6038: 6034: 6024: 6022: 6013: 6012: 6008: 5998: 5996: 5985: 5981: 5971: 5969: 5954: 5950: 5940: 5938: 5925: 5924: 5920: 5910: 5908: 5901: 5885: 5881: 5871: 5869: 5865: 5858: 5854: 5853: 5849: 5842: 5820: 5816: 5785: 5781: 5771: 5769: 5756: 5755: 5751: 5741: 5739: 5732: 5716: 5709: 5694: 5690: 5683: 5672: 5664: 5660: 5650: 5648: 5639: 5638: 5634: 5624: 5622: 5615: 5601: 5600: 5596: 5586: 5584: 5569: 5565: 5555: 5553: 5538: 5534: 5524: 5522: 5513: 5512: 5508: 5498: 5496: 5481: 5470: 5460: 5458: 5454: 5447: 5441: 5437: 5427: 5425: 5412: 5411: 5407: 5397: 5395: 5385: 5381: 5371: 5369: 5354: 5350: 5340: 5338: 5323: 5319: 5309: 5307: 5297: 5293: 5283: 5281: 5270: 5266: 5256: 5254: 5247: 5243: 5233: 5231: 5216: 5212: 5202: 5200: 5189: 5185: 5175: 5173: 5160: 5159: 5155: 5132: 5125: 5115: 5113: 5100: 5099: 5095: 5074: 5070: 5059: 5055: 5016: 5012: 4983: 4979: 4952: 4948: 4925: 4921: 4911: 4909: 4888: 4884: 4871: 4870: 4866: 4856: 4854: 4841: 4840: 4836: 4804: 4800: 4790: 4788: 4761: 4757: 4746: 4742: 4732: 4730: 4726: 4718: 4717: 4708: 4698: 4696: 4687: 4686: 4682: 4672: 4670: 4659: 4655: 4639: 4635: 4625: 4623: 4593: 4589: 4579: 4577: 4564: 4563: 4554: 4544: 4542: 4538: 4531: 4525: 4518: 4508: 4506: 4499: 4483: 4479: 4469: 4467: 4460: 4446: 4445: 4441: 4434: 4420: 4416: 4406: 4404: 4400: 4393: 4387: 4383: 4373: 4371: 4362: 4361: 4357: 4350: 4336: 4332: 4322: 4320: 4305:Popular Science 4299: 4298: 4294: 4284: 4282: 4273: 4272: 4268: 4258: 4256: 4239: 4238: 4234: 4224: 4222: 4211: 4207: 4190: 4186: 4172:Wayback Machine 4162: 4158: 4148: 4146: 4137: 4136: 4132: 4122: 4120: 4101: 4090: 4080: 4078: 4069: 4068: 4064: 4054: 4052: 4043: 4042: 4038: 4028: 4026: 4017: 4016: 4012: 4006: 4005: 3998: 3975: 3971: 3958: 3957: 3950: 3937: 3933: 3926: 3922: 3912: 3910: 3901: 3900: 3896: 3886: 3884: 3877: 3861: 3852: 3842: 3840: 3825: 3821: 3811: 3809: 3802: 3786: 3782: 3772: 3770: 3763: 3747: 3743: 3733: 3732: 3725: 3715: 3713: 3698: 3691: 3681: 3679: 3664: 3660: 3649: 3645: 3635: 3633: 3625: 3624: 3620: 3610: 3608: 3600: 3599: 3595: 3585: 3583: 3575: 3571: 3570: 3566: 3543: 3539: 3504: 3500: 3490: 3488: 3479: 3478: 3474: 3464: 3462: 3454: 3453: 3449: 3440: 3439: 3435: 3425: 3423: 3419: 3412: 3406: 3402: 3392: 3390: 3386: 3379: 3373: 3362: 3352: 3350: 3339: 3335: 3325: 3323: 3310: 3306: 3296: 3294: 3272: 3268: 3258: 3256: 3210: 3206: 3196: 3194: 3187: 3171: 3162: 3157: 3152: 3151: 3146: 3142: 3135: 3134: 3130: 3125: 3073: 3044: 3036:water splitting 3031: 2912:Of which others 2805: 2800: 2779:End-use sector 2741: 2736: 2727: 2685: 2682: 2681: 2638: 2634: 2621: 2616: 2610: 2599: 2583: 2579: 2566: 2561: 2555: 2544: 2528: 2524: 2511: 2506: 2500: 2489: 2477: 2469: 2461: 2459: 2456: 2455: 2446:Life cycle cost 2443: 2441:Life cycle cost 2435: 2429: 2403: 2401: 2396: 2391: 2385: 2383: 2378: 2373: 2362: 2360: 2355: 2350: 2344: 2342: 2337: 2332: 2321: 2319: 2314: 2309: 2303: 2301: 2296: 2291: 2280: 2278: 2273: 2268: 2262: 2260: 2255: 2250: 2239: 2237: 2232: 2227: 2221: 2219: 2214: 2209: 2198: 2196: 2191: 2186: 2180: 2178: 2173: 2168: 2157: 2155: 2150: 2145: 2139: 2137: 2132: 2127: 2116: 2114: 2109: 2104: 2098: 2096: 2091: 2086: 2075: 2073: 2068: 2063: 2057: 2055: 2050: 2045: 2034: 2033:Other countries 2029: 2024: 2019: 2014: 1959:carbon monoxide 1938: 1927: 1921: 1918: 1907: 1895: 1884: 1774: 1765:electropolished 1686: 1670:carbon monoxide 1648: 1621: 1599: 1584:Failure occurs. 1575:Pitting occurs. 1563: 1548: 1516: 1499: 1482: 1471: 1469: 1466: 1465: 1419: 1368:phosphoric acid 1338:oxidizing acids 1299: 1241: 1217: 1207: 1195: 1178: 1176: 1142: 1124: 1118: 1020: 1014: 976: 970: 898: 892: 863: 812: 752: 738:(1875–1942) at 719:known today as 705:Philip Monnartz 643:Pierre Berthier 627:Michael Faraday 623:Louis Vauquelin 599: 591: 572: 526: 477: 457: 444: 428: 401: 396: 359:The biological 346:water treatment 342:chemical plants 247:Stainless steel 181:Stainless steel 106:Microstructures 28: 23: 22: 18:Stainless Steel 15: 12: 11: 5: 9790: 9780: 9779: 9774: 9769: 9764: 9759: 9754: 9749: 9732: 9731: 9729: 9728: 9723: 9718: 9713: 9708: 9703: 9698: 9697:Related topics 9694: 9691: 9690: 9688: 9687: 9682: 9677: 9671: 9665: 9659: 9657: 9653: 9652: 9649: 9648: 9646: 9645: 9640: 9639: 9638: 9628: 9623: 9618: 9613: 9608: 9602: 9600: 9596: 9595: 9593: 9592: 9587: 9582: 9577: 9572: 9567: 9562: 9561: 9560: 9555: 9545: 9540: 9535: 9530: 9524: 9522: 9518: 9517: 9515: 9514: 9509: 9504: 9499: 9494: 9489: 9484: 9479: 9474: 9469: 9464: 9459: 9454: 9444: 9439: 9434: 9429: 9424: 9419: 9414: 9409: 9404: 9399: 9394: 9389: 9384: 9379: 9374: 9369: 9364: 9359: 9354: 9349: 9344: 9339: 9334: 9329: 9319: 9314: 9309: 9304: 9298: 9296: 9289: 9288: 9286: 9285: 9280: 9275: 9270: 9265: 9260: 9255: 9250: 9245: 9240: 9234: 9232: 9226: 9225: 9223: 9222: 9217: 9216: 9215: 9205: 9200: 9195: 9190: 9185: 9180: 9174: 9172: 9165: 9164: 9162: 9161: 9156: 9151: 9146: 9141: 9135: 9133: 9124: 9120: 9119: 9116: 9115: 9113: 9112: 9107: 9102: 9097: 9092: 9086: 9084: 9080: 9079: 9077: 9076: 9071: 9069:Wire sculpture 9066: 9061: 9056: 9051: 9046: 9041: 9036: 9031: 9026: 9021: 9016: 9015: 9014: 9009: 9004: 8994: 8988: 8986: 8982: 8981: 8979: 8978: 8973: 8968: 8963: 8958: 8953: 8948: 8942: 8940: 8933: 8929: 8928: 8926: 8925: 8924: 8923: 8918: 8908: 8903: 8898: 8893: 8888: 8883: 8878: 8873: 8868: 8863: 8858: 8853: 8848: 8843: 8838: 8833: 8828: 8823: 8818: 8813: 8808: 8803: 8798: 8793: 8788: 8783: 8777: 8775: 8769: 8768: 8761: 8760: 8753: 8746: 8738: 8729: 8728: 8726: 8725: 8720: 8715: 8710: 8705: 8700: 8695: 8690: 8685: 8679: 8676: 8675: 8672: 8671: 8669: 8668: 8663: 8658: 8656:Photokeratitis 8653: 8647: 8645: 8641: 8640: 8638: 8637: 8632: 8627: 8622: 8617: 8612: 8606: 8604: 8600: 8599: 8597: 8596: 8591: 8586: 8581: 8576: 8574:Magnetic pulse 8571: 8566: 8561: 8556: 8551: 8546: 8541: 8536: 8531: 8526: 8520: 8518: 8512: 8511: 8509: 8508: 8503: 8498: 8493: 8488: 8483: 8478: 8473: 8468: 8462: 8460: 8454: 8453: 8446: 8445: 8438: 8431: 8423: 8416: 8415: 8412: 8411: 8409: 8408: 8403: 8398: 8393: 8388: 8383: 8378: 8373: 8367: 8365: 8363:Smithing tools 8359: 8358: 8356: 8355: 8350: 8345: 8340: 8335: 8330: 8325: 8320: 8315: 8310: 8305: 8300: 8295: 8290: 8285: 8280: 8278:Go/no go gauge 8275: 8270: 8265: 8260: 8255: 8250: 8248:Dial indicator 8245: 8240: 8235: 8229: 8227: 8221: 8220: 8218: 8217: 8212: 8207: 8202: 8197: 8192: 8187: 8182: 8177: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8156: 8154: 8148: 8147: 8145: 8144: 8139: 8134: 8129: 8124: 8119: 8114: 8109: 8104: 8099: 8094: 8089: 8084: 8079: 8074: 8069: 8064: 8058: 8056: 8050: 8049: 8047: 8046: 8044:Stamping press 8041: 8036: 8031: 8026: 8021: 8016: 8011: 8005: 8003: 7999: 7998: 7996: 7995: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7975: 7970: 7965: 7963:Milling cutter 7960: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7940: 7935: 7930: 7925: 7919: 7917: 7911: 7910: 7908: 7907: 7902: 7897: 7892: 7887: 7882: 7876: 7874: 7868: 7867: 7860: 7859: 7852: 7845: 7837: 7830: 7829: 7826: 7825: 7823: 7822: 7817: 7812: 7807: 7802: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7781: 7779: 7775: 7774: 7772: 7771: 7766: 7761: 7756: 7751: 7746: 7741: 7736: 7731: 7726: 7721: 7716: 7710: 7708: 7702: 7701: 7699: 7698: 7693: 7688: 7683: 7678: 7673: 7668: 7663: 7658: 7653: 7651:Milling cutter 7648: 7643: 7638: 7633: 7628: 7623: 7618: 7613: 7608: 7603: 7598: 7593: 7588: 7583: 7577: 7575: 7569: 7568: 7566: 7565: 7560: 7555: 7550: 7545: 7540: 7535: 7530: 7528:Grinding wheel 7525: 7520: 7515: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7495: 7490: 7485: 7480: 7475: 7469: 7467: 7459: 7458: 7456: 7455: 7450: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7430: 7425: 7420: 7415: 7410: 7404: 7402: 7391: 7390: 7388: 7387: 7382: 7377: 7372: 7367: 7362: 7356: 7354: 7350:Computer-aided 7346: 7345: 7337: 7336: 7329: 7322: 7314: 7307: 7306: 7303: 7302: 7300: 7299: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7277:Mass finishing 7274: 7269: 7264: 7258: 7256: 7250: 7249: 7247: 7246: 7241: 7236: 7231: 7226: 7220: 7218: 7214: 7213: 7211: 7210: 7205: 7200: 7195: 7190: 7185: 7180: 7175: 7170: 7165: 7160: 7155: 7150: 7145: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7119: 7117: 7113: 7112: 7110: 7109: 7104: 7099: 7093: 7091: 7087: 7086: 7072: 7071: 7064: 7057: 7049: 7042: 7041: 7038: 7037: 7035: 7034: 7029: 7024: 7019: 7014: 7009: 7004: 6998: 6996: 6992: 6991: 6989: 6988: 6983: 6978: 6973: 6968: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6947: 6945: 6941: 6940: 6938: 6937: 6932: 6927: 6922: 6917: 6912: 6907: 6905:Permanent mold 6902: 6897: 6896: 6895: 6890: 6880: 6875: 6870: 6864: 6862: 6858: 6857: 6850: 6849: 6842: 6835: 6827: 6820: 6819: 6812: 6811: 6804: 6797: 6789: 6783: 6782: 6768: 6754: 6753:External links 6751: 6750: 6749: 6737:978-0070491472 6736: 6721: 6709:978-0868831428 6708: 6689: 6681: 6667: 6652: 6649: 6646: 6645: 6615: 6592: 6570: 6513: 6487: 6463: 6432: 6401: 6388:October 1996, 6370: 6343:(2–3): 303–9. 6327: 6304: 6277: 6230: 6211:(2): 271–276. 6195: 6152: 6123: 6093: 6075:(1): 181–192, 6059: 6032: 6006: 5979: 5948: 5918: 5899: 5879: 5847: 5840: 5814: 5795:(2): 126–131. 5779: 5749: 5730: 5707: 5688: 5681: 5658: 5632: 5613: 5594: 5563: 5532: 5506: 5468: 5435: 5405: 5379: 5348: 5317: 5291: 5264: 5241: 5210: 5183: 5153: 5123: 5093: 5068: 5053: 5026:(3): 150–164. 5010: 4997:(7): 840–845. 4977: 4946: 4919: 4882: 4864: 4834: 4798: 4755: 4740: 4706: 4680: 4653: 4633: 4587: 4552: 4516: 4497: 4477: 4458: 4439: 4433:978-8190568586 4432: 4414: 4381: 4355: 4348: 4330: 4292: 4266: 4232: 4205: 4184: 4156: 4130: 4088: 4062: 4036: 4010: 3996: 3985:(5): 592–596. 3969: 3948: 3931: 3920: 3894: 3876:978-1615030118 3875: 3850: 3819: 3801:978-1476611136 3800: 3780: 3762:978-1615030118 3761: 3741: 3736:New York Times 3723: 3689: 3658: 3643: 3618: 3593: 3582:. October 2008 3564: 3537: 3498: 3472: 3460:Langley Alloys 3447: 3433: 3400: 3360: 3333: 3304: 3266: 3224:(4): 275–300. 3204: 3186:978-0871705037 3185: 3159: 3158: 3156: 3153: 3150: 3149: 3140: 3127: 3126: 3124: 3121: 3120: 3119: 3114: 3109: 3104: 3102:Metallic fiber 3099: 3094: 3089: 3084: 3079: 3072: 3069: 3043: 3042:Health effects 3040: 3030: 3027: 3024: 3023: 3020: 3017: 3014: 3011: 3008: 3005: 3002: 2999: 2995: 2994: 2991: 2988: 2985: 2982: 2979: 2976: 2973: 2970: 2966: 2965: 2962: 2959: 2956: 2953: 2950: 2947: 2944: 2941: 2937: 2936: 2934: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2914: 2908: 2907: 2905: 2900: 2895: 2890: 2885: 2879: 2878: 2875: 2872: 2869: 2866: 2864: 2861: 2858: 2854: 2853: 2850: 2847: 2844: 2841: 2838: 2835: 2832: 2829: 2825: 2824: 2821: 2818: 2814: 2813: 2810: 2807: 2802: 2797: 2794: 2790: 2789: 2786: 2783: 2780: 2752: 2751: 2748: 2739: 2734: 2726: 2723: 2722: 2721: 2717: 2689: 2658: 2657: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2630: 2627: 2624: 2613: 2608: 2605: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2575: 2572: 2569: 2558: 2553: 2550: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2520: 2517: 2514: 2503: 2498: 2495: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2476: 2468: 2442: 2439: 2431:Main article: 2428: 2425: 2424: 2423: 2420: 2417: 2408: 2407: 2399: 2394: 2389: 2381: 2376: 2371: 2367: 2366: 2358: 2353: 2348: 2340: 2335: 2330: 2326: 2325: 2317: 2312: 2307: 2299: 2294: 2289: 2285: 2284: 2276: 2271: 2266: 2258: 2253: 2248: 2244: 2243: 2235: 2230: 2225: 2217: 2212: 2207: 2203: 2202: 2194: 2189: 2184: 2176: 2171: 2166: 2162: 2161: 2153: 2148: 2143: 2135: 2130: 2125: 2121: 2120: 2112: 2107: 2102: 2094: 2089: 2084: 2080: 2079: 2071: 2066: 2061: 2053: 2048: 2043: 2039: 2038: 2035: 2032: 2030: 2027: 2025: 2022: 2020: 2017: 2015: 2013:European Union 2012: 2010: 1997: 1996: 1995: 1994: 1991: 1988: 1978: 1972: 1962: 1952: 1940: 1939: 1898: 1896: 1889: 1883: 1880: 1874:. Acrylic and 1864: 1863: 1858: 1853: 1848: 1843: 1838: 1826: 1825: 1820: 1814: 1809: 1804: 1798: 1773: 1770: 1769: 1768: 1761: 1758: 1755: 1752: 1749: 1746: 1743: 1740: 1737: 1734: 1731: 1728: 1685: 1682: 1662:sulfur dioxide 1647: 1644: 1620: 1617: 1616: 1615: 1604: 1601: 1597: 1586: 1585: 1582: 1579: 1576: 1569: 1568: 1565: 1561: 1558: 1547: 1544: 1533: 1532: 1515: 1512: 1509: 1506: 1498: 1495: 1492: 1489: 1481: 1478: 1455: 1454: 1451: 1448: 1445: 1442: 1418: 1415: 1298: 1295: 1240: 1237: 1206: 1203: 1193: 1187: 1186: 1174: 1167: 1166: 1158: 1157: 1141: 1138: 1134:water industry 1129:yield strength 1120:Main article: 1117: 1114: 1106: 1105: 1098:yield strength 1094: 1084: 1077: 1076: 1061: 1054: 1031: 1016:Main article: 1013: 1010: 1009: 1008: 1001: 998: 995: 992: 972:Main article: 969: 966: 965: 964: 963: 962: 951: 940: 939: 938: 935: 894:Main article: 891: 888: 887: 886: 883: 880: 877: 874: 862: 859: 858: 857: 850: 843: 834: 811: 810:Rustless steel 808: 776:Harry Brearley 762:at the former 760:Harry Brearley 751: 750:Harry Brearley 748: 669:Adolphe Carnot 619:French Academy 598: 595: 590: 587: 571: 568: 565: 564: 561: 558: 555: 552: 548: 547: 544: 541: 538: 535: 519:work hardening 476: 473: 456: 453: 443: 440: 427: 424: 423: 422: 415: 412: 400: 397: 395: 392: 263:rustless steel 242: 241: 240: 239: 234: 232:Malleable iron 229: 224: 219: 214: 206: 205: 201: 200: 199: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 176:Maraging steel 173: 168: 163: 158: 156:Crucible steel 150: 149: 145: 144: 143: 142: 137: 132: 127: 122: 117: 109: 108: 102: 101: 100: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 71: 70: 64: 63: 55: 54: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9789: 9778: 9775: 9773: 9770: 9768: 9765: 9763: 9760: 9758: 9755: 9753: 9750: 9748: 9745: 9744: 9742: 9727: 9724: 9722: 9719: 9717: 9714: 9712: 9709: 9707: 9704: 9702: 9701:Body piercing 9699: 9696: 9695: 9692: 9686: 9683: 9681: 9678: 9675: 9672: 9669: 9666: 9664: 9661: 9660: 9658: 9654: 9644: 9641: 9637: 9634: 9633: 9632: 9629: 9627: 9624: 9622: 9619: 9617: 9614: 9612: 9609: 9607: 9604: 9603: 9601: 9597: 9591: 9590:Tortoiseshell 9588: 9586: 9583: 9581: 9578: 9576: 9573: 9571: 9568: 9566: 9563: 9559: 9556: 9554: 9551: 9550: 9549: 9546: 9544: 9541: 9539: 9536: 9534: 9531: 9529: 9526: 9525: 9523: 9519: 9513: 9510: 9508: 9505: 9503: 9500: 9498: 9495: 9493: 9490: 9488: 9485: 9483: 9480: 9478: 9475: 9473: 9470: 9468: 9465: 9463: 9460: 9458: 9455: 9452: 9448: 9445: 9443: 9440: 9438: 9435: 9433: 9430: 9428: 9425: 9423: 9420: 9418: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9408: 9405: 9403: 9400: 9398: 9395: 9393: 9390: 9388: 9385: 9383: 9380: 9378: 9375: 9373: 9370: 9368: 9365: 9363: 9360: 9358: 9355: 9353: 9350: 9348: 9345: 9343: 9340: 9338: 9335: 9333: 9330: 9327: 9323: 9320: 9318: 9315: 9313: 9310: 9308: 9305: 9303: 9300: 9299: 9297: 9295: 9290: 9284: 9281: 9279: 9276: 9274: 9271: 9269: 9266: 9264: 9261: 9259: 9256: 9254: 9251: 9249: 9246: 9244: 9241: 9239: 9236: 9235: 9233: 9231: 9227: 9221: 9218: 9214: 9211: 9210: 9209: 9206: 9204: 9201: 9199: 9196: 9194: 9191: 9189: 9186: 9184: 9181: 9179: 9176: 9175: 9173: 9171: 9166: 9160: 9157: 9155: 9152: 9150: 9147: 9145: 9142: 9140: 9137: 9136: 9134: 9132: 9128: 9125: 9121: 9111: 9108: 9106: 9103: 9101: 9098: 9096: 9093: 9091: 9088: 9087: 9085: 9081: 9075: 9072: 9070: 9067: 9065: 9062: 9060: 9057: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9045: 9042: 9040: 9037: 9035: 9032: 9030: 9027: 9025: 9022: 9020: 9017: 9013: 9010: 9008: 9005: 9003: 9000: 8999: 8998: 8995: 8993: 8990: 8989: 8987: 8983: 8977: 8974: 8972: 8969: 8967: 8964: 8962: 8959: 8957: 8954: 8952: 8949: 8947: 8946:Bench jeweler 8944: 8943: 8941: 8937: 8934: 8930: 8922: 8919: 8917: 8914: 8913: 8912: 8909: 8907: 8904: 8902: 8899: 8897: 8894: 8892: 8889: 8887: 8884: 8882: 8879: 8877: 8874: 8872: 8869: 8867: 8864: 8862: 8859: 8857: 8854: 8852: 8849: 8847: 8844: 8842: 8839: 8837: 8834: 8832: 8829: 8827: 8824: 8822: 8819: 8817: 8814: 8812: 8809: 8807: 8804: 8802: 8799: 8797: 8794: 8792: 8789: 8787: 8784: 8782: 8779: 8778: 8776: 8774: 8770: 8766: 8759: 8754: 8752: 8747: 8745: 8740: 8739: 8736: 8724: 8721: 8719: 8716: 8714: 8711: 8709: 8706: 8704: 8701: 8699: 8696: 8694: 8691: 8689: 8686: 8684: 8681: 8680: 8677: 8667: 8664: 8662: 8659: 8657: 8654: 8652: 8649: 8648: 8646: 8644:Related terms 8642: 8636: 8635:Shielding gas 8633: 8631: 8628: 8626: 8623: 8621: 8618: 8616: 8613: 8611: 8608: 8607: 8605: 8601: 8595: 8592: 8590: 8587: 8585: 8582: 8580: 8577: 8575: 8572: 8570: 8567: 8565: 8562: 8560: 8559:Friction stud 8557: 8555: 8552: 8550: 8547: 8545: 8542: 8540: 8537: 8535: 8532: 8530: 8527: 8525: 8522: 8521: 8519: 8517: 8513: 8507: 8504: 8502: 8499: 8497: 8494: 8492: 8489: 8487: 8484: 8482: 8479: 8477: 8474: 8472: 8469: 8467: 8464: 8463: 8461: 8459: 8455: 8451: 8444: 8439: 8437: 8432: 8430: 8425: 8424: 8421: 8417: 8407: 8404: 8402: 8399: 8397: 8394: 8392: 8389: 8387: 8384: 8382: 8379: 8377: 8374: 8372: 8369: 8368: 8366: 8364: 8360: 8354: 8353:Vernier scale 8351: 8349: 8346: 8344: 8341: 8339: 8338:Surface plate 8336: 8334: 8331: 8329: 8326: 8324: 8321: 8319: 8316: 8314: 8311: 8309: 8306: 8304: 8301: 8299: 8298:Marking gauge 8296: 8294: 8291: 8289: 8286: 8284: 8281: 8279: 8276: 8274: 8271: 8269: 8266: 8264: 8261: 8259: 8256: 8254: 8251: 8249: 8246: 8244: 8241: 8239: 8236: 8234: 8231: 8230: 8228: 8226: 8222: 8216: 8213: 8211: 8208: 8206: 8203: 8201: 8198: 8196: 8195:Machine taper 8193: 8191: 8188: 8186: 8183: 8181: 8180:Indexing head 8178: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8168: 8166: 8163: 8161: 8158: 8157: 8155: 8153: 8149: 8143: 8140: 8138: 8135: 8133: 8130: 8128: 8125: 8123: 8120: 8118: 8115: 8113: 8110: 8108: 8105: 8103: 8100: 8098: 8095: 8093: 8090: 8088: 8085: 8083: 8080: 8078: 8075: 8073: 8070: 8068: 8065: 8063: 8060: 8059: 8057: 8055: 8051: 8045: 8042: 8040: 8037: 8035: 8032: 8030: 8029:Machine press 8027: 8025: 8022: 8020: 8019:English wheel 8017: 8015: 8012: 8010: 8007: 8006: 8004: 8002:Forming tools 8000: 7994: 7991: 7989: 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7974: 7971: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7936: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7920: 7918: 7916: 7915:Cutting tools 7912: 7906: 7903: 7901: 7898: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7877: 7875: 7873: 7869: 7865: 7858: 7853: 7851: 7846: 7844: 7839: 7838: 7835: 7831: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7813: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7785:Cutting fluid 7783: 7782: 7780: 7776: 7770: 7767: 7765: 7762: 7760: 7757: 7755: 7752: 7750: 7749:Machine taper 7747: 7745: 7742: 7740: 7737: 7735: 7734:Indexing head 7732: 7730: 7727: 7725: 7722: 7720: 7717: 7715: 7712: 7711: 7709: 7707: 7706:Machine tools 7703: 7697: 7694: 7692: 7689: 7687: 7684: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7667: 7664: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7647: 7644: 7642: 7639: 7637: 7634: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7612: 7609: 7607: 7604: 7602: 7599: 7597: 7594: 7592: 7589: 7587: 7584: 7582: 7579: 7578: 7576: 7574: 7570: 7564: 7561: 7559: 7556: 7554: 7553:Spark testing 7551: 7549: 7546: 7544: 7541: 7539: 7536: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7524: 7521: 7519: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7508:Flick grinder 7506: 7504: 7503:Diamond plate 7501: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7488:Bench grinder 7486: 7484: 7483:Angle grinder 7481: 7479: 7476: 7474: 7471: 7470: 7468: 7466: 7460: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7416: 7414: 7411: 7409: 7406: 7405: 7403: 7401: 7396: 7392: 7386: 7383: 7381: 7378: 7376: 7373: 7371: 7368: 7366: 7363: 7361: 7358: 7357: 7355: 7353: 7347: 7343:and computing 7342: 7335: 7330: 7328: 7323: 7321: 7316: 7315: 7312: 7308: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7272:Heat treating 7270: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7259: 7257: 7255: 7251: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7237: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7221: 7219: 7215: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7191: 7189: 7186: 7184: 7181: 7179: 7176: 7174: 7171: 7169: 7166: 7164: 7161: 7159: 7156: 7154: 7151: 7149: 7146: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7120: 7118: 7114: 7108: 7105: 7103: 7100: 7098: 7095: 7094: 7092: 7088: 7082: 7078: 7070: 7065: 7063: 7058: 7056: 7051: 7050: 7047: 7043: 7033: 7030: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7020: 7018: 7015: 7013: 7010: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7000: 6999: 6997: 6993: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6956:Cope and drag 6954: 6952: 6949: 6948: 6946: 6942: 6936: 6933: 6931: 6930:Shell molding 6928: 6926: 6923: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6885: 6884: 6881: 6879: 6876: 6874: 6871: 6869: 6866: 6865: 6863: 6859: 6855: 6848: 6843: 6841: 6836: 6834: 6829: 6828: 6825: 6821: 6817: 6810: 6805: 6803: 6798: 6796: 6791: 6790: 6787: 6781:at Wiktionary 6780: 6779: 6773: 6769: 6766: 6761: 6757: 6756: 6739: 6733: 6729: 6728: 6722: 6711: 6705: 6701: 6697: 6696: 6690: 6685: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6670: 6668:0-7131-2793-7 6664: 6660: 6655: 6654: 6642: 6638: 6636: 6631: 6627: 6624: 6619: 6612: 6608: 6604: 6601: 6596: 6589: 6586: 6582: 6579: 6574: 6566: 6562: 6557: 6552: 6548: 6544: 6540: 6536: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6517: 6510: 6506: 6502: 6499: 6494: 6492: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6473: 6467: 6460: 6456: 6454: 6453:Ugeskr Laeger 6449: 6445: 6442: 6436: 6429: 6425: 6423: 6418: 6414: 6411: 6405: 6398: 6394: 6392: 6387: 6383: 6380: 6374: 6366: 6362: 6358: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6331: 6324: 6320: 6319: 6314: 6308: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6288: 6281: 6273: 6267: 6251: 6240: 6234: 6226: 6222: 6218: 6214: 6210: 6206: 6199: 6191: 6187: 6183: 6179: 6175: 6171: 6167: 6163: 6156: 6137: 6133: 6127: 6111: 6107: 6103: 6097: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6070: 6069:Energy Policy 6063: 6047: 6043: 6036: 6020: 6016: 6010: 5994: 5990: 5983: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5952: 5936: 5932: 5928: 5922: 5906: 5902: 5896: 5892: 5891: 5883: 5864: 5857: 5851: 5843: 5841:9780123919168 5837: 5833: 5829: 5825: 5818: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5783: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5753: 5737: 5733: 5727: 5723: 5722: 5714: 5712: 5703: 5699: 5692: 5684: 5678: 5671: 5670: 5662: 5646: 5642: 5636: 5620: 5616: 5610: 5606: 5605: 5598: 5582: 5578: 5574: 5567: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5536: 5520: 5516: 5510: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5479: 5477: 5475: 5473: 5453: 5446: 5439: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5409: 5394: 5390: 5383: 5367: 5363: 5359: 5352: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5321: 5306: 5302: 5295: 5279: 5275: 5268: 5252: 5245: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5214: 5198: 5194: 5187: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5157: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5130: 5128: 5111: 5107: 5103: 5097: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5080: 5072: 5064: 5057: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5014: 5005: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4981: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4957: 4950: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4923: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4894: 4886: 4878: 4874: 4868: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4838: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4802: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4759: 4751: 4744: 4725: 4721: 4715: 4713: 4711: 4694: 4690: 4684: 4668: 4664: 4657: 4650: 4649: 4644: 4637: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4591: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4561: 4559: 4557: 4537: 4530: 4523: 4521: 4504: 4500: 4494: 4490: 4489: 4481: 4465: 4461: 4455: 4451: 4450: 4443: 4435: 4429: 4425: 4418: 4399: 4392: 4385: 4369: 4365: 4359: 4351: 4345: 4341: 4334: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4296: 4280: 4276: 4270: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4236: 4220: 4216: 4209: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4188: 4181: 4180:0-471-24410-4 4177: 4173: 4169: 4166: 4160: 4144: 4140: 4134: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4099: 4097: 4095: 4093: 4076: 4072: 4066: 4050: 4046: 4040: 4024: 4020: 4014: 4003: 4001: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3973: 3965: 3961: 3955: 3953: 3944: 3943: 3935: 3929: 3924: 3908: 3904: 3898: 3882: 3878: 3872: 3868: 3867: 3859: 3857: 3855: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3823: 3807: 3803: 3797: 3794:. McFarland. 3793: 3792: 3784: 3768: 3764: 3758: 3754: 3753: 3745: 3737: 3730: 3728: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3696: 3694: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3662: 3654: 3647: 3632: 3628: 3622: 3607: 3603: 3597: 3581: 3574: 3568: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3541: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3502: 3486: 3482: 3476: 3461: 3457: 3451: 3443: 3437: 3418: 3411: 3404: 3385: 3378: 3371: 3369: 3367: 3365: 3348: 3344: 3337: 3321: 3317: 3316: 3308: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3270: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3208: 3192: 3188: 3182: 3178: 3177: 3169: 3167: 3165: 3160: 3144: 3132: 3128: 3118: 3115: 3113: 3110: 3108: 3105: 3103: 3100: 3098: 3095: 3093: 3090: 3088: 3085: 3083: 3080: 3078: 3077:Cobalt-chrome 3075: 3074: 3068: 3066: 3062: 3056: 3054: 3050: 3039: 3037: 3021: 3018: 3015: 3012: 3009: 3006: 3003: 3000: 2997: 2996: 2992: 2989: 2986: 2983: 2980: 2977: 2974: 2971: 2968: 2967: 2963: 2960: 2957: 2954: 2951: 2948: 2945: 2942: 2939: 2938: 2933: 2930: 2928: 2925: 2923: 2920: 2918: 2915: 2913: 2910: 2909: 2904: 2901: 2899: 2896: 2894: 2891: 2889: 2886: 2884: 2881: 2880: 2876: 2873: 2870: 2867: 2862: 2859: 2856: 2855: 2851: 2848: 2845: 2842: 2839: 2836: 2833: 2830: 2827: 2826: 2822: 2819: 2816: 2815: 2806:of variation 2791: 2777: 2771: 2767: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2749: 2745: 2744: 2743: 2732: 2718: 2715: 2714: 2713: 2710: 2706: 2705: 2701: 2687: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2664:In addition, 2662: 2639: 2631: 2628: 2625: 2611: 2606: 2603: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2584: 2576: 2573: 2570: 2556: 2551: 2548: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2529: 2521: 2518: 2515: 2501: 2496: 2493: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2474: 2466: 2454: 2453: 2452: 2449: 2447: 2438: 2434: 2421: 2418: 2415: 2414: 2413: 2400: 2395: 2390: 2382: 2377: 2372: 2369: 2368: 2359: 2354: 2349: 2341: 2336: 2331: 2328: 2327: 2318: 2313: 2308: 2300: 2295: 2290: 2287: 2286: 2277: 2272: 2267: 2259: 2254: 2249: 2246: 2245: 2236: 2231: 2226: 2218: 2213: 2208: 2205: 2204: 2195: 2190: 2185: 2177: 2172: 2167: 2164: 2163: 2154: 2149: 2144: 2136: 2131: 2126: 2123: 2122: 2113: 2108: 2103: 2095: 2090: 2085: 2082: 2081: 2072: 2067: 2062: 2054: 2049: 2044: 2041: 2040: 2036: 2031: 2026: 2021: 2016: 2011: 2008: 2007: 2001: 1992: 1989: 1986: 1982: 1981: 1979: 1976: 1973: 1970: 1966: 1963: 1960: 1956: 1953: 1950: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1936: 1933: 1925: 1915: 1911: 1905: 1904: 1899:This section 1897: 1893: 1888: 1887: 1879: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1862: 1859: 1857: 1854: 1852: 1851:Flash welding 1849: 1847: 1844: 1842: 1839: 1837: 1834: 1833: 1832: 1829: 1824: 1821: 1818: 1815: 1813: 1810: 1808: 1805: 1802: 1799: 1796: 1793: 1792: 1791: 1788: 1786: 1781: 1779: 1766: 1762: 1759: 1756: 1753: 1750: 1747: 1744: 1741: 1738: 1735: 1732: 1729: 1726: 1725: 1724: 1722: 1717: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1698:mill finishes 1690: 1681: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1658: 1654: 1643: 1641: 1634: 1630: 1625: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1602: 1595: 1594: 1593: 1590: 1583: 1580: 1577: 1574: 1573: 1572: 1566: 1559: 1556: 1555: 1554: 1552: 1543: 1539: 1536: 1510: 1507: 1504: 1493: 1490: 1487: 1476: 1464: 1463: 1462: 1460: 1452: 1449: 1446: 1443: 1439: 1438: 1437: 1434: 1432: 1431:chloride ions 1428: 1424: 1414: 1412: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1390: 1388: 1384: 1379: 1377: 1376:organic acids 1373: 1369: 1365: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1345:temperature, 1343: 1339: 1335: 1334:sulfuric acid 1331: 1323: 1318: 1314: 1312: 1308: 1303: 1294: 1291: 1287: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1261: 1260:copper-nickel 1258:(top row) or 1257: 1253: 1250: 1245: 1236: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1216: 1212: 1202: 1200: 1190: 1184: 1183: 1182: 1172: 1164: 1163: 1162: 1155: 1151: 1150: 1149: 1146: 1137: 1135: 1130: 1123: 1113: 1111: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1092: 1088: 1085: 1082: 1081: 1080: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1059: 1055: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1029: 1028: 1027: 1025: 1019: 1006: 1002: 999: 996: 993: 990: 989: 988: 986: 981: 975: 960: 956: 952: 949: 945: 944: 941: 936: 933: 932: 929: 928: 927: 924: 922: 918: 913: 909: 907: 903: 897: 884: 881: 878: 875: 872: 871: 870: 868: 855: 851: 848: 844: 842: 838: 835: 832: 829:AOD process ( 828: 827: 826: 823: 820: 818: 807: 805: 800: 796: 795:Firth Vickers 791: 789: 785: 781: 777: 769: 765: 761: 756: 747: 745: 744:Elwood Haynes 741: 740:Union Carbide 737: 733: 729: 724: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 702: 701: 696: 692: 689:In 1908, the 687: 685: 681: 677: 672: 670: 665: 661: 659: 655: 651: 646: 644: 640: 639:Robert Bunsen 636: 632: 631:Robert Mallet 628: 624: 620: 612: 608: 603: 594: 586: 584: 580: 576: 562: 559: 556: 553: 550: 549: 545: 542: 539: 536: 533: 532: 522: 520: 516: 512: 508: 504: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 481: 472: 470: 466: 462: 452: 449: 448:melting point 442:Melting point 439: 437: 432: 420: 416: 413: 410: 409: 408: 404: 391: 389: 385: 381: 377: 373: 368: 366: 362: 357: 355: 351: 347: 343: 339: 335: 331: 327: 323: 319: 314: 312: 308: 304: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 280: 276: 272: 268: 264: 260: 256: 252: 248: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 209: 208: 207: 203: 202: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 159: 157: 154: 153: 152: 151: 147: 146: 141: 138: 136: 133: 131: 128: 126: 123: 121: 118: 116: 113: 112: 111: 110: 107: 104: 103: 98: 95: 93: 90: 88: 85: 83: 80: 78: 75: 74: 73: 72: 69: 66: 65: 61: 57: 56: 53: 50: 49: 42: 34: 30: 19: 9757:Biomaterials 9726:Wearable art 9721:Phaleristics 9716:Metalworking 9621:Gutta-percha 9397:Lapis lazuli 9272: 9183:Colored gold 9064:Stonesetting 8625:Power supply 8615:Filler metal 8569:Laser-hybrid 8496:Plasma (PAW) 8396:Steam hammer 8343:Tape measure 8333:Straightedge 8318:Radius gauge 8293:Marking blue 8283:Height gauge 8263:Feeler gauge 8243:Center gauge 8210:Rotary table 8190:Lathe center 8102:Piercing saw 8087:Hand scraper 7958:Hand scraper 7764:Rotary table 7744:Lathe center 7631:Machine tool 7463:Grinding and 7208:Tube bending 7163:Hydroforming 6971:Molding sand 6925:Shaw process 6910:Plaster mold 6816:Metalworking 6777: 6741:. Retrieved 6726: 6713:. Retrieved 6699: 6694: 6658: 6633: 6618: 6595: 6587: 6573: 6530: 6526: 6516: 6466: 6451: 6435: 6420: 6404: 6389: 6373: 6340: 6336: 6330: 6316: 6307: 6290: 6286: 6280: 6254:. Retrieved 6233: 6208: 6204: 6198: 6165: 6161: 6155: 6143:. Retrieved 6136:the original 6126: 6114:. Retrieved 6105: 6096: 6072: 6068: 6062: 6050:. Retrieved 6035: 6023:. Retrieved 6019:the original 6009: 5997:. Retrieved 5982: 5970:. Retrieved 5961: 5951: 5939:. Retrieved 5930: 5921: 5909:. Retrieved 5889: 5882: 5870:. Retrieved 5850: 5823: 5817: 5792: 5788: 5782: 5770:. Retrieved 5761: 5752: 5740:. Retrieved 5720: 5701: 5691: 5668: 5661: 5649:. Retrieved 5644: 5635: 5623:. Retrieved 5619:the original 5603: 5597: 5585:. Retrieved 5576: 5566: 5554:. Retrieved 5545: 5535: 5523:. Retrieved 5509: 5497:. Retrieved 5488: 5459:. Retrieved 5438: 5426:. Retrieved 5417: 5408: 5396:. Retrieved 5392: 5382: 5370:. Retrieved 5361: 5351: 5339:. Retrieved 5330: 5320: 5308:. Retrieved 5304: 5294: 5282:. 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Retrieved 3175: 3143: 3131: 3065:nasal cancer 3057: 3045: 3032: 2998:Metal goods 2931: 2926: 2921: 2916: 2911: 2902: 2897: 2892: 2887: 2882: 2809:To landfill 2804:Coefficient 2768: 2753: 2729:The average 2728: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2702: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2663: 2659: 2450: 2444: 2436: 2427:Applications 2411: 1998: 1943: 1928: 1919: 1908:Please help 1903:verification 1900: 1876:polyurethane 1865: 1836:Stud welding 1830: 1827: 1789: 1785:electric arc 1782: 1775: 1718: 1695: 1649: 1638: 1591: 1587: 1570: 1549: 1540: 1537: 1534: 1456: 1435: 1420: 1391: 1380: 1327: 1322:desalination 1304: 1300: 1292: 1288: 1268:carbon steel 1265: 1254:better than 1218: 1211:Steel grades 1191: 1188: 1168: 1159: 1152:Martensitic 1143: 1125: 1107: 1078: 1021: 1000:Knife blades 977: 925: 914: 910: 899: 864: 824: 821: 813: 792: 787: 773: 758:Monument to 725: 720: 698: 688: 684:Leon Guillet 673: 666: 662: 647: 616: 606: 592: 573: 515:non-magnetic 478: 458: 455:Conductivity 445: 433: 429: 405: 402: 369: 361:cleanability 358: 315: 307:passive film 262: 258: 254: 250: 246: 245: 237:Wrought iron 227:Ductile iron 180: 166:Spring steel 161:Carbon steel 29: 9663:Art jewelry 9487:Tiger's eye 9392:Labradorite 9342:Chrysocolla 9337:Chrysoberyl 9253:Mokume-gane 9230:Base metals 9002:centrifugal 8971:Silversmith 8846:Ferronnière 8796:Belt buckle 8791:Belly chain 8688:Fabrication 8666:Weldability 8458:Arc welding 8406:Trip hammer 8401:Swage block 8386:Hardy tools 8303:Marking out 8273:Gauge block 8160:Angle plate 8122:Tap and die 8039:Screw press 8034:Punch press 7988:Tipped tool 7943:Countersink 7938:Counterbore 7778:Terminology 7714:Angle plate 7641:Metal lathe 7533:Jig grinder 7443:Tap and die 7352:engineering 7267:Galvanizing 7107:Sheet metal 7097:Fabrication 7081:fabrication 6995:Terminology 6868:Centrifugal 6145:19 November 5826:: 191–214. 5651:30 November 4225:17 February 3442:MIL-HDBK-5J 3137:practical". 3061:lung cancer 1975:Hot rolling 1406:fatty acids 1372:nitric acid 1342:nitric acid 1332:and dilute 1284:passivation 1012:Martensitic 879:Martensitic 799:Savoy Hotel 780:Brown-Firth 480:Martensitic 338:paper mills 171:Alloy steel 115:Spheroidite 9741:Categories 9497:Tourmaline 9442:Prasiolite 9317:Aventurine 9188:Crown gold 9090:Draw plate 9039:Metal clay 8976:Watchmaker 8966:Lapidarist 8951:Clockmaker 8826:Collar pin 8821:Chatelaine 8708:Metallurgy 8589:Ultrasonic 8584:Spot (RSW) 8539:Exothermic 8308:Micrometer 8233:Bore gauge 8054:Hand tools 7656:Pantograph 7448:Tap wrench 7282:Patination 7102:Piece work 6944:Components 6873:Continuous 5682:287997173X 5625:15 October 5310:2 November 5257:2 November 4857:28 January 4285:5 February 4201:0752459856 3606:Accu.co.uk 3297:21 January 3259:21 January 3218:Biofouling 3155:References 2788:Estimates 2756:recyclable 2747:man-hours. 1922:March 2020 1882:Production 1710:mill scale 1340:, such as 1324:equipment. 1276:iron oxide 1249:salt-water 1209:See also: 1199:superalloy 1051:cavitation 890:Austenitic 873:Austenitic 804:Pittsburgh 579:lubricated 511:Austenitic 394:Properties 287:molybdenum 222:White iron 196:Tool steel 130:Ledeburite 92:Martensite 9643:Toadstone 9580:Operculum 9507:Variscite 9502:Turquoise 9482:Tanzanite 9417:Moonstone 9412:Marcasite 9407:Malachite 9332:Carnelian 9307:Amazonite 9294:gemstones 9268:Pinchbeck 9213:Argentium 9203:Shibuichi 9144:Palladium 9123:Materials 9059:Soldering 9049:Polishing 9024:Engraving 9019:Enameling 8985:Processes 8956:Goldsmith 8891:Tie chain 8866:Neck ring 8856:Lapel pin 8765:Jewellery 8703:Machining 8698:Jewellery 8610:Electrode 8603:Equipment 8137:Workbench 8072:Drift pin 7895:Miter saw 7820:Workpiece 7815:Tramp oil 7805:Tolerance 7636:Machining 7626:Jig borer 7611:Engraving 7586:Broaching 7573:Machining 7453:Threading 7418:Drill bit 7400:threading 7341:Machining 7297:Polishing 7262:Anodizing 7239:Soldering 7153:Extrusion 6893:Lost foam 6888:Full mold 6861:Processes 6547:0021-8561 6116:1 October 6052:1 October 6025:1 October 5999:1 October 5972:1 October 5941:1 October 5911:1 October 5872:1 October 5742:1 October 5587:1 October 5556:1 October 5525:1 October 5499:1 October 5461:1 October 5428:1 October 5398:1 October 5372:1 October 5341:1 October 5284:1 October 5234:1 October 5203:1 October 5191:Sandvik. 5176:1 October 5148:1101-0681 5116:1 October 5048:138622727 4972:136518814 4912:1 October 4791:1 October 4733:1 October 4699:1 October 4673:1 October 4621:232787847 4545:1 October 4509:1 October 4470:1 October 4407:1 October 4374:1 October 4323:1 October 4313:0161-7370 4149:1 October 4123:1 October 4081:1 October 4055:1 October 4029:13 August 3913:1 October 3843:1 October 3812:1 October 3773:1 October 3716:1 October 3682:1 October 3611:24 August 3586:24 August 3353:1 October 3326:1 October 3246:0892-7014 2720:vehicles. 2688:∑ 2597:∑ 2542:∑ 2487:∑ 1985:Sendzimir 1706:oxidation 1696:Standard 1514:% 1511:⋅ 1497:% 1494:⋅ 1480:% 1417:Localized 1394:aldehydes 1355:Type 904L 1272:corrosion 1252:corrosion 1197:Fe-based 1171:quenching 1087:Quenching 985:zirconium 921:tempering 917:quenching 906:cryogenic 770:, England 768:Sheffield 650:Sheffield 613:, England 611:Sheffield 534:EN grade 475:Magnetism 365:aluminium 311:self-heal 279:corrosion 265:, is an 217:Gray iron 212:Cast iron 87:Cementite 82:Austenite 9711:Gemology 9685:Fineness 9676:(purity) 9611:Bog-wood 9558:Precious 9538:Ammolite 9477:Sunstone 9467:Sodalite 9462:Sapphire 9422:Obsidian 9362:Fluorite 9352:Diopside 9312:Amethyst 9292:Mineral 9283:Tungsten 9278:Titanium 9193:Electrum 9149:Platinum 9034:Kazaziye 9029:Filigree 9007:lost-wax 8906:Toe ring 8896:Tie clip 8871:Pectoral 8861:Necklace 8836:Cufflink 8811:Bracelet 8806:Bolo tie 8786:Barrette 8713:Smithing 8549:Friction 8391:Pritchel 8328:Sine bar 7993:Tool bit 7948:End mill 7885:Cold saw 7606:End mill 7513:Grinding 7473:Abrasive 7433:Drilling 7408:Die head 7395:Drilling 7234:Riveting 7229:Crimping 7198:Spinning 7183:Punching 7168:Stamping 6626:Archived 6603:Archived 6581:Archived 6565:23984718 6501:Archived 6475:Archived 6444:Archived 6413:Archived 6382:Archived 6266:cite web 6256:24 April 6225:23881842 6190:20426460 6110:Archived 6046:Archived 5993:Archived 5966:Archived 5935:Archived 5905:Archived 5863:Archived 5766:Archived 5736:Archived 5702:Fractory 5581:Archived 5550:Archived 5519:Archived 5493:Archived 5452:Archived 5422:Archived 5366:Archived 5335:Archived 5228:Archived 5197:Archived 5170:Archived 5110:Archived 4906:Archived 4851:Archived 4785:Archived 4724:Archived 4693:Archived 4667:Archived 4574:Archived 4536:Archived 4503:Archived 4464:Archived 4398:Archived 4368:Archived 4317:Archived 4168:Archived 4143:Archived 4117:Archived 4075:Archived 4049:Archived 3907:Archived 3881:Archived 3837:Archived 3833:Iron Age 3806:Archived 3767:Archived 3710:Archived 3676:Archived 3491:23 March 3465:23 March 3417:Archived 3384:Archived 3347:Archived 3320:Archived 3254:22115182 3191:Archived 3071:See also 2801:(years) 2782:Results 2018:Americas 1714:pickling 1702:annealed 1674:chlorine 1619:Galvanic 1359:Alloy 20 1351:type 316 1347:type 304 1233:EN 10088 1065:vanadium 1053:erosion. 968:Ferritic 876:Ferritic 700:Germania 680:thermite 583:Nitronic 494:, while 492:magnetic 426:Strength 322:cookware 299:nitrogen 283:chromium 120:Pearlite 97:Graphite 9706:Fashion 9680:Finding 9528:Abalone 9437:Peridot 9402:Larimar 9387:Kyanite 9372:Howlite 9357:Emerald 9347:Diamond 9220:Tumbaga 9198:Shakudō 9154:Rhodium 9105:Mandrel 9044:Plating 8997:Casting 8992:Carving 8901:Tie pin 8876:Pendant 8851:Genital 8841:Earring 8723:Welding 8693:Forming 8683:Casting 8450:Welding 8238:Caliper 8215:Wiggler 8205:Mandrel 8175:Fixture 8117:Scriber 8077:Hacksaw 7968:Nibbler 7880:Bandsaw 7769:Wiggler 7759:Mandrel 7729:Fixture 7691:Turning 7686:Skiving 7646:Milling 7621:Hobbing 7543:Sanding 7538:Lapping 7465:lapping 7292:Plating 7287:Peening 7244:Welding 7224:Brazing 7203:Swaging 7193:Sinking 7188:Rolling 7158:Forging 7133:Drawing 7123:Coining 7090:General 7077:Forming 7017:Foundry 6976:Pattern 6854:Casting 6743:8 March 6715:8 March 6677:7576277 6556:4284091 6365:8029707 6345:Bibcode 6170:Bibcode 6139:(Flash) 6077:Bibcode 5797:Bibcode 5772:28 June 5028:Bibcode 4817:Bibcode 4626:23 July 4580:23 June 4279:YouTube 4259:22 July 3887:8 March 3636:22 July 3520:Bibcode 3426:16 June 3393:8 March 3226:Bibcode 3197:8 March 3112:Rouging 1872:epoxies 1778:welding 1772:Joining 1678:Kanthal 1657:yttrium 1297:Uniform 1266:Unlike 1154:17-4 PH 778:of the 713:Nirosta 597:History 589:Density 575:Galling 546:1.4435 543:1.4404 540:1.4301 537:1.4307 436:17-4 PH 354:casting 350:forging 326:cutlery 275:rusting 261:), and 148:Classes 125:Bainite 77:Ferrite 9670:(mass) 9606:Bezoar 9512:Zircon 9472:Spinel 9447:Quartz 9382:Jasper 9367:Garnet 9263:Pewter 9248:Copper 9243:Bronze 9170:alloys 9159:Silver 9110:Pliers 9100:Hammer 9012:vacuum 8939:People 8932:Making 8916:pocket 8816:Brooch 8781:Anklet 8620:Helmet 8381:Fuller 8170:Collet 8142:Wrench 8107:Pliers 8082:Hammer 7983:Shears 7978:Reamer 7933:Chisel 7923:Broach 7900:Plasma 7724:Collet 7681:Shaper 7671:Reamer 7666:Planer 7616:Facing 7581:Boring 7375:G-code 6734: 6706: 6675: 6665: 6639:UPMC ( 6563: 6553: 6545: 6363: 6315:1984, 6245: 6223: 6188: 5897: 5838: 5728: 5679: 5611: 5146: 5046: 4970: 4619: 4495: 4456: 4430: 4346: 4311: 4199: 4178: 3873: 3798: 3759: 3252: 3244: 3183: 2817:Total 2037:World 1969:blooms 1870:, and 1653:cerium 1546:Stress 1398:amines 1336:, and 1223:. 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