Stanisław August Poniatowski

1431: 2234: 420: 735: 42: 262: 622: 1743: 2382: 2356: 2336: 2316: 802: 994:(1768–1772), Poniatowski supported the Russian army's repression of the Bar Confederation. In 1770, the Council of the Bar Confederation proclaimed him dethroned. The following year, he was kidnapped by Bar Confederates and was briefly held prisoner outside of Warsaw, but he managed to escape. In view of the continuing weakness of the Polish-Lithuanian state, Austria, Russia, and Prussia collaborated to threaten military intervention in exchange for substantial territorial concessions from the Commonwealth – a decision they made without consulting Poniatowski or any other Polish parties. 1383: 1323:) voted eight to four in favor of surrender. On 24 July 1792, Poniatowski joined the Targowica Confederation. The Polish Army disintegrated. Many reform leaders, believing their cause lost, went into self-exile, although they hoped that Poniatowski would be able to negotiate an acceptable compromise with the Russians, as he had done in the past. Poniatowski had not saved the Commonwealth, however. He and the reformers had lost much of their influence, both within the country and with Catherine. Neither were the Targowica Confederates victorious. To their surprise, there ensued the 998: 1797:, Warsaw, 1988). He notes that the discourse concerning Poniatowski is significantly coloured by the fact that he was the last King of Poland – the King who failed to save the country. This failure, and his prominent position, rendered him a convenient scapegoat for many. Zahorski argues that Poniatowski made the error of joining the Targowica Confederation. Although he wanted to preserve the integrity of the Polish state, it was far too late for that – he succeeded instead in cementing the damage to his own reputation for succeeding centuries. 857: 1806: 1678: 772:, and supported a pro-Russian and anti-Prussian stance in Polish politics. His father died in 1762, leaving him a modest inheritance. In 1762, when Catherine ascended the Russian throne, she sent him several letters professing her support for his own ascension to the Polish throne, but asking him to stay away from St. Petersburg. Nevertheless, Poniatowski hoped that Catherine would consider his offer of marriage, an idea seen as plausible by some international observers. He participated in the failed plot by the 1977: 428: 1251: 1341: 8125: 1100: 5634: 1356:. The King had not encouraged it, but once it began he supported it, seeing no other honourable option. Its defeat marked the end of the Commonwealth. Poniatowski tried to govern the country in the brief period after the fall of the Uprising, but on 2 December 1794, Catherine demanded he leave Warsaw, a request to which he acceded on 7 January 1795, leaving the capital under Russian military escort and settling briefly in 5878: 1758:" Still, according to many, his reforms did not go far enough, leading to accusations that he was being overly cautious, even indecisive, a fault to which he himself admitted. His decision to rely on Russia has been often criticized. Poniatowski saw Russia as a "lesser evil" – willing to support the notional "independence" of a weak Poland within the Russian sphere of influence. However, in the event Russia imposed the 2399: 5665: 1060:. The partitioning powers intended the council to be easier to control than the unruly Sejms, and indeed it remained under the influence of the Russian Empire. Nevertheless, it was a significant improvement on the earlier Commonwealth governance. The new legislation was guaranteed by the Russian Empire, giving it licence to interfere in Commonwealth politics when legislation it favoured was threatened. 1068:

anti-royal and pro-royal factions in Polish politics. The royal faction was made up primarily of people indebted to the King, who planned to build their careers on service to him. Few were privy to his plans for reforms, which were kept hidden from the conservative opposition and Russia. Poniatowski scored a political victory during the Sejm of 1776, which further strengthened the council. Chancellor

5866: 1283:, also known as the War in Defence of the Constitution. The Sejm voted to increase the Polish Army to 100,000 men, but due to insufficient time and funds this number was never achieved. Poniatowski and the reformers could field only a 37,000-man army, many of them untested recruits. This army, under the command of the King's nephew 868:"Stanisław August", as he now styled himself combining the names of his two immediate royal predecessors, began his rule with only mixed support within the nation. It was mainly the small nobility who favoured his election. In his first years on the throne he attempted to introduce a number of reforms. He founded the 5701: 1067:

saw the rise of a conservative faction opposed to the Permanent Council, seeing it as a threat to their Golden Freedoms. This faction was supported by the Czartoryski family, but not by Poniatowski, who proved to be quite adept at making the Council follow his wishes. This marked the formation of new

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Despite Polish requests, Prussia refused to honour its alliance obligations. In the end, the numerical superiority of the Russians was too great, and defeat looked inevitable. Poniatowski's attempts at negotiations with Russia proved futile. In July 1792, when Warsaw was threatened with siege by the

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notes that the Constitution gave Poland "a constitutional monarchy close to the British model of the time." According to a contemporary account, Poniatowski himself described it, as "founded principally on those of England and the United States of America, but avoiding the faults and errors of both,

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and as a sponsor of many architectural landmarks. Historians tend to agree that, taking the circumstances into account, he was a skillful statesman, pointing out that passing the Constitution was a sign of bravery, although his unwillingness to organize a proper nationwide uprising afterward is seen

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In a work by De Daugnon, an anecdote is quoted that happened to his mother, Constance, in 1732. An Italian named Antonio Formica appears before her, who was assumed to be an astrologer. Seeing the child born on January 17 of that year, he predicted that he would be king of the Poles. The prediction

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was exploited by the Russians, who used the issue as a pretext to intervene in the Commonwealth's internal politics and to destabilize the country. Catherine had no wish to see Poniatowski's reform succeed. She had supported his ascent to the throne to ensure the Commonwealth remained a virtual

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and monopolies. His lavish patronage of the arts and sciences was a major drain on the royal treasury. He also supported numerous public initiatives, and attempted to use the royal treasury to cover the state's expenses when tax revenues were insufficient. The Sejm promised several times to

1610: 1076:. Russia supported some, but not all, of the 1776 reforms, and to prevent Poniatowski from growing too powerful, it supported the opposition during the Sejm of 1778. This marked the end of Poniatowski's reforms, as he found himself without sufficient support to carry them through. 825:. Catherine threw her support behind Poniatowski. The Russians spent about 2.5m rubles in aid of his election. Poniatowski's supporters and opponents engaged in some military posturing and even minor clashes. In the end, the Russian army was deployed only a few kilometres from the 1229:

to the Prussian monarchy by voting in a constitution", elaborating that a strong Commonwealth would likely demand the return of the lands Prussia acquired in the First Partition; a similar sentiment was later expressed by Prussian Foreign Minister, Count Friedrich Wilhelm von der

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came true many years later, and fortunately there are records of the existence of a Sicilian physician Dr. Antonio Formica, who lived in Poland during those years, closely linked to the Polish aristocracy. Curiously enough, it is said that it could be the same person.

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came true many years later, and fortunately there are records of the existence of a Sicilian doctor Dr. Antonio Formica, who lived in Poland during those years, closely linked to the Polish aristocracy. Curiously enough, it is said that it could be the same person.

1998:, a contemporary who knew them both, this rumour only spread after the death of Poniatowski, was generally disbelieved, and moreover, was circulated by Elżbieta herself, so the marriage is considered by most to be unlikely. He had several notable lovers, including 764:

the following January. Still in St Petersburg, he appears to have been a source of intrigue between various European governments, some supporting his appointment, others demanding his withdrawal. He eventually left the Russian capital on 14 August 1758.

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to overthrow the Constitution, which they saw as a threat to the traditional freedoms and privileges they enjoyed. The confederates aligned themselves with Russia's Catherine the Great, and the Russian army entered Poland, marking the start of the

1128:, seeing a war with the Ottomans as an opportunity to strengthen the Commonwealth. Catherine gave permission for the next Sejm to be called, as she considered some form of limited military alliance with Poland against the Ottomans might be useful. 1665:

He also supported the development of industry and manufacturing, areas in which the Commonwealth lagged behind most of Western Europe. Among the endeavours in which he invested were the manufacture of cannons and firearms and the mining industry.

394:, he is viewed with ambivalence as a brave and skillful statesman by some and as an overly hesitant coward by others, and even as a traitor. He is criticized primarily for his failure to resolutely stand against opposing forces and prevent the 1647:. He also sponsored historical studies, including the collection, cataloging and copying of historical manuscripts. He encouraged publications of biographies of famous Polish historical figures, and sponsored paintings and sculptures of them. 1331:

took place. On 23 November 1793, it annulled all acts of the Great Sejm, including the Constitution. Faced with his powerlessness, Poniatowski once again considered abdication; in the meantime he tried to salvage whatever reforms he could.

749:, the future empress Catherine the Great. The two became lovers. Whatever his feelings for Catherine, it is likely Poniatowski also saw an opportunity to use the relationship for his own benefit, using her influence to bolster his career. 1541:. Jan Filip Holzhaeusser was his court engraver and the designer of many commemorative medals. According to a 1795 inventory, Stanisław August's art collection, spread among numerous buildings, contained 2,889 pieces, including works by 1379:, he subsisted on a pension granted to him by Catherine. Despite financial troubles, he still supported some of his former allies, and continued to try to represent the Polish cause at the Russian court. He also worked on his memoirs. 676:. In March 1753, he travelled to Hungary and Vienna, where he again met with Williams. He returned to the Netherlands, where he met many key members of that country's political and economic sphere. By late August, he had arrived in 1038:

to compel the Sejm by force of arms, no alternative was available save submission to their will. Eventually Poniatowski and the Sejm acceded to the "partition treaty". At the same time, several other reforms were passed. The

1368:, who had been threatened with confiscation of their property, had contributed to persuading him to sign the abdication: they feared that his refusal would lead to a Russian confiscation of their properties and their ruin. 900:, which was interested in strengthening its own power base, was dissatisfied with his conciliatory attitude as he reached out to many former opponents of their policies. This uneasy alliance between Poniatowski and the 1213:. The pro-Prussian shift was not supported by Poniatowski, who nevertheless acceded to the decision of the majority of Sejm deputies. The passing of the Constitution of 3 May, although officially applauded by 1043:

were confirmed and guaranteed by the partitioning powers. Royal prerogative was restricted, so that the King lost the power to confer titular roles, and military promotions, to appoint ministers and senators.

896:(Commonwealth's top military commanders) and treasurers, moving them to commissions elected by the Sejm and accountable to the King. In his memoirs, Poniatowski called this period the "years of hope." The 1084:

In the 1780s, Catherine appeared to favour Poniatowski marginally over the opposition, but she did not support any of his plans for significant reform. Despite repeated attempts, Poniatowski failed to

1631:; he hired a personal cartographer, Karol de Perthees, even before he was elected king. A plan he initiated to map the entire territory of the Commonwealth, however, was never finished. At the 1131:

The Polish-Russian alliance was not implemented, as in the end the only acceptable compromise proved unattractive to both sides. However, in the ensuing Four-Year Sejm of 1788–92 (known as the

1375:. On 15 February 1797, Poniatowski left for Saint Petersburg. He had hoped to be allowed to travel abroad, but was unable to secure permission to do so. A virtual prisoner in St. Petersburg's 8205: 1669:

Poniatowski himself left several literary works: his memoirs, some political brochures and recorded speeches from the Sejm. He was considered a great orator and a skilled conversationalist.

383:(1795), marking the end of the Commonwealth. Stripped of all meaningful power, Poniatowski abdicated in November 1795 and spent the last years of his life as a captive in Saint Petersburg's 8360: 8260: 581:. He had few friends in his teenage years and instead developed a fondness for books which continued throughout his life. He went on his first foreign trip in 1748, with elements of the 1778:

and Poniatowski's assassination. Another line of criticism alleged poor financial management on his part. Poniatowski actually had little personal wealth. Most of his income came from

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was signed. One month and one day later, on 25 November, Poniatowski signed his abdication. Reportedly, his sister, Ludwika Maria Zamoyska and her daughter also his favourite niece,

982:, aimed against the conservatives, Poniatowski and the Russians. After an unsuccessful attempt to raise allies in Western Europe, France, Britain and Austria, Poniatowski and the 1430: 6111: 978:

did not receive the support it expected from the Russians who continued to press for the conservatives' rights. Meanwhile, other factions now rallied under the banner of the

332:. Contrary to expectations, Poniatowski attempted to reform and strengthen the large but ailing Commonwealth. His efforts were met with external opposition from neighbouring 7809: 340:, all committed to keeping the Commonwealth weak. From within he was opposed by conservative interests, which saw the reforms as a threat to their traditional liberties and 8375: 8210: 1409:, his birthplace. This was done in secret and caused controversy in Poland when the matter became known. In 1990, due to the poor state of the Wołczyn church (then in the 575: 1750:

When elected to the throne, he was seen by many as simply an "instrument for displacing the somnolent Saxons from the throne of Poland", yet as the British historian,

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having ended, Catherine was furious over the adoption of the Constitution, which threatened Russian influence in Poland. One of Russia's chief foreign policy authors,

1482:. He involved himself deeply in the detail of his architectural projects, and his eclectic style has been dubbed the "Stanisław August style" by Polish art historian 8290: 2511:

participants lists neither Kazimierz Grabowski nor Konstancja Grabowska as Poniatowski's children; and for Elżbieta Szydłowska, it lists only Kazimierz Grabowski as

947:, who were supported by the Prussian and Russian ambassadors and who threatened war if the reform was passed. The dissidents, supported by the Russians, formed the 1186:

and adapted as much as possible to the local and particular circumstances of the country." The Constitution of 3 May remained to the end a work in progress. A new

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in Warsaw, where on 3 May 1791 he had celebrated the adoption of the Constitution that he had coauthored. A third funeral ceremony was held on 14 February 1995.

2087: 8285: 1954: 1435: 696:. He returned to the Commonwealth later that year, however he eschewed the Sejm, as his parents wanted to keep him out of the political furore surrounding the 398:, which led to the destruction of the Polish state. On the other hand, he is remembered as a great patron of arts and sciences who laid the foundation for the 1949:, writing to her on 2 November 1763 in a moment of doubt, "If I desired the throne, it was because I saw you on it." When she made it clear through his envoy 8325: 1762:

rather than choose to support internal reform. He was accused by others of weakness and subservience, even of treason, especially in the years following the

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Matters came to a head in 1766. During the Sejm in October of that year, Poniatowski attempted to push through a radical reform, restricting the disastrous

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Sources vary as to whether Konstancja Grabowska and Kazimierz Grabowski were Poniatowski's children. They are listed as such by several sources, including

2110: 5310: 1394: 1828:(1772) on Poniatowski. At least 58 contemporary poems were dedicated to him or praised him. Since then, he has been a major character in many works of 6018: 8255: 1242:, upon learning of the Constitution, commented that "the worst possible news have arrived from Warsaw: the Polish king has become almost sovereign." 893: 4058:

Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987, p. 317

3047:. Konfraternia Orderu Św. Stanisława. Written on the basis of „Polish Orders and Decorations” by Wanda Bigoszewska. Last accessed on 26 April 2012. 2618: 6482: 5669: 8320: 8165: 7189: 6927: 5213: 2549: 1303:

Russians, the king came to believe that surrender was the only alternative to total defeat. Having received assurances from Russian ambassador

321: 7300: 6246: 6241: 5649: 1586:, one of the first Polish newspapers and the leading periodical of the Polish Enlightenment. He sponsored many articles that appeared in the 261: 1194:(provisionally called the "Stanisław Augustus Code") was among the proposals. Poniatowski also planned a reform to improve the situation of 752:

Poniatowski had to leave St. Petersburg in July 1756 due to court intrigue. Through the combined influence of Catherine, of Russian empress

5910: 8365: 2233: 5654: 5402: 8345: 8190: 6601: 6558: 6526: 1168: 1446:'s most important patron of the arts. His cultural projects were attuned to his socio-political aims of overthrowing the myth of the 1217:, who sent a congratulatory note to Warsaw, caused further worry in Prussia. The contacts of Polish reformers with the revolutionary 325: 1932:

disapproved because he did not think him influential or rich enough. When this was no longer an issue, she was already married. His

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compensate his treasury to little practical effect. Nonetheless contemporary critics frequently accused him of being a spendthrift.

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Butterwick, Richard (2001). "The Enlightened Monarchy of Stanisław August Poniatowski, 1764–1795". In Richard, Butterwick (ed.).

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Reforms became possible again in the late 1780s. In the context of the wars being waged against the Ottoman Empire by both the

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Poniatowski died of a stroke on 12 February 1798. Paul I sponsored a royal state funeral, and on 3 March he was buried at the

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were seen by Poland's neighbours as evidence of a conspiracy and a threat to their absolute monarchies. Prussian statesman

1182: 872:, and began to form a diplomatic service, with semi-permanent diplomatic representatives throughout Europe, Russia and the 734: 165: 5691: 731:

who sent him in 1755 to Saint Petersburg in the service of Williams, who had been nominated British ambassador to Russia.

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under Russian control, so his attempts to reform the Commonwealth's ailing government structures were a threat to the

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continued for most of the first decade of his rule. One of the points of contention between Poniatowski and the

8305: 7893: 7135: 6501: 6468: 5785: 5765: 2496: 1562: 1280: 1255: 641: 594: 488: 368: 7325: 1724: 1092:. Thus, although he had a majority in the Sejms, Poniatowski was unable to pass even the smallest reform. The 908:

concerned the rights of religious minorities in Poland. Whereas Poniatowski reluctantly supported a policy of

637: 8385: 8128: 7557: 7204: 6913: 3167: 1929: 1034:, with no allied assistance forthcoming from abroad and with the armies of the partitioning powers occupying 273:(born Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski; 17 January 1732 – 12 February 1798), known also by his regnal Latin name 41: 7466: 1324: 841:

on 13 November, and a formal coronation took place in Warsaw on 25 November. The new king's "uncles" in the

8315: 8295: 7995: 7952: 6337: 5366:"Elżbieta Szydłowska z Wielkiego Szydłowa h. Lubicz (M.J. Minakowski, Genealogia potomków Sejmu Wielkiego)" 5344:"Stanisław August Antoni "II" Poniatowski h. Ciołek (M.J. Minakowski, Genealogia potomków Sejmu Wielkiego)" 3217: 1659: 1654:, where he became the first royal Fellow outside British royalty. In 1778 he was awarded fellowship of the 1210: 1096:

was rejected by the Sejm of 1780, and opposition attacks on the King dominated the Sejms of 1782 and 1786.

991: 348: 6286: 2006:(1739–1780), he became the father of Konstancja Żwanowa (1768–1810) and Michał Cichocki (1770–1828). With 944: 8175: 8170: 7522: 7370: 6875: 6856: 6506: 6126: 5896: 5844: 3934:

Disorderly liberty: the political culture of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the eighteenth century

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specified that he should marry a Polish noblewoman, although he himself always hoped to marry into some

1874: 1291:, managed to defeat the Russians or fight them to a draw on several occasions. Following the victorious 500: 8310: 7957: 7567: 7492: 7430: 7295: 6832: 6425: 5856: 5396: 2169: 1958: 1763: 1644: 1582: 1275: 1164: 1140: 881: 846: 578: 407: 372: 360: 7405: 7355: 1829: 8225: 7512: 7219: 7140: 6778: 6372: 6268: 4731: 2366: 2346: 2177: 1962: 1742: 1361: 1296: 1016: 877: 822: 806: 621: 508: 380: 352: 250: 6181: 6075: 5696: 5610: 8380: 8300: 8195: 7552: 7517: 7086: 6549: 6263: 5936: 2390: 2251: 2135: 2014:(1773–1812), Kazimierz Grabowski (1770–?), Konstancja Grabowska and Izabela Grabowska (1776–1858). 2007: 1991: 1980: 1636: 1459: 869: 693: 681: 649: 626: 317: 6717: 6186: 6131: 6101: 2092: 1606:. He also supported publishers including, Piotr Świtkowski, and library owners such as Józef Lex. 701: 7773: 7750: 7715: 7497: 7461: 7385: 7320: 6301: 6091: 5919: 5685: 5675: 5331: 4569:

Literary Activities and Attitudes in the Stanislavian Age in Poland (1764–1795): A Social System?

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Literary Activities and Attitudes in the Stanislavian Age in Poland (1764–1795): A Social System?

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Literary Activities and Attitudes in the Stanislavian Age in Poland (1764–1795): A Social System?

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Literary Activities and Attitudes in the Stanislavian Age in Poland (1764–1795): A Social System?

1558: 1125: 834: 757: 652:, who became his mentor and friend. In 1751, Poniatowski was elected to the Treasury Tribunal in 364: 294: 60: 6086: 6059: 4743: 3792: 3752:

Trade and urban development in Poland: an economic geography of Cracow, from its origins to 1795

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as cowardice and the key reason for the Second Partition and the subsequent downfall of Poland.

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Poniatowski attended the Sejms of 1758, 1760, and 1762. He continued his involvement with the

456: 376: 7850: 7636: 7575: 7471: 6982: 6751: 6362: 6291: 6161: 6156: 6136: 6008: 5825: 4567: 3898: 3596: 2898: 2585: 2408: 2002:, who acted as his political adviser and financier, and had children with two of them. With 1502: 1382: 1231: 582: 468: 78: 7763: 7758: 6695: 5272:

Polish democratic thought from the Renaissance to the great emigration: essays and documents

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was suggested despite the religious differences, but this match was opposed by his sisters,

1841: 1573: 1458:" were considered the most scintillating social functions in the Polish capital. He founded 1292: 1288: 1148: 656:, where he served as a commissioner. He spent most of January 1752 at the Austrian court in 8155: 8150: 8115: 7975: 7937: 7888: 7532: 7502: 7330: 7045: 6936: 6812: 6736: 6517: 6405: 6342: 6324: 5813: 1995: 1966: 1904:, and in his series of portraits of Polish monarchs. A bust of Poniatowski was unveiled in 1759: 1732: 1599: 1568:

Poniatowski accomplished much in the realm of education and literature. He established the

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