911:. First are direct financial transfers, second are indirect financial transfers and services. Third, certain forms of intervention and fourth, not intervening. The first category regards direct payments from the government received by the fisheries industry. These typically affect profits of the industry in the short term and can be negative or positive. Category two pertains to government intervention, not involving those under the first category. These subsidies also affect the profits in the short term but typically are not negative. Category three includes intervention that results in a negative short-term economic impact, but economic benefits in the long term. These benefits are usually more general societal benefits such as the environment. The final category pertains to inaction by the government, allowing producers to impose certain production costs on others. These subsidies tend to lead to positive benefits in the short term but negative in the long term.
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States, Europe and poorer developing countries. While subsidies may provide immediate benefits to an industry, in the long-run they may prove to have unethical, negative effects. Subsidies are intended to support public interest, however, they can violate ethical or legal principles if they lead to higher consumer prices or discriminate against some producers to benefit others. For example, domestic subsidies granted by individual US states may be unconstitutional if they discriminate against out-of-state producers, violating the
Privileges and Immunities Clause or the Dormant Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution. Depending on their nature, subsidies are discouraged by international trade agreements such as the World Trade Organization (WTO). This trend, however, may change in the future, as needs of sustainable development and environmental protection could suggest different interpretations regarding energy and
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are better off and experience an increase in consumer welfare due to the decrease in price of the imported goods, as well as the decrease in price of the domestic substitute goods. Conversely, the consumers in the exporting country experience a decrease in consumer welfare due to an increase in the price of their domestic goods. Furthermore, producers of the importing country experience a loss of welfare due to a decrease in the price for the goods in their market, while on the other side, the exporters of the producing country experience an increase in well-being due to the increase in demand. Ultimately, the import subsidy is rarely used due to an overall loss of welfare for the country due to a decrease in domestic production and a reduction in production throughout the world. However, that can result in a redistribution of income.
797:, pollution, loss of landscape, misuse and overuse of supplies) which, as well as its fundamental damage, acts as a further brake on economies; tend to benefit the few at the expense of the many, and the rich at the expense of the poor; lead to further polarization of development between the Northern and Southern hemispheres; lower global market prices; and undermine investment decisions reducing the pressure on businesses to become more efficient. Over time the latter effect means support becomes enshrined in human behaviour and business decisions to the point where people become reliant on, even addicted to, subsidies, "locking" them into society.
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R&D contracts had gone to advanced and viable firms as well as old uneconomic enterprises. However, the main recipients had been larger, established companies – while most of the firms pioneering radical technical-product developments with long-term economic growth potential had been new small enterprises. The study concluded that instead of providing subsidies, governments wanting to benefit industrial-technological development and performance should lower standard rates of business taxation, raise tax allowances for investments in new plant, equipment and products, and remove obstacles to market competition and customer choice.
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equilibrium quantity implies an increase in the price. The effect of a subsidy is to shift the supply or demand curve to the right (i.e. increases the supply or demand) by the amount of the subsidy. If a consumer is receiving the subsidy, a lower price of a good resulting from the marginal subsidy on consumption increases demand, shifting the demand curve to the right. If a supplier is receiving the subsidy, an increase in the price (revenue) resulting from the marginal subsidy on production results increases supply, shifting the supply curve to the right.
774:. To be "perverse", subsidies must exert effects that are demonstrably and significantly adverse both economically and environmentally. A subsidy rarely, if ever, starts perverse, but over time a legitimate efficacious subsidy can become perverse or illegitimate if it is not withdrawn after meeting its goal or as political goals change. Perverse subsidies are now so widespread that as of 2007 they amounted $ 2 trillion per year in the six most subsidised sectors alone (agriculture, fossil fuels, road transportation, water, fisheries and forestry).
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72:, and government provision of goods and services. For instance, the government may distribute direct payment subsidies to individuals and households during an economic downturn in order to help its citizens pay their bills and to stimulate economic activity. Here, subsidies act as an effective financial aid issued when the economy experiences economic hardship. They can also be a good policy tool to revise market imperfections when rational and competitive firms fail to produce an optimal market outcome. For example, in an
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incentives for beneficiaries to participate in the labour market. In the contrary, certain literatures have found that subsidy cuts do not encourage employment or participation among beneficiaries. For example, research by Daniel
Borbely found that reducing housing subsidies did not increase employment and labour force participation. Though, he also added that claimants relocated to other areas of the rental market to maintain their benefits.
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grants to subside a substantial part of the wages for retaining their employees or to create new jobs during severe recessions such as the 2008 GFC (Global
Financial Crisis), there were minor impacts on employment during the first year. However, the subsidy began to yield positive effects on employment, particularly a decrease in the unemployment rate, in the second year as employers began to properly utilise the subsidy.
829:. Irrespective of the path, the aim of policymakers should be to: create alternative policies that target the same issue as the original subsidies but better; develop subsidy removal strategies allowing market-discipline to return; introduce "sunset" provisions that require remaining subsidies to be re-justified periodically; and make perverse subsidies more transparent to taxpayers to alleviate the "vote-loser" concern.
943:, measures the effect that subsidies and trade barriers actually have on the undeveloped world. It uses trade, along with six other components such as aid or investment, to rank and evaluate developed countries on policies that affect the undeveloped world. It finds that the richest countries spend $ 106 billion per year subsidizing their own farmers – almost exactly as much as they spend on foreign aid.
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classified as indirect when they do not involve actual payments. An example would be an increase in disposable income arising from a decrease in price of an essential good or service that the government has enforced in a form of monetary support. In contrast, a decrease in the price of a good or service may lead to an increase in revenue for producers earned from the heightened demand by consumers.
167:. There are at least three compelling reasons for studying government subsidy behavior. First, subsidies are a major instrument of government expenditure policy. Second, on a domestic level, subsidies affect domestic resource allocation decisions, income distribution, and expenditure productivity. A consumer subsidy is a shift in demand as the subsidy is given directly to consumers.
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while US cotton growers, backed by government agricultural payments, received 75 cents per pound. Developing countries and trade organizations argue that poorer countries should be able to export their principal commodities to survive, but protectionist laws and payments in the United States and Europe prevent these countries from engaging in international trade opportunities.
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country) are less likely to be undertaken for the reasons outlined above, although New
Zealand, Russia, Bangladesh and others represent successful examples. Multilateral actions by several countries are more likely to succeed as this reduces competitiveness concerns, but are more complex to implement requiring greater international collaboration through a body such as the
108:, and expenditure productivity. On an international level, subsidies may increase or decrease international interaction and integration through trade. For this reason, having a thorough subsidy policy is essential as its inadequacy can potentially lead to financial hardship and problems for not only the poor or low income individuals but the aggregate economy as a whole.
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deploy their capital in other ways – or to move into markets where the sales prices do cover the supply costs and yield ordinary profits. Like other mercantilist schemes and devices, export bounties are a means of trying to force business capital into channels it would not naturally enter. The schemes are invariably costly and damaging in various ways."
904:, the supply of larger and longer nets, larger yields and indiscriminate catch, as well as mitigating risks which encourages further investment into large-scale operations to the disfavour of the already struggling small-scale industry. Collectively, these result in the continued overcapitalization and overfishing of marine fisheries.
847:. Today, agricultural subsidies are defended on the grounds of helping farmers to maintain their livelihoods. The majority of payments are based on outputs and inputs and thus favour the larger producing agribusinesses over the small-scale farmers. In the US nearly 30% of payments go to the top 2% of farmers.
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Assuming the market is in a perfectly competitive equilibrium, a subsidy increases the supply of the good beyond the equilibrium competitive quantity. The imbalance creates deadweight loss. Deadweight loss from a subsidy is the amount by which the cost of the subsidy exceeds the gains of the subsidy.
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A 2015 report studied the implicit subsidies accruing to 20 fossil fuel companies. It estimated that the societal costs from downstream emissions and pollution attributable to these companies were substantial. The report spans the period 2008–2012 and notes that: "for all companies and all years, the
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Furthermore, tax subsidies can have unintended consequences, such as creating market distortions that favor certain industries or companies over others. For example, if a government offers tax breaks to incentivize investment in renewable energy, it may lead to a glut of renewable energy projects and
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Another important classification of subsidies are producer/production subsidies and consumer/consumption subsidies. Production subsidies are designed to ensure producers are advantaged by creating fluid market activity through other market control mechanisms or by providing cash payments for factors
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countries in 2020, the median of subsidies and other transfers such as social benefits and non-repayable transfers to private and public enterprises was 56.3 percent of total government expenses which was 34.9 percent (weighted average) of GDP in the same year. Yet, the number of subsidy measures in
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A survey of manufacturing in
Britain found government subsidies had had various unintended dysfunctional consequences. The subsidies had usually been selective or discriminatory – benefiting some companies at the expense of others. Government money in the form of grants and awards of production and
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Housing subsidies are designed to promote the construction industry and homeownership. As of 2018, U.S housing subsidies total around $ 15 billion per year. Housing subsidies can come in two types; assistance with down payment and interest rate subsidies. The deduction of mortgage interest from the
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Employment or wage subsidies keep the employment relationship ongoing even during financial crisis. It is particularly beneficial for enterprises to recover quickly after a temporary suspension following a crisis. Workers are prevented from losing their jobs and other associated employment benefits
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An import subsidy is support from the government for products that are imported. Rarer than an export subsidy, an import subsidy further reduces the price to consumers for imported goods. Import subsidies have various effects depending on the subject. For example, consumers in the importing country
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Adam Smith observed that special government subsidies enabled exporters to sell abroad at substantial ongoing losses. He did not regard that as a sound and sustainable policy. That was because "… under normal industrial-commercial conditions their own interests soon oblige loss-making businesses to
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identified the subsidies to manufacturing industry provided by the
Chinese government and how they have altered trade patterns. Traditionally, economists have argued that subsidies benefit consumers but hurt the subsidizing countries. Haley and Haley provided data to show that over the decade after
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where governments subsidise such things as food, water, electricity and education on the basis that no matter how impoverished, all should be allowed those most basic requirements. For example, some governments offer "lifeline" rates for electricity, that is, the first increment of electricity each
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condition, governments can inject subsidies to encourage firms to invest in R&D (research and development). This will not only benefit the firms but also produce some positive externalities such that it benefits the industry in which the firms belong, and most importantly, the society at large.
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for individuals and households, as well as businesses with the aim of stabilizing the economy. It ensures that individuals and households are viable by having access to essential goods and services while giving businesses the opportunity to stay afloat and/or competitive. Subsidies not only promote
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Subsidies targeted at goods in one country, by lowering the price of those goods, make them more competitive against foreign goods, thereby reducing foreign competition. As a result, many developing countries cannot engage in foreign trade, and receive lower prices for their products in the global
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In many countries, roads and highways are paid for through general revenue, rather than tolls or other dedicated sources that are paid only by road users, creating an indirect subsidy for road transportation. The fact that long-distance buses in
Germany do not pay tolls has been called an indirect
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In addition, tax subsidies can be difficult to monitor and enforce, which can lead to abuse and fraud. Companies may claim tax breaks for activities that do not qualify, or may use complex legal structures to shift profits to lower tax jurisdictions. This can result in lost revenue for governments
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While tax subsidies can be effective in achieving certain outcomes, they are also less transparent than direct cash payments and can be difficult to undo. Additionally, some argue that tax breaks disproportionately benefit the wealthy and large corporations, further exacerbating income inequality.
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Export subsidy is known for being abused. For example, some exporters substantially over declare the value of their goods so as to benefit more from the export subsidy. Another method is to export a batch of goods to a foreign country but the same goods will be re-imported by the same trader via a
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A production subsidy encourages suppliers to increase the output of a particular product by partially offsetting the production costs or losses. The objective of production subsidies is to expand production of a particular product more so that the market would promote but without raising the final
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estimate this at approximately 75%. Fishing subsidies include "direct assistant to fishers; loan support programs; tax preferences and insurance support; capital and infrastructure programs; marketing and price support programs; and fisheries management, research, and conservation programs." They
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Support for agriculture dates back to the 19th century. It was developed extensively in the EU and US across the two World Wars and the Great
Depression to protect domestic food production, but remains important across the world today. In 2005, US farmers received $ 14 billion and EU farmers $ 47
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One type of tax subsidy is a health tax deduction, which allows individuals or businesses to deduct their health expenses from their taxable income. This can be seen as a way to incentivize people to prioritize their health and well-being. However, it can also create distortions in the economy by
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Employment subsidies allow individual beneficiaries a minimum standard of living at the very least. However, less than half of active jobseekers in around 50% of OECD countries receive unemployment support. The effect of employment subsidies may not be evident immediately. When employers received
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All countries use subsidies via national and sub-national entities through different forms such as tax incentives and direct grants. Likewise, subsidies have an economic influence on both a domestic and international level. On a domestic level, subsidies affect the allocation decision of domestic
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and resulted in a record cotton harvest in 2002, much of which had to be sold at very reduced prices in the global market. For foreign producers, the depressed cotton price lowered their prices far below the break-even price. In fact, African farmers received 35 to 40 cents per pound for cotton,
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Reform of perverse subsidies is at a propitious time. The current economic conditions mean governments are forced into fiscal constraints and are looking for ways to reduce activist roles in their economies. There are two main reform paths: unilateral and multilateral. Unilateral agreements (one
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Subsidies create spillover effects in other economic sectors and industries. A subsidized product sold in the world market lowers the price of the good in other countries. Since subsidies result in lower revenues for producers of foreign countries, they are a source of tension between the United
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In conclusion, tax subsidies are a powerful tool for governments to achieve policy goals, but they come with their own set of challenges and limitations. It is important for policymakers to carefully consider the potential unintended consequences of tax subsidies and to design them in a way that
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During FY 2016–22, most US federal subsidies were for renewable energy producers (primarily biofuels, wind, and solar), low-income households, and energy-efficiency improvements. During FY 2016–22, nearly half (46%) of federal energy subsidies were associated with renewable energy, and 35% were
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industrial subsidies have helped give China an advantage in industries in which they previously enjoyed no comparative advantage such as the steel, glass, paper, auto parts, and solar industries. China's shores have also collapsed from overfishing and industrialization, which is why the
Chinese
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These various subsidies can be divided into broad and narrow. Narrow subsidies are those monetary transfers that are easily identifiable and have a clear intent. They are commonly characterised by a monetary transfer between governments and institutions or businesses and individuals. A classic
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The use of indirect subsidies such as price controls is widespread among developing economies and emerging markets as a necessary tool for social policy. It has proven to be effective in many cases but price controls have a potential to dampen investment activity and growth, cause heavy fiscal
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The first important classification of subsidies are direct and indirect subsidies. Subsidies are categorised as direct when it involves actual cash outlays targeted towards a specified individual or household. Popular examples includes cash grants and interest-free loans. Subsidies can also be
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Nonetheless, the most common method for providing housing subsidies is via direct payments to renters by covering a part of their rent on the private rent market. This method of direct transfer of housing subsidies is often referred to as "housing vouchers". In the United States, the so-called
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Competitive equilibrium is a state of balance between buyers and suppliers, in which the quantity demanded of a good is the quantity supplied at a specified price. When the price falls the quantity demand exceeds the equilibrium quantity, conversely, a reduction in the supply of a good beyond
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As a housing policy tool, housing subsidies also help low income individuals gain and maintain liveable residency by easing the cost burdens of housing for low income individuals and households. However, some policy makers and experts believe they are costly to implement and may even reduce
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Perverse subsidies are not tackled as robustly as they should be. Principally, this is because they become "locked" into society, causing bureaucratic roadblocks and institutional inertia. When cuts are suggested many argue (most fervently by those "entitled", special interest groups and
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are measures that keep prices for customers below market levels, or for suppliers above market levels, or reduce costs for customers and suppliers. Energy subsidies may be direct cash transfers to suppliers, customers, or related bodies, as well as indirect support mechanisms, such as
231:, are a way for governments to achieve certain outcomes without directly providing cash payments. By offering tax breaks, the government can incentivize behavior that is beneficial to the economy or society as a whole. However, tax subsidies can also have negative consequences.
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arises when industries are selected for nationalistic reasons (infant-industry), rather than to gain a comparative advantage. The market distortion, and reduction in social welfare, is the logic behind the World Bank policy for the removal of subsidies in developing countries.
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burdens for the government, and may even complicate the optimal performance of monetary policy. To prevent the undesirable negative effects, price control regimes may be replaced by creating social safety nets and proposing sound reforms to encourage competition and growth.
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of production. Consumption subsidies benefit consumers typically through a reduction in the market price of goods and services. They are commonly used by governments of many developing countries in an attempt to secure the most basic needs for its population.
92:, rent rebates). Furthermore, they can be broad or narrow, legal or illegal, ethical or unethical. The most common forms of subsidies are those to the producer or the consumer. Producer/production subsidies ensure producers are better off by either supplying
269:. The use of tax subsidies is often debated in political circles, with some arguing that they are necessary to support certain industries or to incentivize certain behaviors, while others argue that they create inefficiencies and distortions in the economy.
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circuitous route and changing the product description so as to obscure their origin. Thus the trader benefits from the export subsidy without creating real trade value to the economy. Export subsidy as such can become a self-defeating and disruptive policy.
821:" – insofar as that even if they wanted to adopt subsidy reform, by acting unilaterally they fear only negative effects will ensue if others do not follow. Furthermore, cutting subsidies, however perverse they may be, is considered a vote-losing policy.
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in 2008." Pure coal companies fare even worse: "the economic cost to society exceeds total revenue (employment, taxes, supply purchases, and indirect employment) in all years, with this cost varying between nearly $ 2 and nearly $ 9 per $ 1 of revenue."
859:; shorten fallow periods; and promote exploitative land use change from forests, rainforests and wetlands to agricultural land. These all lead to severe environmental degradation, including adverse effects on soil quality and productivity including
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Directly, they are expensive to governments by directing resources away from other legitimate should priorities (such as environmental conservation, education, health, or infrastructure), ultimately reducing the fiscal health of the government.
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Conversely broad subsidies include both monetary and non-monetary subsidies and is often difficult to identify. A broad subsidy is less attributable and less transparent. Environmental externalities are the most common type of broad subsidy.
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month is subsidized. Evidence from recent studies suggests that government expenditures on subsidies remain high in many countries, often amounting to several percentage points of GDP. Subsidization on such a scale implies substantial
142:). Production subsidies are critically discussed in the literature as they can cause many problems including the additional cost of storing the extra produced products, depressing world market prices, and incentivizing producers to
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By subsidising inputs and outputs through such schemes as "yield based subsidisation", farmers are encouraged to over-produce using intensive methods, including using more fertilizers and pesticides; grow high-yielding
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maximizes their benefits while minimizing their costs. Additionally, strong monitoring and enforcement mechanisms are needed to ensure that tax subsidies are used appropriately and do not result in abuse or fraud.
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are performed to verify whether the funds that have been received has indeed been spent legally (and all requirements of the subsidy provider have been attained), for the purpose intended. It hence prevents
932:) profits have topped records at $ 11 billion, the highest of all sports. The NFL had tax-exempt status until voluntarily relinquishing it in 2015, and new stadiums have been built with public subsidies.
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of waterways, and lowering of water tables; diversity of flora and fauna including indigenous species both directly and indirectly through the destruction of habitats, resulting in a genetic wipe-out.
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Publicly owned airports can be an indirect subsidy if they lose money. The
European Union, for instance, criticizes Germany for its high number of money-losing airports that are used primarily by
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Therefore, it is important for governments to carefully consider the potential consequences of offering tax subsidies and ensure that they are targeted towards achieving the greatest public good.
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federal income tax accounts for the largest interest rate subsidy. Additionally, the federal government will help low-income families with the down payment, coming to $ 10.9 million in 2008.
100:. Consumer/consumption subsidies commonly reduce the price of goods and services to the consumer. For example, in the US at one time it was cheaper to buy gasoline than bottled water.
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Data source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Federal Financial Interventions and Subsidies in Energy in Fiscal Years 2016–2022, Table 1 and Table A3, DOE, Department of Energy.
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says: "High fossil fuel prices hit the poor hardest, but subsidies are rarely well-targeted to protect vulnerable groups and tend to benefit better-off segments of the population."
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price to consumers. This type of subsidy is predominantly found in developed markets. Other examples of production subsidies include the assistance in the creation of a new firm (
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Farah, Paolo Davide; Cima, Elena (2015). "World Trade Organization, Renewable Energy Subsidies and the Case of Feed-In Tariffs: Time for Reform Toward Sustainable Development?".
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The detrimental effects of perverse subsidies are diverse in nature and reach. Case-studies from differing sectors are highlighted below but can be summarised as follows.
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246:(BEPS) is a particular form of tax subsidy that involves companies shifting their profits to low-tax jurisdictions in order to reduce their overall tax burden. The
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associated with energy end uses. Federal support for renewable energy of all types more than doubled, from $ 7.4 billion in FY 2016 to $ 15.6 billion in FY 2022.
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2559:"Uncertain global economy should prompt governments to embark on reforms that boost sustainable growth, raise incomes and increase opportunities for all - OECD"
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Consumer attitudes do not change and become out-of-date, off-target and inefficient; furthermore, over time people feel a sense of historical right to them.
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Despite these concerns, tax subsidies remain a popular tool for governments to promote various policy objectives, such as economic growth, job creation, and
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McDonald, B.D.; Decker, J.W.; Johnson, B.A.M. (2020). "You don't always get what you want: The effect of financial incentives on state fiscal health".
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market. This is considered protectionism: a government policy to erect trade barriers in order to protect domestic industries. The problem with
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Some governments subsidise transport, especially rail and bus transport, which decrease congestion and pollution compared to cars. In the EU,
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An export subsidy is a support from the government for products that are exported, as a means of assisting the country's balance of payments.
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suggests that countries make better use of environmental taxation, phase out agricultural subsidies and environmentally harmful tax breaks.
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3254:"Report of the Expert Consultation on Identifying, Assessing and Reporting on Subsidies in the Fishing Industry - Rome, 3-6 December 2002"
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505:. Global fossil fuel consumption subsidies in 2022 have been estimated at one trillion dollars; although they vary each year depending on
483:. As of 2021, policy researchers estimate that substantially more money is spent on fossil fuel subsidies than on environmentally harmful
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Workshop on the Impact of Government Financial Transfers on Fisheries Management, Resource Sustainability, and International Trade
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countries having pledged to phase-out inefficient fossil fuel subsidies, as of 2023 they continue because of voter demand, or for
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Fossil-fuel subsidies as a share of GDP, 2019. Fossil-fuel pre-tax subsidies are given as a share of total gross domestic product.
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an oversupply of energy in the market. This, in turn, can lead to lower prices for energy and financial losses for investors.
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While conventional subsidies require financial support, many economists have described implicit subsidies in the form of
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Perverse Subsidies and the Implications for Biodiversity: A review of recent findings and the status of policy reforms
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Perverse Subsidies and the Implications for Biodiversity: A review of recent findings and the status of policy reforms
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Although commonly extended from the government, the term subsidy can relate to any type of support – for example from
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Fossil-fuel subsidies per capita, 2019. Fossil-fuel pre-tax subsidies per capita are measured in constant US dollars.
1840:"Fossil fuel subsidies: If we want to reduce greenhouse gas emissions we should not pay people to burn fossil-fuels"
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or as implicit. Subsidies come in various forms including: direct (cash grants, interest-free loans) and indirect (
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A consumption subsidy is one that subsidizes the behavior of consumers. This type of subsidies are most common in
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Section 8 is a direct payment program subsidising the largest amount of money to renters for rental assistance.
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Quantifying the implicit climate subsidy received by leading fossil fuel companies — Working Paper No. 02/2015
1919:"Update on recent progress in reform of inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful consumption"
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Farah, Paolo Davide; Cima, Elena (15 December 2015). "WTO and Renewable Energy: Lessons from the Case Law".
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Multilateral Convention to Implement Tax Treaty Related Measures to Prevent Base Erosion and Profit Shifting
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A Sweeter Future? The potential for EU sugar reform to contribute to poverty reduction in Southern Africa
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OECD (2001) Environmentally Harmful Subsidies: Policy Issues and Challenges. France: OECD Productions.
3198:. Durban, South Africa: Vth World Parks Congress: Sustainable Finance Stream. p. 4. Archived from
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2112:"The impact of housing subsidy cuts on the labour market outcomes of claimants: Evidence from England"
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1865:"Protecting Nature by Reforming Environmentally Harmful Subsidies: The Role of Business | Earth Track"
1817:"Local Environmental Externalities due to Energy Price Subsidies: A Focus on Air Pollution and Health"
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1937:"Reforming global fossil fuel subsidies: How the United States can restart international cooperation"
863:, nutrient supply and salinity which in turn affects carbon storage and cycling, water retention and
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curbing trade opportunities, and increase unemployment. Individual governments recognise this as a "
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is a treaty signed by half the nations of the world aimed at preventing this type of tax avoidance.
1763:"Fossil-fuel subsidies generally take two forms. Production subsidies......Consumption subsidies...
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The magnitude of the deadweight loss is dependent on the size of the subsidy. This is considered a
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Working Party on Global and Structural Policies Working Group on Economic Aspects of Biodiversity
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Sixth Ordinary Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity
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Martinez-Alvarez, Cesar B.; Hazlett, Chad; Mahdavi, Paasha; Ross, Michael L. (22 November 2022).
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tracked some $ 634 billion in energy-sector subsidies in 2020, and found that around 70% were
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long term economic stability but also help governments to respond to economic shocks during a
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3050:"Previous Multilateral Efforts to Discipline Subsidies to Natural Resource Based Industries"
2753:. Durban, South Africa: Vth World Parks Congress: Sustainable Finance Stream. Archived from
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Cotton growers in the US reportedly receive half their income from the government under the
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government heavily subsidizes its fishermen, who sail the world in search of new grounds.
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2187:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Judge Business School, University of Cambridge. Archived from
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At large, subsidies take up a substantial portion of the government and economy. Amongst
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813:) that it will disrupt and harm the lives of people who receive them, distort domestic
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3218:"Natural Resource Subsidies, Trade and Environment: The Cases of Forest and Fisheries"
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International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development: Information Note June 2012
1654:"Can employment subsidies save jobs? Evidence from a shipbuilding city in South Korea"
1558:
1453:"Subsidies, Competition and Trade, OECD Competition Policy Roundtable Background Note"
1111:"Subsidies, Competition and Trade, OECD Competition Policy Roundtable Background Note"
3456:
3354:
3137:
Portugal, L. (2002). "OECD Work on Defining and Measuring Subsidies in Agriculture".
3028:
2827:
2703:
2627:
2510:
2494:
2465:
2422:
2010:
1992:
1794:
1750:
1677:
1267:
1260:
957:
908:
875:
864:
330:
147:
135:
54:
3253:
2378:
1146:
3430:
2819:
2780:
2715:
2695:
2665:
2123:
2000:
1982:
1839:
1665:
1354:
1327:
1315:
1015:
684:
476:
381:
289:
228:
164:
2678:
James, A.N.; Gaston, K.J.; Balmford, A. (1999). "Balancing the Earth's accounts".
3302:
3153:
2660:
1669:
1055:
983:
689:
502:
488:
352:
139:
3139:
The OECD Workshop on Environmentally Harmful Subsidies, Paris, 7–8 November 2002
3020:
Perverse subsidies: how tax dollars can undercut the environment and the economy
2618:. In Costanza, R.; Norgaard, R.; Daly, H.; Goodland, R.; Cumberland, J. (eds.).
2528:
2054:
1262:
Perverse subsidies: how tax dollars can undercut the environment and the economy
668:
569:
emissions was greater than their after‐tax profit, with the single exception of
1722:
1050:
1020:
967:
962:
879:
868:
647:
557:. These externalities include things such as pollution from vehicle emissions,
445:
401:
326:
313:
306:
282:
61:
3402:
3283:
Manufacturing in Britain: A Survey of Factors Affecting Growth and Performance
2615:
2450:
Amegashie, J. A. (2006). The Economics of Subsidies. Crossroads , 6 (2), 7-15.
2128:
2111:
3440:
2979:
1996:
1060:
901:
892:
856:
655:
638:
441:
360:
334:
318:
69:
1987:
1963:"Political leadership has limited impact on fossil fuel taxes and subsidies"
1358:
389:
2831:
2707:
2014:
1065:
988:
852:
550:
506:
235:
encouraging people to spend more on health care than they otherwise would.
180:
143:
22:
2805:"Environmental Harm of Hidden Subsidies: Global Warming and Acidification"
2945:"Consumption and sustainable development: the role of perverse subsidies"
627:
554:
453:
421:
405:
2823:
2784:
1824:
570:
558:
322:
176:
26:
2302:
2243:
60:
Subsidies take various forms— such as direct government expenditures,
417:
409:
85:
65:
50:
296:
subsidy by critics, who point to track access charges for railways.
2798:
2796:
2794:
2770:
810:
457:
449:
285:
are around €73 billion, and Chinese subsidies reach $ 130 billion.
2982:"Tackling Perverse Subsidies in Agriculture, Fisheries and Energy"
2699:
1960:
1319:
2654:
Is That a Good State/Local Economic Development Deal? A Checklist
860:
356:
3086:"How Farm Subsidies Harm Taxpayers, Consumers, and Farmers, Too"
2980:
Bellmann, C.; Hepburn, J.; Sugathan, M.; Monkelbaan, J. (2012).
2791:
3414:
http://www.inecc.gob.mx/descargas/dgipea/harmful_subsidies.pdf
3188:
2743:
1718:"China to Invest $ 128 Billion in Rail, Push for Global Share"
2865:"Perverse subsidies, international trade and the environment"
2858:
2856:
2677:
2030:"The new energy shock: Putin, Ukraine and the global economy"
2028:
Brower, Derek; Wilson, Tom; Giles, Chris (25 February 2022).
1422:"Subsidies and other transfers (% of expense) - OECD members"
867:; water quality including pollution, nutrient deposition and
146:, for example, a farmer overproducing in terms of his land's
1298:
Myers, N. (1998). "Lifting the veil on perverse subsidies".
3010:
1887:
1885:
672:
215:
such as annual leave entitlements and retirement pensions.
112:
81:
2853:
2647:
2529:"Going for Growth 2019: The time for reform is now - OECD"
2206:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1239:
3285:, ISR/Google Books, 2019, pages 37-38. ISBN 9780906321614
2487:
Georgetown International Environmental Law Review (GIELR)
1383:
929:
826:
498:
2047:
2021:
1954:
1882:
1559:"Welfare Effects of a VIE/Import Subsidy: Large Country"
1545:
The Wealth of Nations: A Translation into Modern English
726:
509:, they are consistently hundreds of billions of dollars.
292:, characterizing the arrangement as an illegal subsidy.
3258:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
1935:
George, Johannes Urpelainen and Elisha (14 July 2021).
1236:
3340:
2952:
Background Paper for the 1998 Human Development Report
2802:
1786:
1742:
1547:. ISR/Google Books, 2019, page 300. ISBN 9780906321706
1207:
1205:
1203:
2507:
49 JOURNAL OF WORLD TRADE 6, Kluwer Law International
1482:
1480:
2862:
2459:
2178:
Hope, Chris; Gilding, Paul; Alvarez, Jimena (2015).
1893:"Fossil Fuels Consumption Subsidies 2022 – Analysis"
3182:
2803:van Beers, Cees; van den Bergh, Jeroen CJM (2009).
2739:
2737:
2735:
2733:
2731:
2729:
2727:
2725:
1200:
471:Eliminating fossil fuel subsidies would reduce the
2973:
2619:
2453:
2177:
1477:
1259:
2383:San José State University Department of Economics
2379:"The Impact of an Excise Tax or Subsidy on Price"
2173:
2171:
2169:
2027:
1617:"Basic income as a policy option: Can it add up?"
669:Going for Growth 2019: The time for reform is now
53:or in response to unforeseen shocks, such as the
3438:
3346:
2722:
2081:"Government Subsidies (Farm, Oil, Export, etc.)"
1340:
3189:Robin, S.; Wolcott, R.; Quintela, C.E. (2003).
2744:Robin, S.; Wolcott, R.; Quintela, C.E. (2003).
2275:"Price Controls, Good Intentions, Bad Outcomes"
1967:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1795:"Why fossil fuel subsidies are so hard to kill"
1751:"Why fossil fuel subsidies are so hard to kill"
1515:"The deadly secret of China's invisible armada"
891:Today, much of the world's major fisheries are
766:Although subsidies can be important, many are "
153:
116:force have been rapidly increasing since 2008.
3041:
2938:
2936:
2166:
975:(oil subsidies, coal subsidies, gas subsidies)
530:
3130:
3016:
2898:
2896:
2894:
2764:
2460:Parkin, M.; Powell, M.; Matthews, K. (2007).
2332:
2330:
2328:
2218:University of Cambridge Judge Business School
1293:
1291:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1257:
1211:
610:example is a government payment to a farmer.
595:
138:) and even the development of certain areas (
2412:
2410:
2408:
2406:
2404:
613:
3209:
2933:
2419:Encyclopedia of business ethics and society
1341:Schwartz, Gerd; Clements, Benedict (1999).
227:Tax subsidies, also known as tax breaks or
3313:
3154:"Perverse incentives in biodiversity loss"
2891:
2671:
2607:
2372:
2370:
2325:
1280:
1036:Audit software in governmental procurement
946:
914:
729:. Please do not remove this message until
262:and a lack of fairness in the tax system.
238:Another type of tax subsidy is related to
3145:
3047:
3023:. Washington, DC: Island Press. pp.
2812:Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment
2504:
2484:
2441:Protectionism. (2006). Collins Dictionary
2401:
2127:
2004:
1986:
1792:
1748:
1175:
837:
749:Learn how and when to remove this message
577:
3322:"Playing by the NFL's Tax Exempt Rulesh"
3136:
2464:(7th ed.). Harlow: Addison-Wesley.
725:Relevant discussion may be found on the
637:
626:
388:
380:
3426:Another Day, Another Bad Incentive Deal
2622:An introduction to ecological economics
2367:
2109:
16:Financial support to an economic sector
3439:
3234:from the original on 15 September 2012
3215:
2214:"Measuring fossil fuel 'hidden' costs"
1934:
1793:Timperley, Jocelyn (20 October 2021).
1749:Timperley, Jocelyn (20 October 2021).
1651:
1512:
1494:from the original on 27 September 2013
1083:
582:
276:
3319:
3260:. Food and Agriculture Organization.
2942:
2902:
2841:from the original on 3 September 2011
2626:. Boca Raton, Fla.: St. Lucie Press.
2613:
2336:
2055:"Fossil Fuel Subsidies & Finance"
1563:International Trade Theory and Policy
1556:
1525:from the original on 19 February 2021
1465:from the original on 27 November 2022
1297:
1127:from the original on 27 November 2022
695:
460:. Some fossil fuel subsidies are via
345:International Renewable Energy Agency
209:
124:
3367:from the original on 9 February 2014
3170:from the original on 3 December 2013
3151:
3066:from the original on 22 October 2012
2961:from the original on 9 December 2019
2444:
2421:. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
2416:
2272:
2072:
1698:from the original on 6 February 2021
699:
565:economic cost to society of their CO
513:
3328:from the original on 20 August 2013
3112:"Who Benefits from Farm Subsidies?"
2863:van Beers, C.; de Moor, A. (1998).
2569:from the original on 1 October 2019
2539:from the original on 8 October 2019
2376:
1220:. London: Oxford University Press.
928:The US National Football League's (
678:
622:
604:
299:
13:
3382:
3294:Clegg, Jonathan (28 April 2015).
3264:from the original on 16 March 2018
3118:from the original on 23 April 2018
3092:from the original on 23 April 2018
2595:from the original on 18 April 2021
2313:from the original on 28 April 2023
2254:from the original on 28 April 2023
2154:from the original on 28 April 2023
2091:from the original on 16 March 2018
2078:
1730:from the original on 24 March 2017
1652:Kim, Hyejin; Lee, Jungmin (2019).
1633:from the original on 28 April 2023
1569:from the original on 16 March 2018
1432:from the original on 28 April 2023
1365:from the original on 28 April 2023
1188:from the original on 28 April 2023
1157:from the original on 28 April 2023
878:. The subsidy payments stimulated
770:", in the sense of having adverse
475:, and would greatly reduce global
14:
3473:
3419:
2869:Planejamento e Políticas Públicas
2589:"Audit of the subsidy statements"
2389:from the original on 23 June 2016
2355:from the original on 4 March 2016
2224:from the original on 26 June 2016
1596:International Labour Organisation
1488:"Collins Dictionary of Economics"
1224:from the original on 16 June 2017
803:
200:
170:
96:, direct support, or payments to
88:, insurance, low-interest loans,
2921:from the original on 12 May 2012
2417:Kolb, R.W. (2008). "Subsidies".
1450:
1266:. Washington, DC: Island Press.
1176:Clements, Benedict; Parry, Ian.
1108:
704:
373:This section is an excerpt from
305:This section is an excerpt from
244:Base Erosion and Profit Shifting
3353:. Oxford: Oxfam International.
3347:Fowler, P.; Fokker, R. (2004).
3296:"NFL to End Tax-Exempt Status."
3288:
3276:
3246:
3104:
3078:
2581:
2551:
2521:
2478:
2435:
2295:
2266:
2236:
2136:
2103:
1928:
1911:
1857:
1832:
1809:
1777:
1768:
1710:
1684:
1645:
1609:
1581:
1550:
1537:
1506:
1444:
1414:
1402:from the original on 7 May 2023
1384:Johan Kruger Afcap Consulting.
1214:"Subsidies to Chinese Industry"
937:Commitment to Development Index
436:. Or they may be free or cheap
367:
3310:. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
1513:Urbina, Ian (11 August 2020).
1377:
1334:
1169:
1139:
1102:
1077:
761:
222:
1:
2144:"What Are Housing Subsidies?"
1071:
1026:Subsidization of company cars
941:Center for Global Development
907:There are four categories of
473:health risks of air pollution
3225:Center for Environmental Law
3017:Myers, N.; Kent, J. (2001).
2773:Public Administration Review
2116:Journal of Housing Economics
1670:10.1016/j.labeco.2019.101763
1258:Myers, N.; Kent, J. (2001).
1212:Haley, U.; G. Haley (2013).
994:Artist subsidy (Netherlands)
886:
667:. In its July 2019 report, "
267:environmental sustainability
154:Consumer/consumption subsidy
132:Enterprise Investment Scheme
7:
1347:Journal of Economic Surveys
1182:International Monetary Fund
999:
832:
731:conditions to do so are met
531:Environmental externalities
493:International Energy Agency
487:or environmentally harmful
10:
3478:
1692:"EU Technical Report 2007"
1589:"Temporary Wage Subsidies"
1090:. Salem Press Encyclopedia
777:
665:renewable energy subsidies
596:Production and consumption
534:
372:
353:renewable power generation
304:
20:
3403:Resources in your library
2273:Guenette, Justin-Damien.
2129:10.1016/j.jhe.2022.101859
923:
900:promote the expansion of
795:exploitation of resources
791:environmental degradation
614:Monetary and non-monetary
537:Climate change mitigation
466:coal-fired power stations
432:, such as tax breaks on
2110:Borbely, Daniel (2022).
2059:Oil Change International
939:(CDI), published by the
545:Environmental protection
464:, such as subsidies for
186:World Trade Organization
119:
90:accelerated depreciation
21:Not to be confused with
3324:. NonProfit Quarterly.
3307:The Wall Street Journal
2875:: 49–69. Archived from
1988:10.1073/pnas.2208024119
1359:10.1111/1467-6419.00079
1084:Ayanna, Julien (2022).
947:Short list of subsidies
915:Manufacturing subsidies
789:Indirectly, they cause
772:unintended consequences
541:Environmental economics
3048:Steenblik, R. (1998).
1343:"Government Subsidies"
845:agricultural subsidies
838:Agricultural subsidies
642:
631:
578:Categorising subsidies
485:agricultural subsidies
462:electricity generation
438:negative externalities
394:
386:
46:government expenditure
2339:"Perverse Priorities"
1178:"What Are Subsidies?"
979:Photovoltaics subsidy
973:Fossil fuel subsidies
641:
630:
398:Fossil fuel subsidies
392:
384:
375:Fossil fuel subsidies
349:fossil fuel subsidies
240:Intellectual Property
98:factors of production
2905:"Perverse Subsidies"
2616:"Perverse subsidies"
1147:"What is a Subsidy?"
1006:Agricultural subsidy
953:Agricultural subsidy
683:In the Netherlands,
561:, or other sources.
481:limit climate change
359:and just over 3% to
351:. About 20% went to
160:developing countries
94:market price support
42:government incentive
3216:Porter, G. (1998).
3205:on 3 December 2013.
2760:on 3 December 2013.
2692:1999Natur.401..323J
1979:2022PNAS..11908024M
1973:(47): e2208024119.
1557:Suranovic, Steven.
1312:1998Natur.392..327M
1011:Cross subsidization
909:fisheries subsidies
811:political lobbyists
718:of this section is
650:, or inefficiency.
583:Direct and indirect
434:exploration for oil
426:residential heating
277:Transport subsidies
106:income distribution
3320:Cohen, R. (2008).
3301:2017-11-12 at the
2943:Myers, N. (1998).
2903:Myers, N. (1996).
2824:10.1579/08-A-616.1
2785:10.1111/puar.13163
2659:2014-06-05 at the
2614:Myers, N. (1997).
2346:IUCN Opinion Piece
2337:Myers, N. (2008).
2079:Amadeo, Kimberly.
1899:. 16 February 2023
1869:www.earthtrack.net
1046:Perverse incentive
1041:Municipal services
1031:Federal government
865:drought resistance
819:prisoner's dilemma
696:Perverse subsidies
643:
632:
428:; or subsidies on
416:, such as a lower
395:
387:
331:trade restrictions
210:Employment subsidy
125:Production subsidy
3389:Library resources
3034:978-1-55963-835-7
2686:(6751): 323–324.
2377:Watkins, Thayer.
1844:Our World in Data
1306:(6674): 327–328.
1273:978-1-55963-835-7
958:Fisheries subsidy
876:Farm Bill of 2002
759:
758:
751:
514:Housing subsidies
290:low cost carriers
184:China joined the
165:opportunity costs
148:carrying capacity
136:industrial policy
55:COVID-19 pandemic
3469:
3431:Naked Capitalism
3377:
3376:
3374:
3372:
3344:
3338:
3337:
3335:
3333:
3317:
3311:
3292:
3286:
3280:
3274:
3273:
3271:
3269:
3250:
3244:
3243:
3241:
3239:
3233:
3222:
3213:
3207:
3206:
3204:
3197:
3186:
3180:
3179:
3177:
3175:
3169:
3158:
3149:
3143:
3142:
3134:
3128:
3127:
3125:
3123:
3108:
3102:
3101:
3099:
3097:
3082:
3076:
3075:
3073:
3071:
3065:
3054:
3045:
3039:
3038:
3014:
3008:
3007:
3005:
3003:
2998:on 8 August 2020
2997:
2991:. Archived from
2986:
2977:
2971:
2970:
2968:
2966:
2960:
2949:
2940:
2931:
2930:
2928:
2926:
2920:
2909:
2900:
2889:
2888:
2886:
2884:
2860:
2851:
2850:
2848:
2846:
2840:
2809:
2800:
2789:
2788:
2768:
2762:
2761:
2759:
2752:
2741:
2720:
2719:
2675:
2669:
2666:Naked Capitalism
2651:
2645:
2644:
2642:
2640:
2625:
2611:
2605:
2604:
2602:
2600:
2585:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2544:
2525:
2519:
2518:
2502:
2482:
2476:
2475:
2457:
2451:
2448:
2442:
2439:
2433:
2432:
2414:
2399:
2398:
2396:
2394:
2374:
2365:
2364:
2362:
2360:
2354:
2343:
2334:
2323:
2322:
2320:
2318:
2299:
2293:
2292:
2290:
2288:
2282:World Bank Group
2279:
2270:
2264:
2263:
2261:
2259:
2240:
2234:
2233:
2231:
2229:
2220:. 23 July 2015.
2210:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2199:
2194:on 28 March 2016
2193:
2186:
2175:
2164:
2163:
2161:
2159:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2131:
2107:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2076:
2070:
2069:
2067:
2065:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2042:
2040:
2025:
2019:
2018:
2008:
1990:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1915:
1909:
1908:
1906:
1904:
1889:
1880:
1879:
1877:
1875:
1861:
1855:
1854:
1852:
1850:
1836:
1830:
1829:
1821:
1813:
1807:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1790:
1784:
1781:
1775:
1772:
1766:
1765:
1760:
1758:
1746:
1740:
1739:
1737:
1735:
1726:. 5 March 2015.
1714:
1708:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1688:
1682:
1681:
1658:Labour Economics
1649:
1643:
1642:
1640:
1638:
1632:
1621:
1613:
1607:
1606:
1604:
1602:
1593:
1585:
1579:
1578:
1576:
1574:
1554:
1548:
1541:
1535:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1510:
1504:
1503:
1501:
1499:
1484:
1475:
1474:
1472:
1470:
1464:
1457:
1448:
1442:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1418:
1412:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1401:
1393:World Bank Group
1390:
1381:
1375:
1374:
1372:
1370:
1338:
1332:
1331:
1295:
1278:
1277:
1265:
1255:
1234:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1209:
1198:
1197:
1195:
1193:
1173:
1167:
1166:
1164:
1162:
1143:
1137:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1126:
1115:
1106:
1100:
1099:
1097:
1095:
1081:
1016:Cultural subsidy
754:
747:
743:
740:
734:
708:
707:
700:
679:Preventing fraud
623:Economic effects
605:Broad and narrow
479:thus helping to
477:carbon emissions
402:energy subsidies
333:, and limits on
314:Energy subsidies
300:Energy subsidies
229:tax expenditures
74:imperfect market
3477:
3476:
3472:
3471:
3470:
3468:
3467:
3466:
3437:
3436:
3422:
3409:
3408:
3407:
3397:
3396:
3392:
3385:
3383:Further reading
3380:
3370:
3368:
3361:
3345:
3341:
3331:
3329:
3318:
3314:
3303:Wayback Machine
3293:
3289:
3281:
3277:
3267:
3265:
3252:
3251:
3247:
3237:
3235:
3231:
3220:
3214:
3210:
3202:
3195:
3187:
3183:
3173:
3171:
3167:
3156:
3150:
3146:
3135:
3131:
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3119:
3110:
3109:
3105:
3095:
3093:
3084:
3083:
3079:
3069:
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3063:
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1940:
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1228:15 September
1226:. Retrieved
1217:
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1086:
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1066:Wage subsidy
989:Wage subsidy
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853:monocultures
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470:
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396:
368:Fossil fuels
339:
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181:George Haley
174:
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144:over-produce
128:
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41:
37:
33:
31:
23:Subsidiarity
18:
3371:8 September
3002:8 September
2965:8 September
2925:8 September
2914:: 268–278.
2883:8 September
2359:8 September
2085:The Balance
2039:26 February
1946:26 February
1903:16 February
1529:19 February
1498:5 September
1386:"Subsidies"
1151:Real Vision
843:billion in
762:Definitions
422:natural gas
414:consumption
223:Tax subsidy
104:resources,
3441:Categories
2148:Planetizen
2122:: 101859.
1849:4 November
1825:World Bank
1801:26 October
1774:OECD, 1998
1757:26 October
1664:: 101763.
1353:(2): 119.
1072:References
716:neutrality
571:ExxonMobil
559:pesticides
535:See also:
507:oil prices
440:; such as
430:production
410:tax breaks
177:Usha Haley
86:tax breaks
66:soft loans
38:subvention
27:Subsidiary
3462:Subsidies
2573:1 October
2543:1 October
2462:Economics
2303:"Subsidy"
2244:"Subsidy"
1997:0027-8424
1941:Brookings
1678:204435231
887:Fisheries
855:; reduce
727:talk page
418:sales tax
51:recession
3457:Payments
3365:Archived
3332:15 April
3326:Archived
3299:Archived
3268:16 March
3262:Archived
3238:5 August
3229:Archived
3174:5 August
3165:Archived
3122:23 April
3116:Archived
3096:23 April
3090:Archived
3070:5 August
3061:Archived
2956:Archived
2954:: 1–31.
2916:Archived
2836:Archived
2832:19860158
2708:16862091
2657:Archived
2639:3 August
2599:18 April
2593:Archived
2567:Archived
2537:Archived
2387:Archived
2350:Archived
2317:27 April
2311:Archived
2307:ClearTax
2287:27 April
2258:27 April
2252:Archived
2248:ClearTax
2222:Archived
2158:27 April
2152:Archived
2095:16 March
2089:Archived
2015:36375060
1797:. Nature
1753:. Nature
1734:11 March
1728:Archived
1702:23 March
1696:Archived
1637:27 April
1628:Archived
1601:27 April
1573:16 March
1567:Archived
1523:Archived
1519:NBC News
1492:Archived
1469:27 April
1460:Archived
1436:27 April
1430:Archived
1406:27 April
1397:Archived
1369:27 April
1363:Archived
1222:Archived
1192:27 April
1186:Archived
1161:27 April
1155:Archived
1131:27 April
1122:Archived
1094:27 April
1000:See also
833:Examples
768:perverse
720:disputed
458:jet fuel
450:gasoline
357:biofuels
355:, 6% to
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