667:
519:
3975:
679:
848:
395:
192:
156:
505:
1084:
267:
733:
1687:
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3789:, with margins for safety and fault tolerance. Peak load times vary by region largely due to the industry mix. In hot and cold climates home air conditioning and heating loads affect the overall load. They are typically highest in the late afternoon in the hottest part of the year and in mid-mornings and mid-evenings in the coldest part of the year. Power requirements vary by season and time of day. Distribution system designs always take the base load and the peak load into consideration.
1695:
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93:
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939:
7553:
1587:. Their voltage ranges overlap. Voltages of 69 kV, 115 kV, and 138 kV are often used for subtransmission in North America. As power systems evolved, voltages formerly used for transmission were used for subtransmission, and subtransmission voltages became distribution voltages. Like transmission, subtransmission moves relatively large amounts of power, and like distribution, subtransmission covers an area instead of just point-to-point.
1487:
1027:
4844:
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1500:
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52:
4053:, issued in 1996. In the United States and parts of Canada, electric transmission companies operate independently of generation companies, but in the Southern United States vertical integration is intact. In regions of separation, transmission owners and generation owners continue to interact with each other as market participants with voting rights within their RTO. RTOs in the United States are regulated by the
3699:) allows lines to operate at higher temperatures, with less sag, and doubled transmission capacity. Lowering line sag at high temperatures can prevent wildfires from starting when power lines touch dry vegetation. Although advanced lines can cost 2-4x more than steel, total reconductoring costs are less than half of a new line, given savings in time, land acquisition, permitting, and construction.
3834:, and other locally distributed storage and generation systems can interact with the grid to improve system operation. Internationally, a slow move from a centralized to decentralized power system has taken place. The main draw of locally distributed generation systems is that they reduce transmission losses by leading to consumption of electricity closer to where it was produced.
2859:
805:. It was powered by a steam engine-driven 500 V Siemens generator. Voltage was stepped down to 100 volts using the Stanley transformer to power incandescent lamps at 23 businesses over 4,000 feet (1,200 m). This practical demonstration of a transformer and alternating current lighting system led Westinghouse to begin installing AC systems later that year.
786:, for public lighting. It was powered by two Siemens & Halske alternators rated 30 hp (22 kW), 2 kV at 120 Hz and used 19 km of cables and 200 parallel-connected 2 kV to 20 V step-down transformers provided with a closed magnetic circuit, one for each lamp. A few months later it was followed by the first British AC system, serving
1224:, which varies by conductor type, the current, and the transmission distance. For example, a 100 mi (160 km) span at 765 kV carrying 1000 MW of power can have losses of 0.5% to 1.1%. A 345 kV line carrying the same load across the same distance has losses of 4.2%. For a given amount of power, a higher voltage reduces the current and thus the
711:(usually an oil) that is either static or circulated via pumps. If an electric fault damages the pipe and leaks dielectric, liquid nitrogen is used to freeze portions of the pipe to enable draining and repair. This extends the repair period and increases costs. The temperature of the pipe and surroundings are monitored throughout the repair period.
1295:(by increasing its cross-sectional area), larger conductors are heavier and more expensive. And since conductance is proportional to cross-sectional area, resistive power loss is only reduced proportionally with increasing cross-sectional area, providing a much smaller benefit than the squared reduction provided by multiplying the voltage.
3040:
2692:
1309:. Resistance increases with temperature. Spiraling, which refers to the way stranded conductors spiral about the center, also contributes to increases in conductor resistance. The skin effect causes the effective resistance to increase at higher AC frequencies. Corona and resistive losses can be estimated using a mathematical model.
2536:
3420:
3668:
Reconductoring has the potential to double the amount of electricity that can travel across a transmission line. A 2024 report found the United States behind countries like
Belgium and the Netherlands in adoption of this technique to accommodate electrification and renewable energy. In April 2022, the
2066:
987:
rates and low commodity costs, Kelvin's law indicates that thicker wires are optimal. Otherwise, thinner conductors are indicated. Since power lines are designed for long-term use, Kelvin's law is used in conjunction with long-term estimates of the price of copper and aluminum as well as interest rates.
4196:
in humans and less than sufficient evidence for carcinogenicity in experimental animals", in particular, childhood leukemia, associated with average exposure to residential power-frequency magnetic field above 0.3 μT (3 mG) to 0.4 μT (4 mG). These levels exceed average residential
4118:
A major barrier to wider adoption of merchant transmission is the difficulty in identifying who benefits from the facility so that the beneficiaries pay the toll. Also, it is difficult for a merchant transmission line to compete when the alternative transmission lines are subsidized by utilities with
3658:
For overhead cables the fiber is integrated into the core of a phase wire. The integrated
Dynamic Cable Rating (DCR)/Real Time Thermal Rating (RTTR) solution makes it possible to run the network to its maximum. It allows the operator to predict the behavior of the transmission system to reflect major
3526:
between source end voltage and destination ends increases, but too large a phase angle allows the systems at either end to fall out of step. Since the power flow in a DC link is controlled independently of the phases of the AC networks that it connects, this phase angle limit does not exist, and a DC
1091:
Hydro and wind sources cannot be moved closer to big cities, and solar costs are lowest in remote areas where local power needs are nominal. Connection costs can determine whether any particular renewable alternative is economically realistic. Costs can be prohibitive for transmission lines, but high
4165:
conducted a study to evaluate potential health effects of electric fields. The study measured the electric field strength at the edge of an existing right-of-way on a 765 kV transmission line. The field strength was 1.6 kV/m, and became the interim maximum strength standard for new transmission
3808:
the generators are geographically distributed and the process to bring them online and offline must be carefully controlled. The load control signals can either be sent on separate lines or on the power lines themselves. Voltage and frequency can be used as signaling mechanisms to balance the loads.
1446:
Unbalanced inductance among the three conductors is problematic because it may force the middle line to carry a disproportionate amount of the total power transmitted. Similarly, an unbalanced load may occur if one line is consistently closest to the ground and operates at a lower impedance. Because
914:
Transmission voltages increased throughout the 20th century. By 1914, fifty-five transmission systems operating at more than 70 kV were in service. The highest voltage then used was 150 kV. Interconnecting multiple generating plants over a wide area reduced costs. The most efficient plants
3812:
In voltage signaling, voltage is varied to increase generation. The power added by any system increases as the line voltage decreases. This arrangement is stable in principle. Voltage-based regulation is complex to use in mesh networks, since the individual components and setpoints would need to be
3483:
High-voltage direct current (HVDC) is used to transmit large amounts of power over long distances or for interconnections between asynchronous grids. When electrical energy is transmitted over very long distances, the power lost in AC transmission becomes appreciable and it is less expensive to use
1442:
of the surrounding conductors of other phases. The conductors' mutual inductance is partially dependent on the physical orientation of the lines with respect to each other. Three-phase lines are conventionally strung with phases separated vertically. The mutual inductance seen by a conductor of the
879:
in the US. These companies developed AC systems, but the technical difference between direct and alternating current systems required a much longer technical merger. Alternating current's economies of scale with large generating plants and long-distance transmission slowly added the ability to link
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to the high main transmission voltage, because that equipment is larger and more expensive. Typically, only larger substations connect with this high voltage. Voltage is stepped down before the current is sent to smaller substations. Subtransmission circuits are usually arranged in loops so that a
1312:
US transmission and distribution losses were estimated at 6.6% in 1997, 6.5% in 2007 and 5% from 2013 to 2019. In general, losses are estimated from the discrepancy between power produced (as reported by power plants) and power sold; the difference constitutes transmission and distribution losses,
1079:
Long-distance transmission (hundreds of kilometers) is cheap and efficient, with costs of US$ 0.005–0.02 per kWh, compared to annual averaged large producer costs of US$ 0.01–0.025 per kWh, retail rates upwards of US$ 0.10 per kWh, and multiples of retail for instantaneous suppliers at unpredicted
740:
Commercial electric power was initially transmitted at the same voltage used by lighting and mechanical loads. This restricted the distance between generating plant and loads. In 1882, DC voltage could not easily be increased for long-distance transmission. Different classes of loads (for example,
4200:
The Earth's natural geomagnetic field strength varies over the surface of the planet between 0.035 mT and 0.07 mT (35 μT – 70 μT or 350 mG – 700 mG) while the international standard for continuous exposure is set at 40 mT (400,000 mG or 400 G) for the general public.
3683:
The rate of transmission expansion needs to double to support ongoing electrification and reach emission reduction targets. As of 2022, more than 10,000 power plant and energy storage projects were awaiting permission to connect to the US grid — 95% were zero-carbon resources. New power lines can
485:, alternative routes for power to flow should such shutdowns occur. Transmission companies determine the maximum reliable capacity of each line (ordinarily less than its physical or thermal limit) to ensure that spare capacity is available in the event of a failure in another part of the network.
4268:
has made the concept of superconducting power lines commercially feasible, at least for high-load applications. It has been estimated that waste would be halved using this method, since the necessary refrigeration equipment would consume about half the power saved by the elimination of resistive
3643:
This angle varies depending on system loading. It is undesirable for the angle to approach 90 degrees, as the power flowing decreases while resistive losses remain. The product of line length and maximum load is approximately proportional to the square of the system voltage. Series capacitors or
2866:
The characteristic impedance is pure real, which means resistive for that impedance, and it is often called surge impedance. When a lossless line is terminated by surge impedance, the voltage does not drop. Though the phase angles of voltage and current are rotated, the magnitudes of voltage and
986:
The optimum size of a conductor for a given voltage and current can be estimated by Kelvin's law for conductor size, which states that size is optimal when the annual cost of energy wasted in resistance is equal to the annual capital charges of providing the conductor. At times of lower interest
4581:
In
November 2009, LaserMotive won the NASA 2009 Power Beaming Challenge by powering a cable climber 1 km vertically using a ground-based laser transmitter. The system produced up to 1 kW of power at the receiver end. In August 2010, NASA contracted with private companies to pursue the
3631:
The amount of power that can be sent over a transmission line varies with the length of the line. The heating of short line conductors due to line losses sets a thermal limit. If too much current is drawn, conductors may sag too close to the ground, or conductors and equipment may overheat. For
605:
alloy, formed of several strands and possibly reinforced with steel strands. Copper was sometimes used for overhead transmission, but aluminum is lighter, reduces yields only marginally and costs much less. Overhead conductors are supplied by several companies. Conductor material and shapes are
422:(typically longer than 30 miles (50 km)), and in the interchange of power between grids that are not mutually synchronized. HVDC links stabilize power distribution networks where sudden new loads, or blackouts, in one part of a network might otherwise result in synchronization problems and
1038:
While the price of generating capacity is high, energy demand is variable, making it often cheaper to import needed power than to generate it locally. Because loads often rise and fall together across large areas, power often comes from distant sources. Because of the economic benefits of load
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would require adjustment of the relative phase of the two regional electrical grids. This is an everyday occurrence in AC systems, but one that can become disrupted when AC system components fail and place unexpected loads on the grid. With an HVDC line instead, such an interconnection would:
3208:
880:
all the loads. These included single phase AC systems, poly-phase AC systems, low voltage incandescent lighting, high-voltage arc lighting, and existing DC motors in factories and street cars. In what became a universal system, these technological differences were temporarily bridged via the
3233:
The long line model is used when a higher degree of accuracy is needed or when the line under consideration is more than 250 km (160 mi) long. Series resistance and shunt conductance are considered to be distributed parameters, such that each differential length of the line has a
651:
Overhead transmission wires depend on air for insulation, requiring that lines maintain minimum clearances. Adverse weather conditions, such as high winds and low temperatures, interrupt transmission. Wind speeds as low as 23 knots (43 km/h) can permit conductors to encroach operating
3667:
Some utilities have embraced reconductoring to handle the increase in electricity production. Reconductoring is the replacement-in-place of existing transmission lines with higher-capacity lines. Adding transmission lines is difficult due to cost, permit intervals, and local opposition.
3050:
The medium line approximation is used for lines running between 80 and 250 km (50 and 155 mi). The series impedance and the shunt (current leak) conductance are considered, placing half of the shunt conductance at each end of the line. This circuit is often referred to as a
3776:
To ensure safe and predictable operation, system components are controlled with generators, switches, circuit breakers and loads. The voltage, power, frequency, load factor, and reliability capabilities of the transmission system are designed to provide cost effective performance.
704:. Underground cables take up no right-of-way, have lower visibility, and are less affected by weather. However, cables must be insulated. Cable and excavation costs are much higher than overhead construction. Faults in buried transmission lines take longer to locate and repair.
1001:(HVDC) systems require relatively costly conversion equipment that may be economically justified for particular projects such as submarine cables and longer distance high capacity point-to-point transmission. HVDC is necessary for sending energy between unsynchronized grids.
453:
closely matches demand. If demand exceeds supply, the imbalance can cause generation plant(s) and transmission equipment to automatically disconnect or shut down to prevent damage. In the worst case, this may lead to a cascading series of shutdowns and a major regional
1447:
of this phenomenon, conductors must be periodically transposed along the line so that each phase sees equal time in each relative position to balance out the mutual inductance seen by all three phases. To accomplish this, line position is swapped at specially designed
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2553:
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flow, which transmits no power to the load. These reactive currents, however, cause extra heating losses. The ratio of real power transmitted to the load to apparent power (the product of a circuit's voltage and current, without reference to phase angle) is the
4153:
Some studies failed to find any link between living near power lines and developing any sickness or diseases, such as cancer. A 1997 study reported no increased risk of cancer or illness from living near a transmission line. Other studies, however, reported
1080:
high demand moments. New York often buys over 1000 MW of low-cost hydropower from Canada. Local sources (even if more expensive and infrequently used) can protect the power supply from weather and other disasters that can disconnect distant suppliers.
4131:
The cost of high voltage transmission is comparatively low, compared to all other costs constituting consumer electricity bills. In the UK, transmission costs are about 0.2 p per kWh compared to a delivered domestic price of around 10 p per kWh.
4170:. This policy established a magnetic field standard of 200 mG at the edge of the right-of-way using the winter-normal conductor rating. As a comparison with everyday items, a hair dryer or electric blanket produces a 100 mG – 500 mG magnetic field.
915:
could be used to supply varying loads during the day. Reliability was improved and capital costs were reduced, because stand-by generating capacity could be shared over many more customers and a wider area. Remote and low-cost sources of energy, such as
2854:
The lossless line approximation is the least accurate; it is typically used on short lines where the inductance is much greater than the resistance. For this approximation, the voltage and current are identical at the sending and receiving ends.
1602:
to customers. This distribution is accomplished with a combination of sub-transmission (33 to 138 kV) and distribution (3.3 to 25 kV). Finally, at the point of use, the energy is transformed to end-user voltage (100 to 4160 volts).
946:
decreases the voltage of incoming electricity, allowing it to connect from long-distance high-voltage transmission, to local lower voltage distribution. It also reroutes power to other transmission lines that serve local markets. This is the
3264:
1865:
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Multiple sources and loads can be connected to the transmission system and they must be controlled to provide orderly transfer of power. In centralized power generation, only local control of generation is necessary. This involves
3651:(DTS) systems that measure temperatures all along the cable. Without them maximum current was typically set as a compromise between understanding of operation conditions and risk minimization. This monitoring solution uses passive
2183:
4149:
Mainstream scientific evidence suggests that low-power, low-frequency, electromagnetic radiation associated with household currents and high transmission power lines does not constitute a short- or long-term health hazard.
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1023:. In the 19th century, two-phase transmission was used but required either four wires or three wires with unequal currents. Higher order phase systems require more than three wires, but deliver little or no benefit.
4166:
lines in New York State. The opinion also limited the voltage of new transmission lines built in New York to 345 kV. On
September 11, 1990, after a similar study of magnetic field strengths, the NYSPSC issued their
3934:
at each end of the line must communicate to monitor the flow of power so that faulted conductors or equipment can be quickly de-energized and the balance of the system restored. Protection of the transmission line from
982:
states that energy losses are proportional to the square of the current. Thus, reducing the current by a factor of two lowers the energy lost to conductor resistance by a factor of four for any given size of conductor.
778:
alternator and featured several
Gaulard transformers with primary windings connected in series, which fed incandescent lamps. The system proved the feasibility of AC electric power transmission over long distances.
666:
5816:
3269:
2837:
The four main models are the short line approximation, the medium line approximation, the long line approximation (with distributed parameters), and the lossless line. In such models, a capital letter such as
1360:, FACTS) throughout the system help to compensate for the reactive power flow, reduce the losses in power transmission and stabilize system voltages. These measures are collectively called 'reactive support'.
3553:(and possibly in other cooperating cities along the transmission route). Such a system could be less prone to failure if parts of it were suddenly shut down. One example of a long DC transmission line is the
445:
has a significantly higher installation cost and greater operational limitations, but lowers maintenance costs. Underground transmission is more common in urban areas or environmentally sensitive locations.
1316:
As of 1980, the longest cost-effective distance for DC transmission was 7,000 kilometres (4,300 miles). For AC it was 4,000 kilometres (2,500 miles), though US transmission lines are substantially shorter.
3792:
The transmission system usually does not have a large buffering capability to match loads with generation. Thus generation has to be kept matched to the load, to prevent overloading generation equipment.
3963:
Rarely, and for short distances, pilot-wires are strung along the transmission line path. Leased circuits from common carriers are not preferred since availability is not under control of the operator.
4705:
3702:
A reconductoring project in southeastern Texas upgraded 240 miles of transmission lines at a cost of $ 900,000 per mile, versus a 3,600-mile greenfield project that averaged $ 1.9 million per mile.
3035:{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}V_{\mathrm {S} }\\I_{\mathrm {S} }\\\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}1&Z\\0&1\\\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}V_{\mathrm {R} }\\I_{\mathrm {R} }\\\end{bmatrix}}}
2687:{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}V_{\mathrm {S} }\\I_{\mathrm {S} }\\\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}A&B\\C&D\\\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}V_{\mathrm {R} }\\I_{\mathrm {R} }\\\end{bmatrix}}}
1064:
have the potential to provide firm power. Renewable energy sources, such as solar photovoltaics, wind, wave, and tidal, are, due to their intermittency, not considered to be firm. The remaining or
6100:
4486:
Single-wire earth return (SWER) or single-wire ground return is a single-wire transmission line for supplying single-phase electrical power to remote areas at low cost. It is principally used for
2895:
are ignored. The final result is that A = D = 1 per unit, B = Z Ohms, and C = 0. The associated transition matrix for this approximation is therefore:
1302:
losses are so large that they can offset the lower resistive losses in the line conductors. Measures to reduce corona losses include larger conductor diameter, hollow cores or conductor bundles.
3076:
278:. Four circuits are shown. Two additional circuits are obscured by trees on the far right. The entire 6809 MW nameplate generation capacity of the dam is accommodated by these six circuits.
2451:(i.e. conversion of high voltage to low voltage near the consumption point), a larger fraction of the generator's power is transmitted to the consumption point and a lesser fraction is lost to
5039:
1258:
losses by a factor of 100, provided the same sized conductors are used in both cases. Even if the conductor size (cross-sectional area) is decreased ten-fold to match the lower current, the
1298:
Long-distance transmission is typically done with overhead lines at voltages of 115 to 1,200 kV. At higher voltages, where more than 2,000 kV exists between conductor and ground,
4051:
Promoting
Wholesale Competition Through Open Access Non-discriminatory Transmission Services by Public Utilities; Recovery of Stranded Costs by Public Utilities and Transmitting Utilities
3484:
direct current instead. For a long transmission line, these lower losses (and reduced construction cost of a DC line) can offset the cost of the required converter stations at each end.
5487:
4264:(HTS) promise to revolutionize power distribution by providing lossless transmission. The development of superconductors with transition temperatures higher than the boiling point of
3527:
link is always able to transfer its full rated power. A DC link therefore stabilizes the AC grid at either end, since power flow and phase angle can then be controlled independently.
1857:
6087:
3644:
phase-shifting transformers are used on long lines to improve stability. HVDC lines are restricted only by thermal and voltage drop limits, since the phase angle is not material.
3943:
telecommunications are insufficiently reliable, while in some remote areas no common carrier is available. Communication systems associated with a transmission project may use:
1348:
For transmission systems with low power factor, losses are higher than for systems with high power factor. Utilities add capacitor banks, reactors and other components (such as
1174:, power is produced at a relatively low voltage between about 2.3 kV and 30 kV, depending on the size of the unit. The voltage is then stepped up by the power station
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2755:
2175:
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High-voltage power transmission allows for lesser resistive losses over long distances. This efficiency delivers a larger proportion of the generated power to the loads.
481:. Electric transmission networks are interconnected into regional, national, and even continent-wide networks to reduce the risk of such a failure by providing multiple
6667:
2697:
The line is assumed to be a reciprocal, symmetrical network, meaning that the receiving and sending labels can be switched with no consequence. The transmission matrix
2135:
in the secondary branch, compared to the primary branch), then the circuit is again equivalent to a voltage divider, but the wires now have apparent resistance of only
4123:'s Order 1000, issued in 2010, attempted to reduce barriers to third party investment and creation of merchant transmission lines where a public policy need is found.
3640:
becomes the limiting factor. Approximately, the power flowing over an AC line is proportional to the cosine of the phase angle of the voltage and current at the ends.
3415:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}A&=D=\cosh(\gamma x){\text{ per unit}}\\B&=Z_{c}\sinh(\gamma x)\Omega \\C&={\frac {1}{Z_{c}}}\sinh(\gamma x)S\end{aligned}}}
2543:
The terminal characteristics of the transmission line are the voltage and current at the sending (S) and receiving (R) ends. The transmission line can be modeled as a
3252:
2449:
1286:
1256:
3820:, if the frequency decreases, the power is increased. (The drop in line frequency is an indication that the increased load is causing the generators to slow down.)
1798:
1751:
1580:, in urban areas buried cable may be used. The lower-voltage subtransmission lines use less right-of-way and simpler structures; undergrounding is less difficult.
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2061:{\displaystyle P_{R}=V_{2}\times I=V{\frac {R}{R+R_{C}}}\times {\frac {V}{R+R_{C}}}={\frac {R}{R+R_{C}}}\times {\frac {V^{2}}{R+R_{C}}}={\frac {R}{R+R_{C}}}P_{V}}
3463:
3443:
2133:
2113:
2093:
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between various diseases and living or working near power lines. No adverse health effects have been substantiated for people not living close to power lines.
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6414:
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5014:
4921:
900:
2415:{\displaystyle P_{R}=V_{2}\times I_{2}={\frac {a^{2}R\times V^{2}}{(a^{2}R+R_{C})^{2}}}={\frac {a^{2}R}{a^{2}R+R_{C}}}P_{V}={\frac {R}{R+R_{C}/a^{2}}}P_{V}}
891:
The first transmission of single-phase alternating current using high voltage came in Oregon in 1890 when power was delivered from a hydroelectric plant at
6484:
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678:
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6104:
790:. It also featured Siemens alternators and 2.4 kV to 100 V step-down transformers – one per user – with shunt-connected primaries.
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6321:
5523:
3203:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}A&=D=1+{\frac {GZ}{2}}{\text{ per unit}}\\B&=Z\Omega \\C&=G{\Big (}1+{\frac {GZ}{4}}{\Big )}S\end{aligned}}}
1181:
In the United States, power transmission is, variously, 230 kV to 500 kV, with less than 230 kV or more than 500 kV as exceptions.
3234:
corresponding differential series impedance and shunt admittance. The following result can be applied at any point along the transmission line, where
5989:
714:
Underground lines are limited by their thermal capacity, which permits less overload or re-rating lines. Long underground AC cables have significant
736:
New York City streets in 1890. Besides telegraph lines, multiple electric lines were required for each class of device requiring different voltages.
6525:
5834:
3856:(also called load shedding) are intentionally engineered electrical power outages, used to distribute insufficient power to various loads in turn.
1043:
may span countries and even continents. Interconnections between producers and consumers enables power to flow even if some links are inoperative.
449:
Electrical energy must typically be generated at the same rate at which it is consumed. A sophisticated control system is required to ensure that
6599:
6529:
718:, which reduces their ability to provide useful power beyond 50 miles (80 kilometres). DC cables are not limited in length by their capacitance.
5549:
4490:, but also finds use for larger isolated loads such as water pumps. Single-wire earth return is also used for HVDC over submarine power cables.
4239:
are operated by the railways. Prime examples are countries such as
Austria, Germany and Switzerland that utilize AC technology based on 16
4197:
power-frequency magnetic fields in homes, which are about 0.07 μT (0.7 mG) in Europe and 0.11 μT (1.1 mG) in North
America.
636:
Today, transmission-level voltages are usually 110 kV and above. Lower voltages, such as 66 kV and 33 kV, are usually considered
6825:
6058:
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103:
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Superconducting cables are particularly suited to high load density areas such as the business district of large cities, where purchase of an
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Applications for a new transmission line typically include an analysis of electric and magnetic field levels at the edge of rights-of-way.
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65:
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Optical fibers can be included in the stranded conductors of a transmission line, in the overhead shield wires. These cables are known as
888:
that allowed the legacy systems to connect to the AC grid. These stopgaps were slowly replaced as older systems were retired or upgraded.
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5079:
5117:
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attempted to devise systems for large scale wireless power transmission in the late 1800s and early 1900s, without commercial success.
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Grid operators require reliable communications to manage the grid and associated generation and distribution facilities. Fault-sensing
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621:. For large conductors (more than a few centimetres in diameter), much of the current flow is concentrated near the surface due to the
525:
6684:
6396:
6205:
4714:
planned: 1.20 MV (Ultra-High
Voltage) on Wardha-Aurangabad line (India) – under construction. Initially will operate at 400 kV.
4162:
3065:) that is taken on when leak conductance is placed on both sides of the circuit diagram. The analysis of the medium line produces:
6378:
5618:
741:
lighting, fixed motors, and traction/railway systems) required different voltages, and so used different generators and circuits.
378:
Historically, transmission and distribution lines were often owned by the same company, but starting in the 1990s, many countries
6145:
4669:
1188:
has two primary interchange voltages: 500 kV AC at 60 Hz, and ±500 kV (1,000 kV net) DC from North to South (
770:
The first long distance AC line was 34 kilometres (21 miles) long, built for the 1884 International
Exhibition of Electricity in
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5660:
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4246: Hz. Norway and Sweden also use this frequency but use conversion from the 50 Hz public supply; Sweden has a 16
727:
372:
31:
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streamlined environmental reviews for such projects, and in May 2022 announced competitive grants for them funded by the 2021
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runs through the wire resistance and the powered device. As a consequence, the useful power (at the point of consumption) is:
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5690:
5337:
5047:
4135:
The level of capital expenditure in the electric power T&D equipment market was estimated to be $ 128.9 bn in 2011.
2883:
The short line approximation is normally used for lines shorter than 80 km (50 mi). There, only a series impedance
2804:
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14 miles (23 km) down river. The first three-phase alternating current using high voltage took place in 1891 during the
625:. The center of the conductor carries little current but contributes weight and cost. Thus, multiple parallel cables (called
434:
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4054:
4038:(REE) and the wholesale electricity market operator is Operador del Mercado Ibérico de Energía – Polo Español, S.A. (OMEL)
1228:. For example, raising the voltage by a factor of 10 reduces the current by a corresponding factor of 10 and therefore the
474:
305:. This is distinct from the local wiring between high-voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to as
7395:
4868:
4582:
design of laser power beaming systems to power low earth orbit satellites and to launch rockets using laser power beams.
6580:
4084:
in California. Additional projects are in development or have been proposed throughout the United States, including the
4027:, but one that is not inherently linked to generation. Many countries regulate transmission separately from generation.
4001:, prohibit energy transmission companies from selling surplus communication bandwidth or acting as a telecommunications
7503:
6818:
5007:
4948:
4031:
3495:
are used. Submarine HVDC systems are often used to interconnect the electricity grids of islands, for example, between
1452:
968:
640:
voltages, but are occasionally used on long lines with light loads. Voltages less than 33 kV are usually used for
5498:
International Conference on Large High Voltage Electric Systems, 1984 Session, 29 August – 6 September
4680:
works with industry to identify vulnerabilities and to help industry enhance the security of control system networks.
7123:
6787:
6753:
6736:
6042:
5881:
5711:
5385:
5316:
5127:
5010:
4796:, (Australia) – (length of submarine cable: 290 kilometres or 180 miles, total length: 370.1 kilometres or 230 miles)
4655:
4557:
4473:
4034:. In that country, transmission operations and electricity markets are separate. The transmission system operator is
3917:
3763:
3618:
2867:
current remain constant along the line. For load > SIL, the voltage drops from sending end and the line
2522:
1670:
1547:
1421:
1157:
978:
Transmission efficiency is improved at higher voltage and lower current. The reduced current reduces heating losses.
588:
253:
235:
213:
137:
79:
4978:
4539:
4455:
3899:
3745:
3600:
2504:
1652:
1529:
1403:
1139:
672:
A five-hundred kilovolt (500 kV) three-phase transmission tower in Washington State, the line is bundled 3-ways
570:
206:
6418:
5000:
4888:
4633:
115:
71:
6706:
6507:
6444:
7582:
7286:
7211:
7082:
5906:
5501:
4905:
4899:
4858:
4341:
4261:
3648:
2075:
convert high-voltage, low-current electricity into low-voltage, high-current electricity with a voltage ratio of
1357:
856:
802:
17:
6492:
5861:
4931:
4535:
4451:
3974:
3895:
3741:
3596:
2500:
1648:
1525:
1399:
1135:
566:
466:
442:
411:
5181:
7587:
7458:
7390:
7380:
7256:
7156:
6811:
6543:
6310:
4718:
3673:
837:
5817:"FACT SHEET: Biden-Harris Administration Launches Federal-State Initiative to Bolster America's Power Grid"
5527:
1814:
908:
629:) are used for higher capacity. Bundle conductors are used at high voltages to reduce energy loss caused by
7311:
7271:
6848:
5796:
5080:"Investigation of the September 2013 Electric Outage of a Portion of Metro-North Railroad's New Haven Line"
4753:
4684:
4035:
972:
876:
601:
High-voltage overhead conductors are not covered by insulation. The conductor material is nearly always an
3655:
as temperature sensors, either inside a high-voltage cable or externally mounted on the cable insulation.
3647:
Understanding the temperature distribution along the cable route became possible with the introduction of
518:
7538:
7533:
7251:
7216:
7192:
6893:
4916:
4807:
4692:
4174:
3478:
1599:
1584:
1472:
998:
415:
407:
306:
5838:
3842:
Under excess load conditions, the system can be designed to fail incrementally rather than all at once.
1328:
can be significant. Currents that flow solely in reaction to these properties, (which together with the
1019:. Single-phase AC is used only for distribution to end users since it is not usable for large polyphase
847:
7592:
7453:
7171:
7141:
6918:
6607:
6135:, The Health Report / ABC Science - Broadcast on 7 June 1997 (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)
3798:
3466:
1576:
where substations can switch to a backup supply. While subtransmission circuits are usually carried on
1057:
1040:
1031:
1013:
833:
829:
470:
462:
403:
379:
344:
271:
4205:
3816:
In frequency signaling, the generating units match the frequency of the power transmission system. In
3522:
HVDC links can be used to control grid problems. The power transmitted by an AC line increases as the
7508:
6997:
6958:
6640:
6248:
5560:
4629:
4204:
Tree growth regulators and herbicides may be used in transmission line right of ways, which may have
2707:
1443:
phase in the middle of the other two phases is different from the inductance seen on the top/bottom.
1212:(APS) line) are local standards, both of which were implemented before 500 kV became practical.
863:
In the late 1880s and early 1890s smaller electric companies merged into larger corporations such as
618:
111:
6066:
840:. Widespread use of such motors were delayed many years by development problems and the scarcity of
7483:
7291:
7231:
6888:
6011:
4937:
4883:
4637:
4520:
4436:
4415:
4360:
3968:
3952:
3880:
3726:
3581:
3523:
2485:
1633:
1510:
1384:
1120:
641:
551:
482:
414:. DC technology is used for greater efficiency over longer distances, typically hundreds of miles.
200:
119:
7422:
7412:
7402:
6252:
5653:"How much electricity is lost in electricity transmission and distribution in the United States?"
4943:
4524:
4499:
4440:
4274:
4155:
4039:
3884:
3730:
3677:
3585:
2489:
2138:
1637:
1514:
1388:
1185:
1124:
930:, when large electrical generating plants were built by governments to power munitions factories.
923:
555:
478:
360:
356:
6125:
5967:
5767:
5486:
Paris, L.; Zini, G.; Valtorta, M.; Manzoni, G.; Invernizzi, A.; De Franco, N.; Vian, A. (1984).
5451:
859:, part of their Tesla Poly-phase System. Such polyphase innovations revolutionized transmission.
7343:
7206:
6989:
6878:
6466:
5377:
4873:
4742:
4236:
4232:
4222:
4073:
4069:
3843:
3805:
3637:
2828:
1353:
1292:
1209:
793:
Working to improve what he considered an impractical Gaulard-Gibbs design, electrical engineer
745:
364:
217:
5937:
5062:"After the Attacks: The Workers; Con Edison Crews Improvise as They Rewire a Truncated System"
967:. The transmission network is usually administered on a regional basis by an entity such as a
7478:
7246:
7241:
7221:
6756:, an excellent overview of development during the first 50 years of commercial electric power
5630:
5001:"A Primer on Electric Utilities, Deregulation, and Restructuring of U.S. Electricity Markets"
4586:
4487:
4042:. Spain's transmission system is interconnected with those of France, Portugal, and Morocco.
3632:
intermediate-length lines on the order of 100 kilometres (62 miles), the limit is set by the
3488:
3237:
1595:
1561:
1329:
1009:
943:
922:
The 20th century's rapid industrialization made electrical transmission lines and grids
419:
368:
298:
5369:
2871:
VARs. For load < SIL, the voltage increases from the sending end, and the line
2428:
1261:
1231:
1087:
A high-power electrical transmission tower, 230 kV, double-circuit, also double-bundled
926:. Interconnection of local generation plants and small distribution networks was spurred by
7072:
6834:
6354:
6311:"Transmission Vegetation Management NERC Standard FAC-003-2 Technical Reference Page 14/50"
4731:
4104:
3669:
3255:
1776:
1729:
1703:
1333:
979:
868:
794:
310:
6692:
528:. The conductor consists of seven strands of steel surrounded by four layers of aluminium.
351:
in North America, directly connects generators delivering AC power with the same relative
8:
7443:
7276:
7176:
7151:
7104:
6913:
6903:
6868:
6101:"The Electric Power Transmission & Distribution (T&D) Equipment Market 2011–2021"
5594:
5590:
4270:
4228:
4089:
4085:
3983:
3831:
3817:
3786:
3554:
3519:. Submarine connections up to 600 kilometres (370 mi) in length have been deployed.
3507:
and the Australian mainland, between the North and South Islands of New Zealand, between
2761:
1577:
1448:
1193:
1069:
1056:. Such facilities are nuclear, coal or hydroelectric, while other energy sources such as
1016:
798:
797:
developed the first practical series AC transformer in 1885. Working with the support of
775:
752:
610:
494:
438:
394:
329:
38:
6358:
6339:
5652:
4088:, an underwater transmission line proposed by ITC Holdings Corp., connecting Ontario to
1565:
single line failure does not stop service to many customers for more than a short time.
169:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
7317:
6928:
6370:
5887:
5801:
5741:
5235:
5163:
4911:
4738:
4065:
4018:
3500:
3492:
3465:(the line length) in all parameters of the transmission matrix. This model applies the
3448:
3428:
2118:
2098:
2078:
1756:
1709:
782:
The first commercial AC distribution system entered service in 1885 in via dei Cerchi,
701:
645:
383:
6149:
2547:
and a 2 by 2 transmission matrix is used to model its behavior, as follows:
1345:. As reactive current increases, reactive power increases and power factor decreases.
7468:
7348:
6953:
6783:
6765:
6749:
6732:
6519:
6038:
5891:
5877:
5707:
5686:
5381:
5370:
5333:
5312:
5123:
5043:
4192:) (1,000 mG). In a residential setting, one study reported "limited evidence of
4061:
2072:
1612:
1560:
Subtransmission runs at relatively lower voltages. It is uneconomical to connect all
1305:
Factors that affect resistance and thus loss include temperature, spiraling, and the
787:
423:
286:
6562:
6374:
5745:
5239:
5167:
4776:, (Norway/United Kingdom) – (length of submarine cable: 720 kilometres or 447 miles)
4597:. Major engineering and economic challenges face any solar power satellite project.
3967:
Transmission lines can be used to carry data: this is called power-line carrier, or
1083:
744:
Thus, generators were sited near their loads, a practice that later became known as
7417:
7358:
7062:
7057:
7034:
6943:
6883:
6741:
6645:
6362:
5869:
5733:
5256:
5227:
5155:
5113:
4024:
3931:
3853:
1583:
No fixed cutoff separates subtransmission and transmission, or subtransmission and
1299:
1072:, which are typically smaller, faster-responding, and higher cost sources, such as
1061:
916:
896:
892:
881:
872:
852:
841:
821:
817:
760:
708:
657:
630:
626:
504:
450:
340:. The voltage is stepped up for transmission, then reduced for local distribution.
325:
290:
275:
266:
6274:
5330:
Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race to Electrify the World
1052:
and is generally served by large facilities with constant operating costs, termed
7448:
7407:
7385:
7266:
7236:
7201:
7161:
6963:
6132:
5218:
Guarnieri, M. (2013). "The Beginning of Electric Energy Transmission: Part Two".
5146:
Guarnieri, M. (2013). "The Beginning of Electric Energy Transmission: Part One".
4863:
4265:
4005:. Where the regulatory structure permits, the utility can sell capacity in extra
3827:
3218:
2842:
refers to the total quantity summed over the line and a lowercase letter such as
1808:
1020:
960:
885:
813:
732:
707:
In some metropolitan areas, cables are enclosed by metal pipe and insulated with
314:
5873:
1220:
Transmitting electricity at high voltage reduces the fraction of energy lost to
7473:
7463:
7261:
6873:
6621:
6059:"FERC: Industries – Order No. 1000 – Transmission Planning and Cost Allocation"
5291:
4810:
length: 250 kilometres or 155 miles, total length: 262 kilometres or 163 miles)
4786:(Norway/Netherlands) – (length of submarine cable: 580 kilometres or 360 miles)
4773:
4695:
planted malware potentially capable of disrupting the Russian electrical grid.
4575:
4181:
4002:
3971:(PLC). PLC signals can be easily received with a radio in the long wave range.
3940:
3696:
3652:
3546:
Use HVDC for the 3,000 miles (4,800 km) of cross-country transmission; and
1435:
1337:
1225:
1196:) and Northeast to Southwest (Utah to Southern California). The 287.5 kV (
1189:
1073:
756:
695:
386:
in ways that led to separate companies handling transmission and distribution.
333:
2535:
1686:
7571:
7493:
7281:
7166:
7146:
7077:
7067:
7024:
6908:
6863:
6797:
5990:"How ITC Holdings plans to connect PJM demand with Ontario's rich renewables"
5862:"Strengths and weaknesses of traditional arrangements for electricity supply"
5737:
5231:
5159:
4849:
4760:
4673:
3957:
3936:
3530:
As an example, to adjust the flow of AC power on a hypothetical line between
3512:
3496:
3491:
where AC cannot be used because of cable capacitance. In these cases special
2452:
1463:
1349:
1221:
1171:
1005:
5724:
Guarnieri, M. (2013). "The Alternating Evolution of DC Power Transmission".
5619:"Where can I find data on electricity transmission and distribution losses?"
5296:
Evolving Technology and Market Structure: Studies in Schumpeterian Economics
4806:(Germany/Sweden) – (length of submarine cable: 238 kilometres or 148 miles,
4585:
Wireless power transmission has been studied for transmission of power from
7513:
7488:
7353:
7322:
7136:
6938:
4926:
4799:
4571:
4189:
4185:
3847:
3823:
3692:
3691:). Replacing the steel with a lighter, stronger composite material such as
3633:
1480:
1476:
1342:
825:
771:
653:
614:
455:
430:
5348:
5346:
1694:
398:
A diagram of an electric power system. The transmission system is in blue.
7338:
7306:
7099:
7087:
7007:
6933:
6923:
6853:
5820:
4878:
4793:
3990:). Sometimes a standalone cable is used, all-dielectric self-supporting (
3687:
Traditional power lines use a steel core surrounded by aluminum strands (
3516:
3054:
2820:
1468:
1325:
1306:
1205:
1201:
1175:
993:
964:
938:
927:
783:
764:
715:
622:
337:
294:
6415:"Superconducting cables will be used to supply electricity to consumers"
6340:"Energy losses of superconducting power transmission cables in the grid"
4829:(Australia) – (length of underground cable: 170 kilometres or 106 miles)
7301:
7296:
7109:
7092:
6948:
6803:
5372:
Managing in the Modular Age: Architectures, Networks, and Organizations
5343:
4818:
4803:
4749:
4722:
4193:
4112:
4108:
4006:
3508:
2812:
1439:
1321:
1197:
1093:
1053:
952:
948:
907:. A 15 kV transmission line, approximately 175 km long, connected
864:
6366:
5934:"Rethink the Natural Monopoly Justification of Electricity Regulation"
1486:
1178:
to a higher voltage (115 kV to 765 kV AC) for transmission.
1096:
transmission network costs could be recovered with modest usage fees.
656:
and loss of supply. Oscillatory motion of the physical line is termed
437:
that occurs over long distances. Power is usually transmitted through
7017:
7012:
6898:
6858:
4826:
4822:
4783:
4764:
4590:
3998:
3947:
2544:
1804:
1048:
919:
power or mine-mouth coal, could be exploited to further lower costs.
904:
320:
Efficient long-distance transmission of electric power requires high
6661:"Development of UHV Transmission and Insulation Technology in China"
4509:
4425:
3978:
High-voltage pylons carrying additional optical fibre cable in Kenya
3869:
3715:
3570:
2474:
1622:
1499:
1373:
1109:
801:, in 1886 he demonstrated a transformer-based AC lighting system in
540:
7131:
5274:
4789:
4594:
4281:
4100:
4096:
3504:
809:
602:
510:
A four-circuit, two-voltage power transmission line; Bundled 2-ways
321:
4045:
The establishment of RTOs in the United States was spurred by the
1773:, when the wires are long enough to have a significant resistance
1026:
355:
to many consumers. North America has four major interconnections:
7052:
7042:
6090:/ National Grid in the UK (note this excludes distribution costs)
4843:
4119:
a monopolized and regulated rate base. In the United States, the
4107:. Two DC links originally implemented as market interconnectors,
4081:
3531:
1572:, where loss of one circuit should result in no interruption, or
767:
provided with 1:1 turn ratio and open magnetic circuit, in 1881.
5768:"There Is a Stupidly Easy Way To Expand the Grid - Heatmap News"
5355:
Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930
5119:
Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930
4060:
Merchant transmission projects in the United States include the
3213:
Counterintuitive behaviors of medium-length transmission lines:
309:. The combined transmission and distribution network is part of
301:. The interconnected lines that facilitate this movement form a
7047:
6746:
Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society 1880–1930
6275:"Electric and Magnetic Fields Associated with the Use of Power"
5797:"The U.S. Urgently Needs a Bigger Grid. Here's a Fast Solution"
5481:
5479:
5122:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 119–122.
4779:
3535:
2858:
6762:
Connecting the Country – New Zealand's National Grid 1886–2007
6544:"Operation of longest superconducting cable worldwide started"
5452:"Distribution Substations - Michigan Technological University"
3813:
reconfigured every time a new generator is added to the mesh.
1291:
While power loss can also be reduced by increasing the wire's
1076:
or combustion turbine plants typically fueled by natural gas.
37:"Power lines" redirects here. For power lines in general, see
6600:"UPDATE 2-US concerned power grid vulnerable to cyber-attack"
5495:
4759:
Longest span of power line: 5,376 m (17,638 ft) at
3425:
To find the voltage and current at the end of the long line,
2803:
differ depending on how the desired model handles the line's
1753:) to a single point of consumption, modelled by a resistance
1702:
In a simplified model, the grid delivers electricity from an
5476:
5401:
Argersinger, R.E. (1915). "Electric Transmission of Power".
1288:
losses are still reduced ten-fold using the higher voltage.
7002:
6794:
Electric power transmission patents; Tesla polyphase system
5488:"Present Limits of Very Long Distance Transmission Systems"
5432:
Bureau of Census data reprinted in Hughes, pp. 282–283
5368:
Garud, Raghu; Kumaraswamy, Arun; Langlois, Richard (2009).
5275:"William Stanley – Engineering and Technology History Wiki"
4893:
4120:
4046:
959:
These networks use components such as power lines, cables,
5361:
5038:
Hans Dieter Betz, Ulrich Schumann, Pierre Laroche (2009).
6394:
4683:
In June 2019, Russia conceded that it was "possible" its
4095:
Australia has one unregulated or market interconnector –
4023:
Electricity transmission is generally considered to be a
1606:
763:
built what they called the secondary generator, an early
660:
depending on the frequency and amplitude of oscillation.
5485:
5419:
Kiessling F, Nefzger P, Nolasco JF, Kaintzyk U. (2003).
5367:
4253: Hz traction grid but only for part of the system.
402:
Most North American transmission lines are high-voltage
6508:"High-Temperature Superconductor Technology Stepped Up"
5704:
Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers 11th Edition
5251:
5249:
3994:) cable, attached to the transmission line cross arms.
2862:
Voltage on sending and receiving ends for lossless line
1807:
with no intervening transformer, the circuit acts as a
1438:
that surrounds the lines of each phase and affects the
6397:"Superconducting power line to shore up New York grid"
5526:. New York Independent System Operator. Archived from
4184:
high level exposure to magnetic fields above 100
3549:
Convert the HVDC to locally synchronized AC in Boston,
2993:
2957:
2910:
2645:
2609:
2562:
6748:, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1983
6581:"Hackers reportedly have embedded code in power grid"
4922:
List of high-voltage underground and submarine cables
4277:
began commercial production of such systems in 2007.
4235:
run on low frequency AC power, separate single phase
3451:
3431:
3267:
3240:
3074:
2904:
2764:
2710:
2556:
2431:
2186:
2141:
2121:
2101:
2081:
1868:
1817:
1779:
1759:
1732:
1712:
1598:
transformers reduce the voltage to a lower level for
1434:
Current flowing through transmission lines induces a
1264:
1234:
1046:
The slowly varying portion of demand is known as the
990:
Higher voltage is achieved in AC circuits by using a
6598:
Holland, Steve; Mikkelsen, Randall (April 8, 2009).
5613:
5611:
5246:
5040:
Lightning: Principles, Instruments and Applications.
4839:
3224:
receiving-end current can exceed sending-end current
6622:"US and Russia clash over power grid 'hack attacks"
6282:
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
5907:"Power transmission business is a natural monopoly"
5904:
5423:. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, p. 5
3785:The transmission system provides for base load and
1012:. Energy is usually transmitted within a grid with
6764:. Wellington: Steele Roberts. pp. 376 pages.
6235:
6233:
3846:occur when power supplied drops below the demand.
3457:
3437:
3414:
3246:
3202:
3034:
2776:
2749:
2686:
2443:
2414:
2169:
2127:
2107:
2087:
2060:
1851:
1792:
1765:
1745:
1718:
1451:at regular intervals along the line using various
1280:
1250:
828:. Westinghouse licensed Tesla's design. Practical
6337:
5608:
3188:
3160:
684:Three abreast electrical pylons in Webster, Texas
7569:
6597:
6506:Patel, 03/01/2012 | Sonal (March 1, 2012).
6146:"WHO | Electromagnetic fields and public health"
5285:
5213:
5211:
5209:
5112:
4717:worldwide: 1.15 MV (Ultra-High Voltage) on
2711:
6230:
5141:
5139:
4115:, were converted to regulated interconnectors.
6347:IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity
5931:
4493:
3472:
6819:
6796:". (Transmission of power; polyphase system;
6759:
6088:What is the cost per kWh of bulk transmission
5761:
5759:
5757:
5755:
5717:
5206:
4745:(China) (height: 345 m or 1,132 ft)
4678:United States Department of Homeland Security
4672:stated that the power grid is susceptible to
4618:The examples and perspective in this article
4180:Biological effects have been established for
3939:and other faults is usually so critical that
3659:changes to its initial operating conditions.
3503:, between Great Britain and Ireland, between
774:. It was powered by a 2 kV, 130 Hz
473:, and major blackouts in other US regions in
324:. This reduces the losses produced by strong
100:The examples and perspective in this article
6524:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5588:
5352:
5136:
4977:. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Archived from
4687:is under cyber-attack by the United States.
4593:or laser transmitters would beam power to a
4177:typically do not comment on health impacts.
2465:Performance and modelling of AC transmission
644:. Voltages above 765 kV are considered
373:One grid connects most of continental Europe
6641:"How Not To Prevent a Cyberwar With Russia"
6485:"IBM100 - High-Temperature Superconductors"
6032:
5859:
5837:. EnPowered. March 28, 2016. Archived from
5794:
5681:Donald G. Fink and H. Wayne Beaty. (2007),
5400:
4756:) (length: 1,700 kilometres or 1,056 miles)
4538:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
4454:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
4409:
4211:
4168:Interim Policy Statement on Magnetic Fields
4030:Spain was the first country to establish a
3898:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
3744:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
3599:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2503:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1651:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1528:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1402:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1138:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
569:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
80:Learn how and when to remove these messages
6826:
6812:
6528:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
6395:New Scientist and Reuters (May 22, 2007).
6241:"Electromagnetic fields and public health"
5765:
5752:
5683:Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers
5187:. National Council on Electricity Policy.
3689:Aluminium-conductor steel-reinforced cable
3684:take 10 years to plan, permit, and build.
3217:voltage rise at no load or small current (
1467:A 115 kV subtransmission line in the
609:Conductor sizes range from 12 mm (#6
6638:
6211:. Transpower New Zealand Ltd. p. 2.
5790:
5788:
5723:
5217:
5145:
4656:Learn how and when to remove this message
4558:Learn how and when to remove this message
4474:Learn how and when to remove this message
4256:
3918:Learn how and when to remove this message
3764:Learn how and when to remove this message
3619:Learn how and when to remove this message
2523:Learn how and when to remove this message
1671:Learn how and when to remove this message
1590:
1548:Learn how and when to remove this message
1422:Learn how and when to remove this message
1158:Learn how and when to remove this message
748:using large numbers of small generators.
606:regularly improved to increase capacity.
589:Learn how and when to remove this message
254:Learn how and when to remove this message
236:Learn how and when to remove this message
138:Learn how and when to remove this message
6833:
5657:Frequently Asked Questions – Electricity
5623:Frequently Asked Questions – Electricity
5108:
5106:
5059:
4691:reported that American hackers from the
4163:New York State Public Service Commission
3973:
2857:
2846:refers to the per-unit-length quantity.
2534:
1693:
1685:
1485:
1462:
1082:
1025:
937:
846:
731:
393:
336:(DC). The voltage level is changed with
265:
199:This article includes a list of general
6729:The Electric Power Engineering Handbook
6338:Jacob Oestergaard; et al. (2001).
6206:"Electric and Magnetic Field Strengths"
5960:"FERC: Landmark Orders – Order No. 888"
5905:Raghuvir Srinivasan (August 15, 2004).
5868:. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 16.
5835:"The Bumpy Road to Energy Deregulation"
5766:Pontecorvo, Emily (February 20, 2024).
5645:
4670:Federal government of the United States
3799:synchronization of the generation units
2539:"Black box" model for transmission line
14:
7570:
6560:
5785:
5661:U.S. Energy Information Administration
5627:U.S. Energy Information Administration
5577:California Public Utilities Commission
5060:Banerjee, Neela (September 16, 2001).
4954:Wheeling (electric power transmission)
3850:occur when the grid fails completely.
3557:located in the Western United States.
1852:{\displaystyle I={\frac {V}{R+R_{C}}}}
1607:Advantage of high-voltage transmission
728:History of electric power transmission
32:Electric transmission (disambiguation)
6807:
6711:Transmission & Distribution World
6673:from the original on October 9, 2022.
6505:
6384:from the original on October 9, 2022.
6327:from the original on October 9, 2022.
6267:
6037:. Pennwell Books. pp. 226, 247.
5309:Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age
5103:
4993:
4730:Largest double-circuit transmission,
4216:
4126:
4072:, Neptune RTS Transmission Line from
3837:
1690:Electrical grid without a transformer
700:Electric power can be transmitted by
6792:Westinghouse Electric Corporation, "
6291:from the original on October 9, 2022
6218:from the original on October 9, 2022
5726:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine
5464:from the original on October 9, 2022
5220:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine
5194:from the original on October 9, 2022
5182:"Electricity Transmission: A primer"
5174:
5148:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine
5020:from the original on October 9, 2022
4604:
4589:to the earth. A high power array of
4536:adding citations to reliable sources
4503:
4452:adding citations to reliable sources
4419:
4145:Electromagnetic radiation and health
4055:Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
3896:adding citations to reliable sources
3863:
3742:adding citations to reliable sources
3709:
3597:adding citations to reliable sources
3564:
2501:adding citations to reliable sources
2468:
1649:adding citations to reliable sources
1616:
1526:adding citations to reliable sources
1493:
1400:adding citations to reliable sources
1367:
1136:adding citations to reliable sources
1103:
1004:A transmission grid is a network of
933:
901:international electricity exhibition
637:
567:adding citations to reliable sources
534:
461:The US Northeast faced blackouts in
185:
149:
86:
45:
6441:"Superconductivity's First Century"
6148:. December 24, 2007. Archived from
5936:. Reason Foundation. Archived from
5629:. November 19, 2009. Archived from
4967:
4869:List of energy storage power plants
4711:Highest transmission voltage (AC):
4092:in the PJM Interconnection region.
4012:
820:current, independently invented by
617:area), with varying resistance and
24:
7504:Renewable energy commercialization
6721:
6563:"Spies 'infiltrate US power grid'"
5932:Lynne Kiesling (August 18, 2003).
5008:United States Department of Energy
4949:Radio frequency power transmission
4894:Electromagnetic Transients Program
4138:
4032:regional transmission organization
3636:in the line. For longer AC lines,
3353:
3138:
3018:
3002:
2935:
2919:
2670:
2654:
2587:
2571:
1698:Electrical grid with a transformer
1458:
1313:assuming no utility theft occurs.
969:regional transmission organization
855:generators on display at the 1893
418:(HVDC) technology is also used in
205:it lacks sufficient corresponding
27:Bulk movement of electrical energy
25:
7604:
6639:Greenberg, Andy (June 18, 2019).
6491:. August 10, 2017. Archived from
5702:Donald G. Fink, H. Wayne Beatty,
5589:Curt Harting (October 24, 2010).
5376:. John Wiley & Sons. p.
5332:. Random House Trade Paperbacks.
5011:Federal Energy Management Program
3859:
3780:
3662:
2115:and the current is multiplied by
2095:(i.e., the voltage is divided by
1490:115 kV H-frame transmission tower
851:Westinghouse alternating current
808:In 1888 the first designs for an
613:) to 750 mm (1,590,000
433:to reduce the energy loss due to
61:This article has multiple issues.
7552:
7551:
6972:
6561:Shiels, Maggie (April 9, 2009).
5050:. Retrieved on 13 May 2009.
4889:Double-circuit transmission line
4842:
4609:
4508:
4424:
4262:High-temperature superconductors
3868:
3714:
3569:
3543:Convert AC in Seattle into HVDC;
2849:
2473:
1621:
1498:
1372:
1363:
1358:flexible AC transmission systems
1108:
677:
665:
539:
517:
503:
328:. Transmission lines use either
190:
154:
91:
50:
6778:Pansini, Anthony J, E.E., P.E.
6699:
6677:
6653:
6632:
6614:
6591:
6573:
6554:
6536:
6499:
6477:
6459:
6433:
6407:
6388:
6331:
6303:
6198:
6186:. TRC. March 2010. pp. 1–4
6176:
6164:
6138:
6119:
6093:
6081:
6051:
6026:
6010:. July 18, 2008. Archived from
6000:
5982:
5952:
5925:
5898:
5866:Handbook on Electricity Markets
5853:
5827:
5809:
5696:
5675:
5582:
5570:
5550:"Transmission Facts, p. 4"
5542:
5516:
5502:Global Energy Network Institute
5444:
5435:
5426:
5413:
5394:
5322:
5301:
5267:
4906:Geomagnetically induced current
4900:Flexible AC transmission system
4859:Dynamic demand (electric power)
3649:distributed temperature sensing
2750:{\displaystyle \det(T)=AD-BC=1}
803:Great Barrington, Massachusetts
648:and require different designs.
412:railway electrification systems
270:Five-hundred kilovolt (500 kV)
69:or discuss these issues on the
6008:"NEMMCO Power System Planning"
5795:Brad Plumer (April 14, 2024).
5685:(15th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
5357:. JHU Press. pp. 120–121.
5311:. Princeton University Press.
5094:
5072:
5053:
5032:
3402:
3393:
3350:
3341:
3303:
3294:
3061:circuit because of the shape (
3045:
2827:), and shunt (parallel, leak)
2720:
2714:
2287:
2257:
689:
443:Underground power transmission
429:Electricity is transmitted at
13:
1:
7499:Renewable Energy Certificates
7459:Cost of electricity by source
7381:Arc-fault circuit interrupter
7257:High-voltage shore connection
6780:undergrounding electric lines
6035:Global Transmission Expansion
5860:Schmalensee, Richard (2021).
5591:"AC Transmission Line Losses"
5353:Parke Hughes, Thomas (1993).
5257:"Great Barrington Experiment"
4960:
3674:Bipartisan Infrastructure Law
3515:, and between New Jersey and
2878:
1099:
1068:power demand, is supplied by
838:Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown
7514:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread
7312:Transmission system operator
7272:Mains electricity by country
6849:Automatic generation control
6782:. US: Hayden Book Co, 1978.
5307:Carlson, W. Bernard (2013).
5082:. documents.dps.ny.gov. 2014
5042:Springer, pp. 202–203.
4815:Longest underground cables:
4754:Democratic Republic of Congo
3997:Some jurisdictions, such as
3806:distributed power generation
3228:
2177:. The useful power is then:
1041:wide area transmission grids
973:transmission system operator
7:
7578:Electric power transmission
7539:List of electricity sectors
7534:Electric energy consumption
7252:High-voltage direct current
7227:Electric power transmission
7217:Electric power distribution
6894:Energy return on investment
6685:"准东-皖南±1100千伏特高压直流输电工程竣工投运"
6251:. June 2007. Archived from
5874:10.4337/9781788979955.00008
5579:Corona and induced currents
4917:Grid-tied electrical system
4835:
4693:United States Cyber Command
4632:, discuss the issue on the
4600:
4494:Wireless power transmission
4040:OMEL Holding | Omel Holding
3560:
3479:High-voltage direct current
3473:High-voltage direct current
2458:
2170:{\displaystyle R_{C}/a^{2}}
1811:, because the same current
999:High-voltage direct current
755:(AC) became possible after
658:conductor gallop or flutter
652:clearances, resulting in a
488:
416:High-voltage direct current
307:electric power distribution
283:Electric power transmission
114:, discuss the issue on the
10:
7609:
7454:Carbon offsets and credits
7172:Three-phase electric power
4770:Longest submarine cables:
4708:(准东-皖南)±1100 kV HVDC.
4698:
4497:
4413:
4390:
4376:
4359:
4323:
4269:losses. Companies such as
4220:
4175:Public utility commissions
4142:
4016:
3705:
3476:
2462:
1610:
1320:In any AC line, conductor
1058:concentrated solar thermal
1008:, transmission lines, and
834:Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky
725:
721:
693:
492:
345:wide area synchronous grid
272:Three-phase electric power
36:
29:
7547:
7522:
7509:Renewable Energy Payments
7432:
7369:
7331:
7185:
7122:
7033:
6998:Fossil fuel power station
6988:
6981:
6970:
6841:
6731:. US: CRC Press. (2001).
6249:World Health Organization
6184:"EMF Report for the CHPE"
5100:NYSPSC case no. 13-E-0529
4975:"Grand Coulee Powerplant"
4938:Power-line communications
4704:Highest capacity system:
1215:
619:current-carrying capacity
389:
163:This article needs to be
7292:Single-wire earth return
7232:Electrical busbar system
6889:Energy demand management
6467:"HTS Transmission Cable"
5738:10.1109/MIE.2013.2272238
5441:Hughes, pp. 293–295
5232:10.1109/MIE.2013.2256297
5160:10.1109/MIE.2012.2236484
4884:Conductor marking lights
4719:Ekibastuz-Kokshetau line
4416:Single-wire earth return
4410:Single-wire earth return
4377:Manhattan: Project Hydra
4227:In some countries where
4212:Specialized transmission
4156:statistical correlations
3969:power-line communication
3953:Power-line communication
3445:should be replaced with
1562:distribution substations
1479:, all mounted on a wood
1471:, along with 20 kV
1092:capacity, long distance
832:motors were designed by
702:underground power cables
410:AC is sometimes used in
285:is the bulk movement of
7423:Residual-current device
7413:Power system protection
7403:Generator interlock kit
6727:Grigsby, L. L., et al.
6245:Fact sheet No. 322
6131:April 17, 2011, at the
5911:The Hindu Business Line
5714:, pages 15–57 and 15–58
5557:American Electric Power
5403:General Electric Review
4944:Power system simulation
4500:Wireless power transfer
4288:HTS transmission lines
4275:American Superconductor
4237:traction power networks
4233:electric multiple units
4036:Red Eléctrica de España
3678:Inflation Reduction Act
3467:Telegrapher's equations
3247:{\displaystyle \gamma }
1803:If the resistances are
1354:static VAR compensators
1186:Western Interconnection
944:transmission substation
924:critical infrastructure
857:World's Fair in Chicago
842:polyphase power systems
220:more precise citations.
7583:Electrical engineering
7207:Distributed generation
6879:Electric power quality
6760:Reilly, Helen (2008).
6695:on September 30, 2019.
6471:www.superpower-inc.com
6173:(issued June 19, 1978)
6126:Power Lines and Cancer
4874:Traction power network
4743:Yangtze River Crossing
4587:solar power satellites
4284:for cables is costly.
4257:Superconducting cables
4223:Traction power network
4074:Sayreville, New Jersey
4070:New Haven, Connecticut
3979:
3487:HVDC is used for long
3459:
3439:
3416:
3248:
3204:
3036:
2863:
2778:
2751:
2688:
2540:
2445:
2444:{\displaystyle a>1}
2416:
2171:
2129:
2109:
2089:
2062:
1853:
1794:
1767:
1747:
1720:
1699:
1691:
1591:Transmission grid exit
1491:
1483:
1282:
1281:{\displaystyle I^{2}R}
1252:
1251:{\displaystyle I^{2}R}
1210:Arizona Public Service
1088:
1035:
956:
860:
844:needed to power them.
746:distributed generation
737:
420:submarine power cables
399:
382:the regulation of the
279:
274:Transmission Lines at
7479:Fossil fuel phase-out
7247:Electricity retailing
7242:Electrical substation
7222:Electric power system
5706:, McGraw Hill, 1978,
5328:Jonnes, Jill (2004).
4706:12 GW Zhundong–Wannan
4488:rural electrification
4342:Holbrook, Long Island
4090:load serving entities
4009:to a common carrier.
3977:
3460:
3440:
3417:
3249:
3205:
3037:
2887:is considered, while
2861:
2779:
2752:
2689:
2538:
2446:
2417:
2172:
2130:
2110:
2090:
2063:
1854:
1795:
1793:{\displaystyle R_{C}}
1768:
1748:
1746:{\displaystyle P_{V}}
1726:, delivering a power
1721:
1697:
1689:
1489:
1466:
1453:transposition schemes
1283:
1253:
1086:
1029:
941:
909:Lauffen on the Neckar
877:Westinghouse Electric
850:
812:appeared. These were
735:
397:
299:electrical substation
269:
7588:Monopoly (economics)
6835:Electricity delivery
6610:on January 13, 2016.
6152:on December 24, 2007
6033:Fiona Woolf (2003).
5970:on December 19, 2016
5940:on February 13, 2008
5633:on December 12, 2012
5421:Overhead power lines
5261:edisontechcenter.org
4748:Longest power line:
4732:Kita-Iwaki Powerline
4638:create a new article
4630:improve this article
4620:may not represent a
4532:improve this section
4448:improve this section
4229:electric locomotives
4078:New Bridge, New York
3892:improve this section
3832:virtual power plants
3787:peak load capability
3738:improve this section
3670:Biden Administration
3593:improve this section
3449:
3429:
3265:
3256:propagation constant
3238:
3072:
2902:
2762:
2708:
2701:has the properties:
2554:
2497:improve this section
2429:
2184:
2139:
2119:
2099:
2079:
1866:
1815:
1777:
1757:
1730:
1710:
1704:ideal voltage source
1645:improve this section
1522:improve this section
1481:subtransmission pole
1449:transposition towers
1396:improve this section
1262:
1232:
1132:improve this section
1070:peaking power plants
795:William Stanley, Jr.
776:Siemens & Halske
563:improve this section
439:overhead power lines
311:electricity delivery
303:transmission network
120:create a new article
112:improve this article
102:may not represent a
30:For other uses, see
7444:Availability factor
7396:Sulfur hexafluoride
7277:Overhead power line
7177:Virtual power plant
7152:Induction generator
7105:Sustainable biofuel
6914:Home energy storage
6904:Grid energy storage
6869:Droop speed control
6707:"India Steps It Up"
6359:2001ITAS...11.2375O
6069:on October 30, 2018
5996:. December 8, 2014.
5595:Stanford University
5530:on December 2, 2018
4310:Carrollton, Georgia
4289:
4271:Consolidated Edison
4086:Lake Erie Connector
3984:optical ground wire
3818:droop speed control
3555:Pacific DC Intertie
3493:high-voltage cables
2777:{\displaystyle A=D}
1208:) and 345 kV (
1194:Southern California
799:George Westinghouse
753:alternating current
611:American wire gauge
495:Overhead power line
330:alternating current
39:Overhead power line
7318:Transmission tower
6929:Nameplate capacity
6447:on August 12, 2012
5802:The New York Times
5066:The New York Times
5013:(FEMP). May 2002.
4912:Graphene-clad wire
4689:The New York Times
4287:
4217:Grids for railways
4127:Transmission costs
4066:Shoreham, New York
4019:Electricity market
3980:
3838:Failure protection
3501:continental Europe
3455:
3435:
3412:
3410:
3244:
3200:
3198:
3032:
3026:
2982:
2943:
2864:
2774:
2747:
2684:
2678:
2634:
2595:
2541:
2441:
2412:
2167:
2125:
2105:
2085:
2058:
1849:
1790:
1763:
1743:
1716:
1700:
1692:
1492:
1484:
1278:
1248:
1089:
1036:
957:
861:
738:
646:extra high voltage
424:cascading failures
400:
384:electricity market
280:
7593:Electrical safety
7565:
7564:
7469:Environmental tax
7349:Cascading failure
7118:
7117:
6954:Utility frequency
6771:978-1-877448-40-9
6742:Hughes, Thomas P.
6495:on April 3, 2012.
6367:10.1109/77.920339
6171:Opinion No. 78-13
5693:section 18.5
5691:978-0-07-144146-9
5663:. January 9, 2019
5524:"NYISO Zone Maps"
5338:978-0-375-75884-3
5281:. August 8, 2017.
5048:978-1-4020-9078-3
4981:on April 29, 2014
4666:
4665:
4658:
4640:, as appropriate.
4568:
4567:
4560:
4484:
4483:
4476:
4407:
4406:
4062:Cross Sound Cable
3932:protective relays
3928:
3927:
3920:
3854:Rolling blackouts
3774:
3773:
3766:
3629:
3628:
3621:
3458:{\displaystyle l}
3438:{\displaystyle x}
3385:
3309:
3184:
3119:
3114:
2533:
2532:
2525:
2400:
2347:
2297:
2128:{\displaystyle a}
2108:{\displaystyle a}
2088:{\displaystyle a}
2073:ideal transformer
2046:
2018:
1983:
1955:
1927:
1847:
1766:{\displaystyle R}
1719:{\displaystyle V}
1681:
1680:
1673:
1613:Ideal transformer
1558:
1557:
1550:
1432:
1431:
1424:
1168:
1167:
1160:
1032:synchronous grids
980:Joule's first law
951:Hale Substation,
934:Bulk transmission
882:rotary converters
788:Grosvenor Gallery
627:bundle conductors
599:
598:
591:
287:electrical energy
264:
263:
256:
246:
245:
238:
184:
183:
148:
147:
140:
122:, as appropriate.
84:
16:(Redirected from
7600:
7555:
7554:
7464:Energy subsidies
7418:Protective relay
7359:Rolling blackout
6986:
6985:
6976:
6944:Power-flow study
6884:Electrical fault
6828:
6821:
6814:
6805:
6804:
6775:
6715:
6714:
6703:
6697:
6696:
6691:. Archived from
6689:xj.xinhuanet.com
6681:
6675:
6674:
6672:
6665:
6657:
6651:
6650:
6636:
6630:
6629:
6628:. June 18, 2019.
6618:
6612:
6611:
6606:. Archived from
6595:
6589:
6588:
6587:. April 9, 2009.
6577:
6571:
6570:
6558:
6552:
6551:
6540:
6534:
6533:
6523:
6515:
6503:
6497:
6496:
6481:
6475:
6474:
6463:
6457:
6456:
6454:
6452:
6443:. Archived from
6437:
6431:
6430:
6428:
6426:
6421:on July 14, 2014
6417:. Archived from
6411:
6405:
6404:
6392:
6386:
6385:
6383:
6344:
6335:
6329:
6328:
6326:
6315:
6307:
6301:
6300:
6298:
6296:
6290:
6279:
6271:
6265:
6264:
6262:
6260:
6237:
6228:
6227:
6225:
6223:
6217:
6210:
6202:
6196:
6195:
6193:
6191:
6180:
6174:
6168:
6162:
6161:
6159:
6157:
6142:
6136:
6123:
6117:
6116:
6114:
6112:
6107:on June 18, 2011
6103:. Archived from
6097:
6091:
6085:
6079:
6078:
6076:
6074:
6065:. Archived from
6055:
6049:
6048:
6030:
6024:
6023:
6021:
6019:
6014:on July 18, 2008
6004:
5998:
5997:
5986:
5980:
5979:
5977:
5975:
5966:. Archived from
5956:
5950:
5949:
5947:
5945:
5929:
5923:
5922:
5920:
5918:
5902:
5896:
5895:
5857:
5851:
5850:
5848:
5846:
5841:on April 7, 2017
5831:
5825:
5824:
5813:
5807:
5806:
5792:
5783:
5782:
5780:
5778:
5763:
5750:
5749:
5721:
5715:
5700:
5694:
5679:
5673:
5672:
5670:
5668:
5649:
5643:
5642:
5640:
5638:
5615:
5606:
5605:
5603:
5601:
5586:
5580:
5574:
5568:
5567:
5566:on June 4, 2011.
5565:
5559:. Archived from
5554:
5546:
5540:
5539:
5537:
5535:
5520:
5514:
5512:
5510:
5508:
5492:
5483:
5474:
5473:
5471:
5469:
5463:
5456:
5448:
5442:
5439:
5433:
5430:
5424:
5417:
5411:
5410:
5398:
5392:
5391:
5375:
5365:
5359:
5358:
5350:
5341:
5326:
5320:
5305:
5299:
5289:
5283:
5282:
5271:
5265:
5264:
5253:
5244:
5243:
5215:
5204:
5203:
5201:
5199:
5193:
5186:
5178:
5172:
5171:
5143:
5134:
5133:
5114:Thomas P. Hughes
5110:
5101:
5098:
5092:
5091:
5089:
5087:
5076:
5070:
5069:
5057:
5051:
5036:
5030:
5029:
5027:
5025:
5019:
5005:
4997:
4991:
4990:
4988:
4986:
4971:
4934:(disambiguation)
4852:
4847:
4846:
4661:
4654:
4650:
4647:
4641:
4613:
4612:
4605:
4563:
4556:
4552:
4549:
4543:
4512:
4504:
4479:
4472:
4468:
4465:
4459:
4428:
4420:
4324:Albany, New York
4290:
4286:
4025:natural monopoly
4013:Market structure
3923:
3916:
3912:
3909:
3903:
3872:
3864:
3769:
3762:
3758:
3755:
3749:
3718:
3710:
3638:system stability
3624:
3617:
3613:
3610:
3604:
3573:
3565:
3489:submarine cables
3464:
3462:
3461:
3456:
3444:
3442:
3441:
3436:
3421:
3419:
3418:
3413:
3411:
3386:
3384:
3383:
3371:
3334:
3333:
3310:
3307:
3253:
3251:
3250:
3245:
3209:
3207:
3206:
3201:
3199:
3192:
3191:
3185:
3180:
3172:
3164:
3163:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3110:
3102:
3041:
3039:
3038:
3033:
3031:
3030:
3023:
3022:
3021:
3007:
3006:
3005:
2987:
2986:
2948:
2947:
2940:
2939:
2938:
2924:
2923:
2922:
2783:
2781:
2780:
2775:
2756:
2754:
2753:
2748:
2693:
2691:
2690:
2685:
2683:
2682:
2675:
2674:
2673:
2659:
2658:
2657:
2639:
2638:
2600:
2599:
2592:
2591:
2590:
2576:
2575:
2574:
2528:
2521:
2517:
2514:
2508:
2477:
2469:
2450:
2448:
2447:
2442:
2421:
2419:
2418:
2413:
2411:
2410:
2401:
2399:
2398:
2397:
2388:
2383:
2382:
2363:
2358:
2357:
2348:
2346:
2345:
2344:
2329:
2328:
2318:
2314:
2313:
2303:
2298:
2296:
2295:
2294:
2285:
2284:
2269:
2268:
2255:
2254:
2253:
2238:
2237:
2227:
2222:
2221:
2209:
2208:
2196:
2195:
2176:
2174:
2173:
2168:
2166:
2165:
2156:
2151:
2150:
2134:
2132:
2131:
2126:
2114:
2112:
2111:
2106:
2094:
2092:
2091:
2086:
2067:
2065:
2064:
2059:
2057:
2056:
2047:
2045:
2044:
2043:
2024:
2019:
2017:
2016:
2015:
1999:
1998:
1989:
1984:
1982:
1981:
1980:
1961:
1956:
1954:
1953:
1952:
1933:
1928:
1926:
1925:
1924:
1905:
1891:
1890:
1878:
1877:
1858:
1856:
1855:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1845:
1844:
1825:
1799:
1797:
1796:
1791:
1789:
1788:
1772:
1770:
1769:
1764:
1752:
1750:
1749:
1744:
1742:
1741:
1725:
1723:
1722:
1717:
1676:
1669:
1665:
1662:
1656:
1625:
1617:
1553:
1546:
1542:
1539:
1533:
1502:
1494:
1427:
1420:
1416:
1413:
1407:
1376:
1368:
1300:corona discharge
1287:
1285:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1273:
1257:
1255:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1243:
1226:resistive losses
1163:
1156:
1152:
1149:
1143:
1112:
1104:
1062:geothermal power
1021:induction motors
961:circuit breakers
893:Willamette Falls
886:motor-generators
873:General Electric
822:Galileo Ferraris
814:induction motors
761:John Dixon Gibbs
751:Transmission of
709:dielectric fluid
681:
669:
631:corona discharge
594:
587:
583:
580:
574:
543:
535:
521:
507:
451:power generation
293:site, such as a
276:Grand Coulee Dam
259:
252:
241:
234:
230:
227:
221:
216:this article by
207:inline citations
194:
193:
186:
179:
176:
170:
158:
157:
150:
143:
136:
132:
129:
123:
95:
94:
87:
76:
54:
53:
46:
21:
7608:
7607:
7603:
7602:
7601:
7599:
7598:
7597:
7568:
7567:
7566:
7561:
7543:
7527:
7525:
7518:
7449:Capacity factor
7437:
7435:
7428:
7408:Numerical relay
7386:Circuit breaker
7374:
7372:
7365:
7327:
7267:Load management
7237:Electrical grid
7202:Demand response
7195:
7190:
7181:
7162:Microgeneration
7114:
7029:
6977:
6968:
6964:Vehicle-to-grid
6837:
6832:
6772:
6724:
6722:Further reading
6719:
6718:
6713:. January 2013.
6705:
6704:
6700:
6683:
6682:
6678:
6670:
6663:
6659:
6658:
6654:
6637:
6633:
6620:
6619:
6615:
6596:
6592:
6579:
6578:
6574:
6559:
6555:
6542:
6541:
6537:
6517:
6516:
6504:
6500:
6483:
6482:
6478:
6465:
6464:
6460:
6450:
6448:
6439:
6438:
6434:
6424:
6422:
6413:
6412:
6408:
6393:
6389:
6381:
6342:
6336:
6332:
6324:
6313:
6309:
6308:
6304:
6294:
6292:
6288:
6277:
6273:
6272:
6268:
6258:
6256:
6255:on July 1, 2007
6239:
6238:
6231:
6221:
6219:
6215:
6208:
6204:
6203:
6199:
6189:
6187:
6182:
6181:
6177:
6169:
6165:
6155:
6153:
6144:
6143:
6139:
6133:Wayback Machine
6124:
6120:
6110:
6108:
6099:
6098:
6094:
6086:
6082:
6072:
6070:
6057:
6056:
6052:
6045:
6031:
6027:
6017:
6015:
6006:
6005:
6001:
5988:
5987:
5983:
5973:
5971:
5958:
5957:
5953:
5943:
5941:
5930:
5926:
5916:
5914:
5903:
5899:
5884:
5858:
5854:
5844:
5842:
5833:
5832:
5828:
5823:. May 28, 2024.
5815:
5814:
5810:
5793:
5786:
5776:
5774:
5764:
5753:
5722:
5718:
5701:
5697:
5680:
5676:
5666:
5664:
5651:
5650:
5646:
5636:
5634:
5617:
5616:
5609:
5599:
5597:
5587:
5583:
5575:
5571:
5563:
5552:
5548:
5547:
5543:
5533:
5531:
5522:
5521:
5517:
5506:
5504:
5490:
5484:
5477:
5467:
5465:
5461:
5454:
5450:
5449:
5445:
5440:
5436:
5431:
5427:
5418:
5414:
5399:
5395:
5388:
5366:
5362:
5351:
5344:
5327:
5323:
5306:
5302:
5294:, Mark Perlman
5290:
5286:
5273:
5272:
5268:
5255:
5254:
5247:
5216:
5207:
5197:
5195:
5191:
5184:
5180:
5179:
5175:
5144:
5137:
5130:
5111:
5104:
5099:
5095:
5085:
5083:
5078:
5077:
5073:
5058:
5054:
5037:
5033:
5023:
5021:
5017:
5003:
4999:
4998:
4994:
4984:
4982:
4973:
4972:
4968:
4963:
4958:
4864:Demand response
4848:
4841:
4838:
4701:
4685:electrical grid
4662:
4651:
4645:
4642:
4627:
4614:
4610:
4603:
4564:
4553:
4547:
4544:
4529:
4513:
4502:
4496:
4480:
4469:
4463:
4460:
4445:
4429:
4418:
4412:
4266:liquid nitrogen
4259:
4252:
4245:
4225:
4219:
4214:
4194:carcinogenicity
4147:
4141:
4139:Health concerns
4129:
4021:
4015:
3924:
3913:
3907:
3904:
3889:
3873:
3862:
3840:
3828:vehicle-to-grid
3783:
3770:
3759:
3753:
3750:
3735:
3719:
3708:
3665:
3625:
3614:
3608:
3605:
3590:
3574:
3563:
3481:
3475:
3450:
3447:
3446:
3430:
3427:
3426:
3409:
3408:
3379:
3375:
3370:
3363:
3357:
3356:
3329:
3325:
3318:
3312:
3311:
3306:
3275:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3262:
3239:
3236:
3235:
3231:
3219:Ferranti effect
3197:
3196:
3187:
3186:
3173:
3171:
3159:
3158:
3148:
3142:
3141:
3128:
3122:
3121:
3116:
3103:
3101:
3082:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3069:
3048:
3025:
3024:
3017:
3016:
3012:
3009:
3008:
3001:
3000:
2996:
2989:
2988:
2981:
2980:
2975:
2969:
2968:
2963:
2953:
2952:
2942:
2941:
2934:
2933:
2929:
2926:
2925:
2918:
2917:
2913:
2906:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2899:
2881:
2852:
2787:The parameters
2763:
2760:
2759:
2709:
2706:
2705:
2677:
2676:
2669:
2668:
2664:
2661:
2660:
2653:
2652:
2648:
2641:
2640:
2633:
2632:
2627:
2621:
2620:
2615:
2605:
2604:
2594:
2593:
2586:
2585:
2581:
2578:
2577:
2570:
2569:
2565:
2558:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2551:
2529:
2518:
2512:
2509:
2494:
2478:
2467:
2461:
2430:
2427:
2426:
2406:
2402:
2393:
2389:
2384:
2378:
2374:
2367:
2362:
2353:
2349:
2340:
2336:
2324:
2320:
2319:
2309:
2305:
2304:
2302:
2290:
2286:
2280:
2276:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2249:
2245:
2233:
2229:
2228:
2226:
2217:
2213:
2204:
2200:
2191:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2181:
2161:
2157:
2152:
2146:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2136:
2120:
2117:
2116:
2100:
2097:
2096:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2052:
2048:
2039:
2035:
2028:
2023:
2011:
2007:
2000:
1994:
1990:
1988:
1976:
1972:
1965:
1960:
1948:
1944:
1937:
1932:
1920:
1916:
1909:
1904:
1886:
1882:
1873:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1863:
1840:
1836:
1829:
1824:
1816:
1813:
1812:
1809:voltage divider
1784:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1774:
1758:
1755:
1754:
1737:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1727:
1711:
1708:
1707:
1677:
1666:
1660:
1657:
1642:
1626:
1615:
1609:
1593:
1570:normally closed
1554:
1543:
1537:
1534:
1519:
1503:
1461:
1459:Subtransmission
1428:
1417:
1411:
1408:
1393:
1377:
1366:
1269:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1239:
1235:
1233:
1230:
1229:
1218:
1164:
1153:
1147:
1144:
1129:
1113:
1102:
963:, switches and
936:
911:and Frankfurt.
895:to the city of
730:
724:
698:
692:
685:
682:
673:
670:
638:subtransmission
595:
584:
578:
575:
560:
544:
533:
532:
531:
530:
529:
522:
513:
512:
511:
508:
497:
491:
392:
349:interconnection
315:electrical grid
313:, known as the
260:
249:
248:
247:
242:
231:
225:
222:
212:Please help to
211:
195:
191:
180:
174:
171:
168:
159:
155:
144:
133:
127:
124:
109:
96:
92:
55:
51:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
18:Subtransmission
15:
12:
11:
5:
7606:
7596:
7595:
7590:
7585:
7580:
7563:
7562:
7560:
7559:
7548:
7545:
7544:
7542:
7541:
7536:
7530:
7528:
7524:Statistics and
7523:
7520:
7519:
7517:
7516:
7511:
7506:
7501:
7496:
7491:
7486:
7481:
7476:
7474:Feed-in tariff
7471:
7466:
7461:
7456:
7451:
7446:
7440:
7438:
7433:
7430:
7429:
7427:
7426:
7420:
7415:
7410:
7405:
7400:
7399:
7398:
7393:
7383:
7377:
7375:
7370:
7367:
7366:
7364:
7363:
7362:
7361:
7351:
7346:
7341:
7335:
7333:
7329:
7328:
7326:
7325:
7320:
7315:
7309:
7304:
7299:
7294:
7289:
7284:
7279:
7274:
7269:
7264:
7262:Interconnector
7259:
7254:
7249:
7244:
7239:
7234:
7229:
7224:
7219:
7214:
7212:Dynamic demand
7209:
7204:
7198:
7196:
7186:
7183:
7182:
7180:
7179:
7174:
7169:
7164:
7159:
7154:
7149:
7144:
7142:Combined cycle
7139:
7134:
7128:
7126:
7120:
7119:
7116:
7115:
7113:
7112:
7107:
7102:
7097:
7096:
7095:
7090:
7085:
7080:
7075:
7065:
7060:
7055:
7050:
7045:
7039:
7037:
7031:
7030:
7028:
7027:
7022:
7021:
7020:
7015:
7010:
7005:
6994:
6992:
6983:
6979:
6978:
6971:
6969:
6967:
6966:
6961:
6956:
6951:
6946:
6941:
6936:
6931:
6926:
6921:
6919:Load-following
6916:
6911:
6906:
6901:
6896:
6891:
6886:
6881:
6876:
6874:Electric power
6871:
6866:
6861:
6856:
6851:
6845:
6843:
6839:
6838:
6831:
6830:
6823:
6816:
6808:
6802:
6801:
6790:
6776:
6770:
6757:
6739:
6723:
6720:
6717:
6716:
6698:
6676:
6652:
6631:
6613:
6590:
6572:
6553:
6535:
6512:POWER Magazine
6498:
6489:www-03.ibm.com
6476:
6458:
6432:
6406:
6387:
6330:
6302:
6266:
6229:
6197:
6175:
6163:
6137:
6118:
6092:
6080:
6050:
6043:
6025:
5999:
5981:
5951:
5924:
5897:
5882:
5852:
5826:
5808:
5784:
5751:
5716:
5695:
5674:
5644:
5607:
5581:
5569:
5541:
5515:
5475:
5443:
5434:
5425:
5412:
5393:
5386:
5360:
5342:
5321:
5300:
5292:Arnold Heertje
5284:
5266:
5245:
5205:
5173:
5135:
5128:
5102:
5093:
5071:
5052:
5031:
4992:
4965:
4964:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4935:
4929:
4924:
4919:
4914:
4909:
4903:
4897:
4891:
4886:
4881:
4876:
4871:
4866:
4861:
4855:
4854:
4853:
4837:
4834:
4833:
4832:
4831:
4830:
4813:
4812:
4811:
4797:
4787:
4777:
4774:North Sea Link
4768:
4757:
4746:
4735:
4728:
4727:
4726:
4715:
4709:
4700:
4697:
4664:
4663:
4624:of the subject
4622:worldwide view
4617:
4615:
4608:
4602:
4599:
4576:Hidetsugu Yagi
4566:
4565:
4516:
4514:
4507:
4498:Main article:
4495:
4492:
4482:
4481:
4432:
4430:
4423:
4414:Main article:
4411:
4408:
4405:
4404:
4401:
4398:
4395:
4392:
4391:Essen, Germany
4388:
4387:
4386:Proposed 2014
4384:
4382:
4380:
4378:
4374:
4373:
4372:Proposed 2013
4370:
4367:
4365:
4363:
4357:
4356:
4353:
4350:
4347:
4344:
4338:
4337:
4334:
4331:
4328:
4325:
4321:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4313:
4311:
4307:
4306:
4303:
4300:
4297:
4294:
4258:
4255:
4250:
4243:
4221:Main article:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4206:health effects
4143:Main article:
4140:
4137:
4128:
4125:
4049:'s Order 888,
4017:Main article:
4014:
4011:
4003:common carrier
3961:
3960:
3958:Optical fibers
3955:
3950:
3941:common carrier
3937:short circuits
3926:
3925:
3876:
3874:
3867:
3861:
3860:Communications
3858:
3839:
3836:
3782:
3781:Load balancing
3779:
3772:
3771:
3722:
3720:
3713:
3707:
3704:
3697:ACCC conductor
3664:
3663:Reconductoring
3661:
3653:optical fibers
3627:
3626:
3577:
3575:
3568:
3562:
3559:
3551:
3550:
3547:
3544:
3477:Main article:
3474:
3471:
3454:
3434:
3423:
3422:
3407:
3404:
3401:
3398:
3395:
3392:
3389:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3358:
3355:
3352:
3349:
3346:
3343:
3340:
3337:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3313:
3308: per unit
3305:
3302:
3299:
3296:
3293:
3290:
3287:
3284:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3274:
3271:
3270:
3243:
3230:
3227:
3226:
3225:
3222:
3211:
3210:
3195:
3190:
3183:
3179:
3176:
3170:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3143:
3140:
3137:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3123:
3118: per unit
3113:
3109:
3106:
3100:
3097:
3094:
3091:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3077:
3047:
3044:
3043:
3042:
3029:
3020:
3015:
3011:
3010:
3004:
2999:
2995:
2994:
2992:
2985:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2970:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2958:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2937:
2932:
2928:
2927:
2921:
2916:
2912:
2911:
2909:
2880:
2877:
2851:
2848:
2785:
2784:
2773:
2770:
2767:
2757:
2746:
2743:
2740:
2737:
2734:
2731:
2728:
2725:
2722:
2719:
2716:
2713:
2695:
2694:
2681:
2672:
2667:
2663:
2662:
2656:
2651:
2647:
2646:
2644:
2637:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2622:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2610:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2589:
2584:
2580:
2579:
2573:
2568:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2531:
2530:
2481:
2479:
2472:
2463:Main article:
2460:
2457:
2440:
2437:
2434:
2423:
2422:
2409:
2405:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2370:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2352:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2332:
2327:
2323:
2317:
2312:
2308:
2301:
2293:
2289:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2272:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2241:
2236:
2232:
2225:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2194:
2190:
2164:
2160:
2155:
2149:
2145:
2124:
2104:
2084:
2069:
2068:
2055:
2051:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2031:
2027:
2022:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2003:
1997:
1993:
1987:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1940:
1936:
1931:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1912:
1908:
1903:
1900:
1897:
1894:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1876:
1872:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1832:
1828:
1823:
1820:
1787:
1783:
1762:
1740:
1736:
1715:
1679:
1678:
1629:
1627:
1620:
1608:
1605:
1592:
1589:
1578:overhead lines
1556:
1555:
1506:
1504:
1497:
1460:
1457:
1436:magnetic field
1430:
1429:
1380:
1378:
1371:
1365:
1362:
1350:phase-shifters
1338:reactive power
1277:
1272:
1268:
1247:
1242:
1238:
1217:
1214:
1190:Columbia River
1172:power stations
1166:
1165:
1116:
1114:
1107:
1101:
1098:
1074:combined cycle
1006:power stations
935:
932:
871:in Europe and
757:Lucien Gaulard
726:Main article:
723:
720:
696:Undergrounding
694:Main article:
691:
688:
687:
686:
683:
676:
674:
671:
664:
597:
596:
547:
545:
538:
523:
516:
515:
514:
509:
502:
501:
500:
499:
498:
493:Main article:
490:
487:
391:
388:
347:, known as an
334:direct current
262:
261:
244:
243:
198:
196:
189:
182:
181:
162:
160:
153:
146:
145:
106:of the subject
104:worldwide view
99:
97:
90:
85:
59:
58:
56:
49:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7605:
7594:
7591:
7589:
7586:
7584:
7581:
7579:
7576:
7575:
7573:
7558:
7550:
7549:
7546:
7540:
7537:
7535:
7532:
7531:
7529:
7521:
7515:
7512:
7510:
7507:
7505:
7502:
7500:
7497:
7495:
7494:Pigouvian tax
7492:
7490:
7487:
7485:
7482:
7480:
7477:
7475:
7472:
7470:
7467:
7465:
7462:
7460:
7457:
7455:
7452:
7450:
7447:
7445:
7442:
7441:
7439:
7431:
7424:
7421:
7419:
7416:
7414:
7411:
7409:
7406:
7404:
7401:
7397:
7394:
7392:
7391:Earth-leakage
7389:
7388:
7387:
7384:
7382:
7379:
7378:
7376:
7368:
7360:
7357:
7356:
7355:
7352:
7350:
7347:
7345:
7342:
7340:
7337:
7336:
7334:
7332:Failure modes
7330:
7324:
7321:
7319:
7316:
7313:
7310:
7308:
7305:
7303:
7300:
7298:
7295:
7293:
7290:
7288:
7285:
7283:
7282:Power station
7280:
7278:
7275:
7273:
7270:
7268:
7265:
7263:
7260:
7258:
7255:
7253:
7250:
7248:
7245:
7243:
7240:
7238:
7235:
7233:
7230:
7228:
7225:
7223:
7220:
7218:
7215:
7213:
7210:
7208:
7205:
7203:
7200:
7199:
7197:
7194:
7189:
7184:
7178:
7175:
7173:
7170:
7168:
7167:Rankine cycle
7165:
7163:
7160:
7158:
7155:
7153:
7150:
7148:
7147:Cooling tower
7145:
7143:
7140:
7138:
7135:
7133:
7130:
7129:
7127:
7125:
7121:
7111:
7108:
7106:
7103:
7101:
7098:
7094:
7091:
7089:
7086:
7084:
7081:
7079:
7076:
7074:
7071:
7070:
7069:
7066:
7064:
7061:
7059:
7056:
7054:
7051:
7049:
7046:
7044:
7041:
7040:
7038:
7036:
7032:
7026:
7023:
7019:
7016:
7014:
7011:
7009:
7006:
7004:
7001:
7000:
6999:
6996:
6995:
6993:
6991:
6990:Non-renewable
6987:
6984:
6980:
6975:
6965:
6962:
6960:
6957:
6955:
6952:
6950:
6947:
6945:
6942:
6940:
6937:
6935:
6932:
6930:
6927:
6925:
6922:
6920:
6917:
6915:
6912:
6910:
6909:Grid strength
6907:
6905:
6902:
6900:
6897:
6895:
6892:
6890:
6887:
6885:
6882:
6880:
6877:
6875:
6872:
6870:
6867:
6865:
6864:Demand factor
6862:
6860:
6857:
6855:
6852:
6850:
6847:
6846:
6844:
6840:
6836:
6829:
6824:
6822:
6817:
6815:
6810:
6809:
6806:
6799:
6798:Tesla patents
6795:
6791:
6789:
6788:0-8104-0827-9
6785:
6781:
6777:
6773:
6767:
6763:
6758:
6755:
6754:0-8018-2873-2
6751:
6747:
6743:
6740:
6738:
6737:0-8493-8578-4
6734:
6730:
6726:
6725:
6712:
6708:
6702:
6694:
6690:
6686:
6680:
6669:
6662:
6656:
6648:
6647:
6642:
6635:
6627:
6623:
6617:
6609:
6605:
6601:
6594:
6586:
6582:
6576:
6568:
6564:
6557:
6549:
6545:
6539:
6531:
6527:
6521:
6513:
6509:
6502:
6494:
6490:
6486:
6480:
6472:
6468:
6462:
6446:
6442:
6436:
6420:
6416:
6410:
6402:
6401:New Scientist
6398:
6391:
6380:
6376:
6372:
6368:
6364:
6360:
6356:
6352:
6348:
6341:
6334:
6323:
6319:
6312:
6306:
6287:
6284:. June 2002.
6283:
6276:
6270:
6254:
6250:
6246:
6242:
6236:
6234:
6214:
6207:
6201:
6185:
6179:
6172:
6167:
6151:
6147:
6141:
6134:
6130:
6127:
6122:
6106:
6102:
6096:
6089:
6084:
6068:
6064:
6060:
6054:
6046:
6044:0-87814-862-0
6040:
6036:
6029:
6013:
6009:
6003:
5995:
5991:
5985:
5969:
5965:
5961:
5955:
5939:
5935:
5928:
5912:
5908:
5901:
5893:
5889:
5885:
5883:9781788979955
5879:
5875:
5871:
5867:
5863:
5856:
5840:
5836:
5830:
5822:
5818:
5812:
5804:
5803:
5798:
5791:
5789:
5773:
5769:
5762:
5760:
5758:
5756:
5747:
5743:
5739:
5735:
5731:
5727:
5720:
5713:
5712:0-07-020974-X
5709:
5705:
5699:
5692:
5688:
5684:
5678:
5662:
5658:
5654:
5648:
5632:
5628:
5624:
5620:
5614:
5612:
5596:
5592:
5585:
5578:
5573:
5562:
5558:
5551:
5545:
5529:
5525:
5519:
5503:
5499:
5497:
5489:
5482:
5480:
5460:
5453:
5447:
5438:
5429:
5422:
5416:
5408:
5404:
5397:
5389:
5387:9781405141949
5383:
5379:
5374:
5373:
5364:
5356:
5349:
5347:
5339:
5335:
5331:
5325:
5318:
5317:1-4008-4655-2
5314:
5310:
5304:
5297:
5293:
5288:
5280:
5276:
5270:
5262:
5258:
5252:
5250:
5241:
5237:
5233:
5229:
5225:
5221:
5214:
5212:
5210:
5198:September 17,
5190:
5183:
5177:
5169:
5165:
5161:
5157:
5153:
5149:
5142:
5140:
5131:
5129:0-8018-4614-5
5125:
5121:
5120:
5115:
5109:
5107:
5097:
5081:
5075:
5067:
5063:
5056:
5049:
5045:
5041:
5035:
5016:
5012:
5009:
5002:
4996:
4980:
4976:
4970:
4966:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4939:
4936:
4933:
4932:National Grid
4930:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4910:
4907:
4904:
4901:
4898:
4895:
4892:
4890:
4887:
4885:
4882:
4880:
4877:
4875:
4872:
4870:
4867:
4865:
4862:
4860:
4857:
4856:
4851:
4850:Energy portal
4845:
4840:
4828:
4824:
4820:
4817:
4816:
4814:
4809:
4805:
4801:
4798:
4795:
4791:
4788:
4785:
4781:
4778:
4775:
4772:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4762:
4761:Ameralik Span
4758:
4755:
4751:
4747:
4744:
4740:
4736:
4733:
4729:
4724:
4720:
4716:
4713:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4703:
4702:
4696:
4694:
4690:
4686:
4681:
4679:
4675:
4674:cyber-warfare
4671:
4660:
4657:
4649:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4625:
4623:
4616:
4607:
4606:
4598:
4596:
4592:
4588:
4583:
4579:
4577:
4573:
4562:
4559:
4551:
4548:November 2022
4541:
4537:
4533:
4527:
4526:
4522:
4517:This section
4515:
4511:
4506:
4505:
4501:
4491:
4489:
4478:
4475:
4467:
4464:November 2022
4457:
4453:
4449:
4443:
4442:
4438:
4433:This section
4431:
4427:
4422:
4421:
4417:
4402:
4399:
4396:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4383:
4381:
4379:
4375:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4364:
4362:
4358:
4354:
4351:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4339:
4335:
4332:
4329:
4326:
4322:
4318:
4316:
4314:
4312:
4309:
4308:
4304:
4302:Capacity (GW)
4301:
4298:
4295:
4292:
4291:
4285:
4283:
4278:
4276:
4272:
4267:
4263:
4254:
4249:
4242:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4224:
4209:
4207:
4202:
4198:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4178:
4176:
4171:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4157:
4151:
4146:
4136:
4133:
4124:
4122:
4116:
4114:
4110:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4093:
4091:
4087:
4083:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4067:
4063:
4058:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4043:
4041:
4037:
4033:
4028:
4026:
4020:
4010:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3995:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3976:
3972:
3970:
3965:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3949:
3946:
3945:
3944:
3942:
3938:
3933:
3922:
3919:
3911:
3908:November 2022
3901:
3897:
3893:
3887:
3886:
3882:
3877:This section
3875:
3871:
3866:
3865:
3857:
3855:
3851:
3849:
3845:
3835:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3824:Wind turbines
3821:
3819:
3814:
3810:
3807:
3802:
3800:
3794:
3790:
3788:
3778:
3768:
3765:
3757:
3754:November 2022
3747:
3743:
3739:
3733:
3732:
3728:
3723:This section
3721:
3717:
3712:
3711:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3685:
3681:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3660:
3656:
3654:
3650:
3645:
3641:
3639:
3635:
3623:
3620:
3612:
3609:November 2022
3602:
3598:
3594:
3588:
3587:
3583:
3578:This section
3576:
3572:
3567:
3566:
3558:
3556:
3548:
3545:
3542:
3541:
3540:
3537:
3533:
3528:
3525:
3520:
3518:
3514:
3513:New York City
3510:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3497:Great Britain
3494:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3470:
3468:
3452:
3432:
3405:
3399:
3396:
3390:
3387:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3367:
3365:
3360:
3347:
3344:
3338:
3335:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3320:
3315:
3300:
3297:
3291:
3288:
3285:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3272:
3261:
3260:
3259:
3257:
3241:
3223:
3220:
3216:
3215:
3214:
3193:
3181:
3177:
3174:
3168:
3165:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3145:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3125:
3111:
3107:
3104:
3098:
3095:
3092:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3079:
3068:
3067:
3066:
3064:
3060:
3059:
3057:
3027:
3013:
2997:
2990:
2983:
2977:
2972:
2965:
2960:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2930:
2914:
2907:
2898:
2897:
2896:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2876:
2874:
2870:
2860:
2856:
2850:Lossless line
2847:
2845:
2841:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2771:
2768:
2765:
2758:
2744:
2741:
2738:
2735:
2732:
2729:
2726:
2723:
2717:
2704:
2703:
2702:
2700:
2679:
2665:
2649:
2642:
2635:
2629:
2624:
2617:
2612:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2582:
2566:
2559:
2550:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2537:
2527:
2524:
2516:
2513:November 2022
2506:
2502:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2487:
2482:This section
2480:
2476:
2471:
2470:
2466:
2456:
2454:
2453:Joule heating
2438:
2435:
2432:
2407:
2403:
2394:
2390:
2385:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2368:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2350:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2330:
2325:
2321:
2315:
2310:
2306:
2299:
2291:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2270:
2265:
2261:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2239:
2234:
2230:
2223:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2192:
2188:
2180:
2179:
2178:
2162:
2158:
2153:
2147:
2143:
2122:
2102:
2082:
2074:
2053:
2049:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2029:
2025:
2020:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2001:
1995:
1991:
1985:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1966:
1962:
1957:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1938:
1934:
1929:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1910:
1906:
1901:
1898:
1895:
1892:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1874:
1870:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1818:
1810:
1806:
1801:
1785:
1781:
1760:
1738:
1734:
1713:
1706:with voltage
1705:
1696:
1688:
1684:
1675:
1672:
1664:
1661:November 2022
1654:
1650:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1635:
1630:This section
1628:
1624:
1619:
1618:
1614:
1604:
1601:
1597:
1588:
1586:
1581:
1579:
1575:
1574:normally open
1571:
1568:Loops can be
1566:
1563:
1552:
1549:
1541:
1538:November 2022
1531:
1527:
1523:
1517:
1516:
1512:
1507:This section
1505:
1501:
1496:
1495:
1488:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1465:
1456:
1454:
1450:
1444:
1441:
1437:
1426:
1423:
1415:
1412:November 2022
1405:
1401:
1397:
1391:
1390:
1386:
1381:This section
1379:
1375:
1370:
1369:
1364:Transposition
1361:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1346:
1344:
1339:
1336:) constitute
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1308:
1303:
1301:
1296:
1294:
1289:
1275:
1270:
1266:
1245:
1240:
1236:
1227:
1223:
1222:Joule heating
1213:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1173:
1162:
1159:
1151:
1148:November 2022
1141:
1137:
1133:
1127:
1126:
1122:
1117:This section
1115:
1111:
1106:
1105:
1097:
1095:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1050:
1044:
1042:
1033:
1028:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1002:
1000:
996:
995:
988:
984:
981:
976:
974:
970:
966:
962:
954:
950:
945:
940:
931:
929:
925:
920:
918:
917:hydroelectric
912:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
889:
887:
883:
878:
874:
870:
866:
858:
854:
849:
845:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
806:
804:
800:
796:
791:
789:
785:
780:
777:
773:
768:
766:
762:
758:
754:
749:
747:
742:
734:
729:
719:
717:
712:
710:
705:
703:
697:
680:
675:
668:
663:
662:
661:
659:
655:
649:
647:
643:
639:
634:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
615:circular mils
612:
607:
604:
593:
590:
582:
579:November 2022
572:
568:
564:
558:
557:
553:
548:This section
546:
542:
537:
536:
527:
520:
506:
496:
486:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
459:
457:
452:
447:
444:
440:
436:
432:
431:high voltages
427:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
406:AC, although
405:
396:
387:
385:
381:
376:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
341:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
318:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
277:
273:
268:
258:
255:
240:
237:
229:
219:
215:
209:
208:
202:
197:
188:
187:
178:
166:
161:
152:
151:
142:
139:
131:
121:
117:
113:
107:
105:
98:
89:
88:
83:
81:
74:
73:
68:
67:
62:
57:
48:
47:
44:
40:
33:
19:
7489:Net metering
7436:and policies
7354:Power outage
7323:Utility pole
7287:Pumped hydro
7226:
7193:distribution
7188:Transmission
7187:
7137:Cogeneration
6939:Power factor
6793:
6779:
6761:
6745:
6728:
6710:
6701:
6693:the original
6688:
6679:
6655:
6644:
6634:
6625:
6616:
6608:the original
6603:
6593:
6584:
6575:
6566:
6556:
6547:
6538:
6511:
6501:
6493:the original
6488:
6479:
6470:
6461:
6449:. Retrieved
6445:the original
6435:
6423:. Retrieved
6419:the original
6409:
6400:
6390:
6350:
6346:
6333:
6317:
6305:
6293:. Retrieved
6269:
6257:. Retrieved
6253:the original
6244:
6220:. Retrieved
6200:
6188:. Retrieved
6178:
6170:
6166:
6156:November 14,
6154:. Retrieved
6150:the original
6140:
6121:
6109:. Retrieved
6105:the original
6095:
6083:
6071:. Retrieved
6067:the original
6063:www.ferc.gov
6062:
6053:
6034:
6028:
6018:November 14,
6016:. Retrieved
6012:the original
6002:
5994:Utility Dive
5993:
5984:
5972:. Retrieved
5968:the original
5964:www.ferc.gov
5963:
5954:
5942:. Retrieved
5938:the original
5927:
5915:. Retrieved
5910:
5900:
5865:
5855:
5843:. Retrieved
5839:the original
5829:
5811:
5800:
5775:. Retrieved
5772:heatmap.news
5771:
5732:(3): 60–63.
5729:
5725:
5719:
5703:
5698:
5682:
5677:
5667:February 27,
5665:. Retrieved
5656:
5647:
5635:. Retrieved
5631:the original
5622:
5598:. Retrieved
5584:
5572:
5561:the original
5556:
5544:
5532:. Retrieved
5528:the original
5518:
5513:4.98 MB
5505:. Retrieved
5494:
5466:. Retrieved
5446:
5437:
5428:
5420:
5415:
5406:
5402:
5396:
5371:
5363:
5354:
5329:
5324:
5308:
5303:
5287:
5278:
5269:
5260:
5226:(2): 52–59.
5223:
5219:
5196:. Retrieved
5176:
5154:(1): 57–60.
5151:
5147:
5118:
5096:
5086:December 29,
5084:. Retrieved
5074:
5065:
5055:
5034:
5022:. Retrieved
4995:
4983:. Retrieved
4979:the original
4969:
4927:Load profile
4800:Baltic Cable
4688:
4682:
4667:
4652:
4643:
4619:
4584:
4580:
4572:Nikola Tesla
4569:
4554:
4545:
4530:Please help
4518:
4485:
4470:
4461:
4446:Please help
4434:
4299:Voltage (kV)
4279:
4260:
4247:
4240:
4226:
4203:
4199:
4179:
4172:
4167:
4160:
4152:
4148:
4134:
4130:
4117:
4094:
4059:
4050:
4044:
4029:
4022:
3996:
3991:
3987:
3981:
3966:
3962:
3929:
3914:
3905:
3890:Please help
3878:
3852:
3841:
3822:
3815:
3811:
3803:
3795:
3791:
3784:
3775:
3760:
3751:
3736:Please help
3724:
3701:
3693:carbon fiber
3686:
3682:
3666:
3657:
3646:
3642:
3634:voltage drop
3630:
3615:
3606:
3591:Please help
3579:
3552:
3529:
3521:
3486:
3482:
3424:
3232:
3212:
3062:
3055:
3052:
3049:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2882:
2872:
2868:
2865:
2853:
2843:
2839:
2836:
2831:
2824:
2816:
2808:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2786:
2698:
2696:
2542:
2519:
2510:
2495:Please help
2483:
2424:
2070:
1802:
1701:
1682:
1667:
1658:
1643:Please help
1631:
1600:distribution
1594:
1585:distribution
1582:
1573:
1569:
1567:
1559:
1544:
1535:
1520:Please help
1508:
1477:street light
1475:lines and a
1473:distribution
1445:
1433:
1418:
1409:
1394:Please help
1382:
1347:
1343:power factor
1319:
1315:
1311:
1304:
1297:
1290:
1219:
1183:
1180:
1169:
1154:
1145:
1130:Please help
1118:
1090:
1078:
1065:
1047:
1045:
1037:
1003:
991:
989:
985:
977:
965:transformers
958:
921:
913:
890:
862:
826:Nikola Tesla
807:
792:
781:
772:Turin, Italy
769:
750:
743:
739:
713:
706:
699:
650:
642:distribution
635:
608:
600:
585:
576:
561:Please help
549:
460:
448:
428:
408:single phase
401:
377:
352:
348:
342:
338:transformers
319:
302:
282:
281:
250:
232:
223:
204:
172:
164:
134:
125:
101:
77:
70:
64:
63:Please help
60:
43:
7484:Load factor
7339:Black start
7307:Transformer
7008:Natural gas
6959:Variability
6934:Peak demand
6924:Merit order
6854:Backfeeding
6353:(1): 2375.
6295:January 29,
6259:January 23,
6222:November 9,
6190:November 9,
6073:October 30,
5974:December 7,
5944:January 31,
5917:January 31,
5913:. The Hindu
5821:White House
5534:January 10,
5024:October 30,
4879:Backfeeding
4794:Bass Strait
4361:Tres Amigas
4296:Length (km)
4007:dark fibers
3524:phase angle
3517:Long Island
3046:Medium line
2829:conductance
2821:capacitance
1469:Philippines
1332:define the
1326:capacitance
1307:skin effect
1293:conductance
1206:Victorville
1202:Los Angeles
1176:transformer
1014:three-phase
1010:substations
994:transformer
928:World War I
830:three-phase
816:running on
784:Rome, Italy
765:transformer
716:capacitance
690:Underground
623:skin effect
404:three-phase
380:liberalized
295:power plant
226:August 2022
218:introducing
175:August 2022
128:August 2022
7572:Categories
7526:production
7371:Protective
7302:Super grid
7297:Smart grid
7124:Generation
7058:Geothermal
6949:Repowering
4961:References
4819:Murraylink
4804:Baltic Sea
4767:, Denmark)
4750:Inga-Shaba
4723:Kazakhstan
4646:March 2013
4113:Murraylink
4109:Directlink
4099:– between
3948:Microwaves
3509:New Jersey
2879:Short line
2813:inductance
2805:resistance
2071:Should an
1611:See also:
1596:Substation
1440:inductance
1330:resistance
1322:inductance
1204:line, via
1198:Hoover Dam
1100:Grid input
1094:super grid
1054:firm power
953:Orem, Utah
949:PacifiCorp
524:A typical
435:resistance
291:generating
201:references
66:improve it
7434:Economics
7157:Micro CHP
7035:Renewable
7018:Petroleum
7013:Oil shale
6899:Grid code
6859:Base load
6451:August 9,
5892:244796440
5637:March 29,
5507:March 29,
5468:April 20,
5340:, p. 161.
4985:March 11,
4827:Sunraysia
4823:Riverland
4784:North Sea
4765:Greenland
4634:talk page
4591:microwave
4519:does not
4435:does not
3999:Minnesota
3879:does not
3848:Blackouts
3844:Brownouts
3725:does not
3676:and 2022
3580:does not
3397:γ
3391:
3354:Ω
3345:γ
3339:
3298:γ
3292:
3242:γ
3229:Long line
3139:Ω
2873:generates
2733:−
2545:black box
2484:does not
2243:×
2211:×
1986:×
1930:×
1893:×
1805:in series
1632:does not
1509:does not
1383:does not
1334:impedance
1119:does not
1049:base load
1039:sharing,
1034:of Europe
905:Frankfurt
853:polyphase
818:polyphase
654:flashover
550:does not
483:redundant
353:frequency
116:talk page
72:talk page
7557:Category
7344:Brownout
7132:AC power
6842:Concepts
6668:Archived
6626:BBC News
6567:BBC News
6548:phys.org
6520:cite web
6425:June 12,
6379:Archived
6375:55086502
6322:Archived
6318:nerc.com
6286:Archived
6213:Archived
6129:Archived
5845:April 6,
5777:March 6,
5746:23610440
5600:June 10,
5459:Archived
5319:, p. 130
5298:, p. 138
5279:ethw.org
5240:42790906
5189:Archived
5168:45909123
5116:(1993).
5015:Archived
4836:See also
4790:Basslink
4737:Highest
4734:(Japan).
4628:You may
4601:Security
4595:rectenna
4293:Location
4282:easement
4188:(1
4105:Victoria
4101:Tasmania
4097:Basslink
3561:Capacity
3505:Tasmania
3053:nominal
2869:consumes
2459:Modeling
992:step-up
897:Portland
810:AC motor
603:aluminum
489:Overhead
456:blackout
332:(AC) or
326:currents
322:voltages
297:, to an
110:You may
7373:devices
7083:Thermal
7078:Osmotic
7073:Current
7053:Biomass
7043:Biofuel
7025:Nuclear
6982:Sources
6604:Reuters
6355:Bibcode
6111:June 4,
4908:, (GIC)
4902:(FACTS)
4699:Records
4540:removed
4525:sources
4456:removed
4441:sources
4082:Path 15
3900:removed
3885:sources
3746:removed
3731:sources
3706:Control
3601:removed
3586:sources
3532:Seattle
3254:is the
2505:removed
2490:sources
1653:removed
1638:sources
1530:removed
1515:sources
1404:removed
1389:sources
1140:removed
1125:sources
722:History
571:removed
556:sources
361:Eastern
357:Western
289:from a
214:improve
165:updated
7068:Marine
7048:Biogas
6786:
6768:
6752:
6735:
6373:
6041:
5890:
5880:
5819:. The
5744:
5710:
5689:
5409:: 454.
5384:
5336:
5315:
5238:
5166:
5126:
5046:
4896:(EMTP)
4780:NorNed
4739:towers
4676:. The
4080:, and
3536:Boston
2875:VARs.
2799:, and
1356:; and
1216:Losses
390:System
365:Quebec
203:, but
7425:(GFI)
7314:(TSO)
7100:Solar
7088:Tidal
7063:Hydro
6671:(PDF)
6664:(PDF)
6646:Wired
6382:(PDF)
6371:S2CID
6343:(PDF)
6325:(PDF)
6314:(PDF)
6289:(PDF)
6278:(PDF)
6216:(PDF)
6209:(PDF)
5888:S2CID
5742:S2CID
5564:(PDF)
5553:(PDF)
5496:CIGRE
5491:(PDF)
5462:(PDF)
5455:(PDF)
5407:XVIII
5236:S2CID
5192:(PDF)
5185:(PDF)
5164:S2CID
5018:(PDF)
5004:(PDF)
4940:(PLC)
4636:, or
4570:Both
4403:2014
4355:2008
4352:0.574
4336:2006
4333:0.048
4319:2000
4305:Date
4182:acute
4076:, to
4064:from
955:, US.
369:Texas
118:, or
7191:and
7110:Wind
7093:Wave
7003:Coal
6784:ISBN
6766:ISBN
6750:ISBN
6733:ISBN
6530:link
6526:link
6453:2012
6427:2014
6297:2008
6261:2008
6224:2018
6192:2018
6158:2022
6113:2011
6075:2018
6039:ISBN
6020:2022
5976:2016
5946:2008
5919:2008
5878:ISBN
5847:2017
5779:2024
5708:ISBN
5687:ISBN
5669:2019
5639:2011
5602:2019
5536:2014
5509:2011
5470:2019
5382:ISBN
5334:ISBN
5313:ISBN
5200:2019
5124:ISBN
5088:2019
5044:ISBN
5026:2018
4987:2015
4808:HVDC
4668:The
4574:and
4523:any
4521:cite
4439:any
4437:cite
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