Testosterone - Knowledge

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aggression is the means of maintaining social status. However, humans have multiple ways of obtaining status. This could explain why some studies find a link between testosterone and pro-social behaviour, if pro-social behaviour is rewarded with social status. Thus the link between testosterone and aggression and violence is due to these being rewarded with social status. The relationship may also be one of a "permissive effect" whereby testosterone does elevate aggression levels, but only in the sense of allowing average aggression levels to be maintained; chemically or physically castrating the individual will reduce aggression levels (though not eliminate them) but the individual only needs a small-level of pre-castration testosterone to have aggression levels to return to normal, which they will remain at even if additional testosterone is added. Testosterone may also simply exaggerate or amplify existing aggression; for example, chimpanzees who receive testosterone increases become more aggressive to chimps lower than them in the social hierarchy, but will still be submissive to chimps higher than them. Testosterone thus does not make the chimpanzee indiscriminately aggressive, but instead amplifies his pre-existing aggression towards lower-ranked chimps.

2035:. Only the free amount of testosterone can bind to an androgenic receptor, which means it has biological activity. While a significant portion of testosterone is bound to SHBG, a small fraction of testosterone (1%-2%) is bound to albumin and the binding of testosterone to albumin is weak and can be reversed easily; as such, both albumin-bound and unbound testosterone are considered to be bioavailable testosterone. This binding plays an important role in regulating the transport, tissue delivery, bioactivity, and metabolism of testosterone. At the tissue level, testosterone dissociates from albumin and quickly diffuses into the tissues. The percentage of testosterone bound to SHBG is lower in men than in women. Both the free fraction and the one bound to albumin are available at the tissue level (their sum constitutes the bioavailable testosterone), while SHBG effectively and irreversibly inhibits the action of testosterone. The relationship between sex steroids and SHBG in physiological and pathological conditions is complex, as various factors may influence the levels of plasma SHBG, affecting bioavailability of testosterone. 4602: 4652: 1061:) effects, though these categorical descriptions are somewhat arbitrary, as there is a great deal of mutual overlap between them. The relative potency of these effects can depend on various factors and is a topic of ongoing research. Testosterone can either directly exert effects on target tissues or be metabolized by 5α-reductase into dihydrotestosterone (DHT) or aromatized to estradiol (E2). Both testosterone and DHT bind to an androgen receptor; however, DHT has a stronger binding affinity than testosterone and may have more androgenic effect in certain tissues at lower levels. 1863:, paternal investment in offspring is beneficial to said offspring's survival because it allows the two parents to raise multiple children simultaneously. This increases the reproductive fitness of the parents because their offspring are more likely to survive and reproduce. Paternal care increases offspring survival due to increased access to higher quality food and reduced physical and immunological threats. This is particularly beneficial for humans since offspring are dependent on parents for extended periods of time and mothers have relatively short inter-birth intervals. 2897: 493: 380: 1847:

levels than single men with experience. It is suggested that these single men with prior experience are in a more competitive state than their non-experienced counterparts. Married men who engage in bond-maintenance activities such as spending the day with their spouse or child have no different testosterone levels compared to times when they do not engage in such activities. Collectively, these results suggest that the presence of competitive activities rather than bond-maintenance activities is more relevant to changes in testosterone levels.

167: 3585:. 6β-Hydroxylation and to a lesser extent 16β-hydroxylation are the major transformations. The 6β-hydroxylation of testosterone is catalyzed mainly by CYP3A4 and to a lesser extent CYP3A5 and is responsible for 75 to 80% of cytochrome P450-mediated testosterone metabolism. In addition to 6β- and 16β-hydroxytestosterone, 1β-, 2α/β-, 11β-, and 15β-hydroxytestosterone are also formed as minor metabolites. Certain cytochrome P450 enzymes such as CYP2C9 and CYP2C19 can also oxidize testosterone at the C17 position to form androstenedione. 3375: 3384: 4768:

student, Lemuel McGee, derived 20 mg of a substance from a supply of 40 pounds of bovine testicles that, when administered to castrated roosters, pigs and rats, re-masculinized them. The group of Ernst Laqueur at the University of Amsterdam purified testosterone from bovine testicles in a similar manner in 1934, but the isolation of the hormone from animal tissues in amounts permitting serious study in humans was not feasible until three European pharmaceutical giants –

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offer, the less probable a refusal by the negotiating partner. If no agreement was reached, neither party earned anything. Test subjects with an artificially enhanced testosterone level generally made better, fairer offers than those who received placebos, thus reducing the risk of a rejection of their offer to a minimum. Two later studies have empirically confirmed these results. However men with high testosterone were significantly 27% less generous in an ultimatum game.

4734: 14874: 158: 2233: 14886: 47: 139: 836: 1702:. They recommend yearly evaluation regarding possible improvement and, if none, to discontinue testosterone; physicians should consider intramuscular treatments, rather than transdermal treatments, due to costs and since the effectiveness and harm of either method is similar. Testosterone treatment for reasons other than possible improvement of sexual dysfunction may not be recommended. 5695: 1940:

situations, and that the interacting roles of testosterone are the essential ingredient for aggressive behaviour in these situations. Testosterone mediates attraction to cruel and violent cues in men by promoting extended viewing of violent stimuli. Testosterone-specific structural brain characteristic can predict aggressive behaviour in individuals.

3628:, and the brain. As much as 90% of testosterone is converted into 5α-DHT in so-called androgenic tissues with high 5α-reductase expression, and due to the several-fold greater potency of 5α-DHT as an AR agonist relative to testosterone, it has been estimated that the effects of testosterone are potentiated 2- to 3-fold in such tissues. 3645:. Several professional medical groups have recommended that 350 ng/dL generally be considered the minimum normal level, which is consistent with previous findings. Levels of testosterone in men decline with age. In women, mean levels of total testosterone have been reported to be 32.6 ng/dL. In women with 5689: 3592:, are biologically important and can be formed both in the liver and in extrahepatic tissues. Approximately 5 to 7% of testosterone is converted by 5α-reductase into 5α-DHT, with circulating levels of 5α-DHT about 10% of those of testosterone, and approximately 0.3% of testosterone is converted into estradiol by 5307:

Southren AL, Gordon GG, Tochimoto S, Pinzon G, Lane DR, Stypulkowski W (May 1967). "Mean plasma concentration, metabolic clearance and basal plasma production rates of testosterone in normal young men and women using a constant infusion procedure: effect of time of day and plasma concentration on the

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Like other androsteroids, testosterone is manufactured industrially from microbial fermentation of plant cholesterol (e.g., from soybean oil). In the early 2000s, the steroid market weighed around one million tonnes and was worth $ 10 billion, making it the 2nd largest biopharmaceutical market behind

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The rise in testosterone during competition predicted aggression in males, but not in females. Subjects who interacted with handguns and an experimental game showed rise in testosterone and aggression. Natural selection might have evolved males to be more sensitive to competitive and status challenge

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Androgens may modulate the physiology of vaginal tissue and contribute to female genital sexual arousal. Women's level of testosterone is higher when measured pre-intercourse vs. pre-cuddling, as well as post-intercourse vs. post-cuddling. There is a time lag effect when testosterone is administered,

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Men who watch a sexually explicit movie have an average increase of 35% in testosterone, peaking at 60–90 minutes after the end of the film, but no increase is seen in men who watch sexually neutral films. Men who watch sexually explicit films also report increased motivation and competitiveness, and

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theory, testosterone levels are shown to increase as a response to previously neutral stimuli when conditioned to become sexual in male rats. This reaction engages penile reflexes (such as erection and ejaculation) that aid in sperm competition when more than one male is present in mating encounters,

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In 1927, the University of Chicago's Professor of Physiologic Chemistry, Fred C. Koch, established easy access to a large source of bovine testicles – the Chicago stockyards – and recruited students willing to endure the tedious work of extracting their isolates. In that year, Koch and his

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Testosterone might encourage fair behavior. For one study, subjects took part in a behavioral experiment where the distribution of a real amount of money was decided. The rules allowed both fair and unfair offers. The negotiating partner could subsequently accept or decline the offer. The fairer the

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of male aggression". Testosterone and other androgens have evolved to masculinize a brain to be competitive, even to the point of risking harm to the person and others. By doing so, individuals with masculinized brains as a result of pre-natal and adult life testosterone and androgens, enhance their

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While the extent of paternal care varies between cultures, higher investment in direct child care has been seen to be correlated with lower average testosterone levels as well as temporary fluctuations. For instance, fluctuation in testosterone levels when a child is in distress has been found to be

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In non-human primates, it may be that testosterone in puberty stimulates sexual arousal, which allows the primate to increasingly seek out sexual experiences with females and thus creates a sexual preference for females. Some research has also indicated that if testosterone is eliminated in an adult

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Studies conducted in rats have indicated that their degree of sexual arousal is sensitive to reductions in testosterone. When testosterone-deprived rats were given medium levels of testosterone, their sexual behaviours (copulation, partner preference, etc.) resumed, but not when given low amounts of

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of a steroid hormone refers to entry into the blood of the compound from all possible sources, including secretion from glands and conversion of prohormones into the steroid of interest. At steady state, the amount of hormone entering the blood from all sources will be equal to the rate at which it

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When females have a higher baseline level of testosterone, they have higher increases in sexual arousal levels but smaller increases in testosterone, indicating a ceiling effect on testosterone levels in females. Sexual thoughts also change the level of testosterone but not the level of cortisol in

927:, and a wide range of behavioral characteristics. In addition, testosterone in both sexes is involved in health and well-being, where it has a significant effect on overall mood, cognition, social and sexual behavior, metabolism and energy output, the cardiovascular system, and in the prevention of 4863:

permitted the characterization of the hormone's effects, so that Kochakian and Murlin (1936) were able to show that testosterone raised nitrogen retention (a mechanism central to anabolism) in the dog, after which Allan Kenyon's group was able to demonstrate both anabolic and androgenic effects of

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The relationship between testosterone and aggression may also function indirectly, as it has been proposed that testosterone does not amplify tendencies towards aggression, but rather amplifies whatever tendencies will allow an individual to maintain social status when challenged. In most animals,

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Men who produce less testosterone are more likely to be in a relationship or married, and men who produce more testosterone are more likely to divorce. Marriage or commitment could cause a decrease in testosterone levels. Single men who have not had relationship experience have lower testosterone

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Men who produce more testosterone are more likely to engage in extramarital sex. Testosterone levels do not rely on physical presence of a partner; testosterone levels of men engaging in same-city and long-distance relationships are similar. Physical presence may be required for women who are in

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Both methods use chemical equilibrium to derive the concentration of bioavailable testosterone: in circulation, testosterone has two major binding partners, albumin (weakly bound) and sex hormone-binding globulin (strongly bound). These methods are described in detail in the accompanying figure.

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which states that testosterone would increase during puberty, thus facilitating reproductive and competitive behavior which would include aggression. It is therefore the challenge of competition among males that facilitates aggression and violence. Studies conducted have found direct correlation

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In measurements of testosterone in blood samples, different assay techniques can yield different results. Immunofluorescence assays exhibit considerable variability in quantifying testosterone concentrations in blood samples due to the cross-reaction of structurally similar steroids, leading to

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is being cleared (metabolic clearance rate) multiplied by blood concentration (production rate = metabolic clearance rate × concentration). If there is little contribution of prohormone metabolism to the circulating pool of steroid, then the production rate will approximate the secretion rate."

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Early infancy androgen effects are the least understood. In the first weeks of life for male infants, testosterone levels rise. The levels remain in a pubertal range for a few months, but usually reach the barely detectable levels of childhood by 4–7 months of age. The function of this rise in

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has been linked with decreases in men's testosterone levels while mixed changes are reported for women's testosterone levels. There has been speculation that these changes in testosterone result in the temporary reduction of differences in behavior between the sexes. However, the testosterone

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medicine for the use of testosterone in anti-aging therapies. Much of the literature, however, suggests a curvilinear or even quadratic relationship between spatial performance and circulating testosterone, where both hypo- and hypersecretion (deficient- and excessive-secretion) of circulating

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Butenandt A, Hanisch G (1935). "Umwandlung des Dehydroandrosterons in Androstendiol und Testosterone; ein Weg zur Darstellung des Testosterons aus Cholestrin" [About Testosterone. Conversion of Dehydro-androsterons into androstendiol and testosterone; a way for the structure assignment of

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formation. Specifically, testosterone, along with anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) promote growth of the Wolffian duct and degeneration of the Müllerian duct respectively. This period affects the femininization or masculinization of the fetus and can be a better predictor of feminine or masculine

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In humans, testosterone appears more to promote status-seeking and social dominance than simply increasing physical aggression. When controlling for the effects of belief in having received testosterone, women who have received testosterone make fairer offers than women who have not received

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David KG, Dingemanse E, Freud JL (May 1935). "Über krystallinisches mannliches Hormon aus Hoden (Testosteron) wirksamer als aus harn oder aus Cholesterin bereitetes Androsteron" [On crystalline male hormone from testicles (testosterone) effective as from urine or from cholesterol].

1475:. Nevertheless, maintaining normal testosterone levels in elderly men has been shown to improve many parameters that are thought to reduce cardiovascular disease risk, such as increased lean body mass, decreased visceral fat mass, decreased total cholesterol, and improved glycemic control. 3636:

Total levels of testosterone in the body have been reported as 264 to 916 ng/dL (nanograms per deciliter) in non-obese European and American men age 19 to 39 years, while mean testosterone levels in adult men have been reported as 630 ng/dL. Although commonly used as a

1907:. Many studies have been undertaken on the relationship between more general aggressive behavior, and feelings, and testosterone. About half of studies have found a relationship and about half, no relationship. Studies have found that testosterone facilitates aggression by modulating 1931:

resource acquiring abilities to survive, attract and copulate with mates as much as possible. The masculinization of the brain is not just mediated by testosterone levels at the adult stage, but also testosterone exposure in the womb. Higher pre-natal testosterone indicated by a low

2380: 997:. On average, in adult males, levels of testosterone are about seven to eight times as great as in adult females. As the metabolism of testosterone in males is more pronounced, the daily production is about 20 times greater in men. Females are also more sensitive to the hormone. 1943:

The Annual NY Academy of Sciences has found anabolic steroid use (which increases testosterone) to be higher in teenagers, and this was associated with increased violence. Studies have found administered testosterone to increase verbal aggression and anger in some participants.

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that his vigor and feeling of well-being were markedly restored but the effects were transient, and Brown-Séquard's hopes for the compound were dashed. Suffering the ridicule of his colleagues, he abandoned his work on the mechanisms and effects of androgens in human beings.

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of a steroid refers to the total secretion of the compound from a gland per unit time. Secretion rates have been assessed by sampling the venous effluent from a gland over time and subtracting out the arterial and peripheral venous hormone concentration. The

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Most studies support a link between adult criminality and testosterone. Nearly all studies of juvenile delinquency and testosterone are not significant. Most studies have found testosterone to be associated with behaviors or personality traits linked with

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Weight loss: Reduction in weight may result in an increase in testosterone levels. Fat cells synthesize the enzyme aromatase, which converts testosterone, the male sex hormone, into estradiol, the female sex hormone. However no clear association between

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indicative of fathering styles. If a father's testosterone levels decrease in response to hearing their baby cry, it is an indication of empathizing with the baby. This is associated with increased nurturing behavior and better outcomes for the infant.

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between testosterone and dominance, especially among the most violent criminals in prison who had the highest testosterone. The same research found fathers (outside competitive environments) had the lowest testosterone levels compared to other males.

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In women, correlations may exist between positive orgasm experience and testosterone levels. Studies have shown small or inconsistent correlations between testosterone levels and male orgasm experience, as well as sexual assertiveness in both sexes.

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Androgen receptors occur in many different vertebrate body system tissues, and both males and females respond similarly to similar levels. Greatly differing amounts of testosterone prenatally, at puberty, and throughout life account for a share of

13479:"Reference ranges for testosterone in men generated using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry in a community-based sample of healthy nonobese young men in the Framingham Heart Study and applied to three geographically distinct cohorts" 2092:. 5α-DHT binds to the same androgen receptor even more strongly than testosterone, so that its androgenic potency is about 5 times that of T. The T-receptor or DHT-receptor complex undergoes a structural change that allows it to move into the 25153: 6795: 2863:

of a steroid in the circulation is determined by the rate at which it is secreted from glands, the rate of metabolism of precursor or prehormones into the steroid, and the rate at which it is extracted by tissues and metabolized. The

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Goldman D, Lappalainen J, Ozaki N. Direct analysis of candidate genes in impulsive disorders. In: Bock G, Goode J, eds. Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour. Ciba Foundation Symposium 194. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons;

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Testosterone levels play a major role in risk-taking during financial decisions. Higher testosterone levels in men reduce the risk of becoming or staying unemployed. Research has also found that heightened levels of testosterone and

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Hines M, Brook C, Conway GS (February 2004). "Androgen and psychosexual development: core gender identity, sexual orientation and recalled childhood gender role behavior in women and men with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)".

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Adult testosterone effects are more clearly demonstrable in males than in females, but are likely important to both sexes. Some of these effects may decline as testosterone levels might decrease in the later decades of adult life.

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Dakin CL, Wilson CA, Kalló I, Coen CW, Davies DC (May 2008). "Neonatal stimulation of 5-HT(2) receptors reduces androgen receptor expression in the rat anteroventral periventricular nucleus and sexually dimorphic preoptic area".

3087: 2224:= 1,014 or 201 nM). However, the concentrations of testosterone required for binding the receptor are far above even total circulating concentrations of testosterone in adult males (which range between 10 and 35 nM). 7221:"Testosterone Products: Drug Safety Communication – FDA Cautions About Using Testosterone Products for Low Testosterone Due to Aging; Requires Labeling Change to Inform of Possible Increased Risk of Heart Attack And Stroke" 1935:

as well as adult testosterone levels increased risk of fouls or aggression among male players in a soccer game. Studies have found higher pre-natal testosterone or lower digit ratio to be correlated with higher aggression.

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Attention, memory, and spatial ability are key cognitive functions affected by testosterone in humans. Preliminary evidence suggests that low testosterone levels may be a risk factor for cognitive decline and possibly for

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effects begin to occur when androgen has been higher than normal adult female levels for months or years. In males, these are usual late pubertal effects, and occur in women after prolonged periods of heightened levels of

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Gravanis A, Calogeropoulou T, Panoutsakopoulou V, Thermos K, Neophytou C, Charalampopoulos I (2012). "Neurosteroids and microneurotrophins signal through NGF receptors to induce prosurvival signaling in neuronal cells".

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Qaseem A, Horwitch CA, Vijan S, Etxeandia-Ikobaltzeta I, Kansagara D (January 2020). "Testosterone Treatment in Adult Men With Age-Related Low Testosterone: A Clinical Guideline From the American College of Physicians".

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Haddad RM, Kennedy CC, Caples SM, Tracz MJ, Boloña ER, Sideras K, et al. (January 2007). "Testosterone and cardiovascular risk in men: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials".

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and conclusion of growth. In the central nervous system, testosterone is aromatized to estradiol. Estradiol rather than testosterone serves as the most important feedback signal to the hypothalamus (especially affecting

1563:, substitution therapy with testosterone results in a significant reduction of inflammatory markers. These effects are mediated by different mechanisms with synergistic action. In androgen-deficient men with concomitant 1188:

behaviours such as sex typed behaviour than an adult's own levels. Prenatal androgens apparently influence interests and engagement in gendered activities and have moderate effects on spatial abilities. Among women with

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overestimating the results. In contrast, the liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry method is more desirable: it offers superior specificity and precision, making it a more suitable choice for this application.

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Testosterone's bioavailable concentration is commonly determined using the Vermeulen calculation or more precisely using the modified Vermeulen method, which considers the dimeric form of sex hormone-binding globulin.

4856:), a solid polycyclic alcohol with a hydroxyl group at the 17th carbon atom. This also made it obvious that additional modifications on the synthesized testosterone could be made, i.e., esterification and alkylation. 277: 10231:

Soma KK, Sullivan KA, Tramontin AD, Saldanha CJ, Schlinger BA, Wingfield JC (2000). "Acute and chronic effects of an aromatase inhibitor on territorial aggression in breeding and nonbreeding male song sparrows".

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Kumar V, Kural MR, Pereira BM, Roy P (December 2008). "Spearmint induced hypothalamic oxidative stress and testicular anti-androgenicity in male rats - altered levels of gene expression, enzymes and hormones".

931:. Insufficient levels of testosterone in men may lead to abnormalities including frailty, accumulation of adipose fat tissue within the body, anxiety and depression, sexual performance issues, and bone loss. 4864:

testosterone propionate in eunuchoidal men, boys, and women. The period of the early 1930s to the 1950s has been called "The Golden Age of Steroid Chemistry", and work during this period progressed quickly.

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Hulmi JJ, Ahtiainen JP, Selänne H, Volek JS, Häkkinen K, Kovanen V, et al. (May 2008). "Androgen receptors and testosterone in men—effects of protein ingestion, resistance exercise and fiber type".

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Butenandt A, Hanisch G (1935). "Uber die Umwandlung des Dehydroandrosterons in Androstenol-(17)-one-(3) (Testosterone); um Weg zur Darstellung des Testosterons auf Cholesterin (Vorlauf Mitteilung). ".

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are associated with an increased risk of impulsive and violent criminal behavior. On the other hand, elevated testosterone in men may increase their generosity, primarily to attract a potential mate.

1667:(though a randomized trial found no evidence of major adverse cardiac events compared to placebo in men with low testosterone), and behavioral changes. Women and children who are exposed may develop 4840:(1887–1976) and A. Wettstein, published their synthesis of testosterone. These independent partial syntheses of testosterone from a cholesterol base earned both Butenandt and Ruzicka the joint 1939 10851:

Cunningham SK, Loughlin T, Culliton M, McKenna TJ (September 1985). "The relationship between sex steroids and sex-hormone-binding globulin in plasma in physiological and pathological conditions".

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might play an important role in male aggression. Estradiol is known to correlate with aggression in male mice. Moreover, the conversion of testosterone to estradiol regulates male aggression in

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Southren AL, Tochimoto S, Carmody NC, Isurugi K (November 1965). "Plasma production rates of testosterone in normal adult men and women and in patients with the syndrome of feminizing testes".

3073: 1468:. In people who have undergone testosterone deprivation therapy, testosterone increases beyond the castrate level have been shown to increase the rate of spread of an existing prostate cancer. 4667:

Testosterone has been detected at variably higher and lower levels among men of various nations and from various backgrounds, explanations for the causes of this have been relatively diverse.

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male human or other adult male primate's system, its sexual motivation decreases, but there is no corresponding decrease in ability to engage in sexual activity (mounting, ejaculating, etc.).

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Kenyon AT, Knowlton K, Sandiford I, Koch FC, Lotwin, G (February 1940). "A comparative study of the metabolic effects of testosterone propionate in normal men and women and in eunuchoidism".

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The Organon group in the Netherlands were the first to isolate the hormone, identified in a May 1935 paper "On Crystalline Male Hormone from Testicles (Testosterone)". They named the hormone

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action was linked to circulating blood fractions – now understood to be a family of androgenic hormones – in the early work on castration and testicular transplantation in fowl by

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Joyce CW, Kelly JC, Chan JC, Colgan G, O'Briain D, Mc Cabe JP, et al. (November 2013). "Second to fourth digit ratio confirms aggressive tendencies in patients with boxers fractures".

3523:, respectively. Subsequently, 3α-androstanediol and 3α-etiocholanediol are converted by 17β-HSD into androsterone and etiocholanolone, which is followed by their conjugation and excretion. 8753: 2031:. The part of the total hormone concentration that is not bound to its respective specific carrier protein is the free part. As a result, testosterone which is not bound to SHBG is called 24085: 7220: 1859:

Fatherhood decreases testosterone levels in men, suggesting that the emotions and behaviour tied to paternal care decrease testosterone levels. In humans and other species that utilize

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Steinberger E, Ayala C, Hsi B, Smith KD, Rodriguez-Rigau LJ, Weidman ER, et al. (1998). "Utilization of commercial laboratory results in management of hyperandrogenism in women".

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van Anders SM, Watson NV (July 2006). "Relationship status and testosterone in North American heterosexual and non-heterosexual men and women: cross-sectional and longitudinal data".

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during breeding season. Rats who were given anabolic steroids that increase testosterone were also more physically aggressive to provocation as a result of "threat sensitivity".

16124: 13763:"Challenges in Testosterone Measurement, Data Interpretation, and Methodological Appraisal of Interventional Trials | the Journal of Sexual Medicine | Oxford Academic" 18230: 11957:

Vingren JL, Kraemer WJ, Ratamess NA, Anderson JM, Volek JS, Maresh CM (2010). "Testosterone physiology in resistance exercise and training: the up-stream regulatory elements".

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Gray PB, Campbell BC, Marlowe FW, Lipson SF, Ellison PT (October 2004). "Social variables predict between-subject but not day-to-day variation in the testosterone of US men".

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Tuiten A, Van Honk J, Koppeschaar H, Bernaards C, Thijssen J, Verbaten R (February 2000). "Time course of effects of testosterone administration on sexual arousal in women".

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Liverman CT, Blazer DG, et al. (Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Assessing the Need for Clinical Trials of Testosterone Replacement Therapy) (January 1, 2004).

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von der PB, Sarkola T, Seppa K, Eriksson CJ (September 2002). "Testosterone, 5 alpha-dihydrotestosterone and cortisol in men with and without alcohol-related aggression".

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Breiner M, Romalo G, Schweikert HU (August 1986). "Inhibition of androgen receptor binding by natural and synthetic steroids in cultured human genital skin fibroblasts".

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Akdoğan M, Tamer MN, Cüre E, Cüre MC, Köroğlu BK, Delibaş N (May 2007). "Effect of spearmint (Mentha spicata Labiatae) teas on androgen levels in women with hirsutism".

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Andersen ML, Tufik S (October 2008). "The effects of testosterone on sleep and sleep-disordered breathing in men: its bidirectional interaction with erectile function".

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Morgentaler A, Traish AM (February 2009). "Shifting the paradigm of testosterone and prostate cancer: the saturation model and the limits of androgen-dependent growth".

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Schultheiss OC, Campbell KL, McClelland DC (December 1999). "Implicit power motivation moderates men's testosterone responses to imagined and real dominance success".

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In the hepatic 17-ketosteroid pathway of testosterone metabolism, testosterone is converted in the liver by 5α-reductase and 5β-reductase into 5α-DHT and the inactive

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Armstrong TA, Boisvert DL, Wells J, Lewis RH, Cooke EM, Woeckener M, et al. (November 2022). "Testosterone, cortisol, and criminal behavior in men and women".

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Exton MS, Bindert A, Krüger T, Scheller F, Hartmann U, Schedlowski M (1999). "Cardiovascular and endocrine alterations after masturbation-induced orgasm in women".

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is occurring since no significant changes have been identified in other parts of the body. The male brain is masculinized by the aromatization of testosterone into

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McGinnis MY, Lumia AR, Breuer ME, Possidente B (February 2002). "Physical provocation potentiates aggression in male rats receiving anabolic androgenic steroids".

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on genital arousal in women. In addition, a continuous increase in vaginal sexual arousal may result in higher genital sensations and sexual appetitive behaviors.

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Morgentaler A, Khera M, Maggi M, Zitzmann M (July 2014). "Commentary: Who is a candidate for testosterone therapy? A synthesis of international expert opinions".

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Coccaro E (1996). "Neurotransmitter correlates of impulsive aggression in humans. In: Ferris C, Grisso T, eds. Understanding Aggressive Behaviour inn Children".

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Hart BL (December 1983). "Role of testosterone secretion and penile reflexes in sexual behavior and sperm competition in male rats: a theoretical contribution".

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James PJ, Nyby JG, Saviolakis GA (September 2006). "Sexually stimulated testosterone release in male mice (Mus musculus): roles of genotype and sexual arousal".

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Harding SM, Velotta JP (May 2011). "Comparing the relative amount of testosterone required to restore sexual arousal, motivation, and performance in male rats".

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Liverman CT, Blazer DG, et al. (Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Assessing the Need for Clinical Trials of Testosterone Replacement Therapy) (2004).

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to release FSH and LH. These latter two hormones stimulate the testis to synthesize testosterone. Finally, increasing levels of testosterone through a negative

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Payne AH, O'Shaughnessy P (1996). "Structure, function, and regulation of steroidogenic enzymes in the Leydig cell". In Payne AH, Hardy MP, Russell LD (eds.).

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Fox CA, Ismail AA, Love DN, Kirkham KE, Loraine JA (January 1972). "Studies on the relationship between plasma testosterone levels and human sexual activity".

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van Anders SM, Watson NV (February 2007). "Testosterone levels in women and men who are single, in long-distance relationships, or same-city relationships".

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Moffat SD, Hampson E (April 1996). "A curvilinear relationship between testosterone and spatial cognition in humans: possible influence of hand preference".

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Kraemer HC, Becker HB, Brodie HK, Doering CH, Moos RH, Hamburg DA (March 1976). "Orgasmic frequency and plasma testosterone levels in normal human males".

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relationships for the testosterone–partner interaction, where same-city partnered women have lower testosterone levels than long-distance partnered women.

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Lincoff AM, Bhasin S, Flevaris P, Mitchell LM, Basaria S, Boden WE, et al. (July 2023). "Cardiovascular Safety of Testosterone-Replacement Therapy".

4757:(1817–1894), then in Paris, self-injected subcutaneously a "rejuvenating elixir" consisting of an extract of dog and guinea pig testicle. He reported in 3531:

can also be formed in this pathway when 5α-DHT and 5β-DHT are acted upon by 3β-HSD instead of 3α-HSD, respectively, and they can then be transformed into

24110: 5625: 11633:

Zuber MX, Simpson ER, Waterman MR (December 1986). "Expression of bovine 17 alpha-hydroxylase cytochrome P-450 cDNA in nonsteroidogenic (COS 1) cells".

9659:

Butovskaya M, Burkova V, Karelin D, Fink B (October 1, 2015). "Digit ratio (2D:4D), aggression, and dominance in the Hadza and the Datoga of Tanzania".

9545: 977:

in several steps from cholesterol and is converted in the liver to inactive metabolites. It exerts its action through binding to and activation of the

8971: 849: 651: 25405: 25139: 24100: 22553: 19920: 16348: 12567:

Grant P (February 2010). "Spearmint herbal tea has significant anti-androgen effects in polycystic ovarian syndrome. A randomized controlled trial".

3656: 57: 18604: 14069: 7993:

Rowland DL, Heiman JR, Gladue BA, Hatch JP, Doering CH, Weiler SJ (1987). "Endocrine, psychological and genital response to sexual arousal in men".

27413: 25488: 25307: 22959: 22797: 22319: 10665:"The Free Hormone Hypothesis: When, Why, and How to Measure the Free Hormone Levels to Assess Vitamin D, Thyroid, Sex Hormone, and Cortisol Status" 1760:

the same hormone. Therefore, these mammals may provide a model for studying clinical populations among humans with sexual arousal deficits such as

27352: 20510: 10459:

Eisenegger C, Naef M, Snozzi R, Heinrichs M, Fehr E (2010). "Prejudice and truth about the effect of testosterone on human bargaining behaviour".

26529: 25721: 25430: 22370: 22362: 13185:

Sundaram K, Kumar N, Monder C, Bardin CW (1995). "Different patterns of metabolism determine the relative anabolic activity of 19-norandrogens".

11619: 8761: 14099: 6304:

Ajayi AA, Mathur R, Halushka PV (June 1995). "Testosterone increases human platelet thromboxane A2 receptor density and aggregation responses".

28312: 26454: 21945: 19492: 19482: 2921:(FSH). In addition, the amount of testosterone produced by existing Leydig cells is under the control of LH, which regulates the expression of 1192:, a male-typical play in childhood correlated with reduced satisfaction with the female gender and reduced heterosexual interest in adulthood. 9896:"Testosterone reactivity and identification with a perpetrator or a victim in a story are associated with attraction to violence-related cues" 9275:

Delville Y, Mansour KM, Ferris CF (July 1996). "Testosterone facilitates aggression by modulating vasopressin receptors in the hypothalamus".

516:

InChI=1S/C19H28O2/c1-18-9-7-13(20)11-12(18)3-4-14-15-5-6-17(21)19(15,2)10-8-16(14)18/h11,14-17,21H,3-10H2,1-2H3/t14-,15-,16-,17-,18-,19-/m0/s1

28036: 27949: 27894: 27848: 27793: 27528: 27468: 26469: 26399: 25958: 25556: 25498: 22705: 22700: 22198: 22193: 22188: 22058: 19925: 13766: 8666:

Kramer KL, Otárola-Castillo E (July 2015). "When mothers need others: The impact of hominin life history evolution on cooperative breeding".

13906:"Impact of recent biochemical findings on the determination of free and bioavailable testosterone: evaluation and proposal for clinical use" 1408:) response under dominance challenge. Androgens including testosterone enhance muscle growth. Testosterone also regulates the population of 28031: 27909: 27808: 27594: 27483: 27283: 27243: 26991: 26910: 26772: 26713: 26675: 26620: 26615: 26605: 26479: 26474: 26444: 26419: 26414: 26404: 26290: 26209: 26148: 26076: 26055: 26040: 25993: 25646: 22813: 22664: 22584: 22381: 21683: 21467: 19966: 19961: 19746: 19522: 19512: 12044:

Hackney AC, Moore AW, Brownlee KK (2005). "Testosterone and endurance exercise: development of the "exercise-hypogonadal male condition"".

8077:

van Anders SM, Hamilton LD, Schmidt N, Watson NV (April 2007). "Associations between testosterone secretion and sexual activity in women".

6864:

Rosario ER, Chang L, Stanczyk FZ, Pike CJ (September 2004). "Age-related testosterone depletion and the development of Alzheimer disease".

532: 21170: 12755: 4639: 28131: 27989: 27968: 27924: 27904: 27823: 27803: 27518: 27498: 27478: 27121: 27116: 26449: 26173: 25706: 25503: 25356: 24178: 22835: 22790: 22456: 22451: 22223: 22148: 20265: 20200: 20195: 20145: 19976: 19890: 19502: 15438: 15410: 15307: 13740: 13701: 13662: 13623: 13546: 13300: 12889: 12801: 10669: 9802:

Klinesmith J, Kasser T, McAndrew FT (July 2006). "Guns, testosterone, and aggression: an experimental test of a mediational hypothesis".

9196:

Welker KM, Lozoya E, Campbell JA, Neumann CS, Carré JM (April 2014). "Testosterone, cortisol, and psychopathic traits in men and women".

6060: 5021: 4836:

of testosterone from cholesterol was achieved in August that year by Butenandt and Hanisch. Only a week later, the Ciba group in Zurich,

2929: 1405: 12662: 10395: 7478:

van Anders SM, Dunn EJ (August 2009). "Are gonadal steroids linked with orgasm perceptions and sexual assertiveness in women and men?".

6637:

Jones TH, Saad F (December 2009). "The effects of testosterone on risk factors for, and the mediators of, the atherosclerotic process".

5720:

Swaab DF, Garcia-Falgueras A (2009). "Sexual differentiation of the human brain in relation to gender identity and sexual orientation".

1486:, weight gain, infertility, and sometimes even scalp hair loss. These effects are seen largely in women with polycystic ovary syndrome ( 28420: 27954: 27944: 27899: 27853: 27843: 27798: 27622: 27589: 27569: 27533: 27523: 27473: 27433: 26905: 26885: 26852: 26733: 26635: 26484: 25423: 25377: 25063: 25058: 24608: 24342: 24337: 24332: 24322: 24173: 22431: 22426: 22273: 22268: 20620: 20450: 20260: 20135: 20086: 19910: 19895: 19826: 19537: 19447: 18165: 18119: 15941: 6899:

Hogervorst E, Bandelow S, Combrinck M, Smith AD (2004). "Low free testosterone is an independent risk factor for Alzheimer's disease".

3350: 1445:

of the brain in male mice. In humans, masculinization of the fetal brain appears, by observation of gender preference in patients with

28385: 27914: 27813: 27708: 27612: 27564: 27557: 27543: 27488: 27458: 26938: 26928: 26880: 26862: 26791: 26625: 26464: 26409: 24533: 23993: 22766: 22599: 22594: 22278: 22113: 22068: 21417: 20419: 19726: 19721: 19711: 19552: 19382: 17066: 13792: 13330: 12255:

Whittaker J, Wu K (June 2021). "Low-fat diets and testosterone in men: Systematic review and meta-analysis of intervention studies".

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Soma KK, Scotti MA, Newman AE, Charlier TD, Demas GE (October 2008). "Novel mechanisms for neuroendocrine regulation of aggression".

12361:"The impact of body mass index on semen parameters and reproductive hormones in human males: a systematic review with meta-analysis" 2323:

account for most of the remainder. Testosterone is also synthesized in far smaller total quantities in women by the adrenal glands,

27653: 27343: 22436: 22344: 22339: 22329: 22243: 22168: 21180: 20255: 20076: 19427: 16303: 8631:

Bribiescas RG, Ellison PT, Gray PB (December 2012). "Male Life History, Reproductive Effort, and the Evolution of the Genus Homo".

7157: 3374: 11326:

Kohtz AS, Frye CA (2012). "Dissociating Behavioral, Autonomic, and Neuroendocrine Effects of Androgen Steroids in Animal Models".

2351:. Like most hormones, testosterone is supplied to target tissues in the blood where much of it is transported bound to a specific 26948: 26665: 22283: 20424: 18904: 15266: 8842:

Apicella CL, Dreber A, Campbell B, Gray PB, Hoffman M, Little AC (November 2008). "Testosterone and financial risk preferences".

6341:"A validated age-related normative model for male total testosterone shows increasing variance but no decline after age 40 years" 5489: 14337:

Ruzicka L, Wettstein A (1935). "Uber die kristallinische Herstellung des Testikelhormons, Testosteron (Androsten-3-ol-17-ol) ".

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Prasad AS, Mantzoros CS, Beck FW, Hess JW, Brewer GJ (May 1996). "Zinc status and serum testosterone levels of healthy adults".

5600:"Anabolic and Metabolic Effects of Testosterone and Other Androgens: Direct Effects and Role of Testosterone Metabolic Products" 27753: 25933: 25616: 21959: 19417: 14918: 13233:"Harmonized Reference Ranges for Circulating Testosterone Levels in Men of Four Cohort Studies in the United States and Europe" 9367: 6206:"The social endocrinology of dominance: basal testosterone predicts cortisol changes and behavior following victory and defeat" 5432: 2274: 1472: 17: 16624: 12610:

Armanini D, Fiore C, Mattarello MJ, Bielenberg J, Palermo M (September 2002). "History of the endocrine effects of licorice".

7102:"The effect of testosterone on thyroid autoimmunity in euthyroid men with Hashimoto's thyroiditis and low testosterone levels" 1149:

The first period occurs between 4 and 6 weeks of the gestation. Examples include genital virilisation such as midline fusion,

28331: 28281: 28252: 28199: 26686: 26553: 22761: 20443: 20414: 19366: 18158: 18109: 18076: 15508: 14801: 14778: 14658: 13734: 13695: 13656: 13617: 13540: 13294: 13169: 13142: 13115: 13088: 13061: 12956: 12931: 12883: 12795: 12749: 12684:

Cumming DC, Wall SR (November 1985). "Non-sex hormone-binding globulin-bound testosterone as a marker for hyperandrogenism".

12656: 12216:"Serum testosterone and urinary excretion of steroid hormone metabolites after administration of a high-dose zinc supplement" 11835: 11763: 11568: 11533: 11347: 11253: 10378: 9259: 8492:

Gray PB, Chapman JF, Burnham TC, McIntyre MH, Lipson SF, Ellison PT (June 2004). "Human male pair bonding and testosterone".

6531:

Rhoden EL, Averbeck MA, Teloken PE (September 2008). "Androgen replacement in men undergoing treatment for prostate cancer".

6507: 6137: 6054: 5619: 5391: 5250: 5159: 5005: 4961: 4947: 3343: 1819:. There is no FDA-approved androgen preparation for the treatment of androgen insufficiency; however, it has been used as an 1617: 18499: 17245: 9777: 9498:

Bailey AA, Hurd PL (March 2005). "Finger length ratio (2D:4D) correlates with physical aggression in men but not in women".

5749:"Regulation of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) in males and the associations of serum AMH with the disorders of male fertility" 28010: 28006: 28002: 27998: 25551: 25535: 22756: 21252: 20730: 20409: 18405: 18114: 17059: 15190: 14035: 13432:"ISA, ISSAM, EAU, EAA and ASA recommendations: investigation, treatment and monitoring of late-onset hypogonadism in males" 11516:

Albayrak Y, Hashimoto K (2017). "Sigma-1 Receptor Agonists and Their Clinical Implications in Neuropsychiatric Disorders".

10721: 9139: 5571: 118: 11849: 11064:

Bennett NC, Gardiner RA, Hooper JD, Johnson DW, Gobe GC (2010). "Molecular cell biology of androgen receptor signalling".

9869: 9169:

Dabbs Jr JM, Carr TS, Frady RL, Riad JK (May 1995). "Testosterone, crime, and misbehavior among 692 male prison inmates".

9095:

Dabbs JM, Jurkovic GJ, Frady RL (August 1991). "Salivary testosterone and cortisol among late adolescent male offenders".

5459: 26279: 26198: 26065: 25982: 22490: 18754: 18124: 17334: 7872:

Roney JR, Mahler SV, Maestripieri D (2003). "Behavioral and hormonal responses of men to brief interactions with women".

7372: 4921: 1927: 90: 3000:

lowers testosterone levels but over-supplementation has no effect on serum testosterone. There is limited evidence that

2922: 2309: 844: 27994: 20715: 20710: 19161: 19156: 15151: 15123: 11420:"Neurosteroid dehydroepiandrosterone interacts with nerve growth factor (NGF) receptors, preventing neuronal apoptosis" 9567:

Benderlioglu Z, Nelson RJ (December 2004). "Digit length ratios predict reactive aggression in women, but not in men".

7950:

Hellhammer DH, Hubert W, Schürmeyer T (1985). "Changes in saliva testosterone after psychological stimulation in men".

6979: 4754: 3492:

similarly to testosterone. The conjugates of testosterone and its hepatic metabolites are released from the liver into

1831:

in older women. Testosterone may be a treatment for postmenopausal women as long as they are effectively estrogenized.

1795:

decreased exhaustion. A link has also been found between relaxation following sexual arousal and testosterone levels.

1456:

that may be due to different testosterone levels, one of them being size: the male human brain is, on average, larger.

18594: 14434:

Schwarz S, Onken D, Schubert A (July 1999). "The steroid story of Jenapharm: from the late 1940s to the early 1970s".

6246: 4822: 3481: 2301: 27683: 26802: 26362: 25973: 25401: 24832: 20763: 18823: 18400: 17193: 16167: 7252: 1761: 1329:

Increased muscle strength and mass, shoulders become broader and rib cage expands, deepening of voice, growth of the

507: 19606: 1771:

female. The reflexive testosterone increases in male mice is related to the male's initial level of sexual arousal.

1449:

disorders of androgen formation or androgen receptor function, to be associated with functional androgen receptors.

97: 76: 25631: 25575: 25566: 20779: 20005: 18910: 18873: 18703: 18668: 18093: 17399: 17379: 17300: 16579: 16298: 15611: 14956: 14951: 9895: 4611: 1808:

the female body, and hormonal contraceptives may affect the variation in testosterone response to sexual thoughts.

1767:

Every mammalian species examined demonstrated a marked increase in a male's testosterone level upon encountering a

21334: 20900: 18599: 17971: 16323: 10510:

van Honk J, Montoya ER, Bos PA, van Vugt M, Terburg D (May 2012). "New evidence on testosterone and cooperation".

2977:

increases testosterone levels acutely, however, in older men, that increase can be avoided by protein ingestion.

2873:

of a steroid is defined as the volume of blood that has been completely cleared of the hormone per unit time. The

2123:

The bones and the brain are two important tissues in humans where the primary effect of testosterone is by way of

856: 28405: 28205: 21914: 18828: 17354: 17099: 15185: 13945: 13816:"[A promising approach for therapy control in congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Problems of Endocrinology]" 9612:"Association between a marker for prenatal testosterone exposure and externalizing behavior problems in children" 3123: 1900: 1572: 1482:

irregularities in both clinical populations and healthy women. There also can be effects in unusual hair growth,

1453: 1017: 896: 632: 20974: 20942: 15983: 11418:

Lazaridis I, Charalampopoulos I, Alexaki VI, Avlonitis N, Pediaditakis I, Efstathopoulos P, et al. (2011).

9739:"Social neuroendocrinology of human aggression: examining the role of competition-induced testosterone dynamics" 1605:(HRT) or testosterone replacement therapy (TRT), which maintains serum testosterone levels in the normal range. 28410: 28292: 28268: 27408: 26964: 26827: 21165: 18358: 17590: 16930: 16564: 16273: 15934: 15717: 15340: 15276: 15170: 14161: 13352:

Morgentaler A (May 2017). "Andrology: Testosterone reference ranges and diagnosis of testosterone deficiency".

12310:"Does weight loss improve semen quality and reproductive hormones? Results from a cohort of severely obese men" 11676:

Zouboulis CC, Degitz K (2004). "Androgen action on human skin – from basic research to clinical significance".

10888:"Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin (SHBG) as an Early Biomarker and Therapeutic Target in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome" 4753:(1803–1861). Research on the action of testosterone received a brief boost in 1889, when the Harvard professor 4690:, have consistently been detected to have had significantly elevated levels of testosterone, while people from 2940: 1828: 1812: 1687: 1189: 19596: 5599: 104: 28258: 24352: 17852: 17664: 16875: 15732: 15200: 15175: 15039: 14976: 8166: 2164: 1123: 189: 35: 18265: 18245: 16293: 16238: 9953:"A testosterone-related structural brain phenotype predicts aggressive behavior from childhood to adulthood" 9535: 8967: 8709:

Gettler LT (July 8, 2014). "Applying socioendocrinology to evolutionary models: fatherhood and physiology".

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Pirke KM, Kockott G, Dittmar F (November 1974). "Psychosexual stimulation and plasma testosterone in man".

7609:

Purvis K, Landgren BM, Cekan Z, Diczfalusy E (September 1976). "Endocrine effects of masturbation in men".

3112: 3059: 2918: 2356: 2012: 1610: 1146:

Effects before birth are divided into two categories, classified in relation to the stages of development.

754: 450: 375: 22515: 20625: 20600: 19094: 18447: 18260: 16915: 16910: 16233: 1016:, testosterone is sometimes used in older men to counteract this deficiency. It is also used illicitly to 28430: 27673: 25121: 24232: 22771: 21013: 19311: 18673: 18275: 18029: 17554: 17308: 17133: 16393: 15271: 15251: 14142:"The effects produced on man by subcutaneous injections of liquid obtained from the testicles of animals" 14061: 10000:

McGinnis MY (December 2004). "Anabolic androgenic steroids and aggression: studies using animal models".

1723: 1602: 1225:

Before puberty, effects of rising androgen levels occur in both boys and girls. These include adult-type

471: 317: 86: 19296: 19291: 19099: 16800: 16049: 14674:

De Loof A (October 2006). "Ecdysteroids: the overlooked sex steroids of insects? Males: the black box".

10748:

Czub MP, Venkataramany BS, Majorek KA, Handing KB, Porebski PJ, Beeram SR, et al. (February 2019).

1751:

significantly increase after masturbation in men and the testosterone levels correlate to those levels.

1134:

effects in both males and females, these are mostly dependent on the levels and duration of circulating

683: 28287: 26113: 24242: 21018: 18833: 18452: 17979: 17213: 16830: 16721: 16223: 15897: 15779: 14911: 14864: 13863:

de Ronde W, van der Schouw YT, Pols HA, Gooren LJ, Muller M, Grobbee DE, et al. (September 2006).

6725:"Menstrual cycle irregularities are associated with testosterone levels in healthy premenopausal women" 3442: 3401: 2060: 786: 19601: 17035: 17030: 16706: 16701: 16696: 16691: 16162: 16099: 16094: 16002: 11873:"Late-onset hypogonadism: current concepts and controversies of pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment" 10147:

Finkelstein JW, Susman EJ, Chinchilli VM, Kunselman SJ, D'Arcangelo MR, Schwab J, et al. (1997).

28195: 22073: 21983: 21205: 18663: 18390: 18336: 17794: 17188: 17163: 15927: 15902: 15054: 14946: 14759:"Molecular Biology of Androgen Action: Perspectives on Neuroprotective and Neurotherapeutic Effects." 14091: 13942:

Crystal Structure of the N-Terminal Laminin G-Like Domain of SHBG in Complex with Dihydrotestosterone

9451:"The second-to-fourth digit ratio correlates with aggressive behavior in professional soccer players" 5891:

Forest MG, Cathiard AM, Bertrand JA (July 1973). "Evidence of testicular activity in early infancy".

2131:. In the bones, estradiol accelerates ossification of cartilage into bone, leading to closure of the 1691: 1584: 646: 387: 65: 31: 24257: 24252: 24247: 18442: 17805: 16810: 16805: 16795: 16790: 16711: 16333: 15460: 13430:

Wang C, Nieschlag E, Swerdloff R, Behre HM, Hellstrom WJ, Gooren LJ, et al. (October 16, 208).

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Wilson JD (September 2001). "Androgens, androgen receptors, and male gender role behavior". Review.

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Behavior: Dominance challenges can, in some cases, stimulate increased testosterone release in men.

2955:

loop act on the hypothalamus and pituitary to inhibit the release of GnRH and FSH/LH, respectively.

26379: 26295: 26214: 26081: 25998: 24814: 24810: 23983: 22634: 22396: 22309: 21934: 21627: 21160: 21155: 21055: 19253: 19222: 18942: 18883: 18616: 18394: 18270: 18220: 17384: 17209: 16870: 16741: 16403: 16363: 16172: 16147: 16044: 15531: 15049: 15034: 15029: 14555:

Guerriero G (2009). "Vertebrate sex steroid receptors: evolution, ligands, and neurodistribution".

11779:

Swerdloff RS, Wang C, Bhasin S (April 1992). "Developments in the control of testicular function".

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There are two theories on the role of testosterone in aggression and competition. The first is the

1025: 884: 695: 488: 19591: 19326: 19306: 17025: 16634: 16142: 13865:"Calculation of bioavailable and free testosterone in men: a comparison of 5 published algorithms" 13762: 10149:"Estrogen or testosterone increases self-reported aggressive behaviors in hypogonadal adolescents" 8038:"Role of androgens in female genital sexual arousal: receptor expression, structure, and function" 5511:

Sheffield-Moore M (April 2000). "Androgens and the control of skeletal muscle protein synthesis".

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Waterman MR, Keeney DS (1992). "Genes involved in androgen biosynthesis and the male phenotype".

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Lang F, Alevizopoulos K, Stournaras C (2013). "Targeting membrane androgen receptors in tumors".

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Moffat SD, Zonderman AB, Metter EJ, Kawas C, Blackman MR, Harman SM, et al. (January 2004).

3454: 2967: 2202: 2191: 1633: 1613:. It is unclear if the use of testosterone for low levels due to aging is beneficial or harmful. 1210: 707: 663: 61: 20720: 20695: 20635: 20630: 18793: 5458:. Testosterone and Aging: Clinical Research Directions (Report). National Academies Press (US). 1706: 28263: 27879: 27783: 27403: 26822: 25808: 25446: 22999: 21890: 21442: 20922: 20847: 20842: 20795: 20114: 19249: 18888: 18759: 18631: 18479: 18348: 18297: 17389: 17295: 17201: 17197: 17138: 16925: 16835: 16771: 16716: 16559: 16353: 16268: 16157: 16054: 16007: 15974: 15606: 15583: 15335: 15116: 15090: 15024: 15019: 15014: 15004: 12739: 12444: 12178: 10604:

Zak PJ, Kurzban R, Ahmadi S, Swerdloff RS, Park J, Efremidze L, et al. (January 1, 2009).

8785:"Gender differences in financial risk aversion and career choices are affected by testosterone" 7742: 6220: 5926:

Corbier P, Edwards DA, Roffi J (1992). "The neonatal testosterone surge: a comparative study".

5196: 4926: 4750: 3461:, respectively. An additional 40% of testosterone is metabolized in equal proportions into the 3055: 2148:

areas of the brain by estradiol derived from testosterone programs later male sexual behavior.

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Hasler J, Herklotz R, Luppa PB, Diver MJ, Thevis M, Metzger J, et al. (January 1, 2006).

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Bhasin S, Pencina M, Jasuja GK, Travison TG, Coviello A, Orwoll E, et al. (August 2011).

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Pilz S, Frisch S, Koertke H, Kuhn J, Dreier J, Obermayer-Pietsch B, et al. (March 2011).

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Bhasin S, Storer TW, Berman N, Callegari C, Clevenger B, Phillips J, et al. (July 1996).

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Age: Testosterone levels gradually reduce as men age. This effect is sometimes referred to as

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Håkonsen LB, Thulstrup AM, Aggerholm AS, Olsen J, Bonde JP, Andersen CY, et al. (2011).

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Production rates, secretion rates, clearance rates, and blood levels of major sex hormones

1919: 1816: 1568: 1313: 795: 459: 24216: 20665: 20540: 20515: 18437: 16885: 16544: 16539: 16328: 16318: 13788: 13322: 10939:"Aging, Cardiovascular Risk, and SHBG Levels in Men and Women From the General Population" 6821:

Pike CJ, Rosario ER, Nguyen TV (April 2006). "Androgens, aging, and Alzheimer's disease".

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No immediate short term effects on mood or behavior were found from the administration of

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Nguyen TV, McCracken JT, Albaugh MD, Botteron KN, Hudziak JJ, Ducharme S (January 2016).

9847:"The Interacting Roles of Testosterone and Challenges to Status in Human Male Aggression" 5056:

Mooradian AD, Morley JE, Korenman SG (February 1987). "Biological actions of androgens".

4901: 3540: 3230: 3134: 3063: 2914: 2198: 2179: 2137: 2085: 2016: 1491: 1169: 920: 763: 711: 691: 492: 379: 243: 20655: 14687: 14568: 14377: 13840: 13815: 11646: 10621: 10574: 10523: 10472: 10109: 10013: 9010: 8855: 8800: 8679: 7885: 7149: 6356: 5239:"Chapter 2: Testosterone: Biosynthesis, transport, metabolism and (non-genomic) actions" 2896: 2308:. In the final and rate limiting step, the C17 keto group androstenedione is reduced by 297: 253: 28395: 27096: 25449: 25229: 24892: 24790: 24447: 24080: 23452: 23054: 22726: 22510: 22391: 21973: 21587: 21247: 20905: 20822: 20767: 20610: 20570: 20560: 20500: 20469: 19166: 19029: 18989: 18967: 18900: 18803: 18776: 18744: 18577: 18467: 18319: 18184: 17963: 17925: 17394: 17329: 17285: 17275: 17250: 17178: 17153: 16663: 16659: 16589: 16499: 16484: 16469: 16398: 15233: 15075: 14999: 14986: 14845: 14818: 14734: 14699: 14631: 14588: 14532: 14497: 14459: 13995: 13968: 13503: 13478: 13459: 13377: 13257: 13232: 13210: 13032: 12849: 12824: 12592: 12513: 12470: 12336: 12309: 12290: 12264: 12151: 12026: 11982: 11899: 11872: 11701: 11498: 11446: 11419: 11303: 11278: 11218: 11175: 11127: 11100: 11011: 10963: 10938: 10914: 10887: 10828: 10803: 10774: 10749: 10691: 10664: 10640: 10605: 10586: 10561:

Eisenegger C, Naef M, Snozzi R, Heinrichs M, Fehr E (2012). "Eisenegger et al. reply".

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of testosterone is 98.0 to 98.5%, with 1.5 to 2.0% free or unbound. It is bound 65% to

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Travison TG, Vesper HW, Orwoll E, Wu F, Kaufman JM, Wang Y, et al. (April 2017).

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Meinhardt U, Mullis PE (August 2002). "The essential role of the aromatase/p450arom".

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Perciavalle V, Di Corrado D, Petralia MC, Gurrisi L, Massimino S, Coco M (June 2013).

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Wallen K (September 2001). "Sex and context: hormones and primate sexual motivation".

5800:"Beyond Pink and Blue: The Complexity of Early Androgen Effects on Gender Development" 1791:

In men, higher levels of testosterone are associated with periods of sexual activity.

1783:

allowing for more production of successful sperm and a higher chance of reproduction.

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Mechoulam R, Brueggemeier RW, Denlinger DL (September 1984). "Estrogens in insects".

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Freeman ER, Bloom DA, McGuire EJ (February 2001). "A brief history of testosterone".

14121:

Berthold AA (1849). "Transplantation der Hoden" [Transplantation of testis].

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Testosterone is observed in most vertebrates. Testosterone and the classical nuclear

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Kelsey TW, Li LQ, Mitchell RT, Whelan A, Anderson RA, Wallace WH (October 8, 2014).

6114: 5991: 5877: 5540: 5424: 4908:. The presence of these ubiquitous steroids in a wide range of animals suggest that 3550:

In addition to conjugation and the 17-ketosteroid pathway, testosterone can also be

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Completion of bone maturation and termination of growth. This occurs indirectly via

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Hoberman JM, Yesalis CE (February 1995). "The history of synthetic testosterone".

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can decrease the production of testosterone and this effect is greater in females.

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changes observed do not seem to be maintained as relationships develop over time.

1214: 30:

This article is about testosterone as a hormone. For its use as a medication, see

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Bryan MB, Scott AP, Li W (2008). "Sex steroids and their receptors in lampreys".

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Huhtaniemi IT (2014). "Andropause--lessons from the European Male Ageing Study".

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Aribas E, Kavousi M, Laven JS, Ikram MA, Roeters van Lennep JE (September 2021).

10630: 9715: 9420:"Fetal Testosterone and Criminality: Test of Evolutionary Neuroandrogenic Theory" 8993:

Dreher JC, Dunne S, Pazderska A, Frodl T, Nolan JJ, O'Doherty JP (October 2016).

8687: 6579: 6365: 5284: 5267: 4893: 4837: 4812: 4780: – began full-scale steroid research and development programs in the 1930s. 4671: 3638: 3605: 3559: 3544: 3532: 3508:. Only a small fraction (2%) of testosterone is excreted unchanged in the urine. 3485: 3469: 3409: 3013: 2997: 2948: 2760: 2578: 2548: 2442: 2348: 2305: 2281: 2242: 1839: 1672: 1479: 1465: 1442: 1330: 1177: 1077: 947: 908: 731: 439: 21844: 21840: 21818: 14789: 14479: 12278: 12014: 11815: 10717: 10201: 9580: 9065: 8591: 8185: 8090: 7700: 7657: 7491: 7412: 7395: 6912: 6834: 6234: 5555: 5455: 4721:, the people group with the highest ever tested levels of testosterone were the 3477: 3473: 2089: 1494:

can be used to help lessen the effects of this increased level of testosterone.

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Testosterone effects can also be classified by the age of usual occurrence. For

218:)-1-Hydroxy-9a,11a-dimethyl-1,2,3,3a,3b,4,5,8,9,9a,9b,10,11,11a-tetradecahydro-7 28327: 28248: 28190: 27884: 27733: 27728: 26842: 26837: 25483: 25473: 25468: 25352: 25181: 25090: 24957: 24952: 24376: 23264: 23169: 23044: 23009: 23004: 22890: 22855: 22604: 22366: 22238: 21667: 21387: 21359: 21351: 21190: 21095: 21085: 21030: 21025: 20927: 20745: 20645: 20435: 19836: 19661: 19636: 19264: 19240: 19213: 19109: 19034: 18937: 18722: 18693: 18550: 18493: 18432: 18427: 18150: 18087: 17983: 17945: 17933: 17892: 17729: 17538: 17530: 17522: 17494: 17479: 17424: 17240: 16978: 16958: 16820: 16524: 16248: 16187: 16079: 16036: 16027: 15864: 15833: 15805: 15750: 15362: 15293: 15070: 14994: 14890: 14019: 12413: 11935: 11294: 10864: 10414: 9914: 9846: 8999:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

6877: 6265:"Castration reduces platelet thromboxane A2 receptor density and aggregability" 6098: 5268:"Serum testosterone in women as measured by an automated immunoassay and a RIA" 4699: 4691: 3601: 3462: 3417: 2352: 2168: 2077: 1660: 1524: 1503: 1416: 1409: 827: 19176: 17051: 15645: 14350: 12545: 11486: 10986:

Hiipakka RA, Liao S (October 1998). "Molecular mechanism of androgen action".

10802:

Goldman AL, Bhasin S, Wu FC, Krishna M, Matsumoto AM, Jasuja R (August 2017).

9865: 9627: 9404: 9329:"Testosterone and human aggression: an evaluation of the challenge hypothesis" 8895: 8878: 8505: 8334:

Marazziti D, Canale D (August 2004). "Hormonal changes when falling in love".

8143: 7364: 6317: 5939: 5861: 5524: 5211: 5184: 3649:, mean levels of total testosterone have been reported to be 62.1 ng/dL. 2059:. Androgens such as testosterone have also been found to bind to and activate 28369: 28021: 27934: 27863: 27833: 27768: 27678: 27632: 27508: 27438: 27383: 27372: 26857: 26565: 26248: 26153: 26045: 25348: 25311: 25185: 25111: 25106: 25096: 25032: 24972: 24902: 24747: 24704: 23910: 23875: 23850: 23662: 23522: 23502: 23497: 23487: 23482: 23382: 23272: 23214: 23209: 23194: 23174: 23164: 23144: 23134: 23124: 23089: 23059: 23049: 22994: 22918: 22865: 22850: 22218: 22053: 22028: 21808: 21726: 21559: 21537: 21392: 21269: 21001: 20852: 20810: 20245: 20190: 20165: 19741: 19139: 19039: 18250: 17464: 16746: 16243: 15874: 15650: 14835: 14523: 14323: 13985: 11889: 11471: 10954: 10336: 10064: 4718: 4695: 3617: 3551: 3034: 2320: 2278: 2124: 1860: 1820: 1680: 1621: 1598: 1560: 1544: 1401: 1380: 1282: 1242: 1230: 1119: 1009: 939: 596: 368: 166: 12972:

Randall VA (April 1994). "Role of 5 alpha-reductase in health and disease".

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Livera G, Rouiller-Fabre V, Pairault C, Levacher C, Habert R (August 2002).

11654: 11042: 10021: 9435: 9019: 8809: 8253: 6943: 6674:"Testosterone for the aging male; current evidence and recommended practice" 6171: 6026: 6009: 5356: 4714:

have been found to have had significantly decreased levels of testosterone.

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enlargement; although the role of testosterone is far smaller than that of

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Trenbolone hexahydrobenzylcarbonate (trenbolone cyclohexylmethylcarbonate)

14514: 14393: 13206: 12993: 12705: 12697: 12200: 12097: 12080: 11800: 11662: 11605: 11240:. Vitamins & Hormones. Vol. 71. Academic Press. pp. 123–45. 11214: 11117: 10872: 10819: 10245: 10174: 10125: 9466: 9296: 9116: 8478: 8451: 8240:

Bolour S, Braunstein G (2005). "Testosterone therapy in women: a review".

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Two methods for determining the concentration of bioavailable testosterone

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McPhaul MJ, Young M (September 2001). "Complexities of androgen action".

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Tiulpakov MA, Nagaeva EV, Kalinchenko NY, Bezlepkina OB (January 2024).

11740: 11392: 11375: 10606:"Testosterone administration decreases generosity in the ultimatum game" 10582: 10531: 10480: 8905: 8465:

Mazur A, Michalek J (1998). "Marriage, Divorce, and Male Testosterone".

7326: 5665: 5648: 3484:, and 17β-HSD, in that order. Androsterone and etiocholanolone are then 1000:

In addition to its role as a natural hormone, testosterone is used as a

357: 28126: 28091: 28086: 28076: 28066: 27984: 27773: 27748: 27738: 27584: 27538: 27398: 27224: 27193: 27162: 27131: 27076: 27051: 27031: 27016: 27006: 26900: 26817: 26610: 26590: 26489: 26434: 26429: 26253: 26158: 26143: 25938: 25897: 25869: 25838: 25798: 25701: 25656: 25651: 25626: 25621: 25611: 25524: 25518: 25508: 25335: 25287: 25282: 25200: 25195: 25101: 25072: 25068: 24977: 24942: 24887: 24877: 24837: 24770: 24598: 24563: 24528: 24523: 24477: 24467: 24396: 24357: 24317: 24302: 24282: 24272: 24211: 24206: 24196: 24163: 24145: 24041: 23988: 23953: 23900: 23890: 23860: 23855: 23792: 23767: 23722: 23697: 23677: 23657: 23652: 23642: 23622: 23577: 23567: 23552: 23512: 23507: 23477: 23432: 23427: 23407: 23397: 23377: 23372: 23362: 23322: 23317: 23312: 23307: 23302: 23292: 23287: 23282: 23254: 23109: 23024: 23019: 22905: 22895: 22870: 22674: 22654: 22629: 22476: 22421: 22376: 22354: 22263: 22258: 22228: 22213: 22208: 22173: 22063: 22018: 21998: 21876: 21870: 21774: 21762: 21722: 21703: 21679: 21663: 21573: 21569: 21543: 21529: 21482: 21477: 21472: 21462: 21432: 21402: 21397: 21377: 21314: 21235: 21215: 21200: 21195: 21140: 21090: 20991: 20932: 20865: 20860: 20837: 20775: 20750: 20339: 20306: 20155: 20150: 20130: 20101: 20021: 19986: 19981: 19971: 19866: 19801: 19736: 19686: 19542: 19437: 19392: 19351: 19259: 19208: 19059: 19009: 18962: 18952: 18771: 18739: 18698: 18648: 18638: 18584: 18572: 18533: 18385: 18380: 18375: 18370: 18365: 18287: 18003: 17959: 17882: 17862: 17774: 17749: 17719: 17526: 17509: 17469: 17454: 17434: 17183: 17168: 17010: 16454: 15950: 15869: 15755: 15405: 15357: 15286: 15281: 15085: 15080: 14730: 11206: 10765: 10682: 9672: 9389:"The evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory of criminal behavior expanded" 9108: 8968:"Study shows that testosterone levels can have an impact on generosity" 8722: 7920: 7842: 7118: 7101: 6743: 5928:

Archives Internationales de Physiologie, de Biochimie et de Biophysique

5815: 5245:(4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–32. 5109: 5069: 4759: 4746: 4687: 4683: 3539:, respectively. A small portion of approximately 3% of testosterone is 3434: 3413: 3393: 3366: 2963: 2101: 2097: 1985: 1904: 1606: 1368: 1238: 1091: 1013: 1001: 982: 962: 912: 772: 703: 583: 388: 328: 75:

if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and

21175: 20670: 18135: 15919: 13937: 13408: 11597: 6499: 6490:

Morgentaler A, Schulman C (2009). "Testosterone and prostate safety".

5151: 5093:"The benefits and risks of testosterone replacement therapy: a review" 4741:

of Ciba, a pharmaceutical industry giant that synthesized testosterone

28151: 28121: 28116: 28111: 28106: 28101: 28081: 28071: 28061: 28051: 27743: 27703: 27599: 27574: 27333: 27328: 27323: 27313: 27308: 27303: 27293: 27214: 27152: 27086: 27066: 27061: 27056: 27041: 27036: 27026: 27021: 26915: 26890: 26655: 26575: 26494: 26439: 26329: 26268: 26258: 26163: 26050: 25848: 25843: 25833: 25741: 25731: 25716: 25691: 25686: 25676: 25671: 25666: 25325: 25277: 25272: 25257: 25215: 25210: 25168: 25163: 25158: 25116: 25012: 24997: 24937: 24922: 24907: 24727: 24638: 24593: 24558: 24548: 24518: 24513: 24498: 24472: 24434: 24429: 24406: 24401: 24386: 24292: 24287: 24168: 24046: 24036: 24028: 23963: 23940: 23920: 23915: 23885: 23870: 23840: 23822: 23812: 23807: 23802: 23797: 23777: 23762: 23757: 23747: 23742: 23737: 23707: 23682: 23632: 23617: 23612: 23597: 23582: 23562: 23557: 23547: 23537: 23532: 23527: 23447: 23442: 23417: 23347: 23327: 23297: 23219: 23154: 23084: 23074: 23039: 22936: 22840: 22669: 22649: 22589: 22569: 22411: 22248: 22123: 22118: 22103: 22088: 22048: 21930: 21898: 21856: 21804: 21800: 21796: 21786: 21766: 21750: 21699: 21675: 21671: 21659: 21651: 21647: 21607: 21595: 21579: 21565: 21555: 21551: 21507: 21367: 21341: 21329: 21304: 21294: 21279: 21259: 21210: 21110: 21105: 21080: 21070: 21035: 20895: 20870: 20832: 20790: 20360: 20334: 20314: 20310: 20298: 20175: 20140: 20081: 20041: 20036: 19935: 19915: 19851: 19816: 19791: 19786: 19771: 19691: 19641: 19562: 19497: 19442: 19432: 19422: 19356: 19203: 19191: 18947: 18838: 18766: 18727: 18653: 18626: 18555: 18309: 18292: 17967: 17949: 17872: 17764: 17689: 17669: 17580: 17576: 17514: 17429: 17143: 16995: 16943: 16434: 16089: 15672: 15601: 15483: 15395: 15330: 15256: 13813: 13584: 12923:

Cytochrome P450 2D6: Structure, Function, Regulation and Polymorphism

12580: 12501: 7341: 6690: 5185:"Prospective study of sex hormone levels and risk of prostate cancer" 4994:

Melmed S, Polonsky KD, Larsen PR, Kronenberg HM (November 30, 2015).

4953: 4614:, showing adult male testosterone levels in light blue at center-left 3593: 3589: 3555: 3515:, respectively. Then, 5α-DHT and 5β-DHT are converted by 3α-HSD into 3497: 3489: 3405: 3038: 3024: 2989: 2695: 2521: 2332: 2132: 2128: 2070: 2052: 2020: 1948: 1743:

in women produce small increases in testosterone concentrations. The

1676: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1532: 1531:. Testosterone plasma concentration inversely correlates to multiple 1438: 1434: 1420: 1364: 1356: 1320: 1286: 1250: 1226: 1206: 1131: 1054: 1042: 986: 916: 807: 20615: 14141: 12784:

Wecker L, Watts S, Faingold C, Dunaway G, Crespo L (April 1, 2009).

12078: 10146: 9448: 6615: 5183:

Gann PH, Hennekens CH, Ma J, Longcope C, Stampfer MJ (August 1996).

4826: 2988:

may lead to sub-optimal plasma testosterone levels. The secosteroid

2939:. When testosterone levels are low, gonadotropin-releasing hormone ( 2273:

involves the oxidative cleavage of the side-chain of cholesterol by

1471:

Conflicting results have been obtained concerning the importance of

826:

Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their

28322: 28041: 27698: 27298: 27288: 27268: 27011: 27001: 26348: 25828: 25771: 25681: 25641: 25382: 25315: 25292: 25241: 25237: 25233: 25173: 25147: 25007: 24967: 24947: 24927: 24917: 24857: 24852: 24666: 24628: 24578: 24543: 24508: 24503: 24487: 24482: 24462: 24457: 24452: 24439: 24327: 24135: 24012: 23998: 23973: 23968: 23958: 23930: 23717: 23712: 23692: 23672: 23667: 23467: 23422: 23402: 23367: 23357: 23244: 23199: 23189: 23094: 22989: 22969: 22885: 22540: 22530: 22233: 22093: 22013: 22008: 21941: 21758: 21695: 21691: 21655: 21643: 21615: 21611: 21599: 21591: 21521: 21309: 21299: 21145: 21130: 21115: 21050: 21045: 20890: 20800: 20346: 20225: 20220: 20215: 20210: 20205: 20011: 19766: 19701: 19517: 19472: 19467: 19462: 19457: 19452: 19407: 19346: 19341: 19281: 18462: 18304: 18053: 17955: 17544: 17221: 17094: 17082: 16429: 16418: 16215: 16192: 16084: 15823: 15722: 15704: 15662: 15640: 15563: 15555: 15536: 15518: 15447: 15325: 15218: 15180: 14961: 14885: 14496:

Batth R, Nicolle C, Cuciurean IS, Simonsen HT (September 3, 2020).

12269: 12122:"Effect of vitamin D supplementation on testosterone levels in men" 11827: 8644: 5431:. American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. December 4, 2015. 5142:

Tuck SP, Francis RM (2009). "Testosterone, bone and osteoporosis".

4905: 4885: 4777: 4703: 4679: 3641:, some physicians have disputed the use of this range to determine 3042: 2952: 2336: 2288:. In the next step, two additional carbon atoms are removed by the 2008: 1988: 1877: 1748: 1499: 1376: 1372: 1341: 1302: 1294: 1234: 1217:, which binds the estrogen so that female brains are not affected. 1173: 1028:

lists it as S1 Anabolic agent substance "prohibited at all times".

970: 892: 888: 876: 414: 348: 27203: 27172: 27141: 27105: 16148:

11-Dehydrocorticosterone (11-oxocorticosterone, 17-deoxycortisone)

12214:

Koehler K, Parr MK, Geyer H, Mester J, Schänzer W (January 2009).

12081:"Regulation and perturbation of testicular functions by vitamin A" 9140:"Sex, violence, and hormones: Why young men are horny and violent" 8129: 7531:

Cashdan E (September 1995). "Hormones, sex, and status in women".

4717:

The region with the highest-ever tested levels of testosterone is

4645:

Dimeric sex hormone-binding globulin with its testosterone ligands

2315:

The largest amounts of testosterone (>95%) are produced by the

2232: 276: 28297: 27718: 27183: 26585: 25546: 25329: 25319: 25078: 25017: 24992: 24987: 24862: 24842: 24822: 24643: 24633: 24618: 24603: 24588: 24573: 24568: 24553: 24538: 24419: 24158: 24018: 23472: 23179: 22880: 22695: 22441: 22253: 22153: 22143: 22138: 21918: 21862: 21852: 21744: 21619: 21427: 21422: 21324: 21289: 21220: 21120: 20969: 20937: 20875: 20302: 20091: 20031: 19831: 19716: 19557: 19532: 19387: 19129: 19079: 19019: 18680: 17504: 17122: 16444: 16439: 15953: 15727: 15694: 15689: 15681: 15568: 15503: 15374: 15132: 12609: 11518:

Sigma Receptors: Their Role in Disease and as Therapeutic Targets

10850: 6494:. Frontiers of Hormone Research. Vol. 37. pp. 197–203. 4889: 4844:. Testosterone was identified as 17β-hydroxyandrost-4-en-3-one (C 4711: 3578: 2630: 2494: 2289: 2255: 2210: 2028: 2003:

hormones, including testosterone, are transported in water-based

2000: 1265: 1165: 1157: 1153: 1150: 1103: 1099: 1021: 990: 958: 883:. In humans, testosterone plays a key role in the development of 650: 426: 13862: 12744:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 1116, 1119, 1183. 12358: 6898: 5146:. Frontiers of Hormone Research. Vol. 37. pp. 123–32. 3383: 1567:, substitution therapy with testosterone leads to a decrease in 1515:

Testosterone deficiency is associated with an increased risk of

1464:

Testosterone does not appear to increase the risk of developing

28210: 27874: 27763: 27688: 27393: 27388: 26812: 26807: 26761: 26757: 26753: 26749: 26745: 26741: 26737: 26389: 25928: 25606: 25262: 25225: 24847: 24800: 24671: 24653: 24613: 24297: 24095: 22614: 22609: 22466: 21730: 21718: 21533: 21502: 21497: 21492: 21225: 20880: 20353: 20294: 20279: 20185: 15851: 15813: 15632: 15573: 14896: 12307: 10747: 8076: 8036:

Traish AM, Kim N, Min K, Munarriz R, Goldstein I (April 2002).

6944:"Free testosterone and risk for Alzheimer disease in older men" 5342: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4722: 4707: 3582: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3095:

Plasma protein binding of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone

2316: 2187: 2141: 1992: 1824: 1431: 1430:

The brain is also affected by this sexual differentiation; the

1298: 1183:

During the second trimester, androgen level is associated with

994: 966: 934:

Excessive levels of testosterone in men may be associated with

900: 308: 21960: 14819:"On the effects of testosterone on brain behavioral functions" 14716: 11956: 9950: 8438:

Booth A, Dabbs JM (1993). "Testosterone and Men's Marriages".

7365:"New Guideline for Testosterone Treatment in Men With 'Low T'" 4993: 157: 28242: 28238: 28234: 28230: 28226: 28222: 28218: 28214: 27929: 27828: 27503: 27443: 27257: 26980: 26976: 26972: 26968: 26459: 26323: 26242: 26238: 26137: 26133: 26129: 26125: 26034: 26030: 25881: 24623: 22690: 22564: 22446: 22416: 21635: 21517: 21346: 19885: 19567: 19477: 19408:

Andarine (acetamidoxolutamide, androxolutamide, GTx-007, S-4)

19367: 18251:

Adrenosterone (11-ketoandrostenedione, 11-oxoandrostenedione)

15884: 15859: 15770: 15742: 15475: 14495: 14092:"Testosterone Levels 100 Years Ago - TestosteroneDecline.com" 13394: 12434: 10560: 10458: 10274: 10230: 8754:"Parenting Skills Influenced by Testosterone Levels, Empathy" 7608: 7283: 5306: 3621: 3588:

Two of the immediate metabolites of testosterone, 5α-DHT and

3501: 3438: 2328: 1996: 1695: 1620:, which are the most important medications needed in a basic 1393: 1360: 1348: 1274: 1161: 1115: 943: 880: 817: 813: 782: 778: 288: 266: 13967:

Cohen J, Nassau DE, Patel P, Ramasamy R (January 10, 2020).

13161:

Handbook of Drug Interactions: A Clinical and Forensic Guide

11063: 9658: 8782: 6085:

Pinyerd B, Zipf WB (2005). "Puberty-timing is everything!".

6049:. Belmont, Calif: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. p. 321. 2300:

steroids. In addition, the 3β-hydroxyl group is oxidized by

476: 27713: 26319: 26315: 26311: 26307: 26303: 26299: 26234: 26230: 26226: 26222: 26218: 26121: 26117: 26109: 26105: 26101: 26097: 26093: 26089: 26085: 26026: 26022: 26018: 26014: 26010: 26006: 26002: 25954: 25950: 25946: 25912: 25877: 25858: 24056: 22710: 22491: 22401: 21770: 21525: 20318: 19631: 15101: 14406: 13476: 11149: 10720:[Free testosterone] (in Romanian). Synevo Moldova. 10050: 9893: 9195: 9051: 7393: 4897: 3625: 3613: 3505: 2928:

The amount of testosterone synthesized is regulated by the

2183: 2109: 2051:(directly or as dihydrotestosterone), and by conversion to 1648: 1487: 1483: 1367:), loss of scalp hair (androgenetic alopecia), increase in 973:

group at positions three and seventeen respectively. It is

904: 405: 13429: 12783: 12359:

MacDonald AA, Herbison GP, Showell M, Farquhar CM (2010).

11999: 10509: 8841: 8491: 7949: 7828: 7573: 6941: 5691:

Health & Drugs: Disease, Prescription & Medication

2205:(around 5 nM). In contrast to testosterone, DHEA and 2108:(HREs), and influence transcriptional activity of certain 2047:

occur by way of multiple mechanisms: by activation of the

1732:

that peaks early each day, regardless of sexual activity.

1589:

Testosterone is used as a medication for the treatment of

22545: 20001: 14498:"Biosynthesis and Industrial Production of Androsteroids" 13687:

Mosby's Diagnostic and Laboratory Test Reference – E-Book

13184: 12875:

Ovarian Function and its Disorders: Diagnosis and Therapy

12257:

The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

12003:

The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

10603: 9894:

Weierstall R, Moran J, Giebel G, Elbert T (May 1, 2014).

8992: 8783:

Sapienza P, Zingales L, Maestripieri D (September 2009).

8534: 7253:"19th WHO Model List of Essential Medicines (April 2015)" 7225: 6003: 6001: 1675:

not use the medication. It can cause harm if used during

1309: 1184: 675: 19092:

17α-Alkylated 5α-dihydro-19-nortestosterone derivatives:

13966: 13903: 13570: 13164:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 656–. 12878:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 107–. 11563:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 245–. 10187: 9801: 8876: 7992: 6863: 6600: 5022:"Understanding the risks of performance-enhancing drugs" 1947:

A few studies indicate that the testosterone derivative

18595:

7α-Methyl-19-norandrostenedione (MENT dione, trestione)

12825:"New frontiers in androgen biosynthesis and metabolism" 12741:

Principles and Practice of Endocrinology and Metabolism

12644: 12168: 11192: 10936: 10393: 9491: 7871: 5597: 5182: 5055: 4859:

The partial synthesis in the 1930s of abundant, potent

3441:. Approximately 50% of testosterone is metabolized via 3124: 1811:

Testosterone may prove to be an effective treatment in

1618:

World Health Organization's list of essential medicines

1213:

and enters the male brain, whereas female fetuses have

1036: 28313:

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP)

22812: 20861:

Epiestriol (16β-epiestriol, 16β-hydroxy-17β-estradiol)

19289:

5α-Dihydro-17α-ethynyl-19-nortestosterone derivatives:

14816: 13684:

Pagana KD, Pagana TJ, Pagana TN (September 19, 2014).

13230: 12686: