Congo Free State - Knowledge

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an in-kind tax on the Free State's Congolese subjects. As essential intermediaries, local rulers forced their men, women and children to collect rubber, ivory and foodstuffs. Depending on the power of local rulers, the Free State paid prices below the rising market prices. In October 1892, Leopold granted concessions to a number of companies. Each company was given a large amount of land in the Congo Free State on which to collect rubber and ivory for sale in Europe. These companies were allowed to detain Africans who did not work hard enough, to police their vast areas as they saw fit and to take all the products of the forest for themselves. In return for their concessions, these companies paid an annual dividend to the Free State. At the height of the rubber boom, from 1901 until 1906, these dividends also filled the royal coffers.

694: 1559: 1952:(1889–1890), Leopold issued a new decree mandating that Africans in a large part of the Free State could sell their harvested products (mostly ivory and rubber) only to the state. This law extended an earlier decree declaring that all "unoccupied" land belonged to the state. Any ivory or rubber collected from the state-owned land, the reasoning went, must belong to the state, thus creating a de facto state-controlled monopoly. Therefore, a large share of the local population could sell only to the state, which could set prices and thereby control the income the Congolese could receive for their work. For local elites, however, this system presented new opportunities, as the Free State and concession companies paid them with guns to tax their subjects in kind. 3034: 3057: 172: 2361:(FP), Leopold's private army, was used to enforce the rubber quotas. Early on, the FP was used primarily to campaign against the Arab slave trade in the Upper Congo, protect Leopold's economic interests, and suppress the frequent uprisings within the state. The Force Publique's officer corps included only white Europeans (Belgian regular soldiers and mercenaries from other countries). On arriving in the Congo, the army included men from Zanzibar, West Africa, and eventually from the Congo itself. In addition, Leopold had been actually encouraging the slave trade among Arabs in the Upper Congo in return for slaves to fill the ranks of the FP. During the 1890s, the FP's primary role was to exploit the natives as 2698:

million, which is a population decrease of around 1.2 or 1.5 million people. The causes of the decline were multifactorial and included lower fertility, disease, famine, armed violence and mass emigration. However, no verifiable complete records exist. Louis and Stengers state that population figures at the start of Leopold's control are only "wild guesses", while calling E. D. Morel's attempt and others at coming to a figure for population losses "but figments of the imagination". However, authors that point out the lack of reliable demographic data are questioned by others calling the former minimalists and agnosticists, proving that these questions remain the object of heated debate.

2486:. Meanwhile, the Force Publique were required to provide the hand of their victims as proof when they had shot and killed someone, as it was believed that they would otherwise use the munitions (imported from Europe at considerable cost) for hunting. As a consequence, the rubber quotas were in part paid off in chopped-off hands. Sometimes the hands were collected by the soldiers of the Force Publique, sometimes by the villages themselves. There were even small wars where villages attacked neighbouring villages to gather hands, since their rubber quotas were too unrealistic to fill. A Catholic priest quotes a man, Tswambe, speaking of the hated state official 182: 2982: 3190: 972: 102: 1695: 2401: 2425: 2413: 2548: 2502:... From all the bodies killed in the field, you had to cut off the hands. He wanted to see the number of hands cut off by each soldier, who had to bring them in baskets ... A village which refused to provide rubber would be completely swept clean. As a young man, I saw soldier Molili, then guarding the village of Boyeka, take a net, put ten arrested natives in it, attach big stones to the net, and make it tumble into the river ... Rubber causes these torments; that's why we no longer want to hear its name spoken. Soldiers made young men kill or 88: 642: 561: 1428:. Morgan saw Congo as the same opportunity to send freedmen to Africa so they could contribute to and build the cotton market. Sanford also convinced the people in New York that they were going to abolish slavery and aid travellers and scientists in order to have the public's support. After Henry's actions in convincing President Arthur, the United States was the first country to recognize Congo as a legitimate sovereign state. The United States further participated in the process of recognition by sending the 2644:" of a banquet planned by his master. The latter not only freely admitted the plan, but failed to see anything wrong with it. It turned out that the local corporal had been aware of the planned banquet too, but had not considered it worthy of mention because "the same thing had often occurred in the neighbouring villages, and the white men at the post had never bothered about it." Indeed, "some European officers" working for the Free State themselves "developed a taste for human flesh", according to Forbath. 2282: 2344: 1918: 2729: 2457: 1273: 1347: 1343:, expressed attitudes towards such treaties shared by many Europeans, saying, "The treaties with these little African tyrants, which generally consist of four long pages of which they do not understand a word, and to which they sign a cross in order to have peace and to receive gifts, are really only serious matters for the European powers, in the event of disputes over the territories. They do not concern the black sovereign who signs them for a moment." 2811: 1926: 3176: 1964: 1188: 2018: 2191: 5987: 2788:. The judge acquitted Sheppard (Morrison had been acquitted earlier on a technicality) on the premise that his editorial had not named the major company, but smaller charter companies instead. However, it is likely that the case was decided in favour of Sheppard as a result of international politics; the U.S., socially in support of the missionaries, had questioned the validity of King Leopold II's rule over the Congo. 2801: 1786: 2330:. To monopolize the resources of the entire Congo Free State, Leopold issued three decrees in 1891 and 1892 that reduced the native population to serfs. Collectively, these forced the natives to deliver all ivory and rubber, harvested or found, to state officers thus nearly completing Leopold's monopoly of the ivory and rubber trade. The rubber came from wild vines in the jungle, unlike the rubber from 3162: 1484:). The committee, supposedly an international commercial, scientific, and humanitarian group, was in fact made of a group of businessmen who had shares in the Congo, with Leopold holding a large block by proxy. The committee itself eventually disintegrated (but Leopold continued to refer to it and use the defunct organization as a smokescreen for his operations in laying claim to the Congo region). 5160: 5489: 1813:

territory that it claimed was patchy, with its few officials concentrated in a number of small and widely dispersed "stations" which controlled only small amounts of hinterland. In 1900, there were just 3,000 Europeans in the Congo, of whom only half were Belgian. The colony was perpetually short of administrative staff and officials, who numbered between 700 and 1,500 during the period.

1489:"Belgium does not need a colony. Belgians are not drawn towards overseas enterprises: they prefer to spend their energy and capital in countries which have already been explored or on less risky schemes ... Still, you can assure His Majesty of my whole-hearted sympathy for the generous plan he had conceived, as long as the Congo does not make any international difficulties for us." 1390:

April 1884, the International Association's claim on the southern Congo basin was formally recognized by France on condition that the French got the first option to buy the territory if the Association decided to sell. This may also have helped Leopold to gain recognition for his claim by the other major powers, who thus wanted him to succeed instead of selling his claims to France.

1077:. On 29 May 1885, after the closure of the Berlin Conference, the king announced that he planned to name his possessions "the Congo Free State", an appellation which was not yet used at the Berlin Conference and which officially replaced "International Association of the Congo" on 1 August 1885. The Free State was privately controlled by Leopold from Brussels; he never visited it. 3131:. Critics, including Hochschild, claimed that there were "distortions and evasions" in the exhibition and stated: "The exhibit deals with this question in a wall panel misleadingly headed 'Genocide in the Congo?' This is a red herring, for no reputable historian of the Congo has made charges of genocide; a forced labor system, although it may be equally deadly, is different." 2967:. In his famous letter, "An Open Letter to His Serene Majesty Léopold II, King of the Belgians and Sovereign of the Independent State of Congo", sent on 18 July 1890, Williams described in great detail the crimes committed against the residents of the Congo and their overall mistreatment. This letter was a key factor in the propaganda struggle over conditions in the Congo. 1773:. The minister was equal in rank to the vice governor-general and initially answered to the governor-general, but was eventually made responsible to the sovereign alone. There was a supreme court composed of three judges, which heard appeals, and below it a high court of one judge. These sat at Boma. In addition to these, there were district courts and public prosecutors ( 2266: 2617:, he and his colleagues "were well aware that scores of slaves were being sold to supply meat to the people on the other side of the river", but that (to his regret) neither the State nor the private companies active in the area did anything to suppress this deadly trade "in slaves for the shambles", instead wholly focussing on the profitable rubber extraction. 2952:. One of the methods Morel used to make the world more aware of the atrocities in the Congo during Leopold's rule was through the press. Articles were published in both magazines and newspapers in order to make the people of these powerful countries, such as the US and Great Britain, more aware of what truly was being done in this part of 2245:, securing the Lado Enclave as a Belgian territory until Leopold's death in 1909. Leopold's conquest of the Lado Enclave met with approval from the British government, at least initially, which welcomed any aid in their ongoing war with Mahdist Sudan. But frequent raids outside of Lado territory by Belgian Congolese forces based in 2597:

been horrified at the idea in Europe! but it seems quite natural to me here. Don't show this letter to anyone indiscreet". Hinde too commented approvingly on the thoroughness with which the cannibals "disposed of all the dead, leaving nothing even for the jackals, and thus sav us, no doubt, from many an epidemic."

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ammunition on hunting animals for sport, so they required soldiers to submit one hand for every bullet spent. These mutilations also served to further terrorize the Congolese into submission. This was all contrary to the promises of uplift made at the Berlin Conference which had recognized the Congo Free State.

1809:, each district into zones, each zone into sectors, and each sector into posts. From the district commissioners down to post level, every appointed head was European. However, with little financial means the Free State mainly relied on local elites to rule and tax the vast and hard-to-reach Congolese interior. 3009:. Despite being effectively removed from power, the international scrutiny was no major loss to Leopold II—who died in Brussels on 17 December 1909—or to the concessionary companies in the Congo. By then Southeast Asia and Latin America had become lower-cost producers of rubber. Along with the effects of 1132:, torture, and murder led to the deaths of 50 per cent of the population in the rubber provinces. The lack of accurate records makes it difficult to quantify the number of deaths caused by the exploitation and the lack of immunity to new diseases introduced by contact with European colonists. During the 3020:

had fallen to a level that rendered Congolese extraction unprofitable. Just prior to releasing sovereignty over the CFS, Leopold had all evidence of his activities in the CFS destroyed, including the archives of the departments of finance and of the interior. Leopold II lost the absolute power he had

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Following the United States' recognition of Leopold's colony, other Western powers deliberated on the news. Portugal flirted with the French at first, but the British offered to support Portugal's claim to the entire Congo in return for a free trade agreement and to spite their French rivals. Britain

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Leopold then offered France the support of the association for French ownership of the entire northern bank of the Congo, and sweetened the deal by proposing that, if his personal wealth proved insufficient to hold the entire Congo, as seemed utterly inevitable, that it should revert to France. On 23

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carefully documented and exposed atrocities committed. Eye-witness reports from missionaries portrayed actions by the State that broke laws set by the European nations. As rumours circulated Leopold attempted to discredit them, even creating a Commission for the Protection of the Natives. In January

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were begun in other tropical regions around the world, the global price of rubber started to dip. Competition heightened the drive to exploit forced labour in the Congo in order to lower production costs. Meanwhile, the cost of enforcement was eating away at profit margins, along with the toll taken

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More recent extensive demographic research agrees with Vansina in his criticism of Hochschild's 10 million claim. The current estimate for the population in 1885 is stated at around most likely 11.5 million. The first head count of the population after Leopolds reign put the population at 10 or 10.3

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were "bound to poles , with their ankles dislocated, and sticking up to their heads in the water. After four days their flesh was tender for the kitchen and they were slaughtered." The Free State finally stepped in to suppress this operation and execute the responsible trader, but only in 1906, more

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In theory, each right hand proved a killing. In practice, to save ammunition soldiers sometimes "cheated" by simply cutting off the hand and leaving the victim to live or die. More than a few survivors later said that they had lived through a massacre by acting dead, not moving even when their hands

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into a domainal system that privatized extraction rights over rubber for the state in certain private domains, allowing Leopold to grant vast concessions to private companies. In other areas, private companies could continue to trade but were highly restricted and taxed. The domainal system enforced

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Leopold pledged to suppress the east African slave trade; promote humanitarian policies; guarantee free trade within the colony; impose no import duties for twenty years; and encourage philanthropic and scientific enterprises. Beginning in the mid-1880s, Leopold first decreed that the state asserted

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Finance was in charge of accounting for income and expenditure and tracking the public debt. Besides diplomacy, foreign affairs was in charge of shipping, education, religion and commerce. The department of the interior was responsible for defence, police, public health and public works. It was also

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and launched steamers on the upper river. While exploring the Congo for Leopold, Stanley set up treaties with the local chiefs and with native leaders. In essence, the documents gave over all rights of their respective pieces of land to Leopold. With Stanley's help, Leopold was able to claim a great

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Leopold II offered to reform his Congo Free State regime, but international opinion supported an end to the king's rule, and no nation was willing to accept this responsibility. Belgium was the obvious European candidate to annex the Congo Free State. For two years, it debated the question and held

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Soon after, Nyangwe's surviving population rose in a rebellion, during whose brutal suppression a thousand rioters were killed by the new government. One young Belgian officer wrote home: "Happily Gongo's men ... ate them up . It's horrible but exceedingly useful and hygienic.... I should have

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policy. By 1890, Leopold was facing considerable financial difficulty. District officials' salaries were reduced to a bare minimum, and made up with a commission payment based on the profit that their area returned to Leopold. After widespread criticism, this "primes system" was substituted for the

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When sending out "punitive expeditions" against villages unwilling or unable to fulfil the government's exorbitant rubber quota, Free State officials repeatedly turned a blind eye both to arbitrary killings of those considered guilty as well as to the "cannibal feast" celebrated by native soldiers

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or turned them over as prisoners to allied local chiefs, who in turn gave them as laborers for the Belgian conscript workers; when Belgian Congo was established, chattel slavery was legally abolished in 1910, but prisoners were nevertheless conscripted as force laborers for both public and private

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decided that the cessions claimed by Leopold from the local leaders were lawful and recognized the International Association of the Congo's claim on the region, becoming the first country to do so. In 1884, the US Secretary of State said, "The Government of the United States announces its sympathy

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However, Jan Vansina returned to the issue of quantifying the total population decline, and revised his earlier position, criticizing Hochschild for extrapolating the 50% death toll from the rubber provinces to the entirety of the Congo. He concluded that the Kuba population (one of the Congolese

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use the number 10 million. Hochschild cites several recent independent lines of investigation, by anthropologist Jan Vansina and others, that examine local sources (police records, religious records, oral traditions, genealogies, personal diaries), which generally agree with the assessment of the

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In the absence of a census providing even an initial idea of the size of population of the region at the inception of the Congo Free State (the first was taken in 1924), it is impossible to quantify population changes in the period. Despite this, Forbath in 1977 claimed the loss was at least five

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One junior officer described a raid to punish a village that had protested. The officer in command "ordered us to cut off the heads of the men and hang them on the village palisades ... and to hang the women and the children on the palisade in the form of a cross". After seeing a Congolese person

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They also burned recalcitrant villages, and above all, cut off the hands of Congolese natives, including children. The human hands were collected as trophies on the orders of their officers to show that bullets had not been wasted. Officers were concerned that their subordinates might waste their

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In direct violation of his promises of free trade within the CFS under the terms of the Berlin Treaty, not only had the state become a commercial entity directly or indirectly trading within its dominion, but also, Leopold had been slowly monopolizing a considerable amount of the ivory and rubber

1107:, and minerals from the upper Congo basin for sale on the world market through a series of international concessionary companies that brought little benefit to the area. Under Leopold's administration, the Free State became one of the greatest international scandals of the early 20th century. The 2652:

A reduction of the population of the Congo is noted by all who have compared the country at the beginning of Leopold's control with the beginning of Belgian state rule in 1908, but estimates of the death toll vary considerably. Estimates of some contemporary observers suggest that the population

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We were always in the forest to find the rubber vines, to go without food, and our women had to give up cultivating the fields and gardens. Then we starved ... When we failed and our rubber was short, the soldiers came to our towns and killed us. Many were shot, some had their ears cut off;

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populations) was rising during the first two decades of Leopold II's rule, and declined by 25 per cent from 1900 to 1919, mainly due to sickness. Others argued a decrease of 20 per cent over the first forty years of colonial rule (up to the census of 1924). According to the Congolese historian

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shot Msiri dead and was fatally wounded in the resulting fight. The expedition cut off Msiri's head and put it on a pole, as he had often done to his enemies. This was to impress upon the locals that Msiri's rule had really ended, after which the successor chief recognized by Stairs signed the

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The king launched a publicity campaign in Britain to distract critics, drawing attention to Portugal's record of slavery, and offering to drive slave traders from the Congo basin. He also secretly told British merchant houses that if he was given formal control of the Congo for this and other

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magazine, website accessed 5 May 2007. Section I: "D'ailleurs ces lettres de soumission de ces petits tyrans africains, auxquels on lit quatre longues pages, dont, le plus souvent, ils ne comprennent pas un mot, et qu'ils approuvent d'une croix, afin d'avoir la, paix et des présents, ne sont

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Sheppard's documented cases of cruelty or violence were in direct violation of the Berlin Act of 1885, which gave Leopold II control over the Congo as long as he "care for the improvements of their conditions of their moral and material well-being" and "help in suppressing slavery." However,

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soldiers brought them to the stations in place of rubber; they even went out to harvest them instead of rubber ... They became a sort of currency. They came to be used to make up for shortfalls in rubber quotas, to replace ... the people who were demanded for the forced labour gangs; and the

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In the Free State, Leopold exercised total personal control without much delegation to subordinates. African chiefs played an important role in the administration by implementing government orders within their communities. Throughout much of its existence, however, Free State presence in the

2340:), which was tapped from trees. To extract the rubber, instead of tapping the vines, the Congolese workers would slash them and lather their bodies with the rubber latex. When the latex hardened, it would be scraped off the skin in a painful manner, as it took off the worker's hair with it. 2682:

1919 Belgian government commission: roughly half the population perished during the Free State period. Since the first official census by the Belgian authorities in 1924 put the population at about 10 million, these various approaches suggest a rough estimate of a total of 10 million dead.

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Many of the black soldiers were from far-off peoples of the Upper Congo, while others had been kidnapped in raids on villages in their childhood and brought to Roman Catholic missions, where they received a military training in conditions close to slavery. Armed with modern weapons and the

2904:. With Casement's and Dr. Guinness's assistance, he set up and ran the Congo Reform Association, which worked to end Leopold's control of the Congo Free State. Branches of the association were established as far away as the United States. The Congo Reform movement's members included Sir 1456:

of geographic societies, explorers, and dignitaries he hosted in 1876. At the conference, Leopold proposed establishing an international benevolent committee for the propagation of civilization among the peoples of central Africa (the Congo region). The AIA was originally conceived as a

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It drew specific boundaries and specified that all nations should have access to do business in the Congo with no tariffs. The slave trade would be suppressed. In 1885, Leopold emerged triumphant. France was given 666,000 km (257,000 sq mi) on the north bank (the modern

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The Free Trade Zone in the Congo was open to entrepreneurs of any European nation, who were allowed to buy 10- and 15-year monopoly leases on anything of value: ivory from a district or the rubber concession, for example. The other zone—almost two-thirds of the Congo—became the

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A personal union is in existence when two sovereign states and separate international persons are linked together through the accidental fact that they have the same individual as monarch. Thus a personal union existed...from 1885 to 1908 between Belgium and the former Congo Free

1945:, "vacant" land, which was any land that did not contain a habitation or a cultivated garden plot. All of this land (i.e., most of the country) was therefore deemed to belong to the state. Servants of the state (namely any men in Leopold's employ) were encouraged to exploit it. 1401:) claimed to have negotiated with various local authorities, and proposing that, as an entirely disinterested humanitarian body, the Association would administer the Congo for the good of all, handing over power to the natives as soon as they were ready for that responsibility. 2609:

after the sound of their rifles" and employed by the Free State to enforce its tax policies: "Whenever a village failed to produce enough rubber, these men would attack, raping and eating their victims before cutting off their hands" (to prove the success of their operations).

1618:, and drafted an international code governing the way that European countries should behave as they acquired African territory. The conference officially recognized the International Congo Association, and specified that it should have no connection with Belgium (beyond a 2315:

trade by imposing export duties on the resources traded by other merchants within the CFS. In terms of infrastructure, Leopold's regime began construction of the railway that ran from the coast to the capital of Leopoldville (now Kinshasa). The railway, now known as the

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and telephone cables and wiring. By the late-1890s, wild rubber had far surpassed ivory as the main source of revenue from the Congo Free State. The peak year was 1903, with rubber fetching the highest price and concessionary companies raking in the highest profits.

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in Brussels would finance an investigation into some of the claims made by Hochschild. An investigatory panel announced in 2002, likely to be headed by Professor Jean-Luc Vellut, was scheduled to report its findings in 2004. Robert G. Weisbord stated in the 2003

1537:, or AIC) as a new umbrella organization. This organization sought to combine the numerous small territories acquired into one sovereign state and asked for recognition from the European powers. On 22 April 1884, thanks to the successful lobbying of businessman 2533:

were severed, and waiting till the soldiers left before seeking help. In some instances a soldier could shorten his service term by bringing more hands than the other soldiers, which led to widespread mutilations and dismemberment according to some historians.

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were sued for libel against the Kasai Rubber Company (Compagnie de Kasai), a prominent Belgian rubber contractor in the area. When the case went to court in September 1909, the two missionaries had support from the CRA, American Progressives, and their lawyer

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in which a large part of the payment was granted, at the end of the service, only to those territorial agents and magistrates whose conduct was judged "satisfactory" by their superiors. This meant in practice that nothing changed. Congolese communities in the

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with the cooperation of European and American explorers and the support of several European governments, and was himself elected chairman. Leopold used the association to promote plans to seize independent central Africa under this philanthropic guise.

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Leopold began to create a plan to convince other European powers of the legitimacy of his claim to the region, all the while maintaining the guise that his work was for the benefit of the native peoples under the name of a philanthropic "association".

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that sometimes followed. In various cases they even handed captives, including infants and old women, over to their soldiers or local allies, implicitly or even explicitly allowing them to kill and eat them. Particularly infamous were groups of

3072:, originally created in 1897, rewarded heroic deeds and service achieved while serving in the Congo Free State. The Order was made a decoration of the Belgian state with the abolition of the Congo Free State in 1908 and is still awarded today. 2163:

Open warfare broke out in late November 1892. Both sides fought by proxy, arming and leading the populations of the upper Congo forests in conflict. By early 1894 the Zanzibari/Swahili slavers were defeated in the eastern Congo region and the

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Leopold ran up high debts with his Congo investments before the beginning of the worldwide rubber boom in the 1890s. Prices increased throughout the decade as industries discovered new uses for rubber in tires, hoses, tubing, insulation for

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was widespread in parts of the Free State area when the State was established, and the colonial administration seems to have done little to suppress it, sometimes rather tolerating it among its own auxiliary troops and allies. During the

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killed for the first time, a Danish missionary wrote: "The soldier said 'Don't take this to heart so much. They kill us if we don't bring the rubber. The Commissioner has promised us if we have plenty of hands he will shorten our service.

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rights of proprietorship over all vacant lands throughout the Congo territory. In three successive decrees, Leopold promised the rights of the Congolese in their land to native villages and farms, essentially making nearly all of the CFS

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Leopold used the title 'Sovereign of the Congo Free State' as ruler of the Congo Free State. He appointed the heads of the three departments of state: interior, foreign affairs and finances. Each was headed by an administrator-general

1682:, sovereign king, of the newly formed CFS, over which he enjoyed nearly absolute control. The CFS (today the Democratic Republic of the Congo), a country of over two million square kilometres, became Leopold's personal property, the 2310:

were not merely forbidden by law to sell items to anyone but the state; they were required to provide state officials with set quotas of rubber and ivory at a fixed, government-mandated price and to provide food to the local post.

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routinely took and tortured hostages, slaughtered families of rebels, and flogged and raped Congolese people with a reign of terror and abuse that cost millions of lives. One refugee from these horrors described the process:

1638:), and Leopold's personal organization received the balance: 2,344,000 km (905,000 sq mi), with about 30 million people. However, it still remained for these territories to be occupied under the conference's 2240:

in February 1897, resulting in the death of several Belgian officers and the loss of his entire force. Nonetheless, Chaltin continued his advance, and on 17 February 1897, his outnumbered forces defeated the rebels in the

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than 20 years after its foundation. Even afterwards, slaves were still offered fairly openly for eating, with the sellers of slave children pointing out the value of "their meat" when trying to negotiate a good price.

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Trading companies began to lose out to the Free State government, which not only paid no taxes but also collected all the potential income. These companies were outraged by the restrictions on free trade, which the

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that attempting to eliminate a portion of the population is enough to qualify as genocide under the UN convention. In the case of the Congo Free State, the unbearable conditions would qualify as a genocide.

1821:(state-owned land). Leopold further decreed that merchants should limit their commercial operations in rubber trade with the natives. Additionally, the colonial administration liberated thousands of slaves. 2853:. Morel became a journalist and then a publisher, attempting to discredit Leopold's regime. In 1902, Morel retired from his position at Elder Dempster to focus on campaigning. He founded his own magazine, 348: 1256:

to claim the region. Until the middle of the 19th century, the Congo was at the heart of independent Africa, as European colonialists seldom entered the interior. Along with fierce local resistance, the

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by the increasingly unsustainable harvesting methods. As competition from other areas of rubber cultivation mounted, Leopold's private rule was left increasingly vulnerable to international scrutiny.

6446: 2593:, the leader of the Batetela, "hid himself in his quarters, appalled by the sight of thousands of men smoking human hands and human chops on their camp fires, enough to feed his army for many days." 159: 2474:, where the ageing king complains that the incorruptible camera was the only witness he had encountered in his long experience that he could not bribe. The book was illustrated with photographs by 1000: 2690:

13 million died, although he later changed the number down to 10 million after the publication of Leopolds Ghost. To put these population changes in context, sourced references state that in 1900

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was also a major cause of fatality at the time. Opponents of Leopold's rule stated, however, that the administration itself was to be considered responsible for the spreading of the epidemic.

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Msiri tried to play the Free State off against Rhodes and when negotiations bogged down, Stairs flew the Free State flag anyway and gave Msiri an ultimatum. Instead, Msiri decamped to another

1371:(MFN) status Portugal had offered them. At the same time, Leopold promised Bismarck he would not give any one nation special status, and that German traders would be as welcome as any other. 1473:

was supportive of the project under the belief that it was aimed to abolish the Congo Basin slave trade. Nevertheless, the AIA eventually became a development company controlled by Leopold.

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and other critics of the king's Congolese policy, forced Leopold to set up an independent commission of inquiry, and despite the king's efforts, in 1905 it confirmed Casement's report.

1325:. Failing to enlist British interest in the Congo region, Stanley took up service with Leopold II, who hired him to help gain a foothold in the region and annex the region for himself. 2253:

in 1908 and the death of the Belgian King in December 1909, British authorities reclaimed the Lado Enclave as per the Anglo-Congolese treaty signed in 1894, and added the territory to

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In the longer term this alliance was indefensible at home and abroad. Leopold II was heavily criticized by the European public opinion for his dealings with Tippu Tip. In Belgium, the

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convened a 14-nation conference to submit the Congo question to international control and to finalize the colonial partitioning of the African continent. Most major powers (including

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Leopold could not meet the costs of running the Congo Free State. Desperately, he set in motion a system to maximize revenue. The first change was the introduction of the concept of

1302:, inviting famous explorers, philanthropists, and members of geographic societies to stir up interest in a "humanitarian" endeavour for Europeans in central Africa to "improve" and " 6470: 6180: 3383:

Katzenellenbogen, S. (1996). "It didn't happen at Berlin: Politics, economics and ignorance in the setting of Africa's colonial boundaries.". In Nugent, P.; Asiwaju, A. I. (eds.).

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The baskets of severed hands, set down at the feet of the European post commanders, became the symbol of the Congo Free State. ... The collection of hands became an end in itself.

6341: 2003:. In 1896 global demand for rubber soared. From that year onwards, the Congolese rubber sector started to generate vast sums of money at an immense cost for the local population. 693: 6805: 6492: 6280: 2835:, inspired by his service as a captain on a steamer on the Congo 12 years before, sparked an organized international opposition to Leopold's exploitational activities. In 1900, 6715: 1168:. In addition, a number of major Belgian investment companies pushed the Belgian government to take over the Congo and develop the mining sector as it was virtually untapped. 2860:

Increasing public outcry over the atrocities in the CFS moved the British government to launch an official investigation. In 1903, Morel and those who agreed with him in the

1711:), who was obligated to enact the policies of the sovereign or else resign. Below the secretaries-general were a series of bureaucrats of decreasing rank: directors general ( 1099:. Ostensibly, the Congo Free State aimed to bring civilization to the local people and to develop the region economically. In reality, Leopold II's administration extracted 5434: 2249:

caused alarm and suspicion among British and French officials wary of Leopold's imperial ambitions. In 1910, following the Belgian annexation of the Congo Free State as the

2171:

The Belgians freed thousands of men, women and children slaves from Swaihili Arab slave owners and slave traders in Eastern Congo in 1886-1892, enlisted them in the militia

993: 2900:—in 1904 and realized that he had found the ally he had sought. Casement convinced Morel to establish an organization for dealing specifically with the Congo question, the 6206: 2888:

The root of the evil lies in the fact that the government of the Congo is above all a commercial trust, that everything else is orientated towards commercial gain ...

706: 1735:

charged with overseeing the exploitation of the Congo's natural resources and plantations. In 1904, the secretary-general of the interior set up a propaganda office, the

1408:, who had recruited Stanley for Leopold. Henry Sanford swayed President Arthur by inviting him to stay as his guest at Sanford House hotel on Lake Monroe while he was in 3767: 3746: 2613:

Generally, most Free State officials seem to have had little interest in stopping cannibal customs. One of them, Guy Burrows, wrote that when he was stationed near the

6550: 6480: 6361: 6336: 3704:

sérieuses que pour les puissances européennes, en cas de contestations de territoires. Quant au souverain noir qui les signe, il ne s'en inquiète pas un seul instant."

1999:, literally, "fief of the crown". Rubber revenue went directly to Leopold who paid the Free State for the high costs of exploitation. The same rules applied as in the 1522:

of 1884–85, European leaders officially noted Leopold's control over the 2,600,000 km (1,000,000 sq mi) of the notionally independent Congo Free State.

617: 603: 589: 575: 2944:

One of the main ways Britain was involved in ending Leopold's rule in the Congo, was by making Belgium, as a whole, more aware of the brutality present in the Congo.

158: 6616: 6530: 6407: 6351: 1476:

After 1879 and the crumbling of the International African Association, Leopold's work was done under the auspices of the "Committee for Studies of the Upper Congo" (

6574: 1506:

Determined to look for a colony for himself and inspired by recent reports from central Africa, Leopold began patronizing a number of leading explorers, including

1404:

Leopold wanted to have the United States support his plans for the Congo in order to gain support from the European nations. He had help from American businessman

986: 673: 5234: 6689: 6545: 6436: 2929:

in the last years of the 19th century. The Congo reform movement led a vigorous international movement against the maltreatment of the Congolese population. The

296: 2716: 6785: 6487: 6346: 6321: 1960:

had so carefully protected years before. Their protests against the violation of free trade prompted Leopold to take another, less obvious tack to make money.

962: 2064:. In 1891 a Free State expedition extracted a letter from Msiri agreeing to their agents coming to Katanga and later that year Leopold II sent the well-armed 1758:), but this office was at times more honorary than real. When the governor-general was in Belgium he was represented in the Congo by a vice governor-general ( 6412: 6397: 6331: 6173: 1128:

and raised an international outcry. Debate has been ongoing about the high death rate in this period. The highest estimates state that the widespread use of

2148:, aimed at abolishing the Arab slave trade. Furthermore, Tippu Tip and Leopold were commercial rivals. Every person that Tippu Tip hunted down and put into 6790: 6626: 6601: 6463: 6441: 6424: 6392: 6387: 6780: 6520: 6429: 5215: 2755:

However, the boom sparked efforts to find lower-cost producers. Congolese concessionary companies started facing competition from rubber cultivation in

1995:

In 1893, Leopold excised the most readily accessible 259,000 km (100,000 sq mi) portion of the Free Trade Zone and declared it to be the

6679: 6591: 6586: 6453: 6419: 2201:

In 1894, King Leopold II signed a treaty with the United Kingdom which conceded a strip of land on the Free State's eastern border in exchange for the

1412:. On 29 November 1883, during his meeting with the President, as Leopold's envoy, he convinced the President that Leopold's agenda was similar to the 6636: 6621: 6606: 6560: 6475: 6402: 6309: 3555: 283: 3483: 2118:(actually Ḥamad ibn Muḥammad ibn Jumʿah ibn Rajab ibn Muḥammad ibn Saʿīd al Murjabī, but much better known by his nickname) was temporarily solved. 6674: 6631: 6375: 6356: 6166: 4476: 2948:

was one of the key British activists for a Congo free from Belgian rule. Once the US became aware of the occurrences in the Congo, Morel began the

5321: 2032:

Early in Leopold's rule, the second problem—the British South Africa Company's expansion into the southern Congo Basin—was addressed. The distant

6708: 6651: 6555: 6508: 6198: 5880: 3796: 682: 6659: 6611: 6535: 5979: 107: 5966: 2589:

was followed by "days of cannibal feasting" during which hundreds were eaten, with only their heads being kept as mementos. During this time,

6684: 6641: 6596: 6275: 3513: 2400: 6669: 3251: 1949: 1353:, whose exploration of the Congo region at Leopold's invitation led to the establishment of the Congo Free State under personal sovereignty 93: 2985:

Proclamation from Inspector-general Ghislain to the population of the Congo, announcing the annexation of the territory by Belgium in 1908

2209:. After rubber profits soared in 1895, Leopold ordered the organization of an expedition into the Lado Enclave, which had been overrun by 2792:

historians have noted that he and other missionaries have traditionally received little recognition for their contributions and reports.

1599: 6127: 2424: 5141: 3286: 2847:, noticed that ships that brought vast loads of rubber from the Congo only ever returned there loaded with guns and ammunition for the 2412: 2326:'s 1887 invention of inflatable, rubber bicycle tubes and the growing usage of the automobile dramatically increased global demand for 2273:

ate away at profit margins. However, ample plots of cleared land were already available. Above, a Congolese farming village (Baringa,

1876:

slavers and sultans, powerful kings and warlords who had to be coerced or defeated by use of force. For example, the slaving gangs of

1686:. Eventually, the Congo Free State was recognized as a neutral independent sovereignty by various European and North American states. 6795: 6724: 6458: 228: 5751: 3985: 3266: 2228:

Although Leopold II had initially planned for the expedition to carry on much farther than the Lado Enclave, hoping indeed to take

1466: 1115:

led to the arrest and punishment of officials who had been responsible for killings during a rubber-collecting expedition in 1903.

5426: 4067:"The Trouble with Tariffs: Customs Policies and the Shaky Balance between Colonial and Private Interests in the Congo (1886–1914)" 1558: 6755: 6729: 5258: 3195: 976: 6245: 4990: 2555:, looking at the severed hand and foot of his five-year-old daughter who was killed, cooked, and cannibalized by members of the 888: 101: 6100: 3450: 3108:, where he had written "the killing in the Congo was of genocidal proportions", but "it was not strictly speaking a genocide", 2873: 2620:

Similarly, a German missionary reported an open trade in male and female slaves intended for consumption near the mouth of the

1934: 1770: 1526: 1070: 811: 566: 219: 212: 6104: 5187: 4199: 4006:

David Northrup. Beyond the Bend in the River. African Labor in Eastern Zaïre, 1865–1940 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1988).

3692: 5933: 5899: 5806: 5679: 5638: 5595: 5571: 5552: 4854: 4836: 4775: 4246: 3340: 3302: 2956:. With this newfound unwanted publicity, the Belgian government was pressured in assuming control of the Congo from Leopold. 4477:"Light on the Dark Continent: The Photography of Alice Seely Harris and the Congo Atrocities of the Early Twentieth Century" 4228:

Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40

6810: 4324: 2552: 1525:

To give his African operations a name that could serve for a political entity, Leopold created, between 1879 and 1882, the

412: 17: 5365: 5669: 2864:

succeeded in passing a resolution calling on the British government to conduct an inquiry into alleged violations of the

5464: 3396:

Cornelis, Sabine. 1991. "Stanley au service de Léopold II: La fondation de l'Etat Indépendant du Congo (1878–1885)". In

2121:

Initially the authority of the Congo Free State was relatively weak in the eastern regions of the Congo. In early 1887,

6765: 6226: 5390:

Weisbord, Robert G. (2003). "The King, the Cardinal and the Pope: Leopold II's genocide in the Congo and the Vatican".

5301: 5230: 3629: 2444: 1639: 1096: 825: 3033: 6015: 5825: 5773: 5617: 5527: 5154: 5089: 5064: 5030: 4406: 4379: 4267: 4137:

Jean Stengers. "Combien le Congo à-t-il coûté à la Belgique". Bruxelles: Académie Royale des Sciences Coloniale 1957.

4122: 4036: 3790: 3604: 3571: 3368: 3208: 1806: 1511: 1441: 1307: 1227: 1205: 801: 2779:

published a report on colonial abuses in the American Presbyterian Congo Mission (APCM) newsletter, and both he and

6760: 6297: 6189: 3139: 3056: 2930: 1866: 1376:"I do not want to risk ... losing a fine chance to secure for ourselves a slice of this magnificent African cake." 1081: 865: 660: 1797:, and replaced it with an appointed cabinet of Belgians who would do his bidding. To the temporary new capital of 6211: 3261: 3256: 3115: 3037: 2964: 2707: 1762:), who was nominally equal in rank to a secretary-general but in fact was beneath them in power and influence. A 1177: 1133: 1058: 788: 87: 6815: 6800: 5503: 4078: 3910: 2205:, which provided access to the navigable Nile and extended the Free State's sphere of influence northward into 1453: 1328:

From August 1879 to June 1884 Stanley was in the Congo basin, where he built a road from the lower Congo up to

1299: 1209: 2665:, this depopulation had four main causes: "indiscriminate war", starvation, reduction of births, and disease. 6238: 5876:

The King's Most Eloquent Campaigner... Emile de Laveleye, Leopold II and the Creation of the Congo Free State

5630:

Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh

5207: 3738: 2780: 2134: 1413: 846: 171: 2641: 2499: 5105:

Robins, Jonathan (2013). "Slave Cocoa and Red Rubber: E. D. Morel and the Problem of Ethical Consumption".

3419: 3069: 2141: 1846: 1671:, and had no plans for the Congo, but was happy to see rivals Britain and France excluded from the colony. 3090:. The lower values showed a star on the obverse and were holed, the higher ones had a bust of Leopold II. 5605: 3950:(1969). "The Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo before 1914". In Gann, L. H.; Duignan, Peter (eds.). 3472: 3221: 2542: 2462: 2316: 1470: 1462: 1321:

in Africa in 1871, explored the region in 1876–1877, a journey that was described in Stanley's 1878 book

1550:

with and approval of the humane and benevolent purposes of the International Association of the Congo."

529: 6108: 5343: 5313: 3563: 3127:

In the aftermath of the report, an exhibition was held at the Royal Museum for Central Africa entitled

2960: 1828:

Leopold II ran up huge debts to finance his colonial endeavour and risked losing his colony to Belgium.

1158: 1157:

By 1908, public pressure and diplomatic manoeuvres led to the end of Leopold II's absolutist rule; the

1085: 1069:

on Africa that he was involved in humanitarian and philanthropic work and would not tax trade. Via the

6144: 3780: 3025:, with church, state, and private companies all instructed to oversee the welfare of the inhabitants. 2687: 181: 6750: 6525: 6063: 6007: 5869:

Selling the Congo: A History of European Pro-Empire Propaganda and the Making of Belgian Imperialism.

4115:

Colonial Exploitation and Economic Development. The Belgian Congo and the Netherlands Indies Compared

2296:

While the war against African powers was ending, the quest for income was increasing, fuelled by the

1514:, a charitable organization to oversee the exploration and surveying of a territory based around the 1498: 1494: 2981: 2222: 5046: 3509: 2949: 2901: 2861: 2721: 2331: 2103: 1674:

In 1885, Leopold's efforts to establish Belgian influence in the Congo Basin were awarded with the

1668: 1631: 1518:, with the stated goal of bringing humanitarian assistance and civilization to the natives. In the 1137: 370: 3898:"The blurred lines of legality. Customs and contraband in the Congolese M'Bomu Region (1889–1908)" 5817: 5650:

King Leopold's Congo: Aspects of the Development of Race Relations in the Congo Independent State

5585: 3294: 3214: 3100: 2893: 2831: 2739: 2666: 1266: 1198: 1136:, European and US reformers exposed atrocities in the Congo Free State to the public through the 6152: 6117: 5022: 5016: 4802:

Jan Vansina is an anthropologist that made quantitative estimates based on qualitative research.

3622:

European atrocity, African catastrophe : Leopold II, the Congo Free State and its aftermath

5540:

The River Congo: The Discovery, Exploration and Exploitation of the World's Most Dramatic River

4888: 3228: 2776: 2573:, there were reports of widespread cannibalization of the bodies of defeated combatants by the 2130: 1862: 1854: 1417: 1336: 1150: 1046: 5737: 3978:"Congo's brutal regime under King Leopold II of Belgium : Western Civilization II Guides" 1831:

Much of the Free State was unmapped jungle, which offered little fiscal and commercial return.

6138: 5917: 5889: 5517: 5056: 5050: 3330: 3147: 3082:

Coins were minted from 1887 to 1908, using the Belgian standard. They ranged from a copper 1

2994: 2582: 2297: 1873: 1652: 1627: 1583: 1538: 1405: 1295: 1276: 1042: 337: 6158: 6000:

Report of the British Consul, Roger Casement, on the Administration of the Congo Free State.

1057:. The Congo Free State was not a part of, nor did it belong to Belgium. Leopold was able to 6089: 6071: 6044: 4931:

Amandine Lauro et al, Le Congo colonial: une histoire en questions, Polis, 2020, chapter 7

4767: 2913: 2254: 2145: 2122: 2073: 1694: 1507: 1368: 1350: 1314: 622: 3409:

Crowe, S.E. (1942). The Berlin West African Conference, 1884–1885. London: Longmans Green.

3021:

had there, but the population now had a Belgian colonial regime, which had become heavily

2997:

annexed the Congo Free State and took over its administration on 15 November 1908, as the

2274: 1678:(CFS, Congo Free State). By a resolution passed in the Belgian Parliament, Leopold became 8: 5665: 5250: 4459: 2024:

attempted to expand the territory of the British South Africa Company northward into the

1889: 1798: 1754:

The oversight of all the departments was nominally in the hands of the Governor-General (

1591: 1253: 5738:"E. D. Morel (1873–1924), the Congo Reform Association, and the History of Human Rights" 5708: 3977: 3654: 947: 5925: 5856: 5498: 5407: 5337: 5122: 4982: 4905: 4496: 4164: 3246: 3010: 2934: 2933:

demanded a meeting of the 14 signatory powers to review the 1885 Berlin Agreement. The

2925: 2905: 2896:

just before the publication of Casement's 1904 detailed eyewitness report—known as the

2547: 2483: 2475: 2336: 2237: 2217:

in 1881. The expedition was composed of two columns: the first, under Belgian war hero

1972: 1303: 1145: 1050: 5986: 4196:

L'Expédition du Katanga, d'après les notes de voyage du marquis Christian de Bonchamps

3689:

L'Expédition du Katanga, d'après les notes de voyage du marquis Christian de Bonchamps

385: 6664: 6095: 6011: 5973: 5958: 5929: 5895: 5860: 5833: 5821: 5802: 5769: 5719: 5675: 5653: 5634: 5613: 5591: 5567: 5548: 5523: 5150: 5126: 5085: 5060: 5026: 4986: 4959: 4909: 4832: 4771: 4500: 4402: 4375: 4263: 4242: 4168: 4118: 4032: 3786: 3635: 3625: 3600: 3567: 3364: 3336: 3298: 3235: 2938: 2825: 2785: 2565: 2157: 2065: 2012: 1957: 1664: 1660: 1651:

was uneasy at French expansion and had a technical claim on the Congo via Lieutenant

1615: 1571: 1563: 1542: 1519: 1425: 1394: 1318: 1124: 1066: 1034: 759: 311: 5628: 5411: 3446: 6270: 6255: 5875: 5848: 5399: 5184: 5114: 4974: 4897: 4488: 4193: 4156: 4024: 3686: 3135: 2917: 2865: 2734: 2487: 2323: 2083:. Stairs sent a force to capture him but Msiri stood his ground, whereupon Captain 2080: 2037: 1850: 1595: 1340: 927: 739: 719: 151: 5992: 5018:

African Americans in Africa: Black Missionaries and the Congo Atrocities 1890–1910

4851: 4028: 2970: 1663:'s body, but was reluctant to take on yet another expensive, unproductive colony. 1622:), or any other country, but would be under the personal control of King Leopold. 6540: 6265: 6078: 5852: 5784: 5697: 5581: 5544: 5538: 5238: 5191: 4978: 4945: 4858: 4826: 4203: 3696: 3559: 3549: 3105: 2897: 2711: 2674: 2270: 2242: 2225:

and took the main road towards Rejaf. Both expeditions set out in December 1896.

2185: 2149: 1575: 1530: 1477: 1458: 1445: 1398: 1108: 1030: 1022: 917: 729: 438: 399: 266: 121: 50: 5834:"Towards a History of Mass Violence in the Etat Indépendant du Congo, 1885–1908" 4960:"Towards a History of Mass Violence in the Etat Indépendant du Congo, 1885–1908" 4316: 3061: 1306:" the lives of the indigenous peoples. At the conference, Leopold organized the 1144:. Also active in exposing the activities of the Congo Free State was the author 6027: 5909: 5513: 5357: 4492: 3181: 3167: 2881: 2869: 2849: 2844: 2804: 2756: 2662: 2578: 2570: 2557: 2528:

soldiers were paid their bonuses on the basis of how many hands they collected.

2357: 2343: 2281: 2218: 2194: 2165: 2111: 2097: 1930: 1893: 1858: 1777:). Justice, however, was slow and the system ill-suited to a frontier society. 1769:

The Free State had an independent judiciary headed by a minister of justice at

1619: 1607: 1603: 1112: 1054: 1038: 594: 425: 278: 198: 131: 65: 5587:

King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa

5118: 4160: 3639: 3400:, edited by Sabine Cornelis, 41–60. Tervuren: Royal Museum for Central Africa. 2742:

depicting Leopold II as a rubber snake entangling a Congolese rubber collector

2048:

and thought to have much gold from its slave-trading activities. Its powerful

1917: 1853:(southern Congo) by exploiting the "Principle of Effectivity" loophole in the 6744: 6292: 6287: 6233: 6122: 6002:

Reprinted in full in Ó Síocháin, Séamas and Michael O'Sullivan, eds. (2004).

5657: 5493: 4873:

Histoire générale du Congo: De l'héritage ancien à la République Démocratique

3947: 3076: 3002: 2976: 2820: 2760: 2728: 2621: 2614: 2602: 2456: 2250: 2210: 2057: 2041: 1897: 1884:

had a strong presence in the eastern part of the territory in the modern-day

1611: 1587: 1546: 1165: 1129: 1119: 937: 836: 635: 243: 230: 6131:. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. 5456: 3064:

in Brussels daubed in red paint, symbol of the blood of the Congolese people

6250: 6084: 5962: 5403: 5181: 3782:

Above the fray: The Red Cross and the making of the humanitarian NGO sector

3241: 3110: 2625: 2590: 2376: 2290: 2202: 2061: 2033: 2021: 1842: 1834: 1634:), Portugal 909,000 km (351,000 sq mi) to the south (modern 1272: 1104: 878: 769: 749: 608: 580: 4901: 2880:), was sent to the Congo Free State to investigate. Reporting back to the 2156:

was a loss to Leopold II. This, and Leopold's humanitarian pledges to the

1397:

carefully edited copies of the cloth-and-trinket treaties that Stanley (a

1245: 5921: 4455: 3022: 2945: 2877: 2836: 2810: 2678: 2654: 2491: 2214: 2206: 2084: 2025: 1838: 1802: 1515: 1346: 1329: 1249: 1141: 1092:

the state as a colony belonging to Belgium after international pressure.

1074: 5766:

A Civilised Savagery: Britain and the New Slaveries in Africa, 1884–1926

2661:

mentioned the number of ten million deaths. According to Irish diplomat

2490:, who ran a district along the river 500 km (300 mi) north of 1457:

multi-national, scientific, and humanitarian assembly, and even invited

1440:

Leopold was able to attract scientific and humanitarian backing for the

1095:

Leopold's reign in the Congo eventually earned infamy on account of the

6116: 2909: 2814: 2771: 2764: 2658: 2467: 1751:, "Committee for the Representation of Colonial Interests in Africa"). 1258: 1212: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 6004:

The Eyes of Another Race: Roger Casement's Congo Report and 1903 Diary

4339: 3954:. Vol. I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 261–92. 3079:. These typically showed scenes of wildlife, landscapes, and natives. 1925: 3552:

The Cambridge History of Africa: From the earliest times to c. 500 BC

3014: 2840: 2748: 2606: 2115: 2069: 1881: 1740: 6137: 4099:

Vos, J. (2008). "The Economics of the Kwango rubber trade c. 1900".

4066: 3897: 3204:

List of colonial governors of the Congo Free State and Belgian Congo

2892:

E. D. Morel was introduced to Roger Casement by their mutual friend

2362: 1963: 1187: 5492: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 3143: 2574: 2371: 2233: 2153: 2144:

was founded in 1888, mainly by Catholic intellectuals led by Count

2126: 2107: 1905: 1877: 1728: 1656: 906: 271: 5952: 4678: 4630: 4464:. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. pp. 144 (opposite), 444–446. 2190: 2017: 5185:

Exemplifying the Horror of European Colonization:Leopold's Congo"

5145:

Francophone African Cinema: History, Culture, Politics and Theory

4815:. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 127–149. 4763: 4260:

The Congo State: Or, The Growth of Civilisation in Central Africa

4103:. B. Heintze and A. von Oppen. Frankfurt am Main, Lembeck: 85–98. 3083: 2800: 2637: 2633: 2586: 2431: 2286: 2229: 1885: 1824:

Four main problems presented themselves over the next few years.

1785: 1579: 1421: 1409: 1393:

He also enlisted the aid of the United States, sending President

1333:

area along the Congo River, and military posts were established.

1262: 1140:, founded by Casement and the journalist, author, and politician 902: 202: 4101:

Angola on the Move: Transport Routes, Communications and History

3533: 3531: 3510:"Being Colonized. The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880–1960" 3361:

France and Britain in Africa. Imperial Rivalry and Colonial Rule

2389:

others were tied up with ropes round their necks and taken away.

5699:

Civilisation in Congoland: A Story of International Wrong-Doing

4147:

Harms, Robert (1975). "The end of red rubber: a reassessment".

3866: 3864: 3862: 3332:

Political Awakening in the Congo: The Politics of Fragmentation

3005:. The governance of the Belgian Congo was outlined in the 1908 2998: 2971:

Belgian annexation of the Congo Free State as the Belgian Congo

2953: 2691: 2482:

Failure to meet the rubber collection quotas was punishable by

2471: 2327: 2045: 1901: 1745:

Comité pour la représentation des intérêts coloniaux en Afrique

1635: 1432:, which gave a detailed description of travel along the river. 1382: 1062: 6037:

The reports of the Congo Reform Association, particularly the

5501:; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). "Congo Free State". 4813:

Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880–1960

4603: 2839:, a part-time journalist and head of trade with Congo for the 2277:) is emptied and levelled to make way for a rubber plantation. 1562:

Cartoon depicting Leopold II and other imperial powers at the

6260: 6188: 4739: 4727: 4180: 4178: 3659:. New York: Harper and Brothers – via Internet Archive. 3594: 3528: 3420:"De koning in Kinshasa die nooit in Congo was [Slot]" 3087: 3017: 2640:

region, Burrows rescued a young slave boy from becoming the "

2265: 2246: 2053: 1801:, he sent a governor-general and a chief of police. The vast 1100: 898: 3876: 3859: 3142:

in 2006 described "the tragedy of King Leopold's regime" as

1118:

The loss of life and atrocities inspired literature such as

4886:

Martin, G. (2006). "What Went Wrong with Africa?". Review.

4519: 4285: 3835: 2503: 4175: 4019:

Stengers, Jean (1985). "King Leopold's Congo, 1886–1908".

2694:

as a whole had between 90 million and 133 million people.

2657:, the Congo Free State counted "20 million souls". Hence, 1164:

as a colony of Belgium. It became known thereafter as the

6776:

Political history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

6771:

History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo by period

5457:"Early day motion 2251 – COLONIAL GENOCIDE AND THE CONGO" 4412: 4351: 3958: 3823: 3150:. It received the signature of 48 members of parliament. 2829:, originally published in 1899 as a three-part series in 1849:'s charter lands from the south and threatened to occupy 4591: 4543: 3847: 3811: 3707: 3652: 3385:

African Boundaries: Barriers, Conduits and Opportunities

3075:

Between 1886 and 1908 the Free State issued a number of

1367:

humanitarian purposes, he would then give them the same

5783:. Edited by Wm. Roger Louis and Jean Stengers. Oxford: 5519:

The King Incorporated: Leopold the Second and the Congo

4944:. Edited by Wm. Roger Louis and Jean Stengers. Oxford: 4555: 3930: 3928: 3719: 3576: 1749:

Komitee zur Wahrung der kolonialen Interessen in Afrika

1727:(bureau chiefs). The departments were headquartered in 1053:. In legal terms, the two separate countries were in a 5752:

Taxation in the Congo Free State, an Exceptional Case?

5320:. From the collection of Mark Jochim. 16 August 2017. 4690: 4666: 4654: 4436: 3363:. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 221–260. 4642: 4531: 4424: 4297: 4273: 4760:

Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity

4722:

King Leopold’s soliloquy a defense of his Congo rule

4702: 4624:

The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo

4567: 4071:

Low Countries Journal of Social and Economic History

4055:. Sampson Low, Marston & Co, London (1893), p11. 3925: 3157: 2406:

Congolese people working at the port of Leopoldville

2137:

agreed and on 24 February 1887, Tippu Tip accepted.

2076:, to take possession of Katanga one way or another. 1317:, famous for making contact with British missionary 6049:

The Congo and the Founding of the Congo Free State.

6039:

Memorial on the Present Phase of the Congo Question

5914:

Divide and Rule: The Partition of Africa, 1880–1914

4784: 4579: 3785:. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. pp. 82–84. 2724:

depicting King Leopold II, and the Congo Free State

2653:decreased by half during this period. According to 1435: 6806:Belgium–Democratic Republic of the Congo relations 5781:E. D. Morel's History of the Congo Reform Movement 5139: 4942:E. D. Morel's History of the Congo Reform Movement 4372:Colonial Encounters in the Age of High Imperialism 3896: 2632:Another time, while stationed in Riba-Riba (today 2102:In the short term, the third problem, that of the 2044:, had signed no treaties, was known to be rich in 1912: 1080:The state included the entire area of the present 6148:. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. 5908: 5792:Roger Casement: Imperialist, Rebel, Revolutionary 5084:. University of Massachusetts Press. p. 55. 5014: 2923:The mass deaths in the Congo Free State became a 2581:. According to Dhanis's medical officer, Captain 1698:Bond of the Congo Free State, issued 1 March 1888 6742: 5424: 5292:Manning, Patrick, The African Diaspora, pg. 227. 5045: 2260: 5881:Belgisch tijdschrift voor nieuwste geschiedenis 5706: 5497: 5385: 5383: 4852:http://www.congo2005.be/geheugen/brochureEN.pdf 4684: 4636: 2418:Construction of a railroad by Congolese workers 1992:, the exclusive private property of the state. 1285:owner of the Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908 5302:Stamps of Congo Free State – Wikimedia Commons 5201: 5199: 5021:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 4870: 4323:. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. 19 July 2011. 4258:Charles de Kavanagh Boulger, Demetrius (1898). 2125:had therefore proposed that Tippu Tip be made 6786:States and territories disestablished in 1908 6174: 5954:Bulletin officiel / État indépendant du Congo 5944: 5664: 5566:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 4922:World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision 4609: 4481:International Bulletin of Missionary Research 4206:published 1892 in: Edouard Charton (editor): 3964: 3699:published 1892 in: Edouard Charton (editor): 3291:Encyclopaedic Dictionary of International Law 1908:and had established independent slave states. 1240: 1041:from 1885 to 1908. It was privately owned by 994: 27:Territory in Central Africa from 1885 to 1908 5380: 4626:. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 111. 3599:. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. p. 65. 3398:H. M. Stanley: Explorateur au service du Roi 3098:In the aftermath of the 1998 publication of 3041: 2498:All blacks saw this man as the devil of the 1937:, capital city of the Congo Free State, 1899 1645: 42: 6791:1885 establishments in the Congo Free State 6091:A Journal of a Tour in the Congo Free State 5887: 5561: 5488: 5251:"George W. Williams – Ohio History Central" 5196: 4824: 3882: 3870: 3582: 3284: 3047: 2857:, and conducted speaking tours in Britain. 2795: 2056:, had already rejected a treaty brought by 1793:Leopold no longer needed the façade of the 1280: 476:2,345,409 km (905,567 sq mi) 57: 6781:States and territories established in 1885 6181: 6167: 5978:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 5580: 5140:Martial Frindéthié, K. (10 January 2014). 5107:Comparative Studies in Society and History 4831:. Cambridge University Press. p. 25. 4745: 4733: 4418: 4357: 4345: 3853: 3713: 3537: 3328: 2701: 2160:to end slavery, meant war was inevitable. 1357: 1339:, a French explorer who served Leopold in 1073:, he was able to lay claim to most of the 1001: 987: 180: 170: 6022:The Congo Report of Commission of Inquiry 5512: 3817: 2624:. Twice a week, new victims delivered by 2460:Mutilated Congolese children, image from 2430:Melting latex of rubber in the forest of 2322:By the final decade of the 19th century, 1872:The Congolese interior was ruled by Arab 1228:Learn how and when to remove this message 5967:Académie royale des sciences d'outre-mer 5604: 5389: 4621: 4561: 4525: 4474: 4291: 4112: 4018: 3946: 3841: 3829: 3725: 3335:. Univ of California Press. p. 32. 3267:Swedish soldiers in the Congo Free State 3252:Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90 3055: 3032: 2993:Yielding to international pressure, the 2980: 2809: 2799: 2727: 2715: 2546: 2543:Cannibalism in Africa § Congo Basin 2455: 2438: 2342: 2285:Congolese labourers tapping rubber near 2280: 2264: 2189: 2152:and every pound of ivory he exported to 2091: 2016: 1962: 1924: 1916: 1784: 1693: 1557: 1467:International Committee of the Red Cross 1420:politicians and businessmen, especially 1345: 1289: 1271: 1084:and existed from 1885 to 1908, when the 175: 5626: 5564:The Rulers of Belgian Africa, 1884–1914 5562:Gann, Lewis H.; Duignan, Peter (1979). 5536: 4790: 4757: 4696: 4672: 4660: 4648: 4597: 4537: 4442: 4374:. New York: HarperCollins. p. 53. 3507: 3358: 3196:Democratic Republic of the Congo portal 2365:labourers to promote the rubber trade. 2006: 1921:Steamboat in the Congo Free State, 1899 1863:British Commissioner for Central Africa 486:77,867 km (30,065 sq mi) 14: 6743: 5756:Economic History of Developing Regions 5707:Burrows, Guy; Canisius, Edgar (1903). 5695: 5437:from the original on 21 September 2015 5418: 5205: 5104: 5079: 4885: 4430: 4393: 4391: 4303: 4279: 4210:magazine, website accessed 5 May 2007. 4064: 3988:from the original on 20 September 2020 3894: 3768:US Navy Congo River Expedition of 1885 3670: 3668: 3666: 3595:Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. (2011). 1527:International Association of the Congo 1430:US Navy Congo River Expedition of 1885 1071:International Association of the Congo 567:International Association of the Congo 6162: 5717: 5647: 5507:(1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead. 5368:from the original on 11 November 2020 5233:Student paper, Stanford University. 5208:"Belgium exhumes its colonial demons" 4708: 4585: 4573: 4549: 4468: 4454: 4327:from the original on 19 November 2020 4146: 4014: 4012: 3934: 3778: 3619: 3516:from the original on 12 November 2020 3489:from the original on 13 November 2020 2963:also had a significant impact on the 2028:, presenting a problem for Leopold II 1469:to attend their 1877 conference. The 1414:United States' involvement in Liberia 6135: 6114: 6101:Catalogue of the Edmund Morel papers 5831: 5279:Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), 5218:from the original on 26 August 2013. 4996:from the original on 31 October 2020 4957: 4401:, 1999. Octopus Publishing Group. 4369: 4187: 3799:from the original on 29 October 2020 3680: 3597:World Exploration From Ancient Times 3354: 3352: 3285:Grant, J.; Barker, J., eds. (2009). 3093: 1667:of Germany had vast new holdings in 1553: 1452:, or AIA), which he formed during a 1450:Association internationale africaine 1210:adding citations to reliable sources 1181: 1154:was widely read in the early 1900s. 1097:atrocities perpetrated on the locals 685:the Democratic Republic of the Congo 5671:Congo: The Epic History of a People 5467:from the original on 24 August 2018 5425:Hochschild, Adam (6 October 2005). 5324:from the original on 17 August 2020 5231:"The Congo From Leopold to Lumumba" 5175: 4388: 4262:. Congo: W. Thacker & Company. 3663: 3438: 3329:Lemarchand, Rene (28 April 2023) . 3146:and called for an apology from the 2179: 1789:Map of the Congo Free State in 1892 1640:"Principle of Effective Occupation" 1535:Association internationale du Congo 24: 5957:(in French), Brussels, 1885–1907, 5729: 5696:Bourne, Henry Richard Fox (1903). 5689: 5261:from the original on 7 August 2020 5082:The Ivory Leg in the Ebony Cabinet 4724:. Boston: P. R. Warren Co., p. 12. 4475:Thompson, T. Jack (October 2002). 4009: 3749:from the original on 10 March 2019 3453:from the original on 23 April 2021 3247:Anglo-Belgian India Rubber Company 2445:Atrocities in the Congo Free State 1248:travelled around the mouth of the 284:more than 200 indigenous languages 25: 6827: 6281:Transitional Government (2003–06) 6056: 5281:Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale 5163:from the original on 29 July 2020 5015:Füllberg-Stolberg, Katja (1999). 4507:from the original on 21 July 2021 4023:. Vol. 6. pp. 315–358. 3653:Sir Henry Morton Stanley (1978). 3624:. London: Routledge. p. 41. 3349: 3209:Districts of the Congo Free State 2213:rebels since the outbreak of the 1896:regions. They were linked to the 1780: 1512:International African Association 1442:International African Association 1308:International African Association 6796:1908 disestablishments in Africa 6190:Democratic Republic of the Congo 6155:, Royal Museum of Central Africa 5985: 5891:Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980 5841:South African Historical Journal 5814:How Europe Underdeveloped Africa 5522:(new ed.). London: Granta. 5487: 5449: 5350: 5306: 5295: 5286: 5273: 5243: 5223: 5052:The Congo from Leopold to Kabila 4967:South African Historical Journal 4828:Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980 4081:from the original on 31 May 2022 3952:Colonialism in Africa, 1870–1914 3913:from the original on 1 June 2022 3739:"Sanford Was Pawn In Congo Plot" 3188: 3174: 3160: 2720:Cartoon by British caricaturist 2577:allies of the Belgian commander 2423: 2411: 2399: 1950:Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1541:at Leopold's request, President 1436:Lobbying and claiming the region 1186: 1082:Democratic Republic of the Congo 970: 692: 661:Democratic Republic of the Congo 640: 615: 601: 587: 573: 559: 155: 100: 86: 6136:Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). 6115:Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). 6094:, 1905, by Marcus Dorman, from 6083:, by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle at 5718:Hinde, Sidney Langford (1897). 5206:Osborn, Andrew (13 July 2002). 5133: 5098: 5073: 5039: 5008: 4951: 4934: 4925: 4916: 4879: 4864: 4845: 4818: 4805: 4796: 4751: 4714: 4615: 4448: 4363: 4309: 4252: 4231: 4222: 4213: 4140: 4131: 4106: 4093: 4058: 4045: 4021:The Cambridge History of Africa 4000: 3970: 3940: 3888: 3772: 3761: 3731: 3646: 3613: 3588: 3543: 3501: 3262:Royal Museum for Central Africa 3257:Brussels Conference Act of 1890 3116:Royal Museum for Central Africa 3038:Equestrian Statue of Leopold II 2965:Congo Free State propaganda war 2708:Congo Free State propaganda war 1913:Early economics and concessions 1381:King Leopold II, to an aide in 1197:needs additional citations for 1178:Colonization of the Congo Basin 1134:Congo Free State propaganda war 6756:Belgian colonisation in Africa 6217:Colonial governors (1885–1960) 6032:George Grenfell and the Congo. 5912:; Pomerans, Arnold J. (1996). 5894:. Cambridge University Press. 5504:New International Encyclopedia 4149:The Journal of African History 4053:With Captain Stairs to Katanga 3743:tribunedigital-orlandosentinel 3675:New International Encyclopedia 3465: 3412: 3403: 3390: 3377: 3322: 3278: 2536: 2506:their own mothers and sisters. 1857:. In this he was supported by 1707:), later a secretary-general ( 1454:Brussels Geographic Conference 1300:Brussels Geographic Conference 1019:Independent State of the Congo 13: 1: 5871:University of Nebraska Press. 5736:Alexander, Nathan G. (2016). 5713:. London: R. A. Everett. 5482: 5314:"Congo Free State #24 (1894)" 4461:King Leopold's Rule in Africa 4237:Roger Louis, William (2006). 4184:Moloney (1893): Chapter X–XI. 4029:10.1017/CHOL9780521228039.009 3982:westerncivguides.umwblogs.org 2872:, then the British Consul at 2647: 2449: 2261:Economy during Leopold's rule 2135:Barghash bin Said of Zanzibar 1979:A decree in 1892 divided the 1975:company is shown in dark red. 1869:representative in the region. 1739:("Central Press Bureau"), in 1689: 1482:Comité d'Études du Haut-Congo 1171: 6298:M23 offensive (2022–present) 6271:Second Congo War (1998–2003) 6246:Congo-Léopoldville (1960–65) 6222:Congo Free State (1885–1908) 5874:Vandersmissen, Jan (2011). " 5867:Stanard, Matthew G. (2012). 5853:10.1080/02582473.2010.519937 5431:The New York Review of Books 5392:Journal of Genocide Research 4979:10.1080/02582473.2010.519937 4622:Edgerton, Robert B. (2002). 4399:The World's Worst Atrocities 4348:, pp. 161–162, 229–230. 3387:. London: Pinter. pp. 21–34. 3121:Journal of Genocide Research 3013:in the Congo, international 2990:new elections on the issue. 2142:Belgian Anti-Slavery Society 1847:British South Africa Company 1162:annexed the Congo Free State 7: 6811:Former monarchies of Africa 6413:Foreign policy under Mobutu 5790:Ó Síocháin, Séamas (2008). 5721:The Fall of the Congo Arabs 5710:The Curse of Central Africa 5627:Siefkes, Christian (2022). 4685:Burrows & Canisius 1903 4637:Burrows & Canisius 1903 4239:Ends of British Imperialism 3153: 1737:Bureau central de la presse 1471:International Law Institute 1463:International Law Institute 1279:, King of the Belgians and 948:Félix Tshisekedi presidency 10: 6832: 6256:State of Katanga (1960–63) 6109:London School of Economics 6064:Antwerp is a colonial city 5945:Additional primary sources 5427:"In the Heart of Darkness" 5283:, Brussels: Editions Mols. 5255:www.ohiohistorycentral.org 4493:10.1177/239693930202600401 3903:Journal of Belgian History 3656:Through the Dark Continent 3564:Cambridge University Press 2974: 2961:George Washington Williams 2705: 2540: 2442: 2183: 2095: 2010: 1743:under the auspices of the 1510:. Leopold established the 1323:Through the Dark Continent 1241:Early European exploration 1175: 6766:Former colonies in Africa 6702: 6650: 6582: 6573: 6516: 6507: 6383: 6374: 6317: 6308: 6266:First Congo War (1996–98) 6197: 6008:University College Dublin 5888:Vanthemsche, Guy (2012). 5799:Brazza: A Life for Africa 5794:. Dublin: Lilliput Press. 5674:. London: Fourth Estate. 5119:10.1017/S0010417512000242 5047:Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges 4825:Vanthemsche, Guy (2012). 4161:10.1017/s0021853700014110 3473:"Massacre in Congo State" 3048: 3042: 3028: 2884:in 1900, Casement wrote: 2319:, was completed in 1898. 1676:État Indépendant du Congo 1646:International recognition 1499:Prime Minister of Belgium 1027:État indépendant du Congo 802:Intl. African Association 656: 538: 525: 515: 505: 500: 490: 480: 470: 465: 461: 448: 435: 422: 409: 405: 395: 391: 376: 361: 357: 347: 343: 331: 327: 317: 307: 292: 259: 208: 193: 167: 146: 116: 82: 77: 59:Onafhankelijke Congostaat 44:État indépendant du Congo 34: 6388:Administrative divisions 6153:Archive Congo Free State 6118:"Congo Free State" 5190:19 November 2020 at the 4113:Frankema, Ewout (2013). 3272: 3222:King Leopold's Soliloquy 2950:Congo Reform Association 2902:Congo Reform Association 2796:Congo Reform Association 2722:Francis Carruthers Gould 2463:King Leopold's Soliloquy 2104:African and Arab slavers 1967:The concessions and the 1837:, Prime Minister of the 1807:administrative districts 1655:'s 1873 expedition from 1632:Central African Republic 1138:Congo Reform Association 938:Joseph Kabila presidency 6761:Former Belgian colonies 6293:M23 rebellion (2012–13) 6234:Belgian Congo (1908–60) 6145:Encyclopædia Britannica 6128:Encyclopædia Britannica 5818:Howard University Press 5812:Rodney, Walter (1974). 5797:Petringa, Maria (2006) 5702:. P. S. King & Son. 5648:Slade, Ruth M. (1962). 5610:The Scramble for Africa 5537:Forbath, Peter (1977). 5080:Cooley, Thomas (2001). 4370:Cook, Scott B. (1996). 4321:Encyclopædia Britannica 4202:5 February 2010 at the 3883:Gann & Duignan 1979 3871:Gann & Duignan 1979 3779:Dromi, Shai M. (2020). 3695:5 February 2010 at the 3583:Gann & Duignan 1979 3558:2 November 2020 at the 3295:Oxford University Press 2740:Edward Linley Sambourne 2702:International criticism 2688:Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem 2317:Matadi–Kinshasa Railway 2238:Dhanis' column mutinied 1969:Domaine de la Couronne. 1760:vice-gouverneur général 1358:King Leopold's campaign 521:3.8/km (9.8/sq mi) 6251:Congo Crisis (1960–65) 6212:Colonization (1867–85) 6080:The Crime of the Congo 5779:Morel, E. D. (1968). 5633:. New York: Berghahn. 5404:10.1080/14623520305651 5342:: CS1 maint: others ( 4940:Morel, E. D. (1968). 4889:African Studies Review 4857:31 August 2017 at the 3620:Ewans, Martin (2015). 3359:Gifford, Paul (1971). 3229:The Crime of the Congo 3065: 3053: 2986: 2890: 2817: 2807: 2777:William Henry Sheppard 2743: 2725: 2562: 2530: 2515:" In Forbath's words: 2508: 2479: 2391: 2352: 2303:allocation de retraite 2293: 2278: 2223:Louis-Napoléon Chaltin 2198: 2133:. Both Leopold II and 2131:Stanley Falls District 2029: 1997:Domaine de la Couronne 1976: 1938: 1922: 1790: 1723:(division chiefs) and 1705:administrateur-général 1699: 1567: 1534: 1491: 1481: 1449: 1378: 1354: 1337:Christian de Bonchamps 1286: 1281: 1151:The Crime of the Congo 1111:of the British Consul 1047:constitutional monarch 1026: 135: 125: 58: 43: 6816:Blue and yellow flags 6801:Leopold II of Belgium 6139:"Belgian Congo" 6045:Stanley, Henry Morton 5832:Roes, Aldwin (2010). 5768:. London: Routledge. 5764:Grant, Kevin (2005). 5750:De Roo, Bas (2017). " 5742:Britain and the World 5055:. Zed Books. p. 4902:10.1353/arw.2006.0081 4811:Vansina, Jan (2010). 4117:. London: Routledge. 3508:Vansina, Jan (2010). 3059: 3036: 2995:parliament of Belgium 2984: 2886: 2876:(at the mouth of the 2855:The West African Mail 2813: 2803: 2731: 2719: 2583:Sidney Langford Hinde 2550: 2517: 2496: 2459: 2439:Humanitarian disaster 2386: 2375:—a bull whip made of 2346: 2284: 2268: 2193: 2092:War with Arab slavers 2020: 1966: 1928: 1920: 1845:), was expanding his 1805:was split up into 14 1788: 1697: 1561: 1539:Henry Shelton Sanford 1487: 1465:and president of the 1406:Henry Shelton Sanford 1374: 1349: 1296:Leopold II of Belgium 1290:Stanley's exploration 1275: 492:• Water (%) 338:Leopold II of Belgium 260:Common languages 5666:Van Reybrouck, David 5358:"Let's Go to Africa" 5237:28 July 2020 at the 5143:Martial Frindéthié: 4871:Ndaywel è Nziem, I. 4758:Shelton, D. (2005). 4065:De Roo, Bas (2015). 3895:De Roo, Bas (2014). 3215:King Leopold's Ghost 3101:King Leopold's Ghost 2959:Individuals such as 2914:Booker T. Washington 2832:Blackwood's Magazine 2351:regiment, circa 1900 2255:Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 2123:Henry Morton Stanley 2074:William Grant Stairs 2007:Scramble for Katanga 1508:Henry Morton Stanley 1495:Walthère Frère-Orban 1369:most favoured nation 1351:Henry Morton Stanley 1315:Henry Morton Stanley 1206:improve this article 1061:by convincing other 1017:, also known as the 507:• 1907 estimate 244:5.85472°S 13.05667°E 18:The Congo Free State 4748:, pp. 230–231. 4736:, pp. 226–232. 4687:, pp. 206–209. 4639:, pp. 210–211. 4552:, pp. 174–175. 4528:, pp. 439–449. 4397:Cawthorne, Nigel. 4294:, pp. 525–526. 4194:René de Pont-Jest: 3844:, pp. 253–255. 3687:René de Pont-Jest: 3540:, pp. 225–233. 3129:The Memory of Congo 3086:through a silver 5 2642:pièce de résistance 2605:fighters "known as 1713:directeurs généraux 812:Intl. Congo Society 240: / 141:(Work and Progress) 6551:Telecommunications 6398:Court of Cassation 6362:Former place names 5926:Praeger Publishing 5910:Wesseling, Henk L. 5724:. London: Methuen. 5229:Birt, Whitaker R. 4610:Van Reybrouck 2014 3965:Van Reybrouck 2014 3482:. 5 January 1900. 3480:The New York Times 3447:"Congo Free State" 3148:Belgian government 3140:British Parliament 3114:reported that the 3070:Order of the Crown 3066: 3054: 3011:resource depletion 2987: 2935:Belgian Parliament 2931:British Parliament 2906:Arthur Conan Doyle 2818: 2808: 2744: 2726: 2585:, the conquest of 2563: 2480: 2476:John Hobbis Harris 2353: 2337:Hevea brasiliensis 2294: 2279: 2199: 2030: 1977: 1948:Shortly after the 1939: 1929:'La revue' of the 1923: 1791: 1764:Comité consultatif 1756:Gouverneur général 1721:chefs de divisions 1709:secrétaire-général 1700: 1570:In November 1884, 1568: 1355: 1287: 1159:Belgian Parliament 1146:Arthur Conan Doyle 1086:Belgian Parliament 1051:Kingdom of Belgium 952:2019–present 889:Congo–Léopoldville 452:Annexed by Belgium 249:-5.85472; 13.05667 186:Show map of Africa 126:Travail et progrès 6738: 6737: 6698: 6697: 6617:Human trafficking 6569: 6568: 6503: 6502: 6471:Political parties 6464:National Assembly 6408:Foreign relations 6370: 6369: 6105:Archives Division 6096:Project Gutenberg 6072:Heart of Darkness 6024:(1906). New York. 5998:Casement, Roger. 5935:978-0-275-95137-5 5901:978-0-521-19421-1 5807:978-1-4259-1198-0 5681:978-0-00-756290-9 5640:978-1-80073-613-9 5597:978-1-74329-160-3 5573:978-0-691-63181-3 5554:978-0-06-122490-4 4838:978-0-521-19421-1 4777:978-0-02-865849-0 4764:Detroit, Michigan 4720:Twain, M. (1905) 4612:, pp. 90–91. 4600:, pp. 80–85. 4247:978-1-84511-347-6 4219:Bennett and Brode 3984:. 27 March 2012. 3885:, pp. 94–95. 3873:, pp. 86–91. 3832:, pp. 12–15. 3342:978-0-520-33863-0 3304:978-0-19-538977-7 3236:Heart of Darkness 3138:presented to the 3094:Genocide question 2939:Emile Vandervelde 2912:, Joseph Conrad, 2837:Edmund Dene Morel 2826:Heart of Darkness 2786:Emile Vandervelde 2667:Sleeping sickness 2636:) in the eastern 2551:A Congolese man, 2158:Berlin Conference 2146:Hippolyte d'Ursel 2066:Stairs Expedition 2013:Stairs Expedition 1819:terres domaniales 1775:procureurs d'état 1628:Congo-Brazzaville 1616:Berlin Conference 1572:Otto von Bismarck 1564:Berlin Conference 1554:Berlin Conference 1543:Chester A. Arthur 1520:Berlin Conference 1461:as member of the 1426:John Tyler Morgan 1416:. This satisfied 1395:Chester A. Arthur 1319:David Livingstone 1267:sleeping sickness 1252:in 1482, leading 1238: 1237: 1230: 1125:Heart of Darkness 1067:Berlin Conference 1035:absolute monarchy 1011: 1010: 956: 955: 855: 854: 778: 777: 760:Kingdom of Chokwe 666: 665: 652: 651: 648: 647: 628: 627: 623:Tippu Tip's state 378:• 1900–1908 363:• 1885–1886 333:• 1885–1908 312:Absolute monarchy 160: 136:Werk en voortgang 16:(Redirected from 6823: 6751:Congo Free State 6718: 6711: 6580: 6579: 6541:Franc (currency) 6514: 6513: 6381: 6380: 6315: 6314: 6183: 6176: 6169: 6160: 6159: 6149: 6141: 6132: 6120: 5990: 5989: 5983: 5977: 5969: 5939: 5905: 5884:, pp. 7–57. 5864: 5838: 5725: 5714: 5703: 5685: 5661: 5644: 5623: 5606:Pakenham, Thomas 5601: 5582:Hochschild, Adam 5577: 5558: 5545:Harper & Row 5533: 5508: 5491: 5490: 5477: 5476: 5474: 5472: 5453: 5447: 5446: 5444: 5442: 5422: 5416: 5415: 5387: 5378: 5377: 5375: 5373: 5354: 5348: 5347: 5341: 5333: 5331: 5329: 5310: 5304: 5299: 5293: 5290: 5284: 5277: 5271: 5270: 5268: 5266: 5247: 5241: 5227: 5221: 5219: 5203: 5194: 5179: 5173: 5172: 5170: 5168: 5137: 5131: 5130: 5102: 5096: 5095: 5077: 5071: 5070: 5043: 5037: 5036: 5012: 5006: 5005: 5003: 5001: 4995: 4964: 4958:Roes, A (2010). 4955: 4949: 4938: 4932: 4929: 4923: 4920: 4914: 4913: 4883: 4877: 4876: 4868: 4862: 4849: 4843: 4842: 4822: 4816: 4809: 4803: 4800: 4794: 4788: 4782: 4781: 4755: 4749: 4743: 4737: 4731: 4725: 4718: 4712: 4706: 4700: 4694: 4688: 4682: 4676: 4670: 4664: 4658: 4652: 4646: 4640: 4634: 4628: 4627: 4619: 4613: 4607: 4601: 4595: 4589: 4583: 4577: 4571: 4565: 4559: 4553: 4547: 4541: 4535: 4529: 4523: 4517: 4516: 4514: 4512: 4472: 4466: 4465: 4456:Morel, Edmund D. 4452: 4446: 4440: 4434: 4428: 4422: 4416: 4410: 4395: 4386: 4385: 4367: 4361: 4355: 4349: 4343: 4337: 4336: 4334: 4332: 4313: 4307: 4301: 4295: 4289: 4283: 4277: 4271: 4256: 4250: 4235: 4229: 4226: 4220: 4217: 4211: 4208:Le Tour du Monde 4191: 4185: 4182: 4173: 4172: 4144: 4138: 4135: 4129: 4128: 4110: 4104: 4097: 4091: 4090: 4088: 4086: 4062: 4056: 4051:Joseph Moloney: 4049: 4043: 4042: 4016: 4007: 4004: 3998: 3997: 3995: 3993: 3974: 3968: 3962: 3956: 3955: 3944: 3938: 3932: 3923: 3922: 3920: 3918: 3900: 3892: 3886: 3880: 3874: 3868: 3857: 3851: 3845: 3839: 3833: 3827: 3821: 3815: 3809: 3808: 3806: 3804: 3776: 3770: 3765: 3759: 3758: 3756: 3754: 3735: 3729: 3723: 3717: 3711: 3705: 3701:Le Tour du Monde 3684: 3678: 3672: 3661: 3660: 3650: 3644: 3643: 3617: 3611: 3610: 3592: 3586: 3580: 3574: 3566:, 1982, p. 748. 3547: 3541: 3535: 3526: 3525: 3523: 3521: 3505: 3499: 3498: 3496: 3494: 3488: 3477: 3469: 3463: 3462: 3460: 3458: 3442: 3436: 3435: 3433: 3431: 3416: 3410: 3407: 3401: 3394: 3388: 3381: 3375: 3374: 3356: 3347: 3346: 3326: 3320: 3319: 3313: 3311: 3287:"personal union" 3282: 3198: 3193: 3192: 3191: 3184: 3179: 3178: 3177: 3170: 3165: 3164: 3163: 3136:early day motion 3060:The Monument to 3051: 3050: 3045: 3044: 3007:Colonial Charter 2918:Bertrand Russell 2866:Berlin Agreement 2862:House of Commons 2781:William Morrison 2514: 2427: 2415: 2403: 2324:John Boyd Dunlop 2271:tropical forests 2180:The Lado Enclave 2168:came to an end. 1841:(part of modern 1725:chefs de bureaux 1669:southwest Africa 1502: 1385: 1284: 1233: 1226: 1222: 1219: 1213: 1190: 1182: 1059:seize the region 1015:Congo Free State 1003: 996: 989: 975: 974: 973: 928:Second Congo War 861: 860: 822:Congo Free State 784: 783: 740:Kingdom of Lunda 720:Kingdom of Kongo 702: 701: 696: 686: 668: 667: 644: 643: 632: 631: 619: 618: 605: 604: 591: 590: 577: 576: 563: 562: 556: 555: 540: 539: 534: 457:15 November 1908 381: 366: 349:Governor-General 275: 255: 254: 252: 251: 250: 245: 241: 238: 237: 236: 233: 224: 217: 187: 184: 177: 174: 162: 161: 104: 90: 69: 61: 54: 46: 36:Congo Free State 32: 31: 21: 6831: 6830: 6826: 6825: 6824: 6822: 6821: 6820: 6741: 6740: 6739: 6734: 6721: 6714: 6707: 6694: 6690:Public holidays 6646: 6565: 6499: 6437:Law enforcement 6366: 6304: 6261:Zaire (1965–97) 6193: 6187: 6067:, by Bas De Roo 6059: 6054: 6041:(1912). London. 6034:2 vols. London. 6028:Johnston, Harry 5984: 5971: 5970: 5951: 5947: 5942: 5936: 5902: 5836: 5801:. AuthorHouse. 5785:Clarendon Press 5732: 5730:Further reading 5692: 5690:Primary sources 5682: 5641: 5620: 5598: 5574: 5555: 5530: 5514:Ascherson, Neal 5485: 5480: 5470: 5468: 5455: 5454: 5450: 5440: 5438: 5423: 5419: 5388: 5381: 5371: 5369: 5356: 5355: 5351: 5335: 5334: 5327: 5325: 5312: 5311: 5307: 5300: 5296: 5291: 5287: 5278: 5274: 5264: 5262: 5249: 5248: 5244: 5239:Wayback Machine 5228: 5224: 5204: 5197: 5192:Wayback Machine 5180: 5176: 5166: 5164: 5157: 5138: 5134: 5103: 5099: 5092: 5078: 5074: 5067: 5044: 5040: 5033: 5013: 5009: 4999: 4997: 4993: 4962: 4956: 4952: 4946:Clarendon Press 4939: 4935: 4930: 4926: 4921: 4917: 4884: 4880: 4869: 4865: 4859:Wayback Machine 4850: 4846: 4839: 4823: 4819: 4810: 4806: 4801: 4797: 4789: 4785: 4778: 4770:. p. 621. 4756: 4752: 4746:Hochschild 2006 4744: 4740: 4734:Hochschild 2006 4732: 4728: 4719: 4715: 4707: 4703: 4695: 4691: 4683: 4679: 4671: 4667: 4659: 4655: 4647: 4643: 4635: 4631: 4620: 4616: 4608: 4604: 4596: 4592: 4584: 4580: 4572: 4568: 4560: 4556: 4548: 4544: 4536: 4532: 4524: 4520: 4510: 4508: 4473: 4469: 4453: 4449: 4441: 4437: 4429: 4425: 4419:Hochschild 2006 4417: 4413: 4396: 4389: 4382: 4368: 4364: 4358:Hochschild 2006 4356: 4352: 4346:Hochschild 2006 4344: 4340: 4330: 4328: 4315: 4314: 4310: 4302: 4298: 4290: 4286: 4278: 4274: 4257: 4253: 4236: 4232: 4227: 4223: 4218: 4214: 4204:Wayback Machine 4192: 4188: 4183: 4176: 4145: 4141: 4136: 4132: 4125: 4111: 4107: 4098: 4094: 4084: 4082: 4063: 4059: 4050: 4046: 4039: 4017: 4010: 4005: 4001: 3991: 3989: 3976: 3975: 3971: 3963: 3959: 3945: 3941: 3933: 3926: 3916: 3914: 3893: 3889: 3881: 3877: 3869: 3860: 3854:Hochschild 2006 3852: 3848: 3840: 3836: 3828: 3824: 3816: 3812: 3802: 3800: 3793: 3777: 3773: 3766: 3762: 3752: 3750: 3737: 3736: 3732: 3724: 3720: 3714:Hochschild 2006 3712: 3708: 3697:Wayback Machine 3685: 3681: 3673: 3664: 3651: 3647: 3632: 3618: 3614: 3607: 3593: 3589: 3581: 3577: 3560:Wayback Machine 3548: 3544: 3538:Hochschild 2006 3536: 3529: 3519: 3517: 3506: 3502: 3492: 3490: 3486: 3475: 3471: 3470: 3466: 3456: 3454: 3445: 3443: 3439: 3429: 3427: 3418: 3417: 3413: 3408: 3404: 3395: 3391: 3382: 3378: 3371: 3357: 3350: 3343: 3327: 3323: 3309: 3307: 3305: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3194: 3189: 3187: 3180: 3175: 3173: 3166: 3161: 3159: 3156: 3106:Adam Hochschild 3096: 3031: 2979: 2973: 2898:Casement Report 2798: 2714: 2712:Casement Report 2706:Main articles: 2704: 2675:Adam Hochschild 2655:Edmund D. Morel 2650: 2545: 2539: 2512: 2452: 2447: 2441: 2434: 2428: 2419: 2416: 2407: 2404: 2263: 2243:Battle of Rejaf 2188: 2186:Battle of Rejaf 2182: 2176:work projects. 2150:chattel slavery 2100: 2094: 2015: 2009: 1981:terres vacantes 1943:terres vacantes 1915: 1783: 1692: 1648: 1614:) attended the 1576:Austria-Hungary 1556: 1504: 1493: 1459:Gustave Moynier 1438: 1387: 1380: 1360: 1292: 1243: 1234: 1223: 1217: 1214: 1203: 1191: 1180: 1174: 1109:Casement Report 1043:King Leopold II 1029:), was a large 1007: 971: 969: 942:2001–2019 932:1998–2003 922:1996–1997 918:First Congo War 912:1971–1997 893:1960–1971 883:1960–1965 872:post–1960 851:1940–1945 841:1908–1960 831:1885–1908 816:1879–1885 806:1876–1879 795:1876–1960 774:1856–1891 764:1800–1891 754:1625–1884 744:1600–1887 734:1585–1889 730:Kingdom of Luba 724:1390–1914 684: 677: 641: 616: 602: 588: 574: 560: 532: 530:Congolese franc 518: 508: 493: 483: 473: 454: 441: 439:Battle of Rejaf 428: 415: 400:New Imperialism 386:Théophile Wahis 382: 379: 371:F. W. de Winton 367: 364: 334: 288: 269: 248: 246: 242: 239: 234: 231: 229: 227: 226: 225: 222: 218: 215: 189: 188: 185: 178: 163: 156: 139: 129: 112: 111: 110: 105: 97: 96: 91: 73: 72: 63: 48: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6829: 6819: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6778: 6773: 6768: 6763: 6758: 6753: 6736: 6735: 6733: 6732: 6727: 6720: 6719: 6712: 6704: 6703: 6700: 6699: 6696: 6695: 6693: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6656: 6654: 6648: 6647: 6645: 6644: 6639: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6599: 6594: 6589: 6587:Child marriage 6583: 6577: 6571: 6570: 6567: 6566: 6564: 6563: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6517: 6511: 6505: 6504: 6501: 6500: 6498: 6497: 6496: 6495: 6488:Prime Minister 6485: 6484: 6483: 6473: 6468: 6467: 6466: 6461: 6451: 6450: 6449: 6447:Chief of Staff 6439: 6434: 6433: 6432: 6422: 6417: 6416: 6415: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6390: 6384: 6378: 6372: 6371: 6368: 6367: 6365: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6318: 6312: 6306: 6305: 6303: 6302: 6301: 6300: 6295: 6285: 6284: 6283: 6273: 6268: 6263: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6242: 6241: 6231: 6230: 6229: 6219: 6214: 6209: 6203: 6201: 6195: 6194: 6192: articles 6186: 6185: 6178: 6171: 6163: 6157: 6156: 6150: 6133: 6123:Chisholm, Hugh 6112: 6098: 6087: 6076: 6068: 6058: 6057:External links 6055: 6053: 6052: 6042: 6035: 6025: 6019: 5996: 5993:via HathiTrust 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5940: 5934: 5906: 5900: 5885: 5872: 5865: 5847:(4): 634–670. 5829: 5810: 5795: 5788: 5777: 5762: 5748: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5727: 5726: 5715: 5704: 5691: 5688: 5687: 5686: 5680: 5662: 5645: 5639: 5624: 5618: 5602: 5596: 5578: 5572: 5559: 5553: 5534: 5528: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5478: 5448: 5417: 5379: 5349: 5305: 5294: 5285: 5272: 5242: 5222: 5195: 5174: 5155: 5132: 5097: 5090: 5072: 5065: 5038: 5031: 5007: 4950: 4948:, pp. 252–257. 4933: 4924: 4915: 4896:(1): 179–181. 4878: 4863: 4844: 4837: 4817: 4804: 4795: 4783: 4776: 4750: 4738: 4726: 4713: 4711:, p. 105. 4701: 4699:, p. 368. 4689: 4677: 4675:, p. 116. 4665: 4663:, p. 115. 4653: 4641: 4629: 4614: 4602: 4590: 4578: 4576:, p. 115. 4566: 4564:, p. 439. 4554: 4542: 4530: 4518: 4467: 4447: 4445:, p. 374. 4435: 4433:, p. 253. 4423: 4421:, p. 166. 4411: 4387: 4380: 4362: 4360:, p. 161. 4350: 4338: 4317:"Lado Enclave" 4308: 4306:, p. 232. 4296: 4284: 4282:, p. 230. 4272: 4251: 4241:. 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Fage, 3542: 3527: 3500: 3464: 3437: 3411: 3402: 3389: 3376: 3369: 3348: 3341: 3321: 3303: 3276: 3274: 3271: 3270: 3269: 3264: 3259: 3254: 3249: 3244: 3239: 3232: 3225: 3218: 3211: 3206: 3200: 3199: 3185: 3182:Belgium portal 3171: 3168:History portal 3155: 3152: 3095: 3092: 3077:postage stamps 3062:General Storms 3043:Place du Trône 3030: 3027: 2975:Main article: 2972: 2969: 2882:Foreign Office 2870:Roger Casement 2850:Force Publique 2845:Elder Dempster 2843:shipping firm 2805:Roger Casement 2797: 2794: 2757:Southeast Asia 2703: 2700: 2663:Roger Casement 2649: 2646: 2579:Francis Dhanis 2571:Congo Arab war 2558:Force Publique 2538: 2535: 2526:Force Publique 2521:Force Publique 2451: 2448: 2443:Main article: 2440: 2437: 2436: 2435: 2429: 2422: 2420: 2417: 2410: 2408: 2405: 2398: 2381:Force Publique 2358:Force Publique 2349:Force Publique 2262: 2259: 2195:Francis Dhanis 2184:Main article: 2181: 2178: 2173:Force Publique 2166:Congo Arab war 2129:(wali) of the 2098:Congo Arab war 2096:Main article: 2093: 2090: 2011:Main article: 2008: 2005: 1931:Force Publique 1914: 1911: 1910: 1909: 1870: 1859:Harry Johnston 1832: 1829: 1782: 1781:Leopold's rule 1779: 1715:), directors ( 1691: 1688: 1659:to bring home 1647: 1644: 1620:personal union 1608:Ottoman Empire 1600:United Kingdom 1555: 1552: 1486: 1437: 1434: 1399:Welsh-American 1373: 1359: 1356: 1291: 1288: 1242: 1239: 1236: 1235: 1194: 1192: 1185: 1176:Main article: 1173: 1170: 1113:Roger Casement 1065:states at the 1055:personal union 1039:Central Africa 1009: 1008: 1006: 1005: 998: 991: 983: 980: 979: 966: 965: 958: 957: 954: 953: 950: 944: 943: 940: 934: 933: 930: 924: 923: 920: 914: 913: 910: 895: 894: 891: 885: 884: 881: 875: 874: 869: 857: 856: 853: 852: 849: 843: 842: 839: 833: 832: 829: 818: 817: 814: 808: 807: 804: 798: 797: 792: 780: 779: 776: 775: 772: 766: 765: 762: 756: 755: 752: 746: 745: 742: 736: 735: 732: 726: 725: 722: 716: 715: 713:pre–1876 710: 698: 697: 689: 688: 679: 678: 671: 664: 663: 658: 654: 653: 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6296: 6294: 6291: 6290: 6289: 6288:Kivu conflict 6286: 6282: 6279: 6278: 6277: 6274: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6244: 6240: 6237: 6236: 6235: 6232: 6228: 6225: 6224: 6223: 6220: 6218: 6215: 6213: 6210: 6208: 6207:Early history 6205: 6204: 6202: 6200: 6196: 6191: 6184: 6179: 6177: 6172: 6170: 6165: 6164: 6161: 6154: 6151: 6147: 6146: 6140: 6134: 6130: 6129: 6124: 6119: 6113: 6110: 6106: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6093: 6092: 6088: 6086: 6082: 6081: 6077: 6074: 6073: 6069: 6066: 6065: 6061: 6060: 6050: 6046: 6043: 6040: 6036: 6033: 6029: 6026: 6023: 6020: 6017: 6016:1-900621-99-1 6013: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5994: 5988: 5981: 5975: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5955: 5950: 5949: 5937: 5931: 5927: 5923: 5919: 5915: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5897: 5893: 5892: 5886: 5883: 5882: 5877: 5873: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5842: 5835: 5830: 5827: 5826:0-88258-013-2 5823: 5819: 5815: 5811: 5808: 5804: 5800: 5796: 5793: 5789: 5786: 5782: 5778: 5775: 5774:0-415-94901-7 5771: 5767: 5763: 5760: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5747:(2): 213–235. 5746: 5743: 5739: 5735: 5734: 5723: 5722: 5716: 5712: 5711: 5705: 5701: 5700: 5694: 5693: 5683: 5677: 5673: 5672: 5667: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5646: 5642: 5636: 5632: 5631: 5625: 5621: 5619:0-349-10449-2 5615: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5599: 5593: 5589: 5588: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5569: 5565: 5560: 5556: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5541: 5535: 5531: 5529:1-86207-290-6 5525: 5521: 5520: 5515: 5511: 5510: 5509: 5506: 5505: 5500: 5499:Gilman, D. C. 5495: 5494:public domain 5466: 5462: 5461:UK Parliament 5458: 5452: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5421: 5413: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5386: 5384: 5367: 5363: 5359: 5353: 5345: 5339: 5323: 5319: 5318:A Stamp A Day 5315: 5309: 5303: 5298: 5289: 5282: 5276: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5246: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5226: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5202: 5200: 5193: 5189: 5186: 5183: 5178: 5162: 5158: 5156:9780786453566 5152: 5149:. McFarland. 5148: 5147: 5144: 5136: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5101: 5093: 5091:1-55849-284-4 5087: 5083: 5076: 5068: 5066:1-84277-053-5 5062: 5058: 5054: 5053: 5048: 5042: 5034: 5032:0-19-512641-6 5028: 5024: 5020: 5019: 5011: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4961: 4954: 4947: 4943: 4937: 4928: 4919: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4890: 4882: 4874: 4867: 4860: 4856: 4853: 4848: 4840: 4834: 4830: 4829: 4821: 4814: 4808: 4799: 4792: 4787: 4779: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4754: 4747: 4742: 4735: 4730: 4723: 4717: 4710: 4705: 4698: 4693: 4686: 4681: 4674: 4669: 4662: 4657: 4651:, p. 78. 4650: 4645: 4638: 4633: 4625: 4618: 4611: 4606: 4599: 4594: 4588:, p. 69. 4587: 4582: 4575: 4570: 4563: 4562:Pakenham 1991 4558: 4551: 4546: 4540:, p. 79. 4539: 4534: 4527: 4526:Pakenham 1991 4522: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4471: 4463: 4462: 4457: 4451: 4444: 4439: 4432: 4427: 4420: 4415: 4408: 4407:0-7537-0090-5 4404: 4400: 4394: 4392: 4383: 4381:9780673992291 4377: 4373: 4366: 4359: 4354: 4347: 4342: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4312: 4305: 4300: 4293: 4292:Pakenham 1991 4288: 4281: 4276: 4269: 4268:0-217-57889-6 4265: 4261: 4255: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4234: 4225: 4216: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4198: 4197: 4190: 4181: 4179: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4143: 4134: 4126: 4124:9780415521741 4120: 4116: 4109: 4102: 4096: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4061: 4054: 4048: 4040: 4038:9781139054607 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4015: 4013: 4003: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3973: 3966: 3961: 3953: 3949: 3943: 3936: 3931: 3929: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3899: 3891: 3884: 3879: 3872: 3867: 3865: 3863: 3856:, p. 81. 3855: 3850: 3843: 3842:Pakenham 1991 3838: 3831: 3830:Pakenham 1991 3826: 3819: 3814: 3798: 3794: 3792:9780226680101 3788: 3784: 3783: 3775: 3769: 3764: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3734: 3727: 3726:Pakenham 1991 3722: 3716:, p. 58. 3715: 3710: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3691: 3690: 3683: 3676: 3671: 3669: 3667: 3658: 3657: 3649: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3627: 3623: 3616: 3608: 3606:9781615354559 3602: 3598: 3591: 3584: 3579: 3573: 3572:0-521-22803-4 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3554: 3553: 3546: 3539: 3534: 3532: 3515: 3511: 3504: 3485: 3481: 3474: 3468: 3452: 3448: 3441: 3425: 3421: 3415: 3406: 3399: 3393: 3386: 3380: 3372: 3370:9780300012897 3366: 3362: 3355: 3353: 3344: 3338: 3334: 3333: 3325: 3318: 3306: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3281: 3277: 3268: 3265: 3263: 3260: 3258: 3255: 3253: 3250: 3248: 3245: 3243: 3240: 3238: 3237: 3233: 3231: 3230: 3226: 3224: 3223: 3219: 3217: 3216: 3212: 3210: 3207: 3205: 3202: 3201: 3197: 3186: 3183: 3172: 3169: 3158: 3151: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3132: 3130: 3125: 3122: 3117: 3113: 3112: 3107: 3103: 3102: 3091: 3089: 3085: 3080: 3078: 3073: 3071: 3063: 3058: 3039: 3035: 3026: 3024: 3023:paternalistic 3019: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3003:Belgian Congo 3000: 2996: 2991: 2983: 2978: 2977:Belgian Congo 2968: 2966: 2962: 2957: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2942: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2927: 2926:cause célèbre 2921: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2889: 2885: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2858: 2856: 2852: 2851: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2833: 2828: 2827: 2822: 2821:Joseph Conrad 2816: 2812: 2806: 2802: 2793: 2789: 2787: 2782: 2778: 2773: 2769: 2766: 2762: 2761:Latin America 2758: 2753: 2750: 2741: 2737: 2736: 2730: 2723: 2718: 2713: 2709: 2699: 2695: 2693: 2689: 2683: 2680: 2676: 2670: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2645: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2630: 2627: 2623: 2622:Aruwimi River 2618: 2616: 2615:Mongala River 2611: 2608: 2604: 2598: 2594: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2567: 2560: 2559: 2554: 2549: 2544: 2534: 2529: 2527: 2522: 2516: 2507: 2505: 2501: 2495: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2477: 2473: 2470:'s political 2469: 2465: 2464: 2458: 2454: 2446: 2433: 2426: 2421: 2414: 2409: 2402: 2397: 2396: 2395: 2390: 2385: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2373: 2366: 2364: 2360: 2359: 2350: 2345: 2341: 2339: 2338: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2320: 2318: 2312: 2309: 2308:Domaine Privé 2304: 2299: 2292: 2288: 2283: 2276: 2272: 2267: 2258: 2256: 2252: 2251:Belgian Congo 2248: 2244: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2226: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2196: 2192: 2187: 2177: 2174: 2169: 2167: 2161: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2138: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2119: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2099: 2089: 2086: 2082: 2077: 2075: 2071: 2068:, led by the 2067: 2063: 2060:on behalf of 2059: 2058:Alfred Sharpe 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2042:Lualaba River 2040:on the upper 2039: 2035: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2014: 2004: 2002: 2001:Domaine Privé 1998: 1993: 1991: 1990:Domaine Privé 1985: 1982: 1974: 1971:The infamous 1970: 1965: 1961: 1959: 1953: 1951: 1946: 1944: 1936: 1932: 1927: 1919: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1898:Swahili coast 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1855:Berlin Treaty 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1833: 1830: 1827: 1826: 1825: 1822: 1820: 1814: 1810: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1787: 1778: 1776: 1772: 1767: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1752: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1732: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1696: 1687: 1685: 1684:Domaine Privé 1681: 1680:roi souverain 1677: 1672: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1643: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1623: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1612:United States 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1565: 1560: 1551: 1548: 1547:United States 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1523: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1503: 1500: 1496: 1490: 1485: 1483: 1479: 1474: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1433: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1402: 1400: 1396: 1391: 1386: 1384: 1377: 1372: 1370: 1364: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1331: 1326: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1283: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1232: 1229: 1221: 1218:February 2013 1211: 1207: 1201: 1200: 1195:This section 1193: 1189: 1184: 1183: 1179: 1169: 1167: 1166:Belgian Congo 1163: 1160: 1155: 1153: 1152: 1148:, whose book 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1130:forced labour 1127: 1126: 1121: 1120:Joseph Conrad 1116: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1093: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1078: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1004: 999: 997: 992: 990: 985: 984: 982: 981: 978: 968: 967: 964: 960: 959: 951: 949: 946: 945: 941: 939: 936: 935: 931: 929: 926: 925: 921: 919: 916: 915: 911: 908: 904: 900: 897: 896: 892: 890: 887: 886: 882: 880: 877: 876: 873: 870: 868: 867: 863: 862: 859: 858: 850: 848: 845: 844: 840: 838: 837:Belgian Congo 835: 834: 830: 827: 823: 820: 819: 815: 813: 810: 809: 805: 803: 800: 799: 796: 793: 791: 790: 786: 785: 782: 781: 773: 771: 768: 767: 763: 761: 758: 757: 753: 751: 748: 747: 743: 741: 738: 737: 733: 731: 728: 727: 723: 721: 718: 717: 714: 711: 709: 708: 707:Early history 704: 703: 700: 699: 695: 691: 690: 687: 681: 680: 675: 670: 669: 662: 659: 657:Today part of 655: 639: 637: 636:Belgian Congo 634: 633: 630: 624: 621: 614: 613: 610: 607: 600: 599: 596: 593: 586: 585: 582: 579: 572: 571: 568: 565: 558: 557: 554: 553: 550: 547: 545: 542: 541: 537: 531: 528: 524: 520: 514: 510: 504: 499: 495: 489: 485: 479: 475: 469: 464: 460: 456: 453: 447: 443: 440: 434: 430: 427: 421: 417: 414: 408: 404: 401: 398: 394: 390: 387: 384: 375: 372: 369: 360: 356: 352: 350: 346: 342: 339: 336: 330: 326: 322: 320: 316: 313: 310: 306: 302: 298: 295: 291: 285: 282: 280: 277: 273: 268: 265: 264: 262: 258: 253: 221: 214: 211: 207: 204: 200: 196: 192: 183: 173: 166: 153: 152:Vers l'avenir 149: 145: 142: 138: 137: 133: 128: 127: 123: 119: 115: 109: 103: 95: 89: 81: 76: 67: 60: 56: 52: 45: 41: 40: 33: 30: 19: 6627:Prostitution 6602:Demographics 6526:Central Bank 6425:Human rights 6393:Constitution 6327:Conservation 6239:World War II 6221: 6143: 6126: 6090: 6085:Google Books 6079: 6070: 6062: 6048: 6038: 6031: 6021: 6003: 5999: 5965:– via 5953: 5913: 5890: 5879: 5868: 5844: 5840: 5813: 5798: 5791: 5780: 5765: 5761:(2): 97–126. 5758: 5755: 5744: 5741: 5720: 5709: 5698: 5670: 5649: 5629: 5609: 5586: 5563: 5543:. New York: 5539: 5518: 5502: 5486: 5469:. Retrieved 5460: 5451: 5439:. Retrieved 5430: 5420: 5395: 5391: 5370:. Retrieved 5361: 5352: 5328:11 September 5326:. Retrieved 5317: 5308: 5297: 5288: 5280: 5275: 5263:. Retrieved 5254: 5245: 5225: 5212:The Guardian 5211: 5182:R. J. Rummel 5177: 5165:. Retrieved 5146: 5142: 5135: 5110: 5106: 5100: 5081: 5075: 5051: 5041: 5017: 5010: 5000:23 September 4998:. Retrieved 4970: 4966: 4953: 4941: 4936: 4927: 4918: 4893: 4887: 4881: 4872: 4866: 4847: 4827: 4820: 4812: 4807: 4798: 4791:Forbath 1977 4786: 4759: 4753: 4741: 4729: 4721: 4716: 4704: 4697:Forbath 1977 4692: 4680: 4673:Siefkes 2022 4668: 4661:Siefkes 2022 4656: 4649:Siefkes 2022 4644: 4632: 4623: 4617: 4605: 4598:Siefkes 2022 4593: 4581: 4569: 4557: 4545: 4538:Siefkes 2022 4533: 4521: 4509:. Retrieved 4487:(4): 146–9. 4484: 4480: 4470: 4460: 4450: 4443:Forbath 1977 4438: 4426: 4414: 4398: 4371: 4365: 4353: 4341: 4329:. Retrieved 4320: 4311: 4299: 4287: 4275: 4259: 4254: 4238: 4233: 4224: 4215: 4207: 4195: 4189: 4152: 4148: 4142: 4133: 4114: 4108: 4100: 4095: 4083:. Retrieved 4074: 4070: 4060: 4052: 4047: 4020: 4002: 3992:11 September 3990:. Retrieved 3981: 3972: 3960: 3951: 3942: 3915:. Retrieved 3906: 3902: 3890: 3878: 3849: 3837: 3825: 3813: 3801:. Retrieved 3781: 3774: 3763: 3751:. Retrieved 3742: 3733: 3721: 3709: 3700: 3688: 3682: 3674: 3655: 3648: 3621: 3615: 3596: 3590: 3578: 3551: 3545: 3518:. Retrieved 3503: 3491:. Retrieved 3479: 3467: 3455:. Retrieved 3440: 3428:. Retrieved 3423: 3414: 3405: 3397: 3392: 3384: 3379: 3360: 3331: 3324: 3315: 3308:. Retrieved 3290: 3280: 3242:Lado Enclave 3234: 3227: 3220: 3213: 3133: 3128: 3126: 3120: 3111:The Guardian 3109: 3099: 3097: 3081: 3074: 3067: 2992: 2988: 2958: 2943: 2937:, pushed by 2924: 2922: 2894:Herbert Ward 2891: 2887: 2859: 2854: 2848: 2830: 2824: 2819: 2790: 2772:Missionaries 2770: 2754: 2745: 2733: 2696: 2684: 2671: 2651: 2631: 2626:dugout canoe 2619: 2612: 2599: 2595: 2591:Gongo Lutete 2564: 2556: 2531: 2525: 2520: 2518: 2509: 2497: 2492:Stanley Pool 2481: 2461: 2453: 2392: 2387: 2380: 2377:hippopotamus 2370: 2367: 2356: 2354: 2348: 2335: 2321: 2313: 2307: 2302: 2295: 2227: 2219:Baron Dhanis 2203:Lado Enclave 2200: 2172: 2170: 2162: 2139: 2120: 2101: 2078: 2062:Cecil Rhodes 2049: 2034:Yeke Kingdom 2031: 2022:Cecil Rhodes 2000: 1996: 1994: 1989: 1986: 1980: 1978: 1968: 1954: 1947: 1942: 1940: 1843:South Africa 1835:Cecil Rhodes 1823: 1818: 1815: 1811: 1794: 1792: 1774: 1768: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1753: 1748: 1747:(in German, 1744: 1736: 1733: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1701: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1673: 1649: 1624: 1569: 1524: 1505: 1492: 1488: 1475: 1439: 1429: 1403: 1392: 1388: 1379: 1375: 1365: 1361: 1335: 1330:Stanley Pool 1327: 1322: 1313: 1293: 1244: 1224: 1215: 1204:Please help 1199:verification 1196: 1156: 1149: 1123: 1117: 1094: 1088:reluctantly 1079: 1018: 1014: 1012: 905: / 879:Congo Crisis 871: 866:Independence 864: 847:World War II 821: 794: 789:Colonization 787: 770:Yeke Kingdom 750:Kuba Kingdom 712: 705: 609:Yeke Kingdom 581:Luba Kingdom 549:Succeeded by 548: 543: 482:• Water 472:• Total 300: 147: 140: 130: 120: 118:Motto: 117: 108:Coat of arms 29: 6521:Agriculture 6075:, the novel 5922:Connecticut 5471:10 December 5372:10 December 4431:Bourne 1903 4304:Bourne 1903 4280:Bourne 1903 3520:14 December 3512:. Madison. 3444:Britannica: 3430:19 February 2946:E. D. Morel 2878:Congo River 2765:plantations 2738:cartoon by 2679:Jan Vansina 2566:Cannibalism 2537:Cannibalism 2488:Léon Fiévez 2215:Mahdist War 2085:Omer Bodson 2026:Congo basin 1839:Cape Colony 1803:Congo Basin 1795:association 1661:Livingstone 1516:Congo River 1298:hosted the 1250:Congo River 1142:E. D. Morel 1075:Congo Basin 683:History of 544:Preceded by 533:(1887–1908) 418:1 July 1885 413:Established 297:Catholicism 247: / 223:(1886–1908) 216:(1885–1886) 6745:Categories 6592:Corruption 6454:Parliament 6420:Government 6337:Ecoregions 6227:Atrocities 5612:. Abacus. 5483:References 5265:1 December 5167:20 October 5113:(3): 597. 4709:Morel 1905 4586:Hinde 1897 4574:Slade 1962 4550:Hinde 1897 3935:Slade 1962 3753:1 December 3640:1014377418 3493:5 December 3426:(in Dutch) 3052:, Brussels 3049:Troonplein 2910:Mark Twain 2815:E.D. Morel 2659:Mark Twain 2648:Death toll 2607:Zappo Zaps 2541:See also: 2468:Mark Twain 2450:Mutilation 2347:A typical 2197:, ca. 1900 2114:strongman 2072:mercenary 1958:Berlin Act 1890:Tanganyika 1865:, who was 1717:directeurs 1690:Government 1610:, and the 1501:, 1878–84. 1497:, Liberal 1277:Leopold II 1261:, swamps, 1259:rainforest 1172:Background 977:DRC Portal 961:See also: 826:Atrocities 501:Population 308:Government 235:13°03′24″E 232:05°51′17″S 176:Show globe 6622:Languages 6607:Education 6561:Transport 6531:Companies 6476:President 6403:Elections 6352:Volcanoes 6342:Mountains 6310:Geography 5861:144843155 5658:655811695 5398:: 35–45. 5338:cite news 5127:145673229 4987:144843155 4973:(4): 12. 4910:142009083 4861:pages 8–9 4768:Macmillan 4501:146866987 4331:3 October 4270:. p. 214. 4169:162546555 4155:(1): 73. 3015:commodity 2841:Liverpool 2823:'s novel 2749:telegraph 2673:million. 2379:hide—the 2269:Clearing 2232:and then 2116:Tippu Tip 2108:Zanzibari 1882:Tippu Tip 1874:Zanzibari 1741:Frankfurt 1246:Diogo Cão 1122:'s novel 511:9,130,000 431:1892–1894 319:Sovereign 293:Religion 274:official) 197:State in 78:1885–1908 6725:Category 6675:Football 6632:Religion 6442:Military 6376:Politics 6357:Wildlife 6047:(1885). 6030:(1908). 5974:citation 5918:Westport 5668:(2014). 5608:(1991). 5584:(2006). 5516:(1999). 5465:Archived 5435:Archived 5412:73371517 5366:Archived 5362:Pcgs.com 5322:Archived 5259:Archived 5235:Archived 5216:Archived 5188:Archived 5161:Archived 5049:(2002). 4991:Archived 4855:Archived 4505:Archived 4458:(1905). 4325:Archived 4249:. p. 68. 4200:Archived 4079:Archived 3986:Archived 3911:Archived 3797:Archived 3747:Archived 3693:Archived 3556:Archived 3514:Archived 3484:Archived 3457:22 April 3451:Archived 3154:See also 3144:genocide 2575:Batetela 2372:chicotte 2275:Equateur 2234:Khartoum 2154:Zanzibar 2127:governor 2088:treaty. 2081:stockade 2070:Canadian 2052:(King), 1973:A.B.I.R. 1906:Tanzania 1878:Zanzibar 1867:London's 1729:Brussels 1665:Bismarck 1657:Zanzibar 1592:Portugal 1424:Senator 1418:Southern 1304:civilize 1294:In 1876 1282:de facto 1254:Portugal 1063:European 674:a series 672:Part of 526:Currency 301:de facto 272:de facto 6709:Outline 6665:Cuisine 6652:Culture 6575:Society 6556:Tourism 6509:Economy 6199:History 6125:(ed.). 6107:of the 6103:at the 6051:London. 6010:Press. 5991:; also 5963:7625261 5496:: 5441:15 July 5023:215–227 4511:21 July 4085:14 July 3917:14 July 3803:16 June 3310:11 July 3084:Centime 3001:of the 2732:A 1906 2638:Maniema 2634:Lokandu 2587:Nyangwe 2561:in 1904 2500:Equator 2432:Lusambo 2287:Lusambo 2230:Fashoda 2211:Mahdist 2112:Swahili 2038:Katanga 1886:Maniema 1880:trader 1851:Katanga 1653:Cameron 1588:Germany 1580:Belgium 1566:of 1884 1545:of the 1422:Alabama 1410:Belgium 1341:Katanga 1263:malaria 1090:annexed 1049:of the 903:Shaba I 450:• 437:• 424:• 411:• 365:(first) 209:Capital 203:Belgium 148:Anthem: 6730:Portal 6660:Cinema 6612:Health 6546:Mining 6536:Energy 6459:Senate 6347:Rivers 6322:Cities 6014: 5961: 5932: 5898: 5859: 5824: 5805: 5772: 5678: 5656: 5637: 5616: 5594: 5570: 5551: 5526: 5410: 5153: 5125: 5088: 5063: 5029: 4985: 4908: 4835: 4774: 4499: 4405: 4378: 4266: 4245: 4167: 4121: 4035: 3789: 3638: 3628: 3603: 3570: 3367: 3339: 3317:State. 3301: 3088:Francs 3029:Legacy 3018:prices 2999:colony 2954:Africa 2916:, and 2775:1908, 2692:Africa 2603:Songye 2472:satire 2363:corvée 2332:Brazil 2328:rubber 2046:copper 1902:Uganda 1861:, the 1636:Angola 1606:, the 1604:Russia 1598:, the 1584:France 1531:French 1478:French 1446:French 1383:London 1105:rubber 1045:, the 1023:French 676:on the 380:(last) 353: 323: 267:French 194:Status 150: 122:French 62: 51:French 47: 6716:Index 6685:Music 6680:Media 6642:Women 6597:Crime 6276:2000s 6121:. In 5857:S2CID 5837:(PDF) 5408:S2CID 5123:S2CID 4994:(PDF) 4983:S2CID 4963:(PDF) 4906:S2CID 4497:S2CID 4165:S2CID 4077:(2). 3909:(4). 3487:(PDF) 3476:(PDF) 3273:Notes 2763:. 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