Minoan eruption - Knowledge

1021:, thus ruling out Minoan eruption as the cause of the sulfate spike. In 2019, a revision of the Greenland ice-core chronology was proposed based on synchronization of the frost-ring data and the major sulfate spike, and the revised date for the Aniakchak eruption was shifted to 1628 BCE. The Greenland ice core chronology offset was independently confirmed by other teams and adopted into Greenland Ice Core Chronology 2021 (GICC21). The 1627 BCE extreme global cooling was then conveniently explained by the major Aniakchak eruption without invoking Thera. An eruption date of 1627 BCE is also no longer supported by radiocarbon evidence with the most recent calibration curve IntCal20. 325: 420: 1242: 190: 488: 680:

the 1970s with calibration were already showing massive age disagreement and were initially discarded as unreliable by the archaeological community. In the following decades, the range of possible eruption dates narrowed significantly with improved calibration, analytical precision, statistical methods, and sample treatment. Radiocarbon dating has built a strong case for an eruption date in the late 17th century BCE. The table below summarizes the history and results of radiocarbon dating of volcanic

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with the lack of noticeable erosion of that layer by winter rains before the next layer was deposited, indicate that the volcano gave the local population a few months' warning. Since no human remains have been found at the Akrotiri site, this preliminary volcanic activity probably caused the island's population to flee. It is also suggested that several months before the eruption, Santorini experienced one or more earthquakes, which damaged the local settlements.

1388:, have been attributed to short-term climatic changes caused by the Theran eruption. The dates and regnal dates of Ahmose I are in some dispute with Egyptologists (leaving aside alternate chronologies). Proposed reigns range from 1570 to 1546 BCE to 1539–1514 BCE. A radiocarbon dating of his mummy produced a mean value of 1557 BCE. In any case this would only provide an overlap with the later estimates of eruption date. 42: 848:. If the regional offset is genuine, then calibration based on the regional dataset, Hd GOR, would place the eruption date back to 17th century BCE. Others have argued that these site-specific offsets are already incorporated into the IntCal20 prediction interval since it is constructed from a much wider range of locations and any locational variation is of similar magnitude to the inter-laboratory variation. 197: 6236:

Marinatos (1939) famously suggested that the eruption might even have caused the destruction of Minoan Crete (also Page 1970). Although this simple hypothesis has been negated by the findings of excavation and other research since the late 1960s... which demonstrate that the eruption occurred late in

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that overlies the soil clearly delineating the ground level before the eruption. This layer has three distinct bands that indicate the different phases of the eruption. Studies have identified four major eruption phases, and one minor precursory tephra fall. The thinness of the first ash layer, along

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The magnitude of the eruption, particularly the submarine pyroclastic flows, has been difficult to estimate because the majority of the erupted products were deposited in the sea. Together, these challenges result in considerable uncertainty regarding the volume of the Minoan eruption, with estimates

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Although the fracturing process is not yet known, the altitudinal statistical analysis indicates that the caldera had formed just before the eruption. The area of the island was smaller, and the southern and eastern coastlines appeared regressed. During the eruption, the landscape was covered by the

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which are periodically updated by international researchers. Derived calibrated calendar date ranges are highly dependent on how accurately the calibration curve represents radiocarbon levels for the time period. As of 2022, the most updated calibration curve is IntCal20. Early radiocarbon dates in

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Proponents of an earlier date argue that Aegean-Egyptian pottery correlation allows considerable flexibility. Several other archaeological interpretations of LM-IA and LM-IB pottery differ from the "traditional" and could be consistent with a much earlier beginning time for LM-IA and LM-IB. Pottery

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Karstens, Jens; Preine, Jonas; Crutchley, Gareth J.; Kutterolf, Steffen; van der Bilt, Willem G. M.; Hooft, Emilie E. E.; Druitt, Timothy H.; Schmid, Florian; Cederstrøm, Jan Magne; Hübscher, Christian; Nomikou, Paraskevi; Carey, Steven; Kühn, Michel; Elger, Judith; Berndt, Christian (2023-04-29).

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from Turkey shows bromine peaks at 1621 ± 25 BCE, molybdenum at 1617 ± 25 BCE and sulfur at 1589 ± 25 BCE. The authors interpreted that all three peaks were caused by a single volcanic eruption in the Mediterranean region and the time difference was related to differences in their retention rates.

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In 2018, a team led by tree ring scientist reported a possible offset of a few decades in the previous IntCal calibration curves during the period 1660–1540 BCE. The resulting new calibration curve allowed previous raw radiocarbon dates to be calibrated to encompass a substantial part of the 16th

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show that the heaviest ashfall was towards the east and northeast of Santorini. The ash found on Crete is now known to have been from a precursory phase of the eruption, some weeks or months before the main eruptive phases, and it would have had little impact on the island. Santorini ash deposits

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In 1987, a major Greenland sulfate spike in 1644 ± 20 BCE in ice core chronology was hypothesized to be caused by the Minoan eruption based on the early radiocarbon results of Hammer et al. In 1988, a major environmental disruption and extreme global-cooling/frost-ring in 1627 ± 0 BCE were also

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While the refined calibration curve IntCal20 does not rule out a 17th-century BCE eruption date, it does shift the probable range of the eruption date to include the majority of 16th century BCE, offering a way to at least mitigate the long-standing age disagreement. However, the exact year of

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In light of much younger radiocarbon dates and revised ice core chronology, several possible ice core and tree ring signals in the 17th and 16th century BCE have been proposed. The list below summarizes the tree ring and ice core signals that may have been caused by the Minoan eruption:

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The study revealed that the initial Plinian eruption was the most voluminous phase, ejecting 14–21 km (3.4–5.0 cu mi) magma and accounting for half of total erupted materials. This was followed by 3–4 km (0.72–0.96 cu mi) DRE co-ignimbrite fall, 5–9 km

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Reimer, Paula J; Bard, Edouard; Bayliss, Alex; Beck, J Warren; Blackwell, Paul G; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Buck, Caitlin E; Cheng, Hai; Edwards, R Lawrence; Friedrich, Michael; Grootes, Pieter M; Guilderson, Thomas P; Haflidason, Haflidi; Hajdas, Irka; Hatté, Christine (2013).

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Reimer, Paula J; Austin, William E N; Bard, Edouard; Bayliss, Alex; Blackwell, Paul G; Bronk Ramsey, Christopher; Butzin, Martin; Cheng, Hai; Edwards, R Lawrence; Friedrich, Michael; Grootes, Pieter M; Guilderson, Thomas P; Hajdas, Irka; Heaton, Timothy J; Hogg, Alan G (2020).

1332:, Driessen and MacDonald argued that the richness of the post-eruption material culture masked deep economic and political problems that eventually led to the collapse of Neopalatial society. Subsequent evidence suggests that this was not a general pattern across the island. 651:. The year of accession based on the conventional Egyptian chronology and radiocarbon-based chronology is either 1550 BCE and 1570–1544 BCE (IntCal04) or 1569–1548 BCE (IntCal20). The archaeological evidence argues for a Theran eruption date between circa 1550 and 1480 BCE. 836:

century BCE, making it possible for radiocarbon dates to be compatible with archaeological evidence. The measured offset was then confirmed by other laboratories across the world and incorporated into the most updated calibration curve IntCal20. In the same year, study of

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depositions. In others, recent coastlines were extended towards the sea. After the eruption, the geomorphology of the island was characterized by an intense erosional phase during which the pumice was progressively removed from the higher altitudes to the lower ones.

1676:, Abstract: "...tsunami deposits on the coasts of Ios Island, Aegean Sea, Greece...marine sediments and pumices from the ~1600 BCE Minoan eruption of Santorini volcano. This is the first evidence of the Minoan tsunami in the Cycladic Islands North of Santorini." 375:

According to the latest analysis of marine sediments and seismic data gathered during ocean research expeditions from 2015 to 2019, the estimated volume of the material expelled during the volcanic eruption ranges from 28–41 km (6.7–9.8 cu mi) DRE.

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After the eruption, the Minoans quickly recovered, and the subsequent period is considered the zenith of Minoan culture. Many affected sites were rebuilt, including Petras and Palaikastro, at the latter of which, new buildings were constructed using high quality

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Since 2003, multiple independent studies of major elements and trace elements of volcanic ash retrieved from the 1644 ± 20 BCE sulfate layer failed to match the ash to that of Santorini but all attributed the ash to another large eruption during this period,

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type. Multiple archaeological sites of Theran pumice workshop used by the local inhabitants are only found in the New Kingdom strata. A milk bowl on Santorini used before the volcanic eruption has a New Kingdom pottery style. An Egyptian inscription on the

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Geological evidence shows the Thera volcano erupted numerous times over several hundred thousand years before the Minoan eruption. In a repeating process, the volcano would violently erupt, then eventually collapse into a roughly circular seawater-filled

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of the eruption age. The date of the production of pottery with the Santorini milk bowl style in other regions has not been determined and could pre-date the Minoan eruption. The chronology of stone vessel styles during this critical period is lacking.

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is significantly younger than the radiocarbon age of the Minoan eruption, by roughly a century. This age discrepancy has resulted in a fierce debate about whether there is an upheaval in the archaeological synchronization between the Aegean and Egypt.

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chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean realm. It provides a fixed point for aligning the entire chronology of the second millennium BCE in the Aegean, as evidence of the eruption is found throughout the region. Yet, archaeological dating based on

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further questioned the validity of wiggle-matching of olive branch because the radiocarbon dates of outermost branch layer could differ by up to a few decades caused by growth cessation, then the olive branch could also pre-date Thera by decades.

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Archaeologists who preferred a late 16th century BCE eruption date were neither convinced by the 1644 ± 20 BCE sulfate spike nor by the 1627 BCE frost ring, because evidence of causality between the two events and Minoan eruption was absent.

3318: 611:. In Aegean chronology, however, the frequent exchange of objects and styles enables relative chronology to be compared with the absolute chronology of Egypt, so absolute dates could be determined in the Aegean. 3857:"14 C Record and Wiggle-Match Placement for the Anatolian (Gordion Area) Juniper Tree-Ring Chronology ~1729 to 751 Cal BC, and Typical Aegean/Anatolian (Growing Season Related) Regional 14 C Offset Assessment" 1729:

Karstens, J.; Preine, J.; Crutchley, G.J.; Kutterolf, S.; van der Bilt, W.; Hooft, E.; Druitt, T.H.; Schmid, F.; Cederstrøm, J.M.; Hübscher, C.; Nomikou, P.; Carey, S.; Kühn, M.; Elger, J.; Berndt, C. (2022).

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Reimer, P J; Baillie, M G L; Bard, E; Bayliss, A; Beck, J W; Blackwell, P G; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C E; Burr, G S; Edwards, R L; Friedrich, M; Grootes, P M; Guilderson, T P; Hajdas, I; Heaton, T J (2009).

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The date of Minoan eruption does not necessarily have to be in one of the years listed in the table, because the eruption may not have been environmentally impactful enough to leave any detectable signal.

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While it has been argued that the damage attributed to these storms may have been caused by an earthquake following the Thera eruption, it has also been suggested that it was caused during a war with the

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The eruption also generated 35 to 150 m (115 to 492 ft) high tsunamis that devastated the northern coastline of Crete, 110 km (68 mi) away. The tsunami affected coastal towns such as

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large sulfate spike, estimated 22 trillion grams of sulfur; ring growth reduced in 1560 BCE; calcium depletion in Mediterranean tree ring in 1560 BCE possibly caused by volcanic eruption in this region

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Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Dee, Michael W.; Rowland, Joanne M.; Higham, Thomas F. G.; Harris, Stephen A.; Brock, Fiona; Quiles, Anita; Wild, Eva M.; Marcus, Ezra S.; Shortland, Andrew J. (2010-06-18).

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are not accurate calendar years of the event and this has to do with the fact that the level of atmospheric radiocarbon fluctuates. Raw radiocarbon ages can be converted to calendar dates by means of

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A volcanic winter from an eruption in the late 17th century BCE has been claimed by some researchers to correlate with entries in later Chinese records documenting the collapse of the semi-legendary

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Gournelos, T; Evelpidou, N; Vassilopolous, A; Konstantia, C (2008). "Geomorphological Study of Thera and the Akrotiri Archeological Site". In A Vassilopoulos; N Evelpidou; O Bender; A Krek (eds.).

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Time's up! : dating the Minoan eruption of Santorini : acts of the Minoan eruption chronology workshop, Sandbjerg November 2007, initiated by Jan Heinemeier & Walter L. Friedrich

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Bayesian model of sequence of samples from before, during and after eruption but more comprehensive to include samples from VDL, tsunami and distal fallout from across southern Aegean region

459:. Man-made structures not buried during Minoan A were completely destroyed. The third phase was also characterized by the initiation of caldera collapse. The fourth, and last, major phase (BO 6200:"...popular associations of the eruption with a legend of Atlantis should be dismissed...nor is there good evidence to suggest that the eruption...brought about the collapse of Minoan Crete 1067:

one of largest sulfate spikes recorded in Greenland in the last 4,000 years, estimated 50 trillion grams of sulfur; frost-damaged ring in 1653 BCE followed by ring-width minima in 1652 BCE

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of artifacts found in each archaeological layer. If the type of artifacts can be accurately assigned, then the layer's position in a chronological order can be determined. This is known as

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Summary of Evidence for the Absolute Chronology of the Early Part of the Aegean Late Bronze Age Derived from Historical Egyptian Sources in: Thera and the Aegean World III, Hardy, DA (ed)

2226: 348:, with numerous small islands forming the circle. The caldera would slowly refill with magma, building a new volcano, which erupted and then collapsed in an ongoing cyclical process. 5333:

Sinnl, Giulia; Winstrup, Mai; Erhardt, Tobias; Cook, Eliza; Jensen, Camilla Marie; Svensson, Anders; Vinther, Bo Møllesøe; Muscheler, Raimund; Rasmussen, Sune Olander (2022-05-24).

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Sigurdsson H, Carey, S, Alexandri M, Vougioukalakis G, Croff K, Roman C, Sakellariou D, Anagnostou C, Rousakis G, Ioakim C, Gogou A, Ballas D, Misaridis T, & Nomikou P (2006).

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Stuiver, Minze; Reimer, Paula J.; Bard, Edouard; Beck, J. Warren; Burr, G. S.; Hughen, Konrad A.; Kromer, Bernd; McCormac, Gerry; Van Der Plicht, Johannes; Spurk, Marco (1998).

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Manning, Sturt W.; Höflmayer, Felix; Moeller, Nadine; Dee, Michael W.; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Fleitmann, Dominik; Higham, Thomas; Kutschera, Walter; Wild, Eva Maria (2014).

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Pearson, Charlotte; Sigl, Michael; Burke, Andrea; Davies, Siwan; Kurbatov, Andrei; Severi, Mirko; Cole-Dai, Jihong; Innes, Helen; Albert, Paul G.; Helmick, Meredith (2022).

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depict storms, but are clearly figurative, not literal. Research indicates that the Speos Artemidos stele is a reference to her overcoming the powers of chaos and darkness.

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Coulter, Sarah E.; Pilcher, Jonathan R.; Plunkett, Gill; Baillie, Mike; Hall, Valerie A.; Steffensen, J. P.; Vinther, Bo M.; Clausen, Henrik B.; Johnsen, Sigfus J. (2012).

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the Late Minoan IA ceramic period, whereas the destructions of the Cretan palaces and so on are some time subsequent (late in the following Late Minoan IB ceramic period)

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Immediately before the Minoan eruption, the walls of the caldera formed a nearly continuous ring of islands, with the only entrance between Thera and the tiny island of

622:(LH-I) in the mainland chronology, the contention concerns which Egyptian period was contemporaneous with LM-IA and LM-IB. Decades of intensive archaeological work and 1803:"Modelling the Climatic Effects of the LBA Eruption of Thera: New Calculations of Tephra Volumes May Suggest a Significantly Larger Eruption than Previously Reported" 6010: 1731: 647:

recorded an extraordinary cataclysm resembling the Minoan eruption. Taken together, the archaeological evidence points to an eruption date after the accession of

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Elsewhere in the Mediterranean are pumice deposits that could have been sent by the Thera eruption. Ash layers in cores drilled from the seabed and from lakes in

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Gournelos, Theodoros; Evelpidou, Niki; Vassilopoulos, Andreas; Chartidou, Konstantia (2008). "Geomorphological Study of Thera". In Vassilopoulos, Andreas (ed.).

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The longer term impact of the eruption remains a matter of debate. The immediate aftermath saw a number of puzzling cultural changes including the filling in of

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In 2020, speculation of regional offset specific to Mediterranean context in all calibration curves was reported based on measurements made on juniper wood at

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and ash, with a minor lithic component, southeast and east. Archaeological evidence indicated burial of man-made structures with limited damage. The second (BO

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Pearson, Charlotte; Wacker, Lukas; Bayliss, Alex; Brown, David; Salzer, Matthew; Brewer, Peter; Bollhalder, Silvia; Boswijk, Gretel; Hodgins, Gregory (2020).

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Liritzis I, Michael C, Galloway RB (1996). "A significant Aegean volcanic eruption during the second millennium BC revealed by thermoluminescence dating".

545:, 27 km (17 mi) to the east, ash layers 3 m (10 ft) deep have been found, as well as pumice layers on slopes 250 m (820 ft) 6583: 6451:

Mühlenbruch, Tobias (2017). "The absolute dating of the volcanic eruption of Santorini/Thera (periferia South Aegean/GR) – an alternative perspective".

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Manning, Sturt W.; Wacker, Lukas; Büntgen, Ulf; Bronk Ramsey, Christopher; Dee, Michael W.; Kromer, Bernd; Lorentzen, Brita; Tegel, Willy (2020-08-17).

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allows extremely precise dating to the exact calendar year of each ring with virtually no age uncertainty, and from properties of the annual tree rings

989:. Petrologic constraints on Minoan magma yields a range of 0.3–35.9 trillion grams of sulfur release. The higher end of the estimate could cause severe 1755:

Oppenheimer, Clive (2003). "Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815".

5995: 5087: 1885: 1830: 5515:

Manning, Sturt W.; Griggs, Carol B.; Lorentzen, Brita; Barjamovic, Gojko; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Kromer, Bernd; Wild, Eva Maria (2016-07-13).

4632:"Discovery of annual growth in a modern olive branch based on carbon isotopes and implications for the Bronze Age volcanic eruption of Santorini" 4051: 4200:

Friedrich, Ronny; Kromer, Bernd; Wacker, Lukas; Olsen, Jesper; Remmele, Sabine; Lindauer, Susanne; Land, Alexander; Pearson, Charlotte (2020).

111: 6627: 2244: 5243:"Absolute tree-ring dates for the Late Bronze Age eruptions of Aniakchak and Thera in light of a proposed revision of ice-core chronologies" 3855:

Manning, Sturt W; Kromer, Bernd; Bronk Ramsey, Christopher; Pearson, Charlotte L; Talamo, Sahra; Trano, Nicole; Watkins, Jennifer D (2010).

5143: 5276:"Volcanic stratospheric sulfur injections and aerosol optical depth during the Holocene (past 11 500 years) from a bipolar ice-core array" 3672:

Manning, Sturt W.; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Kutschera, Walter; Higham, Thomas; Kromer, Bernd; Steier, Peter; Wild, Eva M. (2006-04-28).

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increases of sulfur, calcium, and rare earth elements in Mediterranean tree ring 857, possibly caused by volcanic eruption in this region

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A Test of Time: the volcano of Thera and the chronology and history of the Aegean and east Mediterranean in the mid second millennium BC

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Others have suggested that the sulfur peak may have been related to the 1561 BCE chemical anomaly recorded in Mediterranean tree rings.

2590: 5193: 7164: 5194:"Geochemical ice-core constraints on the timing and climatic impact of Aniakchak II (1628 BCE) and Thera (Minoan) volcanic eruptions" 4382:

Manning, Sturt W.; Kromer, Bernd; Cremaschi, Mauro; Dee, Michael W.; Friedrich, Ronny; Griggs, Carol; Hadden, Carla S. (2020-03-20).

260: 1649:"Therea and the Aegean World III", Volume III—Chronology (Proceedings of the Third International Congress, Hardy DA, editor) 1403:, and the storm reference is merely a metaphor for chaos upon which the Pharaoh was attempting to impose order. Documents such as 7189: 4316:"Radiocarbon analysis of modern olive wood raises doubts concerning a crucial piece of evidence in dating the Santorini eruption" 5631:"Speleothems as sensitive recorders of volcanic eruptions – the Bronze Age Minoan eruption recorded in a stalagmite from Turkey" 5048:"Identification of Aniakchak (Alaska) tephra in Greenland ice core challenges the 1645 BC date for Minoan eruption of Santorini" 1261:. Evidence at the site suggests that survivors returned and attempted to recover their possessions and perhaps to bury victims. 7194: 5582:

Pearson, Charlotte L.; Dale, Darren S.; Brewer, Peter W.; Kuniholm, Peter I.; Lipton, Jeffrey; Manning, Sturt W. (2009-06-01).

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Thera and the Aegean World I. Papers presented at the Second International Scientific Congress, Santorini, Greece, August 1978

7229: 7026: 6193: 6153: 6128: 5836: 5723: 5517:"Integrated Tree-Ring-Radiocarbon High-Resolution Timeframe to Resolve Earlier Second Millennium BCE Mesopotamian Chronology" 3081: 2903: 2617: 2417: 2392: 2321: 2274: 4581:"Volcanic ash, victims, and tsunami debris from the Late Bronze Age Thera eruption discovered at Çeşme-Bağlararası (Turkey)" 275:

in the Eastern Mediterranean, its precise date is of high importance and has been fiercely debated among archaeologists and

5461: 4448: 3917: 3737: 6599: 1900: 6018: 3068:, Quantitative Methods in the Humanities and Social Sciences, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 131–143, 2340:

McCoy, Floyd W.; Heiken, Grant (2000). "Tsunami Generated by the Late Bronze Age Eruption of Thera (Santorini), Greece".

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Pang, K. D.; et al. (1989). "Climatic and Hydrologic Extremes in Early Chinese History: Possible Causes and Dates".

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Kuniholm, Peter Ian; Kromer, Bernd; Manning, Sturt W.; Newton, Maryanne; Latini, Christine E.; Bruce, Mary Jaye (1996).

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Antonopoulos, J. (1992). "The great Minoan eruption of Thera volcano and the ensuing tsunami in the Greek Archipelago".

7174: 6410:"Discovery of a tsunami deposit from the Bronze Age Santorini eruption at Malia (Crete): impact, chronology, extension" 6320: 6229: 5944: 5874: 5788: 5685: 423:

Early phase of Late-Bronze-Age volcano eruption (~ 1500 BC), southern border of the Caldera island. The lower layer of

380:(1.2–2.2 cu mi) DRE pyroclastic flows and 5–7 km (1.2–1.7 cu mi) DRE intra-caldera deposits. 6850: 6620: 6561: 6379: 6288: 6048: 5752: 3801:

Friedrich, Walter L.; Kromer, Bernd; Friedrich, Michael; Heinemeier, Jan; Pfeiffer, Tom; Talamo, Sahra (2006-04-28).

3194: 2766: 2666: 2238: 2115:

Watkins, N. D.; Sparks, R. S. J.; Sigurdsson, H.; Huang, T. C.; Federman, A.; Carey, S.; Ninkovich, D. (1978-01-12).

2099: 1395:, the absence of Egyptian records of the eruption could be caused by the general disorder in Egypt around that time. 6593: 3189:. R. S. Merrillees, Elmar Edel, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut. Abteilung Kairo. Mainz am Rhein: P. von Zabern. 7184: 6538: 1732:"Revising the volume of the Minoan eruption (Santorini) based on new marine geophysical and sedimentological data" 7128: 7123: 7051: 5045: 2487:

Stanley, DJ & Sheng, H (1986). "Volcanic shards from Santorini (Upper Minoan ash) in the Nile Delta, Egypt".

1473: 396: 6489:

Notti, Erika (2021). "Writing in Late Bronze Age Thera. Further Observations on the Theran Corpus of Linear A".

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Pearson, Charlotte; Salzer, Matthew; Wacker, Lukas; Brewer, Peter; Sookdeo, Adam; Kuniholm, Peter (2020-04-14).

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Pearson, Charlotte; Salzer, Matthew; Wacker, Lukas; Brewer, Peter; Sookdeo, Adam; Kuniholm, Peter (2020-08-04).

2997:"Radiocarbon offsets and old world chronology as relevant to Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia and Thera (Santorini)" 189: 7133: 6976: 5706:

Younger, John; Rehak, Paul (2008). "The Material Culture of Neopalatial Crete". In Shelmerdine, Cynthia (ed.).

4944:"Swedish tree rings provide new evidence in support of a major, widespread environmental disruption in 1628 BC" 4259:"Wood from the Netherlands around the Time of the Santorini Eruption Dated by Dendrochronology and Radiocarbon" 3104:"The Bronze Age Eruption of Thera: Absolute Dating, Aegean Chronology and Mediterranean Culture Interrelations" 2526:

Guichard, F; et al. (1993). "Tephra from the Minoan eruption of Santorini in sediments of the Black Sea".

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An eruption of Theran magnitude is expected to leave a detectable signal in various environmental records like

384: 313: 17: 6552:

Warren PM (2006). "The date of the Thera eruption". In Czerny E, Hein I, Hunger H, Melman D, Schwab A (eds.).

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Notti, Erika (2010). "The Theran Epigraphic Corpus of Linear A: Geographical and Chronological Implications".

600: 6774: 6507: 5584:"Dendrochemical analysis of a tree-ring growth anomaly associated with the Late Bronze Age eruption of Thera" 4447:

Bayliss, Alex; Marshall, Peter; Dee, Michael W; Friedrich, Michael; Heaton, Timothy J; Wacker, Lukas (2020).

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Geologist Barbara J. Sivertsen seeks to establish a link between the eruption of Santorini (c. 1600 BCE) and

3319:"Dating the Thera (Santorini) eruption: archaeological and scientific evidence supporting a high chronology" 7234: 7041: 6825: 6613: 5142:

Plunkett, Gill; Pearce, N. J.; McConnell, J.; Pilcher, Jonathan; Sigl, Michael; Zhao, Hongli (2017-10-01).

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folk memory, as the tale spread westward. Hesiod's lines have been compared with volcanic activity, citing

2117:"Volume and extent of the Minoan tephra from Santorini Volcano: new evidence from deep-sea sediment cores" 1669: 7219: 7169: 6718: 6089: 3219: 3145: 1481:, the discoverer of the Akrotiri archaeological site, suggested that the Minoan eruption is reflected in 1250: 721: 659:

period. Pumice in workshop and the inscription on the Tempest Stele have been argued to only reflect the

627: 236: 220: 161: 82: 7239: 7214: 2641: 2313: 2091: 856:

List of volcanic destruction layer (VDL) radiocarbon dates with calibration curve published after 2018

419: 252: 143: 6390: 5629:

Badertscher, S.; Borsato, A.; Frisia, S.; Cheng, H.; Edwards, R.L.; Tüysüz, O.; Fleitmann, D. (2014).

5583: 5335:"A multi-ice-core, annual-layer-counted Greenland ice-core chronology for the last 3800 years: GICC21" 475:

ash-fall deposits. This phase was characterized by the completion of caldera collapse, which produced

7209: 4814:

Cadoux, Anita; Scaillet, Bruno; Bekki, Slimane; Oppenheimer, Clive; Druitt, Timothy H. (2015-07-24).

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Sigl, Michael; Toohey, Matthew; McConnell, Joseph R.; Cole-Dai, Jihong; Severi, Mirko (2022-07-12).

255:(VEI) of 6, it resulted in the ejection of approximately 28–41 km (6.7–9.8 cu mi) of 7224: 7159: 7154: 6966: 1824: 530: 6080:

Wiener, MH; Allen, JP (1998). "Separate Lives: The Ahmose Tempest Stela and the Theran Eruption".

2612:. Walter L. Friedrich, Jan Heinemeier, David Warburton. Athens: Danish Institute at Athens. 2009. 1670:"A Minoan and a Neolithic tsunami recorded in coastal sediments of Ios Island, Aegean Sea, Greece" 7061: 6580:– Santorini's geology and volcanic history, the Minoan eruption and the legend of Atlantis. 6280: 5744: 5630: 676: 623: 608: 359:

in the centre of the then-existing caldera. The northern part of the caldera was refilled by the

4692:"Second Intermediate Period date for the Thera (Santorini) eruption and historical implications" 1539:

since the displacements that it caused led to new and important interactions among communities.

355:. This cataclysmic eruption was centered on a small island just north of the existing island of 7179: 6981: 6556:. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 149. Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium: Peeters. pp. 2: 305–21. 4816:"Stratospheric Ozone destruction by the Bronze-Age Minoan eruption (Santorini Volcano, Greece)" 1935: 6221: 5866: 5780: 5677: 2310:

The Parting of the Sea: How Volcanoes, Earthquakes, and Plagues Shaped the Story of the Exodus

1420: 164:, the island of Thera, communities and agricultural areas on nearby islands, and the coast of 7204: 6971: 6961: 5989: 5081: 4514:"Reply to Manning: Dating of Gordion tree-ring sequence still stands within a year of 745 BC" 4045: 1879: 1375: 865: 388: 309: 256: 6584:

The Thera (Santorini) Volcanic Eruption and the Absolute Chronology of the Aegean Bronze Age

5646: 4993:"Anatolian tree rings and the absolute chronology of the eastern Mediterranean, 2220–718 BC" 4751:"Olive shrub buried on Therasia supports a mid-16th century BCE date for the Thera eruption" 2172:"Revised estimates for the volume of the Late Bronze Age Minoan eruption, Santorini, Greece" 1489:. This view remains prevalent in popular culture, as reflected in TV programs such as BBC's 6991: 5642: 5595: 5528: 5473: 5395: 5346: 5287: 5114: 5059: 5004: 4955: 4900: 4827: 4762: 4703: 4525: 4460: 4395: 4327: 4270: 4213: 4146: 4079: 4005: 3929: 3868: 3749: 3684: 3628: 3571: 3514: 3459: 3389: 3273: 3060:

Wiener, Malcolm H. (2015), Levy, Thomas E.; Schneider, Thomas; Propp, William H.C. (eds.),

3008: 2940: 2803: 2706: 2578: 2535: 2492: 2452: 2349: 2183: 2128: 1978: 1857: 1845: 1764: 1695: 1594: 1491: 639: 546: 5819:

Davis, Jack (2008). "Minoan Crete and the Aegean Islands". In Shelmerdine, Cynthia (ed.).

5771:

MacGillivray, J. Alexander; Sackett, L. High (2012). "Palaikastro". In Cline, Eric (ed.).

5046:

Pearce, N. J. G., J. A. Westgate, S. J. Preece, W. J. Eastwood, and W. T. Perkins (2004).

8: 7244: 6636: 2290:

Heiken, G; McCoy, F (1990). "Precursory Activity to the Minoan Eruption, Thera, Greece".

1528: 1282: 619: 583: 272: 157: 5960:

Foster, KP, Ritner, RK, and Foster, BR (1996). "Texts, Storms, and the Thera Eruption".

5599: 5532: 5477: 5399: 5384:"Securing timelines in the ancient Mediterranean using multiproxy annual tree-ring data" 5350: 5291: 5118: 5063: 5008: 4959: 4904: 4831: 4791: 4766: 4750: 4707: 4529: 4464: 4399: 4331: 4274: 4217: 4150: 4083: 4009: 3933: 3872: 3753: 3688: 3632: 3575: 3518: 3463: 3393: 3277: 3061: 3012: 2944: 2807: 2710: 2582: 2539: 2496: 2456: 2353: 2187: 2132: 1982: 1861: 1768: 1699: 1623: 1598: 1582: 7087: 7046: 7016: 6794: 6577: 6468: 6434: 6409: 6309: 6101: 5977: 5559: 5516: 5497: 5426: 5383: 5218: 5028: 4973: 4942:

Grudd, Håkan; Briffa, Keith R.; Gunnarson, Björn E.; Linderholm, Hans W. (2000-09-15).

4924: 4869: 4856: 4815: 4726: 4691: 4664: 4631: 4607: 4580: 4556: 4513: 4494: 4424: 4383: 4356: 4315: 4296: 4239: 4182: 4115: 4028: 3993: 3963: 3894: 3837: 3783: 3716: 3654: 3597: 3540: 3483: 3425: 3346: 3299: 3235: 3161: 3037: 2996: 2972: 2874: 2846: 2827: 2732: 2635: 2551: 2508: 2365: 2207: 2152: 2041: 2001: 1966: 1948: 1802: 1780: 1711: 1478: 1461: 1453: 660: 324: 287: 4749:

Pearson, Charlotte; Sbonias, Kostas; Tzachili, Iris; Heaton, Timothy J. (2023-04-28).

3802: 3673: 3103: 2928: 1647: 1293:. Ash and pumice fell across the island, where it was sometimes collected and stored. 7031: 6799: 6655: 6557: 6494: 6472: 6439: 6375: 6316: 6284: 6225: 6189: 6149: 6124: 6105: 6044: 5981: 5940: 5870: 5832: 5784: 5748: 5719: 5681: 5611: 5564: 5546: 5489: 5431: 5413: 5364: 5315: 5275: 5223: 5155: 5020: 4977: 4916: 4861: 4843: 4796: 4778: 4731: 4669: 4651: 4612: 4561: 4543: 4498: 4486: 4429: 4411: 4361: 4343: 4300: 4288: 4243: 4231: 4186: 4174: 4107: 4033: 3955: 3898: 3886: 3829: 3821: 3775: 3708: 3700: 3658: 3646: 3601: 3589: 3544: 3532: 3475: 3429: 3417: 3350: 3338: 3303: 3291: 3239: 3200: 3190: 3165: 3123: 3077: 3042: 3024: 2976: 2964: 2956: 2909: 2899: 2878: 2866: 2819: 2772: 2762: 2724: 2662: 2623: 2613: 2413: 2388: 2369: 2317: 2270: 2234: 2211: 2199: 2144: 2095: 2045: 2024:

Foster, Karen Polinger; et al. (1996). "Texts, Storms, and the Thera Eruption".

2006: 1915: 1784: 1715: 1628: 1610: 1159:

sulfate spike, estimated 6 trillion grams of sulfur; reduced ring growth in 1554 BCE

998: 986: 697: 681: 615: 596: 448: 338: 5501: 3967: 3841: 3787: 3720: 1535:

has argued that the Minoan eruption was a crucial event in the development of human

1358:, approximately dated to 1618 BCE, were accompanied by "yellow fog, a dim sun, then 6685: 6460: 6429: 6421: 6217: 6093: 5969: 5862: 5824: 5776: 5711: 5673: 5650: 5603: 5554: 5536: 5481: 5421: 5403: 5354: 5334: 5305: 5295: 5254: 5213: 5205: 5122: 5067: 5032: 5012: 4963: 4928: 4908: 4873: 4851: 4835: 4786: 4770: 4721: 4711: 4659: 4643: 4602: 4592: 4551: 4533: 4476: 4468: 4419: 4403: 4351: 4335: 4278: 4221: 4164: 4154: 4119: 4097: 4087: 4023: 4013: 3945: 3937: 3876: 3813: 3765: 3757: 3692: 3636: 3579: 3522: 3487: 3467: 3407: 3397: 3378:"The IntCal20 Northern Hemisphere Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve (0–55 cal kBP)" 3330: 3281: 3231: 3157: 3115: 3069: 3032: 3016: 2948: 2858: 2831: 2811: 2736: 2714: 2586: 2555: 2543: 2512: 2500: 2460: 2357: 2191: 2156: 2136: 2033: 1996: 1986: 1962: 1944: 1865: 1772: 1703: 1618: 1602: 994: 510: 239:, as well as communities and agricultural areas on nearby islands and the coast of 87: 5828: 5715: 5103:"Holocene tephras highlight complexity of volcanic signals in Greenland ice cores" 3994:"Annual radiocarbon record indicates 16th century BCE date for the Thera eruption" 2088:

Fire in the Sea, the Santorini Volcano: Natural History and the Legend of Atlantis

7097: 6956: 6675: 6602:– exploration of the submarine deposits and morphology of Santorini volcano 5541: 4716: 3918:"IntCal09 and Marine09 Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curves, 0–50,000 Years cal BP" 3073: 1933:

Aitken, M. J. (1988). "The Thera Eruption: Continuing Discussion of the Dating".

1408: 1018: 990: 766: 604: 579: 514: 392: 305: 283: 5485: 5209: 4068:"IntCal13 and Marine13 Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curves 0–50,000 Years cal BP" 7001: 6896: 6749: 6728: 6670: 6660: 6425: 6340: 5654: 4774: 4647: 4339: 4092: 4067: 3020: 2064: 1606: 1318: 1314: 1302: 1298: 1277:

vase, typical of the Late Minoan IB period that followed the eruption of Thera.

672: 570: 268: 224: 6250: 5607: 5300: 3941: 3881: 3856: 3761: 3641: 3616: 3584: 3559: 3527: 3502: 3334: 3286: 3261: 2695:"Archaeology: Absolute dating of the Bronze Age eruption of Thera (Santorini)" 1776: 1430:

The eruption of Thera and volcanic fallout may have inspired the myths of the

939:

Eight scenarios of olive wood growth to account for possible growth cessation

852:

eruption has not been settled. The table below summarizes the dating results:

7148: 7092: 7056: 7036: 7021: 6986: 6835: 6498: 6304: 6212:

Manning, Stuart (2012). "Eruption of Thera/Santorini". In Cline, Eric (ed.).

5615: 5550: 5493: 5417: 5368: 5319: 5159: 5024: 4920: 4847: 4782: 4655: 4547: 4490: 4415: 4347: 4292: 4235: 4178: 4111: 3959: 3890: 3825: 3779: 3704: 3650: 3593: 3558:

Bronk Ramsey, Christopher; Manning, Sturt W; Galimberti, Mariagrazia (2004).

3536: 3479: 3421: 3342: 3295: 3243: 3169: 3127: 3028: 2960: 2913: 2870: 2823: 2728: 2627: 2203: 2148: 1919: 1614: 1536: 1532: 1512: 1457: 1381: 1355: 1350: 1325: 1285:

sites on Crete. In northeastern Crete, earthquakes destroyed sites including

905: