Tibet (1912–1951)

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Tibet met at the conference table to try to restore peace, but this conclave broke up after failing to reach agreement on the fundamental question of the Sino-Tibetan frontier. This, since about 1918, has been recognized for practical purposes as following the course of the Upper Yangtze. In these years, the Chinese had too many other preoccupations to bother about reconquering Tibet. However, things gradually quieted down, and in 1927 the province of Sikang was brought into being, but it consisted of only twenty-seven subprefectures instead of the thirty-six visualized by the man who conceived the idea. China had lost, in the course of a decade, all the territory which the Butcher had overrun.

2431:) status or reclassified as a serf of the central government. Estate lords could transfer their subjects to other lords or rich peasants for labor, though this practice was uncommon in Tibet. Though rigid structurally, the system exhibited considerable flexibility at ground level, with peasants free of constraints from the lord of the manor once they had fulfilled their corvée obligations. Historically, discontent or abuse of the system, according to Warren W. Smith, appears to have been rare. Tibet was far from a meritocracy, but the Dalai Lamas were recruited from the sons of peasant families, and the sons of nomads could rise to master the monastic system and become scholars and abbots. 2455: 2297: 559: 1396: 534: 2469: 2286: 730: 1841: 1780: 1756: 1768: 65: 1744: 1792: 1732: 1273:

a territory of this kind, it is not enough to station, in isolated villages separated from each other by many days' journey, a few unimpressive officials and a handful of ragged soldiers. The Tibetans completely disregarded the Chinese administration and obeyed only their own chiefs. One very simple fact illustrates the true status of Sikang's Chinese rulers: nobody in the province would accept Chinese currency, and the officials, unable to buy anything with their money, were forced to subsist by a process of barter.

2396:, were granted by the state and were hereditary, though revocable. As agricultural properties, they consisted of two kinds: land held by the nobility or monastic institutions (demesne land), and village land (tenement or villein land) held by the central government, though governed by district administrators. Demesne land consisted, on average, of one-half to three-quarters of an estate. Villein land belonged to the estates, but tenants normally exercised hereditary usufruct rights in exchange for fulfilling their 118: 2078: 1698: 1408: 1816: 2117: 79: 2927:, p. 305: "Taking advantage of the chaos in China, Mongolia and Tibet both declared their independence towards the end of 1911, expelled the Chinese ambans (residents) and garrisons, and established independent governments. Both Mongolia and Tibet justified their independence on the grounds that the territories' attachment to China was a personal one between the Manchu emperors and the territory, and that the territories were not part of China proper." 2109: 1302: 1804: 738: 2164: 573: 1054: 2977:, "Tibetan Attempts to Modernize", p. 37: "Chinese fortunes in Tibet improved slightly after the death of the thirteenth Dalai Lama when Tibet allowed a "condolence mission" sent by Guomindang government of Chiang Kaishek to visit Lhasa, and then permitted it to open an office to facilitate negotiations aimed at resolving the Tibet Question. These talks proved futile, but Tibet allowed the office to remain. 2037:

but Hui, Tibetans, and Kazakhs in the region continued to clash against each other. Tibetans attacked and fought against the Kazakhs as they entered Tibet via Gansu and Qinghai. In northern Tibet, Kazakhs clashed with Tibetan soldiers and then the Kazakhs were sent to Ladakh. Tibetan troops robbed and killed Kazakhs 400 miles east of Lhasa at Chamdo when the Kazakhs were entering Tibet.

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He did no more than present a ceremonial scarf, as was done by the others, including the British Representative. But the Chinese have the ear of the world, and can later refer to their press records and present an account of historical events that is wholly untrue. Tibet has no newspapers, either in English or Tibetan, and has therefore no means of exposing these falsehoods.

3009:: "From on, the Qing dynasty became increasingly preoccupied with problems in the interior, and court officials in Peking found it less and less easy to intervene in Tibetan affairs.... by the second half of the nineteenth century, the Qing ambans, who represented the Qing emperor and Qing authority, could do little more than exercise ritualistic and symbolic influence." 2424:), meaning that they had purchased their freedom. Estate owners exercised broad rights over attached serfs, and flight or a monastic life was the only venue of relief. Yet no mechanism existed to restore escaped serfs to their estates, and no means to enforce bondage existed, though the estate lord held the right to pursue and forcibly return them to the land. 872:, proclaiming mutual recognition and their independence from China. The British diplomat Charles Bell wrote that the 13th Dalai Lama told him that he had not authorized Agvan Dorzhiev to conclude any treaties on behalf of Tibet. Because the text was not published, some initially doubted the existence of the treaty, but the Mongolian text was published by the 1664:

tanks. In addition to the regular army, Tibet also made use of great numbers of poorly armed village militias. Considering that it was usually outgunned by their opponents, the Tibetan Army performed relatively well against various Chinese warlords in the 1920s and 1930s. Overall, the Tibetan soldiers proved to be "fearless and tough fighters" during the

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when the 13th Dalai Lama tried to seize territory in Qinghai and Xikang. They warned the Tibetans not to dare cross the Jinsha river again. A truce was signed, ending the fighting. The Dalai Lama had cabled the British in India for help when his armies were defeated, and started demoting his Generals

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Since then, Sikang has been relatively peaceful, but this short synopsis of the province's history makes it easy to understand how precarious this state of affairs is bound to be. Chinese control was little more than nominal; I was often to have first-hand experience of its ineffectiveness. To govern

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The report was issued in the Chinese Press that Mr Wu had escorted the Dalai Lama to his throne and announced his installation, that the Dalai Lama had returned thanks, and prostrated himself in token of his gratitude. Every one of these Chinese claims was false. Mr Wu was merely a passive spectator.

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Lhasa, Tibet. Feb 22 - The fourteenth Dalai Lama, who will share spiritual and temporal leadership of Tibet, was enthroned in a pompous elaborate ceremony today. The enthronement took place in Lhasa's leading monastery, "Potala". The six-year-old boy chosen after long search for the exalted position,

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In the third year of Guangxu (1877), the eighth Panchen Lama Danbai Wangxiu and the regent Delin Hutuktu, all monks and lay officials from the Three Great Temples and Tashilhunpo Monastery jointly asked the Minister in Tibet to transfer to the court. Since only one soul boy has been selected, and it

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which were inhabited by Tibetan peoples. The Tibetan Army was constantly expanded during the 13th Dalai Lama's reign, and had about 10,000 soldiers by 1936. These were adequately armed and trained infantrymen for the time, though the army almost completely lacked machine guns, artillery, planes, and

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Acting with a savagery which earned him the sobriquet of "The Butcher of Monks," he swept down on Batang, sacked the lamasery, pushed on to Chamdo, and in a series of victorious campaigns which brought his army to the gates of Lhasa, re-established order and reasserted Chinese domination over Tibet.

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independent of Chinese control, but on other occasions it had indicated willingness to accept nominal subordinate status as a part of China, provided that Tibetan internal systems were left untouched, and provided China relinquished control over a number of important ethnic Tibetan areas in Kham and

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massacred their fellow Muslim Kazakhs, until there were 135 of them left. From Northern Xinjiang, over 7,000 Kazakhs fled to the Tibetan-Qinghai plateau region via Gansu and were wreaking massive havoc so Ma Bufang solved the problem by relegating the Kazakhs into designated pastureland in Qinghai,

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The troubled early years of the Chinese Republic saw the rebellion of most of the tributary chieftains, a number of pitched battles between Chinese and Tibetans, and many strange happenings in which tragedy, comedy, and (of course) religion all had a part to play. In 1914, Great Britain, China, and

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Tibetan circles here revealed that the portrait of Dr. Sun Yat-sen, "father of the Chinese republic", will have the place of honor in the main ceremonial hall, surrounded by Buddhist pictures. All these, Tibetan sources pointed out, mark "the cordial friendship and political ties between Tibet and

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Direct word from Lhasa arrived only today, telling of the lengthy rites in which Chinese officials took part. Chinese learned with satisfaction that Gen. Wu Chung Hsin, chairman of the Mongolian and Tibetan affairs commission at Chungking and chief of the Chinese delegation at the enthronement, sat

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was initialled by all three delegations, but was immediately rejected by Beijing because of dissatisfaction with the boundary between Outer and Inner Tibet. McMahon and the Tibetans then signed the document as a bilateral accord with a note denying China any of the rights under the convention until

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government of Chiang Kai-shek, Ma Bufang repaired the Yushu airport in 1942 to deter Tibetan independence. Chiang also ordered Ma Bufang to put his Muslim soldiers on alert for an invasion of Tibet in 1942. Ma Bufang complied, and moved several thousand troops to the border with Tibet. Chiang also

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Government 'ratified' the current 14th Dalai Lama, and that Kuomintang representative General Wu Zhongxin presided over the ceremony; both the ratification order of February 1940 and the documentary film of the ceremony still exist intact. Wu Zhongxin (along with other foreign representatives) was

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should be constituted a separate province comprising thirty-six subprefectures, with Batang as the capital. This project was not carried out until later, and then in modified form, for the Chinese Revolution of 1911 brought Chao's career to an end and he was shortly afterwards assassinated by his

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The 1907 Anglo-Russian Treaty, which had earlier caused the British to question the validity of Simla, was renounced by the Russians in 1917 and by the Russians and British jointly in 1921. Tibet, however, altered its position on the McMahon Line in the 1940s. In late 1947, the Tibetan government

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Lhasa, Tibet (Thursday) - (By Radio to Hong Kong) - The Chinese government had worked for months to put the succession of Ling-ergh La-mu-tan-chu beyond the fortunes of the goldern urn from which the 14th Dalai Lama would normally be picked. Yet today, with true Oriental urbanity, the Regent of

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to India, China, Hong Kong, the US, and the UK. The visited countries were careful not to express support for the claim that Tibet was independent of China and did not discuss political questions with the mission. These Trade Mission officials entered China via Hong Kong with their newly issued

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Tibetan passports that they applied at the Chinese Consulate in India and stayed in China for three months. Other countries did, however, allow the mission to travel using passports issued by the Tibetan government. The U.S. unofficially received the Trade Mission. The mission met with

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In 1935, Lhamo Dhondup was born in Amdo in eastern Tibet and recognized by all concerned as the incarnation of the 13th Dalai Lama. Similar to his predecessor Thubten Gyatso who was approved by the Central Government of China in 1877 to be exempted from the lot-drawing process using

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has been recognized by all parties, please be exempt from signing the golden bottle. In March of that year, Emperor Guangxu issued a decree: "Lob Zangtab, son of Gongga Rinqin, opened Jiamucuo, that is, as the call of the Dalai Lama, Bielehan, there is no need to make a lottery."

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which states that, "We shall continue to maintain the independence of Tibet as a nation ruled by the successive Dalai Lamas through an authentic religious-political rule." The mission agreed to attend a Chinese constitutional assembly in Nanjing as observers.

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had reformed the pre-existing serf system in the first decade of the 20th century, and by 1950, slavery itself had probably ceased to exist in central Tibet, though perhaps persisted in certain border areas. Slavery did exist, for example, in places like the

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Once you are outside the North Gate , you say good-bye to Chinese civilization and its amenities and you begin to lead a different kind of life altogether. Although on paper the wide territories to the north of the city form part of the Chinese provinces of

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from Tibet in 1912, communication between Tibet and China had taken place only with the British as mediator. Direct communications resumed after the 13th Dalai Lama's death in December 1933, when China sent a "condolence mission" to Lhasa headed by General

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Amdo. In support of claims that China's rule over Tibet was not interrupted, China argues that official documents showed that the National Assembly of China and both chambers of parliament had Tibetan members, whose names had been preserved all along.

1285:, the real frontier between China and Tibet runs through Kangting, or perhaps just outside it. The empirical line which Chinese cartographers, more concerned with prestige than with accuracy, draw on their maps bears no relation to accuracy. 3901:"北京中央人民政府毛主席、中国人民解放军朱德司令钧鉴：钧座以大智大勇之略，成救国救民之业，义师所至，全国欢腾，班禅世受国恩，备荷优崇。二十余年来，为了西藏领土主权之完整，呼吁奔走，未尝稍懈。第以未获结果，良用疚心。刻下羁留青海，待命返藏。兹幸在钧座领导之下，西北已获解放，中央人民政府成立，凡有血气，同声鼓舞。今后人民之康乐可期，国家之复兴有望。西藏解放，指日可待。班禅谨代表全藏人民，向钧座致崇高无上之敬意，并矢拥护爱戴之忱。"—十世班禅致中华人民共和国中央人民政府电报 1232:

in New Delhi, India, where it represented itself as an independent nation, and India recognised it as an independent nation from 1947 to 1954. This may have been the first appearance of the Tibetan national flag at a public gathering.

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kept China divided, and the 13th Dalai Lama ruled. But his reign was marked with border conflicts with Han Chinese and Muslim warlords, which the Tibetans lost most of the time. At that time, the government of Tibet controlled all of

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received felicitations from a Chinese delegation numbering 1,000 persons. A departure from ordinary procedure was marked by display of a huge portrait of Dr. Sun Yat-sen and a Kuomintang flag in the golden main hall of the monastery.

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In the year 1949, seeing that the Communists were gaining control of China, the Kashag government expelled all Chinese officials from Tibet despite protests from both the Kuomintang and the Communists. On 1 October 1949, the

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A group of Kazakhs, originally numbering over 20000 people when expelled from Sinkiang by Sheng Shih-ts'ai in 1936, was reduced, after repeated massacres by their Chinese coreligionists under Ma Pu-fang, to a scattered 135

2778:, New Delhi, Concept Publishing Company, 1997, p. 42 : "From then until the fall of the Manchu dynasty in 1912, the Manchu Ch'ing government stationed an Amban, a Manchu mandarin, and a military escort in Tibet." 849:, restoring his earlier titles. The Dalai Lama spurned these titles, replying that he "intended to exercise both temporal and ecclesiastical rule in Tibet." In 1913, the Dalai Lama, who had fled to India when the Qing sent 1340:

wrote a telegraph to Beijing, expressing his congratulations for the liberation of northwest China and the establishment of the People's Republic of China, and his excitement to see the inevitable liberation of Tibet. The

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Tibet established a Foreign Office in 1942, and in 1946 it sent congratulatory missions to China and India (related to the end of World War II). The mission to China was given a letter addressed to Chinese President

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at the Dalai Lama's left -- thus being accorded an equal status with the new ruler. Lhasa enjoyed a complete holiday. The populace was treated to devil dances, horse shows, wrestling contests and a fireworks display.

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cited several sources indicating that the Tibetan government had not declared Tibet a part of China, despite an intimation of Chinese sovereignty made by the Kuomintang government. Since 1912, Tibet had been

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To offset the damage done to their interests by the treaty between England and Tibet, the Chinese set about extending westwards the sphere of their direct control and began to colonize the country round

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In 1942, the U.S. government told the government of Chiang Kai-shek that it had never disputed Chinese claims to Tibet. In 1944, the USA War Department produced a series of seven documentary films on

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Tibet petitioned the Chungking government to authorized the abandonment of the traditional lot-drawing. This given, he wirelessed warm thanks to Chiang Kai-shek and other Chinese governmental leaders.

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Testimony by Kent M. Wiedemann, Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs before Subcommittee on East Asian and Pacific Affairs, Senate Foreign Relations Committee (

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that His Majesty's Government "have always been prepared to recognise Chinese suzerainty over Tibet, but only on the understanding that Tibet is regarded as autonomous". In October 1950, the

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present at the ceremony. Reports from contemporary newspapers, sourced directly from Lhasa, also give witness to these ceremonies. For example, the Associated Press on Feb 22, 1940 writes:

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to establish direct Chinese rule over Tibet in 1910, returned to Lhasa and issued a proclamation that stated that the relationship between the Chinese emperor and Tibet "had been that of

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Traditional Tibet, like any complex society, had great inequalities, with power monopolized by an elite composed of a small aristocracy, the hierarchs of various sects . . and the great

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When negotiations broke down over the specific boundary between Inner and Outer Tibet, the boundary of Tibet defined in the convention also included what came to be known as the

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which affirmed China's sovereignty over Tibet. The agreement was ratified in Lhasa a few months later. China described the entire process as the "peaceful liberation of Tibet".

1094:(Chinghai) from Xining, Ma Bufang released him to travel to Lhasa in 1939. He was then enthroned by the Ganden Phodrang government at the Potala Palace on the Tibetan New Year. 8974: 8969: 3207:"Tibet Justice Center – Legal Materials on Tibet – Treaties and Conventions Relating to Tibet – Convention Between Great Britain, China, and Tibet, Simla (1914) [400]" 1373: 781:

replaced the Qing dynasty as the government of China and the new republic asserted its sovereignty over all the territories of the previous dynasty, which included 22 Chinese

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Historical themes and current change in Central and Inner Asia: papers presented at the Central and Inner Asian Seminar, University of Toronto, April 25–26, 1997, Volume 1997

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the central government." There are two other children who theoretically have an equal chance of being chosen. However Tibetan and Chinese officials favor the Kokonor boy.

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and his army put to flight after an action near Batang; several missionaries were also murdered, and Chinese fortunes were at a low ebb when a special commissioner called

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In 1934, 1935, 1936–1938 from Qumil Eliqsan led the Kerey Kazakhs to migrate to Gansu and the amount was estimated at 18,000, and they entered Gansu and Qinghai.

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Tibetan author Nyima Gyaincain wrote that based on Tibetan tradition, there was no such thing as presiding over an event, and claims that the Han Chinese word "

2811:... Central-western Tibet was thus an administered territory of China under the Qing. In 1724, eastern Tibet was incorporated into existing Chinese provinces." 653: 3419: 2825: 6169: 5864: 3047: 9894: 9848: 6858: 3020: 790: 657: 3175:(Dec 1937), pp. 435–6, a high Tibetan official pointed our years later that there was "no need for a treaty; we would always help each other if we could." 2633: 10406: 5972: 2547: 3758: 1826:

Tibet created its own postal service in 1912. It printed its first postage stamps in Lhasa and issued them in 1912. It issued telegraph stamps in 1950.

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obligations. Tibetans outside the nobility and the monastic system were classified as serfs, but two types existed and functionally were comparable to

1593: 1508: 4141: 10386: 10351: 9324: 5788: 835: 1352:, which came to power in October, lost little time in asserting a new Chinese presence in Tibet. In June 1950, the British government stated in the 1158:, who claims to have been present at the ceremony, and opposes the above diverse international sources that China presided over it. He claims that: 9743: 9230: 5847: 4126: 1542: 2748: 898:. The British suggested dividing Tibetan-inhabited areas into an Outer and an Inner Tibet (on the model of an earlier agreement between China and 3624: 1610: 1576: 1559: 1525: 1480: 857:

and had not been based on the subordination of one to the other." "We are a small, religious, and independent nation," the proclamation stated.

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reaffirmed its 1914 position that Tibet remained nominally part of China, provided Tibet could manage its own political affairs. In his essay

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The McMahon Line: a Study in the Relations Between, India, China and Tibet, 1904 to 1914, Vol. 1: Morley, Minto and Non-Interference in Tibet

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The McMahon Line: a Study in the Relations Between, India, China and Tibet, 1904 to 1914, Vol. 2: Hardinge, McMahon and the Simla Conference

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The Oshkosh Northwestern (Oshkosh, Wisconsin); The Times (Streator, Illinois); The Windsor Star (Windsor, Ontario, Canada); available from

1903:, who constantly strove to exert control over the rest of Amdo (Qinghai). Southern Kham, along with other parts of Yunnan, belonged to the 3466:光绪三年（一八七七年），由八世班禅丹白旺秀和摄政王公德林呼图克图、三大寺和扎什伦布寺的全体僧俗官员，联名要求驻藏大臣转奏朝廷，以只选定了一名灵童，且经各方公认，请免予金瓶制签。当年三月，光绪帝谕旨:"贡噶仁钦之子罗布藏塔布开甲木措，即作为达赖喇嘛之呼毕勒罕，毋庸制签，钦此。" 10232: 5298: 4394: 2674: 1656: 777:

were then forced to sign the "Three Point Agreement" for the surrender and expulsion of Qing forces in central Tibet. In early 1912, the

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Gold Seal presented by the Tibetan people to the 13th Dalai Lama in 1909. Its use symbolized China no longer had nominal rule over Tibet

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proclaiming mutual recognition of their independence from China. Its independence was not formally recognized by other countries.

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adopted in 1912 specifically established frontier regions of the new republic, including Tibet, as integral parts of the state.

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to start negotiations about Tibet's status was allowed to open an office and remain there, although no agreement was reached.

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Britain, who had an interest in Tibet at the time and wished to undermine Chinese sovereignty over it, had a representative,

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declared that Tibet's relationship with China ended with the fall of the Qing dynasty and proclaimed independence. Tibet and

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giving it control over all the territories of the Qing dynasty. However, it was unable to assert any authority in Tibet. The

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broke out against the Tibetan Government during this time, with the Pandatsang family leading Khamba tribesmen against the

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Reports by F.W. Williamson, British political officer in Sikkim, India Office Record, L/PS/12/4175, dated 20 January 1935

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This article is about the country that existed from 1912 to 1951. For the present-day autonomous region in China, see

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Wang Jiawei; Nima Gyaltsen (1997). The historical position of Tibet in China. China Communication Publishing House

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Zhu, Yuan Yi (2020). "Suzerainty, Semi-Sovereignty, and International Legal Hierarchies on China's Borderlands".

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it signed. The British Government initially rejected McMahon's bilateral accord as being incompatible with the

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Any serf who had absented himself from his estate for three years was automatically granted either commoner (

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in 1911–1912, Tibetan militia launched a surprise attack on the Qing garrison stationed in Tibet after the

4175: 4100: 765:. But by the end of the 19th century, Chinese authority in Tibet was no more than symbolic. Following the 10442: 10287: 10247: 10242: 9972: 9904: 9082: 8874: 8834: 8580: 8350: 8264: 8159: 8074: 7991: 7489: 7361: 7216: 6727: 6605: 6590: 6197: 6154: 6090: 6073: 5947: 5469: 5216: 4979: 2259: 1997: 1672: 1357: 1078:

requested the Central Government of China to exempt Lhamo Dhondup from the lot-drawing process using the

3554:

https://www.newspapers.com/search/?query=The%20fourteenth%20Dalai%20Lama%20who%20will%20share&t=5998

10487: 10363: 10321: 10309: 10282: 10237: 10170: 9914: 9889: 9816: 9801: 9796: 9362: 9291: 9284: 9242: 9024: 8809: 8537: 8497: 8412: 8001: 7899: 6242: 6122: 5878: 5832: 5815: 5798: 5545: 5509: 5356: 4931: 1229: 131: 8189: 3621: 1985:, but never renounced its claim to sovereignty over Tibet, and made occasional attempts to assert it. 918:, China would have rights of administration and Lhasa would retain control of religious institutions. 10299: 10064: 9884: 9838: 9367: 9301: 9154: 9145: 9029: 9019: 8819: 8642: 8595: 8467: 8154: 8089: 8079: 8064: 7399: 7346: 7256: 6845: 6437: 6261: 6142: 6095: 6039: 5504: 5449: 5176: 5062: 4989: 4098: 2502: 2311: 2264: 2143: 1803: 1651:

After the 13th Dalai Lama had assumed full control over Tibet in the 1910s, he began to build up the

8289: 2416:) were bound to their villages but only for tax and corvée purposes, such as road transport duties ( 10314: 10099: 10074: 10003: 9874: 9491: 9004: 8710: 8680: 8652: 7909: 7889: 7854: 7807: 7761: 7113: 6929: 6803: 6432: 6378: 6303: 5979: 5914: 5756: 5739: 5717: 5550: 5525: 5464: 5366: 5119: 5034: 3538:

https://www.newspapers.com/search/?query=Direct%20word%20Lhasa%20arrived%20only%20today&t=12402

2228: 1982: 786: 665: 5136: 3732: 64: 10467: 10462: 10457: 10452: 10447: 10341: 10262: 10212: 10207: 10197: 10165: 10160: 10155: 10140: 10130: 9831: 9811: 9752: 9658: 9217: 9070: 9065: 8585: 7787: 7479: 7462: 7452: 7427: 7271: 6997: 6853: 6635: 6351: 6237: 6232: 6137: 6112: 6056: 5890: 5842: 5677: 5598: 5593: 5535: 5459: 5444: 5303: 5084: 4083: 3290: 3210: 2269: 2017: 1947: 1872: 1615: 1598: 1581: 1547: 1530: 1513: 1342: 933:, which had been under indirect administration of Tibet via the control of the Tawang monastery. 903: 691: 598: 98: 22: 9721: 5258: 3788: 78: 9998: 9952: 9869: 9821: 8989: 8948: 8507: 8422: 8269: 7981: 7914: 7782: 7731: 7663: 7563: 7553: 7351: 7286: 7093: 7022: 6808: 6615: 6449: 6405: 6383: 6080: 5530: 5434: 5241: 4984: 1315: 794: 680: 275: 4536: 3880: 3591: 2990: 1082:

to become the 14th Dalai Lama, and the Chinese government approved. After a ransom of 400,000

10079: 10037: 9806: 9776: 9652: 9508: 9503: 9480: 9247: 8926: 8899: 8859: 8814: 8747: 8690: 8530: 8492: 8472: 8452: 8315: 8279: 8234: 8179: 7966: 7741: 7688: 7513: 7422: 7391: 7331: 7281: 7063: 7053: 6798: 6793: 6748: 6684: 6595: 6298: 6247: 6185: 5907: 5744: 5732: 5722: 5491: 5124: 4924: 4794: 3243: 3224: 2938: 2766: 2666: 2527: 2339: 2233: 2198: 2133: 1967: 1505:

Lhasa Chikyap also known as Xoi Chikyap or Xoi Lhakhang, administered 29 dzongs. seat: Lhasa.

1494: 1472: 1457: 1310: 1034: 942: 720: 649: 618: 539: 469: 84: 7643: 3814: 10114: 9252: 8984: 8889: 8662: 8477: 8396: 8360: 8310: 8169: 8094: 7879: 7756: 7548: 7323: 7301: 7296: 7261: 7203: 6524: 6472: 6332: 6127: 6102: 6029: 6024: 5859: 5751: 5727: 5585: 5067: 3192: 2193: 1974:, Qinghai, over a monastery in 1932. Ma Bufang's Qinghai army defeated the Tibetan armies. 1369: 1083: 770: 724: 3356: 3101: 2607: 1395: 8: 9463: 9296: 8994: 8936: 8705: 8502: 8447: 8284: 8274: 8259: 8249: 8214: 8144: 8059: 8029: 7976: 7693: 7447: 7442: 7341: 7336: 7103: 7058: 7017: 6922: 6825: 6670: 6564: 6559: 6529: 6487: 6410: 6373: 6293: 6278: 6107: 6068: 5775: 5389: 5293: 5044: 4428: 4414: 4307: 2354: 2203: 1971: 1181: 885: 686:

In 1945–1949, the Nationalist government of the Republic of China lost the renewed

287: 3665: 9639: 9604: 9421: 9391: 9237: 9106: 9049: 8849: 8844: 8829: 8401: 8224: 8219: 8184: 8164: 8139: 8134: 8129: 8124: 8119: 8104: 8099: 8044: 7951: 7797: 7668: 7558: 7538: 7494: 7437: 7432: 7409: 7376: 7366: 7356: 7238: 6712: 6707: 6692: 6544: 6512: 6507: 6400: 6322: 6310: 6219: 5885: 5805: 5793: 5761: 5416: 5411: 5329: 5029: 4904: 4724: 4504: 4418: 4120: 3706: 2712:

Strong Borders, Secure Nation: Cooperation and Conflict in China's Territorial Disputes

2420:), and were only obliged to pay taxes. Half of the village serfs were man-lease serfs ( 2051: 1942:. At this time, the government of Tibet controlled all of Ü-Tsang and Kham west of the 1564: 1197: 950: 778: 452: 4325:

The Changing Face of Tibet: The Impact of Chinese Communist Ideology on the Landscape,

2791:, Vol. 9, Issue 1, 2010, p. 127-142: "Through its Lifan Yuan (Office of Border Affairs 1950:

has today. Eastern Kham was governed by local Tibetan princes of varying allegiances.

9826: 9614: 9401: 9396: 8979: 8869: 8854: 8427: 8417: 8380: 8254: 8239: 8114: 8084: 8054: 8049: 8024: 7961: 7956: 7946: 7817: 7766: 7653: 7648: 7371: 7007: 6992: 6771: 6763: 6477: 6344: 6315: 6273: 6202: 6159: 6117: 5984: 5924: 5696: 5633: 5495: 5276: 5246: 5072: 4908: 4896: 4865: 4842: 4822: 4804: 4781: 4763: 4742: 4728: 4668: 4644: 4620: 4600: 4580: 4562: 4542: 4522: 4468: 4453: 4436: 4400: 4276: 4106: 4062: 3890: 3738: 3710: 3601: 3053: 3026: 2944: 2905: 2868: 2831: 2716: 2695: 2440: 2163: 1978: 1912: 1840: 1337: 729: 687: 675:

After the 13th Dalai Lama's death in 1933, a condolence mission sent to Lhasa by the

207: 204: 195: 161: 1970:, attempting to capture southern parts of Qinghai province, following contention in 9781: 9694: 9594: 9545: 9528: 9411: 9345: 9185: 9014: 8916: 8894: 8565: 8443: 8407: 8325: 8149: 7919: 7864: 7827: 7802: 7792: 7726: 7678: 7608: 7603: 7598: 7593: 7588: 7578: 7573: 7266: 7012: 6889: 6882: 6781: 6776: 6702: 6630: 6549: 6464: 6454: 6425: 6361: 6356: 6190: 6164: 6149: 6034: 6012: 5996: 5902: 5351: 5341: 5181: 4974: 4959: 4951: 4888: 4716: 4499: 4494: 4486: 3698: 2152: 2005: 1676: 1038: 937: 424: 400: 171: 157: 4659: 3304: 1127:

Regarding the ceremony, according to Associated Press reports dated Feb 23, 1940:

10059: 9609: 9599: 9496: 9135: 9130: 9116: 8879: 8742: 8730: 8624: 8611: 8320: 8069: 8039: 8034: 7894: 7884: 7849: 7839: 7822: 7658: 7613: 7528: 7246: 7221: 7068: 6497: 6492: 6415: 6366: 6327: 5991: 5573: 5379: 5266: 4836: 4798: 4757: 4736: 4694: 4683: 4614: 4594: 4556: 4516: 3853: 3823: 3687:"War or Stratagem? Reassessing China's Military Advance towards Tibet, 1942–1943" 3672: 3628: 3423: 3311: 3250: 3231: 2775: 2497: 2492: 2482: 2468: 2373: 2285: 2223: 2218: 2183: 2173: 1920: 1390: 1248:. The Tibetans reacted vigorously. The Chinese governor was killed on his way to 1245: 1205: 1193: 1102: 1075: 1071: 1058: 930: 846: 766: 762: 661: 645: 634: 386: 245: 233: 4720: 4190: 4173: 4156: 4143:

The water-bird and other years: a history of the Thirteenth Dalai Lama and after

1679:

of 1950. It consequently disintegrated and surrendered without much resistance.

841:

Following the establishment of the new Republic, China's provisional President,

9710: 9665: 9645: 9571: 9513: 8629: 8462: 8244: 8229: 8194: 7934: 7929: 7812: 7746: 7618: 7276: 7251: 7156: 7073: 7027: 6898: 6830: 6753: 6600: 6554: 6539: 6534: 6517: 6502: 6288: 5643: 5638: 5568: 5154: 4857: 4704: 4177:

Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Volumes 276–278

3565: 3549: 3533: 2401: 2188: 2068: 1318: 926: 899: 861: 822: 610: 505: 344: 175: 4892: 4194:

The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Volume 277

4160:

The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Volume 277

4099:

Michael Gervers, Wayne Schlepp, Joint Centre for Asia Pacific Studies (1998).

3702: 1290: 1236: 10431: 9619: 9087: 8109: 7874: 7869: 7291: 7149: 7108: 7088: 6863: 6610: 6444: 6283: 6085: 5406: 5394: 5236: 5097: 4900: 4058:

Frontier passages: ethnopolitics and the rise of Chinese communism, 1921–1945

3520: 2487: 2378: 1943: 1939: 1904: 1876: 1587: 1553: 1488: 1451: 1027: 958: 806: 501: 329: 298: 70: 7638: 4738:

Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928–49

3969: 2385:) were endemic. The pre-Chinese social system, however, was rather complex. 10187: 9577: 9533: 9523: 9475: 9470: 9453: 9101: 8772: 8199: 7721: 7683: 7583: 7166: 6903: 6788: 6660: 6625: 5231: 5226: 5221: 5211: 5206: 5196: 5114: 5109: 4759:

History as Propaganda: Tibetan Exiles Versus the People's Republic of China

3642: 2827:

Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World

2460: 2301: 2044: 2025: 2001: 1652: 1644: 1634: 1365: 1189: 1177: 1042: 973:

1936 Survey of India map of Tibet, showing Tibet as an independent country.

957:

laying claims to Tibetan districts south of the McMahon Line. According to

922: 754: 742: 497: 3191:[1913 Treaty between Mongolia and Tibet: New Data]. Archived from 2588:

Nakamura, Haije (1964). "Absolute Adherence to the Lamaist Social Order".

9558: 9553: 8431: 7940: 7736: 7628: 7623: 7543: 7134: 7118: 6482: 5399: 5384: 5191: 5149: 5144: 5092: 4577:

A History of Modern Tibet, Volume 2: The Calm Before the Storm: 1951–1955

2546:

As late as 1889, map from Rand McNally shows Tibet as outside China. See

2474: 2445: 2393: 2290: 1859: 1665: 1519: 1253: 1184:, Tibet is incorrectly called a province of China. (The official name is 1155: 1023: 869: 842: 810: 9311: 4508: 3734:

China in the anti-Japanese War, 1937–1945: politics, culture and society

2116: 2077: 1697: 1407: 9670: 9458: 9264: 8755: 8619: 7986: 7924: 7843: 7083: 7048: 6655: 5563: 5374: 5102: 4667:, translated by Dmitry Bennett, Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, 2753:(in Chinese). Zhonghua wen hua chu ban shi ye wei yuan hui, Min guo 42. 2178: 2029: 1959: 1955: 1892: 1880: 1570: 1349: 1213: 1114: 1079: 1067: 907: 902:

over Mongolia). Outer Tibet, approximately the same area as the modern

818: 746: 676: 214: 9180: 3049:

A Nation-state by Construction: Dynamics of Modern Chinese Nationalism

2047:

was attacked by Tibetan troops as he fled Xinjiang to reach Calcutta.

1864: 10135: 10008: 9426: 9140: 8975:

29-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet (1793)

8970:

13-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet (1751)

8720: 8345: 8335: 7904: 7211: 7098: 6665: 6620: 5558: 5499: 4538:

A History of Modern Tibet, 1913-1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State

4518:

A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State

4490: 3887:

Modern History of Tibet, Vol. 2: The Calm Before the Storm, 1951–1955

2208: 2108: 2033: 1963: 1916: 1900: 1896: 1087: 989:

Soon after the 13th Dalai Lama died, according to some accounts, the

782: 630: 3369:

Chambers's Encyclopaedia, Volume XIII, Pergamaon Press, 1967, p. 638

2787:

Barry Sautman, Tibet's Putative Statehood and International Law, in

2397: 1301: 805:

the continued territorial integrity of the lands of the five races,

773:. After the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912, the Qing officials in 9096: 8675: 8482: 8365: 8355: 8174: 7673: 6945: 6740: 6733: 6046: 4838:

Dragon in the Land of Snows: The History of Modern Tibet since 1947

4819:

Dragon in the Land of Snows: The History of Modern Tibet since 1947

4253: 2346: 1908: 1671:

Despite this, the Tibetan Army was wholly inadequate to resist the

1604: 1282: 1224:

Emblem of Tibet shown at the 1947 Asian Relations Conference, Delhi

737: 188: 9000:

Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet (1906)

4800:

One Hundred Thousand Moons: An Advanced Political History of Tibet

3829: 9751: 9564: 9518: 9433: 8725: 8522: 8375: 8330: 8305: 7859: 7568: 7186: 7139: 7078: 7002: 6956: 5169: 5164: 5159: 4916: 4479:

Fisher, Margaret W.; Rose, Leo E.; Huttenback, Robert A. (1963),

4197:. American Academy of Political and Social Science. p. 152. 3918: 2213: 1993: 1989: 1951: 1884: 1536: 1368:. In 1951, representatives of the Tibetan authorities, headed by 1305:

Tibetan passport for Shakabpa, with visas from various countries.

1091: 1053: 964: 814: 183: 4289: 4180:. American Academy of Political and Social Science. p. 152. 4163:. American Academy of Political and Social Science. p. 152. 1136:

Likewise, according to United Press reports dated Feb 22, 1940:

9443: 9092: 8735: 8457: 8370: 7633: 7533: 7176: 7032: 6835: 4640: 4085:

The Journal of the Oriental Society of Australia, Volumes 31–34

2590:

Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples: India, China, Tibet, Japan

2512: 1935: 1888: 1621: 1361: 1324: 1309:

In 1947–49, Lhasa sent a trade mission led by Finance Minister

1278: 1261: 1249: 990: 891: 256: 4558:

The Snow Lion and the Dragon: China, Tibet, and the Dalai Lama

4396:

Studies in International Law and History: An Asian Perspective

4255:

Studies in the Politics, History and Culture of Turkic Peoples

4105:. Joint Centre for Asia Pacific Studies. pp. 73, 74, 76. 3186:"Dogovor 1913 g. mezhdu Mongoliyey i Tibetom: novyye dannyye" 44: 9629: 9448: 9438: 8553: 6914: 4947: 4081: 4036: 3781:"CTA's Response to Chinese Government Allegations: Part Four" 3519:

Democrat and Chronicle (Rochester, New York); available from

3381: 2362: 2350: 1931: 1465: 1217:

threatened the Tibetans with bombing if they did not comply.

1015: 978: 774: 703: 591: 147: 26: 3942: 2569: 2369:

These institutional groups retained great power until 1959.

9175: 9170: 8670: 8340: 7181: 7171: 7161: 7144: 3852:. International Institute for Asian Studies. Archived from 3548:

The Honolulu Advertiser (Honolulu, Hawaii); available from

1868: 1660: 915: 911: 798: 4000: 3976: 9406: 4356: 4258:. Istanbul: Yeditepe University – via academia.edu. 4191:

American Academy of Political and Social Science (1951).

4174:

American Academy of Political and Social Science (1951).

4157:

American Academy of Political and Social Science (1951).

4012: 3926:

from the original on 27 October 2020 – via Hansard.

3501: 2824:

Esherick, Joseph; Kayali, Hasan; Van Young, Eric (2006).

2408:), were bound to work on estates as a corvée obligation ( 3805:, pp. 91–92. E. P. Dutton & Company, Inc., New York. 3477: 3448: 3446: 3393: 3171:

Quoted by Sir Charles Bell, "Tibet and Her Neighbours",

2904:]. City University of Hong Kong Press. p. 273. 2867:]. City University of Hong Kong Press. p. 190. 3930: 3666:"Self-Determination in Tibet: The Politics of Remedies" 3489: 3267: 3255: 3188:Договор 1913 г. между Монголией и Тибетом: новые данные 3066: 2823: 2644: 9025:

Sino-Indian Trade Agreement over Tibetan Border (1954)

9010:

Treaty of friendship and alliance with Mongolia (1913)

3433: 3431: 3141: 3115: 3113: 3111: 4482:

Himalayan Battleground: Sino-Indian Rivalry in Ladakh

4475:; first published 1940 by Readers Union Ltd., London. 4024: 3988: 3860: 3443: 1331:

Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China

4661:

Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation

4478: 4314:

University of Chicago Press, (1998) 1999pp.6–10, p9.

3329: 3317: 2830:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 245. 2620: 2450: 2016:

Territorial extent of Tibet and approximate line of

1871:(Khams), roughly coincident with the borders of the 995:

Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation

791:

Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor

656:

of the Republic of China was formed, it received an

4217: 4205: 3583: 3571: 3428: 3108: 2548:

File:1889 China Map by Rand McNally and Company.jpg

2124:The Tibetan government issued banknotes and coins. 1014:China was then permitted to establish an office in 2807:... Monastic finances were under imperial control. 2634:"Gongjor Zhongnyi and the Tibet Office in Nanjing" 2338:Traditional Tibetan society consisted of a feudal 2028:expelled 30,000 Kazakhs from Xinjiang to Qinghai, 1907:from 1915 till 1927, then to Governor and warlord 925:, which delineated the Tibet-India border, in the 714: 10090:Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo 4272:The Kazaks of China: Essays on an Ethnic Minority 4088:. Oriental Society of Australia. pp. 35, 37. 3305:"Tibet Facts No.17: British Relations with Tibet" 1977:During the 1920s and 1930s, China was divided by 1145:Billings Gazette Sun reports dated Feb 18, 1940: 1101:The approval certificate of the accession of the 1086:had been paid by Lhasa to the Hui Muslim warlord 864:and three other Tibetan representatives signed a 836:Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China 10429: 4709:The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 3078: 2937:Goldstein, Melvyn C.; Beall, Cynthia M. (1990), 1938:and western Kham. A truce set the border at the 4755: 4295: 2956: 2054:was killed by Tibetan troops on 29 April 1950. 3417:Tibet during the Republic of China (1912–1949) 2943:, University of California Press, p. 50, 2936: 2902:Political Constitution and Future Constitution 1899:of the family of Muslim warlords known as the 965:After the death of the 13th Dalai Lama in 1933 9753:History of World War II by region and country 9737: 8942:Self-immolation protests by Tibetans in China 8538: 6930: 6583: 4932: 3914:"Oral Answers to Questions: Tibet (Autonomy)" 3731:Barrett, David P.; Shyu, Lawrence N. (2001). 2319: 2000:led by Ma Bufang and Liu Wenhui defeated the 1168: 829: 4864:. London; New Haven: Yale University Press. 4125:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2604:"AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE CHINESE AND TIBETANS" 1325:Annexation by the People's Republic of China 1188:, and it's not a province.) In 1944, during 639:annexation by the People's Republic of China 4637:The Bitter Peace. Conflict in China 1928–37 3730: 3130: 3128: 1879:, was under the control of Chinese warlord 1437: 929:region. The boundary included in India the 464:1,221,600 km (471,700 sq mi) 413:• Tibet Office established in Nanjing 9744: 9730: 8545: 8531: 6937: 6923: 4939: 4925: 4856: 4775: 4262: 4139: 4042: 3841: 3763:Institute for Defense Studies and Analysis 3507: 3279: 2691:Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture 2656: 2592:. University of Hawaii Press. p. 327. 2326: 2312: 1689:Postage stamps and postal history of Tibet 879: 116: 4574: 4554: 4534: 4514: 4498: 4423:(First ed.), Oxford University Press 4362: 4351:China's Tibet?: Autonomy Or Assimilation, 4338:China's Tibet?: Autonomy Or Assimilation, 4327:University Press of Kentucky, 1976, p.64. 4275:. Ubsaliensis S. Academiae. p. 195. 4061:. Stanford University Press. p. 89. 3948: 3936: 3878: 3872: 3835: 3785:Website of Central Tibetan Administration 3564:The Billings Gazette Sun; available from 3483: 3399: 3273: 3261: 3199: 3090: 3084: 3072: 3052:. Stanford University Press. p. 68. 2996: 2974: 2886: 2884: 2849: 2847: 2819: 2817: 2650: 1364:, defeating sporadic resistance from the 652:of the Qing dynasty until 1912. When the 4793: 4612: 4592: 3922:. U. K. House of Commons. 21 June 1950. 3147: 3125: 3039: 2986: 2587: 2575: 2518:Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission 2404:. Agricultural serfs, or "small smoke" ( 2120:Tibetan 1 Srang silver coin, issued 1919 2115: 2107: 2011: 1839: 1638: 1394: 1300: 1228:In 1947, Tibet sent a delegation to the 1219: 1096: 1052: 1020:Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission 968: 741:A map of East Asia in 1914 published by 736: 728: 4241:. William Blackwood. 1948. p. 407. 3759:"India Should Revisit its Tibet Policy" 3640: 3589: 3412: 3410: 3408: 3353:China's Tibet: Facts & Figures 2002 3153: 1860:division of China into military cliques 1399:Organizational chart of Ganden Phodrang 890:In 1913–1914, a conference was held in 10430: 8699:Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs 6972:List of current non-sovereign monarchs 5874:Socialism with Chinese characteristics 4834: 4816: 4756:Powers, John; Holzinger, Lutz (2004), 4657: 4634: 4268: 4251: 4082:Oriental Society of Australia (2000). 4030: 4018: 4006: 3994: 3982: 3866: 3850:"Britain, China, and Tibet, 1904–1950" 3847: 3452: 3437: 3387: 3119: 3018: 2881: 2844: 2814: 2127: 2050:The anti-communist American CIA agent 1875:today. Eastern Kham, separated by the 825:into one great Republic of China" (... 9725: 8780:People's Republic of China (PRC) rule 8526: 7202: 6918: 4920: 4692: 4681: 4535:Goldstein, Melvyn C. (18 June 1991), 4452:(1924) Barry Rose Law Publishes Ltd. 4392: 3658: 3335: 3323: 2670: 999:Library of Tibetan Works and Archives 789:. This claim was provided for in the 8907:1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet 4450:The Great Tibetan Stonewall of China 4427: 4413: 3577: 3495: 3405: 3297: 3159: 3045: 2853: 2789:Chinese Journal of International Law 2523:Tibet Area (administrative division) 2072: 1829: 1692: 1620:, also known as Kham Chikyap, seat: 1402: 906:, would be autonomous under Chinese 553:Tibet Area (administrative division) 10478:Former countries in Chinese history 6570:Major Historical and Cultural Sites 4878: 4734: 4703: 4340:Rowman & Littlefield, 2009 p.14 4223: 4211: 4054: 3684: 3012: 3002: 2962: 2924: 2890: 2742:] (in Chinese). 今日郵政月刊社 . 1997. 2662: 1836:Nepalese Chamber of Commerce, Lhasa 1107:Government of the Republic of China 779:Government of the Republic of China 698:independence ended after Tibet was 365:• Declaration of Independence 122:Territorial extent of Tibet in 1942 25:. For the geographical region, see 13: 8885:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910) 8840:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720) 8552: 6967:List of current sovereign monarchs 5708: 4946: 4881:Asian Journal of International Law 4780:, Boston: Shambhala Publications, 4579:, University of California Press, 4561:, University of California Press, 4541:, University of California Press, 4521:, University of California Press, 4146:. Rangwang Publishers. p. 60. 3879:Goldstein, Melvyn C. (July 2014). 2894:Zhèngzhì xiànfǎ yǔ wèilái xiàn zhì 2621:Fisher, Rose & Huttenback 1963 2392:), roughly similar to the English 1946:, roughly the same borders as the 1925:Kuomintang Pacification of Qinghai 1891:area controlled after 1928 by the 1569:also known as Ngari Garpön, seat: 16:Former de facto state in East Asia 14: 10509: 8922:Protests and uprisings since 1950 8912:1939 Japanese expedition to Tibet 5865:Political Consultative Conference 3644:Why We Fight: The Battle of China 1887:) was more complicated, with the 1682: 866:treaty between Tibet and Mongolia 753:Tibet came under the rule of the 318:Chankhyim Trekhang Thupten Shakya 9030:70,000 Character Petition (1962) 9020:Seventeen Point Agreement (1951) 7485:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 6651:Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty 6646:Four Masters of the Ming dynasty 4762:, Oxford University Press, USA, 4368: 2865:Why is the constitution of China 2768:Central Asia: an outline history 2467: 2453: 2295: 2284: 2162: 2076: 1814: 1802: 1790: 1778: 1766: 1754: 1742: 1730: 1696: 1406: 1048: 757:of China in 1720 after the Qing 571: 557: 532: 103: 77: 63: 9005:Anglo-Russian Convention (1907) 6962:Imperial, royal and noble ranks 6641:Four Paragons of the Early Tang 5838:Political parties and movements 5202:Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms 5187:Northern and Southern dynasties 4795:Shakabpa, Tsepon Wangchuk Deden 4343: 4330: 4317: 4301: 4245: 4229: 4184: 4167: 4150: 4133: 4092: 4075: 4048: 3954: 3919:Parliamentary Debates (Hansard) 3906: 3808: 3795: 3773: 3751: 3724: 3678: 3634: 3614: 3600:]. 五洲传播出版社. pp. 133–. 3558: 3542: 3526: 3513: 3458: 3372: 3363: 3349:"Republic of China (1912–1949)" 3341: 3236: 3217: 3178: 3165: 2968: 2930: 2918: 2781: 2540: 2508:History of Tibet (1950–present) 1919:removed him under the order of 1821:Snow lion stamps issued in 1933 1074:On 26 January 1940, the Regent 894:between the UK, Tibet, and the 749:region of the Republic of China 715:Fall of the Qing dynasty (1911) 10498:Neutral states in World War II 9260:Patron and priest relationship 9226:Central Tibetan Administration 9035:Memorandum on Genuine Autonomy 6944: 3962:"Peaceful Liberation of Tibet" 3882:西藏现代史暴风雨之前的平静, 1951–1955. 第二卷 2759: 2732:Jīnrì yóuzhèng, Issues 469-480 2715:. Princeton University Press. 2679: 2626: 2596: 2581: 1809:Snow lion stamp issued in 1920 1797:Snow lion stamp issued in 1912 1785:Snow lion stamp issued in 1912 1773:Snow lion stamp issued in 1912 1761:Snow lion stamp issued in 1912 1749:Snow lion stamp issued in 1912 1737:Snow lion stamp issued in 1912 1464:), which were subdivided into 949:wrote a note presented to the 830: 797:on behalf of the six-year-old 567:Central Tibetan Administration 276:Thubten Jamphel Yeshe Gyaltsen 1: 10483:Former unrecognized countries 9625:Historical and cultural sites 8990:Convention of Calcutta (1890) 4821:, Columbia University Press, 4776:Richardson, Hugh E. (1984) , 4575:Goldstein, Melvyn C. (2007), 4555:Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1997), 4515:Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1989), 2557: 1442:Tibet was divided into eight 1384: 1260:In 1909, he recommended that 1192:, two Austrian mountaineers, 1037:led by Pandastang Togbye and 943:1907 Anglo-Russian Convention 874:Mongolian Academy of Sciences 375:• Three Point Agreement 10473:Disputed territories in Asia 8965:Treaty of Tingmosgang (1684) 6977:List of monarchy referendums 5943:Ministry of National Defense 5282:Chinese Communist Revolution 4658:Kuzmin, Sergius L. (2011) , 4467:(1977) Books for Libraries. 2562: 2112:Tibetan 100 tam Srang (back) 1360:entered the Tibetan area of 955:Ministry of External Affairs 650:protectorate under Qing rule 635:collapse of the Qing dynasty 7: 8985:Treaty of Thapathali (1856) 8875:British expedition to Tibet 8865:Nepal-Tibet War (1855–1856) 8835:Battle of the Salween River 6606:Flowers of the Four Seasons 6591:Four Treasures of the Study 6210:Water supply and sanitation 5938:Central Military Commission 5933:Outline of military history 5683:Province-level subdivisions 4721:10.1080/0308653042000279650 4296:Powers & Holzinger 2004 2434: 2357:, stated that at the time: 2062: 1998:National Revolutionary Army 1628: 1379: 977:Since the expulsion of the 45: 10: 10514: 9358:Postage and postal history 8810:Tibetan attack on Songzhou 5879:Primary stage of socialism 5821:National People's Congress 5289:People's Republic of China 4635:Jowett, Philip S. (2017). 4616:The Making of Modern Tibet 4596:The Making of Modern Tibet 4433:Portrait of the Dalai Lama 4385: 3737:. Peter Lang. p. 98. 2740:Post Today, Issues 469-480 2709:Fravel, M. Taylor (2008). 2131: 2066: 2057: 1911:until near the end of the 1867:(Dbus-gtsang) and western 1833: 1686: 1632: 1388: 1328: 1230:Asian Relations Conference 883: 718: 709: 704:People's Republic of China 20: 10493:Former monarchies of Asia 10372: 10123: 9986: 9940: 9862: 9759: 9688: 9544: 9387: 9380: 9353: 9344: 9310: 9213: 9204: 9163: 9061: 9057: 9048: 8957: 8820:Mongol invasions of Tibet 8800: 8604: 8573: 8564: 8389: 8298: 8012: 7775: 7709: 7521: 7512: 7408: 7390: 7322: 7237: 7195: 7127: 7041: 6985: 6952: 6876: 6844: 6762: 6683: 6463: 6269: 6260: 6218: 6178: 6020: 6011: 5923: 5774: 5704: 5695: 5658: 5629:UNESCO Biosphere Reserves 5584: 5518: 5427: 5365: 5337: 5328: 5257: 5135: 5083: 5043: 4967: 4958: 4893:10.1017/S204425132000020X 4699:, Routledge & K. Paul 4688:, Routledge & K. Paul 4593:Grunfeld, A. Tom (1996), 3838:, pp. 578, 592, 604. 3703:10.1017/S0305741006000233 2750:Bian jiang wen hua lun ji 2688:Perkins, Dorothy (2013). 2503:Historical money of Tibet 1954:was controlled by ethnic 1883:. The situation in Amdo ( 1374:Seventeen Point Agreement 1169: 845:, sent a telegram to the 831:仍合滿、漢、蒙、回、藏五族完全領土，為一大中華民國 614: 587: 511: 493: 489: 479: 475: 468: 458: 451: 447: 438:Seventeen Point Agreement 434: 421: 411: 397: 383: 373: 363: 359: 351: 339: 335: 323: 313:• 1912–1920 (first) 311: 307: 297: 293: 281: 271:• 1934–1941 (first) 269: 265: 255: 251: 239: 229:• 1912–1933 (first) 227: 223: 213: 201:Dual system of government 194: 182: 167: 153: 140: 127: 115: 93: 59: 54: 34: 10438:Former countries in Asia 9218:Tibet Autonomous Region 8980:Treaty of Chushul (1842) 8932:1987–1989 Tibetan unrest 7114:Self-proclaimed monarchy 6804:Catholic Church in China 5948:People's Liberation Army 5915:One country, two systems 4835:Shakya, Tsering (2012), 4817:Shakya, Tsering (1999), 4735:Lin, Hsaio-ting (2011). 4677:– via savetibet.ru 4619:, Taylor & Francis, 4613:Grunfeld, A.Tom (2015), 4376:Prisoners of Shangri-La, 4312:Prisoners of Shangri-La: 3881: 3685:Lin, Hsiao-ting (2006). 3465: 3422:22 November 2009 at the 3249:15 February 2011 at the 3230:15 February 2011 at the 3187: 3025:. Hackett. p. 419. 2896: 2859: 2747:Ling, Chunsheng (1953). 2734: 2533: 2239:13th and 14th Dalai Lama 2020:advance in February 1950 1846:British Mission in Lhasa 1673:People's Liberation Army 1438:Administrative divisions 1358:People's Liberation Army 694:. In Tibet, the era of 325:• 1950–1951 (last) 283:• 1941–1950 (last) 241:• 1937–1951 (last) 9325:TAR People's Government 9285:Serfs' Emancipation Day 8825:Tibet–Ladakh–Mughal war 7382:Vatican City (Holy See) 6636:Four Pillars of Destiny 6421:Regional discrimination 5843:Chinese Communist Party 4778:Tibet & Its History 4693:Lamb, Alastair (1966), 4682:Lamb, Alastair (1966), 4643:: Amberley Publishing. 4500:2027/mdp.39015010426792 4435:, London: Wm. Collins, 3627:13 January 2012 at the 3390:, pp. 95–100, 108. 3136:Geschichte der Mongolei 3046:Zhao, Suisheng (2004). 3019:Tanner, Harold (2009). 2940:Nomads of Western Tibet 2774:13 October 2017 at the 1948:Tibet Autonomous Region 1873:Tibet Autonomous Region 1256:appeared on the scene. 1180:; in the sixth series, 904:Tibet Autonomous Region 880:Simla Convention (1914) 692:Chinese Communist Party 599:Tibet Autonomous Region 154:Official languages 23:Tibet Autonomous Region 8995:Treaty of Lhasa (1904) 8949:Special Frontier Force 7664:Islands of Refreshment 7094:Legitimacy (political) 6389:Science and technology 6062:Special economic zones 5314:persecution of Uyghurs 5242:Century of humiliation 4420:Tibet Past and Present 4269:Benson, Linda (1988). 4252:Devlet, Nadir (2004). 4055:Liu, Xiaoyuan (2004). 2854:Zhai, Zhiyong (2017). 2367: 2121: 2113: 2021: 1981:and occupied with the 1855: 1655:with support from the 1648: 1415:This section is empty. 1400: 1316:British Prime Minister 1306: 1299: 1225: 1212:Under orders from the 1165: 1152: 1143: 1134: 1125: 1110: 1062: 974: 795:Empress Dowager Longyu 750: 745:, showing Tibet as an 734: 702:into the newly formed 681:Nationalist government 654:provisional government 288:Ngawang Sungrab Thutob 9368:Qinghai–Tibet railway 9363:Qinghai-Tibet Highway 9330:TAR People's Congress 9302:India–Tibet relations 9275:Independence movement 8927:1959 Tibetan uprising 8815:Battle of Dafei River 8663:Era of Fragmentation 7475:Saint Kitts and Nevis 7064:Criticism of monarchy 7054:Abolition of monarchy 6596:Four Great Inventions 5980:People's Armed Police 4463:Chapman, F. Spencer. 4393:Anand, R. P. (2013). 4349:Warren W. Smith, Jr. 3848:Farrington, Anthony. 3801:Migot, André (1955). 3310:11 April 2008 at the 3303:Free Tibet Campaign, 3195:on 11 September 2020. 2578:, pp. 763, 1021. 2528:Tibet under Qing rule 2359: 2134:Social class in Tibet 2119: 2111: 2015: 2009:who had surrendered. 1968:Tibet invaded Qinghai 1843: 1642: 1398: 1389:Further information: 1311:Tsepon W. D. Shakabpa 1304: 1241: 1223: 1160: 1147: 1138: 1129: 1120: 1100: 1056: 1035:1934 Khamba Rebellion 972: 851:a military expedition 740: 732: 721:Tibet under Qing rule 633:that lasted from the 629:independent state in 540:Tibet under Qing rule 9676:Traditional medicine 8890:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil 8711:Relations with Ming 8681:Relations with Song 8653:Relations with Tang 8591:European exploration 7307:United Arab Emirates 6575:World Heritage Sites 6103:Foreign aid received 5811:Environmental policy 5609:Environmental policy 5604:Environmental issues 4374:Donald S Lopez Jr., 4336:Warren W. Smith, Jr. 4323:Pradyumna P. Karan, 4238:Blackwood's Magazine 4009:, pp. 240, 246. 3985:, pp. 235, 236. 3856:on 29 November 2018. 3791:on 16 November 2008. 3213:on 9 September 2020. 2891:Gao, Quanxi (2016). 2857:Xiànfǎ héyǐ zhōngguó 2735:今日郵政, Issues 469-480 2275:European exploration 2229:Ming–Tibet relations 2194:Era of Fragmentation 2043:In 1951, the Uyghur 1988:In 1932, the Muslim 1934:regained control of 1370:Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme 771:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil 725:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil 706:in 1950–1951. 403:signed with Britain 10202:Carpathian Ruthenia 9320:Regional Government 9297:CIA Tibetan program 9280:Serfdom controversy 9164:Traditional regions 9015:Simla Accord (1914) 8937:2008 Tibetan unrest 8761:List of Qing ambans 8706:Phagmodrupa dynasty 8503:Trinidad and Tobago 8390:Commonwealth realms 8275:United Baltic Duchy 7418:Antigua and Barbuda 7410:Commonwealth realms 7104:Order of succession 6821:History of religion 6816:Freedom of religion 6671:Four Pests campaign 6616:Four Classic Novels 6228:Automotive industry 6108:Foreign aid program 5799:Pro-democratisation 5294:Cultural Revolution 4465:Lhasa the Holy City 4308:Donald S. Lopez Jr. 4140:K. Dhondup (1986). 4045:, pp. 209–212. 4021:, pp. 235–246. 3951:, pp. 812–813. 3822:16 May 2021 at the 3691:The China Quarterly 3671:28 May 2011 at the 3498:, pp. 398–399. 3293:on 5 February 2019. 3138:, Bonn 1999, p380ff 3104:on 4 February 2019. 2204:Phagmodrupa dynasty 2128:Society and culture 1345:government, led by 1321:in London in 1948. 1182:The Battle of China 886:Simla Accord (1914) 10443:Former theocracies 9792:French West Africa 9772:British Somaliland 9634:(ceremonial scarf) 9605:Dzong architecture 9422:Imperial Preceptor 9292:Sovereignty debate 9238:Etymology of Tibet 8850:Lhasa riot of 1750 8845:Jinchuan campaigns 8830:Battle of Dartsedo 8748:Qing dynasty rule 8691:Yuan dynasty rule 8665:(9th–13th century) 6728:Population history 6708:Internal migration 6323:Harmonious Society 6198:Telecommunications 6155:Standard of living 6074:Online advertising 5826:Standing Committee 3590:王家伟; 尼玛坚赞 (1997). 3162:, pp. 150–151 2122: 2114: 2088:. You can help by 2052:Douglas Mackiernan 2022: 1856: 1708:. You can help by 1649: 1647:on parade in 1938 1401: 1307: 1226: 1198:Peter Aufschnaiter 1111: 1063: 975: 761:the forces of the 751: 735: 637:in 1912 until its 10488:Former monarchies 10425: 10424: 10016:Dutch East Indies 9854:Southern Rhodesia 9787:French Somaliland 9719: 9718: 9684: 9683: 9376: 9375: 9340: 9339: 9243:Foreign relations 9200: 9199: 9196: 9195: 9044: 9043: 8900:Qinghai–Tibet War 8870:Sikkim expedition 8860:Dogra–Tibetan War 8855:Sino-Nepalese War 8790:political leaders 8768:Post-Qing to 1950 8721:Rinpungpa dynasty 8632:(7th–9th century) 8520: 8519: 8516: 8515: 8205:Piedmont-Sardinia 7957:Sip Song Chau Tai 7767:Thirteen Colonies 7508: 7507: 6912: 6911: 6872: 6871: 6679: 6678: 6256: 6255: 6243:Shipping industry 6007: 6006: 5973:Strategic Support 5848:General Secretary 5833:National security 5816:Foreign relations 5770: 5769: 5691: 5690: 5654: 5653: 5357:Natural disasters 5324: 5323: 5277:Chinese Civil War 5272:Republic of China 5247:Taiping Rebellion 5120:Spring and Autumn 5025:Foreign relations 4848:978-1-4481-1429-0 4769:978-0-19-517426-7 4748:978-0-7748-5988-2 4674:978-93-80359-47-2 4626:978-1-317-45583-7 4606:978-0-7656-3455-9 4586:978-0-520-24941-7 4568:978-0-520-21951-9 4548:978-0-520-91176-5 4528:978-0-520-06140-8 4406:978-94-017-5600-6 4298:, pp. 19–20. 4282:978-91-554-2255-4 4043:van Schaik (2013) 3889:]. 香港大學出版社 . 3769:on 21 April 2008. 3647:, Eric Spiegelman 3607:978-7-80113-303-8 3508:Richardson (1984) 3223:Article 2 of the 3134:Udo B. Barkmann, 2722:978-1-4008-2887-6 2701:978-1-135-93562-7 2441:Arunachal Pradesh 2336: 2335: 2209:Rinpungpa dynasty 2106: 2105: 1983:anti-Japanese war 1913:Chinese Civil War 1844:Residence of the 1830:Foreign relations 1726: 1725: 1675:(PLA) during the 1435: 1434: 1343:Chinese Communist 1338:10th Panchen Lama 1109:on 1 January 1940 1018:, staffed by the 997:published by the 951:newly independent 896:Republic of China 860:In January 1913, 855:patron and priest 767:Xinhai Revolution 688:Chinese Civil War 604: 603: 583: 582: 579: 578: 545: 544: 208:absolute monarchy 162:Tibetic languages 135:independent state 108: 10505: 10176:Military history 9930:Native Americans 9746: 9739: 9732: 9723: 9722: 9704: 9697: 9635: 9412:Tibetan Buddhism 9385: 9384: 9351: 9350: 9221: 9211: 9210: 9059: 9058: 9055: 9054: 8917:Battle of Chamdo 8895:Sino-Tibetan War 8751: 8714: 8694: 8684: 8666: 8656: 8643:List of emperors 8633: 8615: 8596:Historical money 8571: 8570: 8547: 8540: 8533: 8524: 8523: 8444:Irish Free State 8210:Poland–Lithuania 7519: 7518: 7470:Papua New Guinea 7200: 7199: 6939: 6932: 6925: 6916: 6915: 6892: 6885: 6782:Tibetan Buddhism 6777:Chinese Buddhism 6631:Four Holy Beasts 6581: 6580: 6433:Social relations 6362:Standard Chinese 6357:Chinese language 6267: 6266: 6052:Economic history 6018: 6017: 5997:Maritime Militia 5706: 5705: 5702: 5701: 5673:Border crossings 5668:Baseline islands 5363: 5362: 5335: 5334: 5299:Tiananmen Square 5182:Sixteen Kingdoms 4990:Military history 4965: 4964: 4941: 4934: 4927: 4918: 4917: 4912: 4875: 4862:Tibet: A History 4851: 4841:, Random House, 4831: 4813: 4790: 4787:978-087773-292-1 4772: 4752: 4731: 4700: 4689: 4678: 4666: 4654: 4629: 4609: 4589: 4571: 4551: 4531: 4511: 4502: 4491:10.2307/40199339 4448:Berkin, Martyn. 4445: 4424: 4410: 4379: 4372: 4366: 4365:, pp. 9–13. 4363:Goldstein (2007) 4360: 4354: 4347: 4341: 4334: 4328: 4321: 4315: 4305: 4299: 4293: 4287: 4286: 4266: 4260: 4259: 4249: 4243: 4242: 4233: 4227: 4221: 4215: 4214:, pp. 112–. 4209: 4203: 4202: 4188: 4182: 4181: 4171: 4165: 4164: 4154: 4148: 4147: 4137: 4131: 4130: 4124: 4116: 4096: 4090: 4089: 4079: 4073: 4072: 4052: 4046: 4040: 4034: 4028: 4022: 4016: 4010: 4004: 3998: 3992: 3986: 3980: 3974: 3973: 3972:on 16 June 2017. 3968:. 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Archived from 3203: 3197: 3196: 3182: 3176: 3169: 3163: 3157: 3151: 3145: 3139: 3132: 3123: 3117: 3106: 3105: 3100:. Archived from 3094: 3088: 3085:Goldstein (1997) 3082: 3076: 3073:Goldstein (1997) 3070: 3064: 3063: 3043: 3037: 3036: 3022:China: A History 3016: 3010: 3000: 2994: 2984: 2978: 2975:Goldstein (1997) 2972: 2966: 2960: 2954: 2953: 2934: 2928: 2922: 2916: 2915: 2888: 2879: 2878: 2851: 2842: 2841: 2821: 2812: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2785: 2779: 2763: 2757: 2754: 2743: 2726: 2705: 2683: 2677: 2660: 2654: 2651:Goldstein (1989) 2648: 2642: 2641: 2640:on 8 March 2016. 2636:. Archived from 2630: 2624: 2618: 2612: 2611: 2610:on 23 June 2017. 2606:. Archived from 2600: 2594: 2593: 2585: 2579: 2573: 2551: 2544: 2477: 2472: 2471: 2463: 2458: 2457: 2456: 2328: 2321: 2314: 2302:China portal 2300: 2299: 2298: 2289: 2288: 2265:Historical money 2166: 2156: 2138: 2137: 2101: 2098: 2080: 2073: 2006:Sino-Tibetan War 1992:and Han-Chinese 1854: 1818: 1806: 1794: 1782: 1770: 1758: 1746: 1734: 1721: 1718: 1700: 1693: 1677:Chinese invasion 1619: 1602: 1594:Shigatse Chikyap 1585: 1568: 1551: 1534: 1517: 1509:Changgyu Chikyap 1492: 1455: 1430: 1427: 1417:You can help by 1410: 1403: 1354:House of Commons 1297: 1172: 1171: 1039:Pandatsang Rapga 938:Simla Convention 833: 832: 828: 804: 799:Xuantong Emperor 616: 575: 574: 561: 560: 549: 548: 536: 535: 529: 528: 513: 512: 425:Battle of Chamdo 401:Simla Convention 172:Tibetan Buddhism 143:and largest city 120: 110: 109: 81: 67: 49: 48: 41: 32: 31: 10513: 10512: 10508: 10507: 10506: 10504: 10503: 10502: 10428: 10427: 10426: 10421: 10417:Pacific Islands 10412:Solomon Islands 10392:Gilbert Islands 10374: 10368: 10347:Channel Islands 10119: 9982: 9936: 9858: 9755: 9750: 9720: 9715: 9707: 9700: 9693: 9680: 9633: 9540: 9372: 9336: 9306: 9219: 9192: 9159: 9136:Tibetan Plateau 9131:Rongbuk Glacier 9117:Yarlung Tsangpo 9040: 8953: 8880:Batang uprising 8802: 8796: 8749: 8743:Khoshut Khanate 8731:Ganden Phodrang 8726:Tsangpa dynasty 8712: 8692: 8682: 8664: 8654: 8631: 8625:Yarlung dynasty 8613: 8600: 8560: 8551: 8521: 8512: 8437:princely states 8385: 8321:Kingdom of Fiji 8294: 8040:Austria-Hungary 8008: 7771: 7705: 7504: 7490:Solomon Islands 7404: 7386: 7318: 7233: 7191: 7123: 7069:Democratization 7037: 6981: 6948: 6943: 6913: 6908: 6895: 6888: 6881: 6868: 6840: 6758: 6718:Life expectancy 6675: 6579: 6459: 6379:Public holidays 6367:Written Chinese 6352:Intellectualism 6304:Sex trafficking 6252: 6214: 6174: 6003: 5919: 5766: 5757:Nationality law 5740:Law enforcement 5718:Judicial system 5687: 5650: 5624:Nature reserves 5614:Protected areas 5580: 5551:Water resources 5514: 5423: 5361: 5320: 5304:Economic reform 5267:1911 Revolution 5253: 5217:Jin (1115–1234) 5131: 5079: 5039: 4954: 4945: 4915: 4872: 4858:van Schaik, Sam 4849: 4829: 4811: 4788: 4770: 4749: 4705:Lin, Hsiao-Ting 4675: 4664: 4651: 4627: 4607: 4599:, M.E. Sharpe, 4587: 4569: 4549: 4529: 4443: 4407: 4388: 4383: 4382: 4373: 4369: 4361: 4357: 4348: 4344: 4335: 4331: 4322: 4318: 4306: 4302: 4294: 4290: 4283: 4267: 4263: 4250: 4246: 4235: 4234: 4230: 4226:, p. 231–. 4222: 4218: 4210: 4206: 4189: 4185: 4172: 4168: 4155: 4151: 4138: 4134: 4118: 4117: 4113: 4097: 4093: 4080: 4076: 4069: 4053: 4049: 4041: 4037: 4029: 4025: 4017: 4013: 4005: 4001: 3993: 3989: 3981: 3977: 3960: 3959: 3955: 3947: 3943: 3935: 3931: 3912: 3911: 3907: 3897: 3883: 3877: 3873: 3869:, pp. 7–8. 3865: 3861: 3846: 3842: 3834: 3830: 3824:Wayback Machine 3816:Tibetan Marches 3813: 3809: 3803:Tibetan Marches 3800: 3796: 3779: 3778: 3774: 3757: 3756: 3752: 3745: 3729: 3725: 3715: 3713: 3683: 3679: 3673:Wayback Machine 3664:Smith, Daniel, 3663: 3659: 3650: 3648: 3639: 3635: 3629:Wayback Machine 3619: 3615: 3608: 3588: 3584: 3576: 3572: 3563: 3559: 3547: 3543: 3531: 3527: 3518: 3514: 3506: 3502: 3494: 3490: 3482: 3478: 3467: 3464: 3463: 3459: 3455:, pp. 6–7. 3451: 3444: 3436: 3429: 3424:Wayback Machine 3415: 3406: 3398: 3394: 3386: 3382: 3377: 3373: 3368: 3364: 3347: 3346: 3342: 3334: 3330: 3322: 3318: 3312:Wayback Machine 3302: 3298: 3285: 3284: 3280: 3272: 3268: 3260: 3256: 3251:Wayback Machine 3241: 3237: 3232:Wayback Machine 3222: 3218: 3205: 3204: 3200: 3189: 3184: 3183: 3179: 3173:Pacific Affairs 3170: 3166: 3158: 3154: 3146: 3142: 3133: 3126: 3118: 3109: 3096: 3095: 3091: 3083: 3079: 3071: 3067: 3060: 3044: 3040: 3033: 3017: 3013: 3001: 2997: 2985: 2981: 2973: 2969: 2961: 2957: 2951: 2935: 2931: 2923: 2919: 2912: 2898: 2889: 2882: 2875: 2861: 2852: 2845: 2838: 2822: 2815: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2786: 2782: 2776:Wayback Machine 2764: 2760: 2746: 2736: 2729: 2723: 2708: 2702: 2687: 2684: 2680: 2661: 2657: 2649: 2645: 2632: 2631: 2627: 2619: 2615: 2602: 2601: 2597: 2586: 2582: 2576:Shakabpa (2010) 2574: 2570: 2565: 2560: 2555: 2554: 2545: 2541: 2536: 2498:Ganden Phodrang 2493:Four Rugby Boys 2483:Captive Nations 2473: 2466: 2459: 2454: 2452: 2437: 2394:manorial system 2381:, and beggars ( 2374:13th Dalai Lama 2355:Donald S. Lopez 2340:class structure 2332: 2296: 2294: 2291:Asia portal 2283: 2224:Ganden Phodrang 2219:Khoshut Khanate 2214:Tsangpa dynasty 2184:Yarlung dynasty 2174:Neolithic Tibet 2154: 2147: 2136: 2130: 2102: 2096: 2093: 2086:needs expansion 2071: 2065: 2060: 2032:led by General 2024:In 1936, after 1921:Chiang Kai-shek 1909:Long (Lung) Yun 1848: 1838: 1832: 1822: 1819: 1810: 1807: 1798: 1795: 1786: 1783: 1774: 1771: 1762: 1759: 1750: 1747: 1738: 1735: 1722: 1716: 1713: 1706:needs expansion 1691: 1685: 1637: 1631: 1613: 1596: 1579: 1562: 1545: 1528: 1511: 1486: 1449: 1440: 1431: 1425: 1422: 1393: 1391:Ganden Phodrang 1387: 1382: 1333: 1327: 1298: 1295:Tibetan Marches 1289: 1206:Chiang Kai-shek 1194:Heinrich Harrer 1156:Sir Basil Gould 1103:14th Dalai Lama 1076:Reting Rinpoche 1072:13th Dalai Lama 1061:as a young boy. 1059:14th Dalai Lama 1051: 1001:at Dharamsala, 967: 927:Assam Himalayan 888: 882: 847:13th Dalai Lama 826: 802: 763:Dzungar Khanate 727: 717: 712: 662:13th Dalai Lama 646:Ganden Phodrang 594: 572: 558: 533: 482: 461: 440: 427: 414: 404: 390: 387:13th Dalai Lama 376: 366: 326: 314: 284: 272: 242: 230: 144: 123: 111: 104: 89: 88: 87: 82: 74: 73: 68: 50: 43: 42: 39: 37: 30: 17: 12: 11: 5: 10511: 10501: 10500: 10495: 10490: 10485: 10480: 10475: 10470: 10468:1950s in Tibet 10465: 10463:1940s in Tibet 10460: 10458:1930s in Tibet 10455: 10453:1920s in Tibet 10450: 10448:1910s in Tibet 10445: 10440: 10423: 10422: 10420: 10419: 10414: 10409: 10404: 10399: 10394: 10389: 10384: 10378: 10376: 10370: 10369: 10367: 10366: 10361: 10356: 10355: 10354: 10349: 10344: 10339: 10337:British Empire 10332:United Kingdom 10329: 10324: 10319: 10318: 10317: 10312: 10307: 10305:Basque Country 10297: 10296: 10295: 10290: 10285: 10275: 10270: 10265: 10260: 10255: 10250: 10245: 10240: 10235: 10230: 10225: 10220: 10215: 10210: 10205: 10195: 10190: 10185: 10184: 10183: 10181:Basque Country 10178: 10168: 10163: 10158: 10153: 10151:Czechoslovakia 10148: 10143: 10138: 10133: 10127: 10125: 10121: 10120: 10118: 10117: 10112: 10107: 10102: 10097: 10092: 10087: 10082: 10077: 10072: 10067: 10062: 10057: 10052: 10051: 10050: 10040: 10035: 10030: 10029: 10028: 10023: 10013: 10012: 10011: 10001: 9996: 9990: 9988: 9984: 9983: 9981: 9980: 9975: 9970: 9965: 9960: 9955: 9950: 9944: 9942: 9938: 9937: 9935: 9934: 9933: 9932: 9927: 9922: 9917: 9912: 9907: 9897: 9892: 9887: 9882: 9877: 9872: 9866: 9864: 9860: 9859: 9857: 9856: 9851: 9846: 9841: 9836: 9835: 9834: 9829: 9819: 9814: 9809: 9804: 9799: 9794: 9789: 9784: 9779: 9774: 9769: 9763: 9761: 9757: 9756: 9749: 9748: 9741: 9734: 9726: 9717: 9716: 9714: 9713: 9706: 9705: 9698: 9690: 9689: 9686: 9685: 9682: 9681: 9679: 9678: 9673: 9668: 9663: 9662: 9661: 9656: 9649: 9637: 9627: 9622: 9617: 9612: 9607: 9602: 9597: 9592: 9591: 9590: 9585: 9583:wall paintings 9580: 9575: 9568: 9561: 9550: 9548: 9542: 9541: 9539: 9538: 9537: 9536: 9531: 9526: 9521: 9514:Tibetan people 9511: 9509:Social classes 9506: 9501: 9500: 9499: 9494: 9489: 9488: 9487: 9486: 9485: 9484: 9483: 9473: 9468: 9467: 9466: 9456: 9446: 9441: 9436: 9431: 9430: 9429: 9424: 9409: 9399: 9394: 9388: 9382: 9378: 9377: 9374: 9373: 9371: 9370: 9365: 9360: 9354: 9348: 9342: 9341: 9338: 9337: 9335: 9334: 9333: 9332: 9322: 9316: 9314: 9308: 9307: 9305: 9304: 9299: 9294: 9289: 9288: 9287: 9277: 9272: 9267: 9262: 9257: 9256: 9255: 9245: 9240: 9235: 9234: 9233: 9223: 9214: 9208: 9202: 9201: 9198: 9197: 9194: 9193: 9191: 9190: 9189: 9188: 9178: 9173: 9167: 9165: 9161: 9160: 9158: 9157: 9152: 9151: 9150: 9149: 9148: 9146:Nature Reserve 9133: 9128: 9127: 9126: 9125: 9124: 9111: 9110: 9109: 9104: 9099: 9090: 9080: 9078: 9073: 9068: 9062: 9052: 9046: 9045: 9042: 9041: 9039: 9038: 9032: 9027: 9022: 9017: 9012: 9007: 9002: 8997: 8992: 8987: 8982: 8977: 8972: 8967: 8961: 8959: 8955: 8954: 8952: 8951: 8946: 8945: 8944: 8939: 8934: 8929: 8919: 8914: 8909: 8904: 8903: 8902: 8892: 8887: 8882: 8877: 8872: 8867: 8862: 8857: 8852: 8847: 8842: 8837: 8832: 8827: 8822: 8817: 8812: 8806: 8804: 8798: 8797: 8795: 8794: 8793: 8792: 8787: 8785:PRC annexation 8777: 8776: 8775: 8765: 8764: 8763: 8758: 8745: 8740: 8739: 8738: 8728: 8723: 8718: 8717: 8716: 8703: 8702: 8701: 8688: 8687: 8686: 8678: 8673: 8660: 8659: 8658: 8650: 8645: 8640: 8627: 8622: 8617: 8608: 8606: 8602: 8601: 8599: 8598: 8593: 8588: 8586:List of rulers 8583: 8577: 8575: 8568: 8562: 8561: 8550: 8549: 8542: 8535: 8527: 8518: 8517: 8514: 8513: 8511: 8510: 8505: 8500: 8495: 8490: 8485: 8480: 8475: 8470: 8465: 8460: 8455: 8450: 8441: 8425: 8420: 8415: 8410: 8405: 8399: 8393: 8391: 8387: 8386: 8384: 8383: 8378: 8373: 8368: 8363: 8358: 8353: 8348: 8343: 8338: 8333: 8328: 8323: 8318: 8313: 8308: 8302: 8300: 8296: 8295: 8293: 8292: 8287: 8282: 8277: 8272: 8267: 8262: 8257: 8252: 8247: 8242: 8237: 8232: 8227: 8222: 8217: 8212: 8207: 8202: 8197: 8195:Ottoman Empire 8192: 8187: 8182: 8177: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8157: 8155:Kartli-Kakheti 8152: 8147: 8142: 8137: 8132: 8127: 8122: 8117: 8112: 8107: 8102: 8097: 8092: 8087: 8082: 8077: 8072: 8067: 8062: 8057: 8052: 8047: 8042: 8037: 8032: 8027: 8022: 8016: 8014: 8010: 8009: 8007: 8006: 7994: 7989: 7984: 7979: 7974: 7969: 7964: 7959: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7937: 7932: 7927: 7922: 7917: 7912: 7907: 7902: 7897: 7892: 7887: 7882: 7877: 7872: 7867: 7862: 7857: 7852: 7847: 7837: 7830: 7825: 7820: 7815: 7810: 7805: 7800: 7795: 7790: 7785: 7779: 7777: 7773: 7772: 7770: 7769: 7764: 7759: 7754: 7749: 7744: 7739: 7734: 7729: 7724: 7719: 7713: 7711: 7707: 7706: 7704: 7703: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7681: 7676: 7671: 7666: 7661: 7656: 7651: 7646: 7641: 7636: 7631: 7626: 7621: 7616: 7611: 7606: 7601: 7596: 7591: 7586: 7581: 7576: 7571: 7566: 7564:Central Africa 7561: 7556: 7551: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7531: 7525: 7523: 7516: 7510: 7509: 7506: 7505: 7503: 7502: 7500:United Kingdom 7497: 7492: 7487: 7482: 7477: 7472: 7467: 7466: 7465: 7460: 7450: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7430: 7425: 7420: 7414: 7412: 7406: 7405: 7403: 7402: 7396: 7394: 7388: 7387: 7385: 7384: 7379: 7374: 7369: 7364: 7359: 7354: 7349: 7344: 7339: 7334: 7328: 7326: 7320: 7319: 7317: 7316: 7309: 7304: 7299: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7243: 7241: 7235: 7234: 7232: 7231: 7224: 7219: 7214: 7208: 7206: 7197: 7193: 7192: 7190: 7189: 7184: 7179: 7174: 7169: 7164: 7159: 7157:Prince regnant 7154: 7153: 7152: 7142: 7137: 7131: 7129: 7125: 7124: 7122: 7121: 7116: 7111: 7106: 7101: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7081: 7076: 7074:Decolonization 7071: 7066: 7061: 7056: 7051: 7045: 7043: 7039: 7038: 7036: 7035: 7030: 7028:Personal union 7025: 7020: 7015: 7010: 7005: 7000: 6998:Constitutional 6995: 6989: 6987: 6983: 6982: 6980: 6979: 6974: 6969: 6964: 6959: 6953: 6950: 6949: 6942: 6941: 6934: 6927: 6919: 6910: 6909: 6907: 6906: 6901: 6894: 6893: 6886: 6878: 6877: 6874: 6873: 6870: 6869: 6867: 6866: 6861: 6856: 6850: 6848: 6842: 6841: 6839: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6818: 6813: 6812: 6811: 6806: 6796: 6791: 6786: 6785: 6784: 6779: 6768: 6766: 6760: 6759: 6757: 6756: 6751: 6746: 6745: 6744: 6737: 6725: 6720: 6715: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6695: 6689: 6687: 6681: 6680: 6677: 6676: 6674: 6673: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6653: 6648: 6643: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6608: 6603: 6601:Four Gentlemen 6598: 6593: 6587: 6585: 6584:Fours of China 6578: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6562: 6557: 6552: 6547: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6527: 6522: 6521: 6520: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6469: 6467: 6461: 6460: 6458: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6441: 6440: 6430: 6429: 6428: 6423: 6418: 6413: 6403: 6398: 6397: 6396: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6370: 6369: 6364: 6354: 6349: 6348: 6347: 6342: 6341: 6340: 6325: 6320: 6319: 6318: 6308: 6307: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6286: 6281: 6276: 6270: 6264: 6258: 6257: 6254: 6253: 6251: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6235: 6233:Civil aviation 6230: 6224: 6222: 6216: 6215: 6213: 6212: 6207: 6206: 6205: 6195: 6194: 6193: 6182: 6180: 6179:Infrastructure 6176: 6175: 6173: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6146: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6133:Semiconductors 6130: 6125: 6115: 6113:Historical GDP 6110: 6105: 6100: 6099: 6098: 6093: 6088: 6078: 6077: 6076: 6066: 6065: 6064: 6059: 6049: 6044: 6043: 6042: 6032: 6027: 6021: 6015: 6009: 6008: 6005: 6004: 6002: 6001: 6000: 5999: 5989: 5988: 5987: 5977: 5976: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5929: 5927: 5921: 5920: 5918: 5917: 5912: 5911: 5910: 5905: 5895: 5894: 5893: 5891:Vice President 5883: 5882: 5881: 5871: 5870: 5869: 5868: 5867: 5857: 5856: 5855: 5850: 5835: 5830: 5829: 5828: 5818: 5813: 5808: 5803: 5802: 5801: 5791: 5786: 5780: 5778: 5772: 5771: 5768: 5767: 5765: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5748: 5747: 5737: 5736: 5735: 5730: 5720: 5714: 5712: 5699: 5693: 5692: 5689: 5688: 5686: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5664: 5662: 5656: 5655: 5652: 5651: 5649: 5648: 5647: 5646: 5641: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5619:National parks 5616: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5599:Climate policy 5596: 5594:Climate change 5590: 5588: 5582: 5581: 5579: 5578: 5577: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5553: 5548: 5543: 5538: 5533: 5528: 5522: 5520: 5516: 5515: 5513: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5500:Central Plains 5489: 5484: 5483: 5482: 5477: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5431: 5429: 5425: 5424: 5422: 5421: 5420: 5419: 5414: 5404: 5403: 5402: 5397: 5387: 5382: 5377: 5371: 5369: 5360: 5359: 5354: 5349: 5347:Extreme points 5344: 5338: 5332: 5326: 5325: 5322: 5321: 5319: 5318: 5317: 5316: 5311: 5306: 5301: 5296: 5286: 5285: 5284: 5279: 5269: 5263: 5261: 5255: 5254: 5252: 5251: 5250: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5173: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5155:Three Kingdoms 5152: 5147: 5141: 5139: 5133: 5132: 5130: 5129: 5128: 5127: 5125:Warring States 5122: 5117: 5107: 5106: 5105: 5095: 5089: 5087: 5081: 5080: 5078: 5077: 5076: 5075: 5070: 5065: 5055: 5049: 5047: 5041: 5040: 5038: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5017: 5016: 5015: 5010: 5005: 4997: 4992: 4987: 4985:Historiography 4982: 4977: 4971: 4969: 4962: 4956: 4955: 4944: 4943: 4936: 4929: 4921: 4914: 4913: 4887:(2): 293–320. 4876: 4871:978-0300194104 4870: 4854: 4853: 4852: 4847: 4827: 4814: 4809: 4791: 4786: 4773: 4768: 4753: 4747: 4732: 4701: 4690: 4679: 4673: 4655: 4650:978-1445651927 4649: 4632: 4631: 4630: 4625: 4605: 4590: 4585: 4572: 4567: 4552: 4547: 4532: 4527: 4512: 4476: 4461: 4446: 4441: 4425: 4411: 4405: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4381: 4380: 4367: 4355: 4342: 4329: 4316: 4300: 4288: 4281: 4261: 4244: 4228: 4216: 4204: 4183: 4166: 4149: 4132: 4111: 4091: 4074: 4067: 4047: 4035: 4033:, p. 245. 4023: 4011: 3999: 3997:, p. 246. 3987: 3975: 3953: 3941: 3929: 3905: 3895: 3871: 3859: 3840: 3828: 3807: 3794: 3772: 3750: 3743: 3723: 3677: 3657: 3633: 3622:online version 3613: 3606: 3582: 3580:, p. 400. 3570: 3566:Newspapers.com 3557: 3550:Newspapers.com 3541: 3534:Newspapers.com 3525: 3512: 3510:, p. 152. 3500: 3488: 3486:, p. 328. 3484:Goldstein 1991 3476: 3457: 3442: 3427: 3404: 3402:, p. 241. 3392: 3380: 3371: 3362: 3340: 3338:, p. 529. 3328: 3326:, p. 580. 3316: 3296: 3278: 3266: 3254: 3235: 3216: 3198: 3177: 3164: 3152: 3140: 3124: 3107: 3089: 3077: 3065: 3058: 3038: 3032:978-0872209152 3031: 3011: 2995: 2979: 2967: 2955: 2949: 2929: 2917: 2910: 2880: 2873: 2843: 2836: 2813: 2780: 2758: 2756: 2755: 2744: 2727: 2721: 2706: 2700: 2678: 2655: 2653:, p. 611. 2643: 2625: 2613: 2595: 2580: 2567: 2566: 2564: 2561: 2559: 2556: 2553: 2552: 2538: 2537: 2535: 2532: 2531: 2530: 2525: 2520: 2515: 2510: 2505: 2500: 2495: 2490: 2485: 2479: 2478: 2464: 2449: 2448: 2443: 2436: 2433: 2402:tenant farmers 2334: 2333: 2331: 2330: 2323: 2316: 2308: 2305: 2304: 2280: 2279: 2278: 2277: 2272: 2270:List of rulers 2267: 2262: 2254: 2253: 2249: 2248: 2247: 2246: 2241: 2236: 2231: 2226: 2221: 2216: 2211: 2206: 2201: 2196: 2191: 2189:Tibetan Empire 2186: 2181: 2176: 2168: 2167: 2159: 2158: 2149: 2148: 2141: 2129: 2126: 2104: 2103: 2083: 2081: 2069:Tibetan tangka 2067:Main article: 2064: 2061: 2059: 2056: 1996:armies of the 1831: 1828: 1824: 1823: 1820: 1813: 1811: 1808: 1801: 1799: 1796: 1789: 1787: 1784: 1777: 1775: 1772: 1765: 1763: 1760: 1753: 1751: 1748: 1741: 1739: 1736: 1729: 1724: 1723: 1703: 1701: 1687:Main article: 1684: 1683:Postal service 1681: 1657:United Kingdom 1633:Main article: 1630: 1627: 1626: 1625: 1608: 1591: 1574: 1557: 1543:Dakong Chikyap 1540: 1523: 1506: 1439: 1436: 1433: 1432: 1413: 1411: 1386: 1383: 1381: 1378: 1329:Main article: 1326: 1323: 1319:Clement Attlee 1287: 1105:issued by the 1084:silver dragons 1070:to become the 1050: 1047: 1022:and headed by 966: 963: 884:Main article: 881: 878: 862:Agvan Dorzhiev 793:signed by the 787:Outer Mongolia 716: 713: 711: 708: 666:Outer Mongolia 658:imperial edict 602: 601: 589: 585: 584: 581: 580: 577: 576: 569: 563: 562: 555: 546: 543: 542: 537: 525: 524: 519: 509: 508: 506:Tibetan tangka 495: 491: 490: 487: 486: 483: 480: 477: 476: 473: 472: 466: 465: 462: 459: 456: 455: 449: 448: 445: 444: 441: 435: 432: 431: 428: 422: 419: 418: 415: 412: 409: 408: 405: 398: 395: 394: 391: 384: 381: 380: 379:12 August 1912 377: 374: 371: 370: 367: 364: 361: 360: 357: 356: 353: 349: 348: 345:rule by decree 341: 337: 336: 333: 332: 327: 324: 321: 320: 315: 312: 309: 308: 305: 304: 301: 295: 294: 291: 290: 285: 282: 279: 278: 273: 270: 267: 266: 263: 262: 259: 253: 252: 249: 248: 243: 240: 237: 236: 234:Thubten Gyatso 231: 228: 225: 224: 221: 220: 217: 211: 210: 198: 192: 191: 186: 180: 179: 169: 165: 164: 155: 151: 150: 145: 142: 138: 137: 129: 125: 124: 121: 113: 112: 102: 91: 90: 83: 76: 75: 69: 62: 61: 60: 57: 56: 52: 51: 38: 35: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10510: 10499: 10496: 10494: 10491: 10489: 10486: 10484: 10481: 10479: 10476: 10474: 10471: 10469: 10466: 10464: 10461: 10459: 10456: 10454: 10451: 10449: 10446: 10444: 10441: 10439: 10436: 10435: 10433: 10418: 10415: 10413: 10410: 10408: 10405: 10403: 10400: 10398: 10395: 10393: 10390: 10388: 10385: 10383: 10380: 10379: 10377: 10371: 10365: 10362: 10360: 10357: 10353: 10350: 10348: 10345: 10343: 10340: 10338: 10335: 10334: 10333: 10330: 10328: 10325: 10323: 10320: 10316: 10313: 10311: 10308: 10306: 10303: 10302: 10301: 10298: 10294: 10291: 10289: 10286: 10284: 10281: 10280: 10279: 10276: 10274: 10271: 10269: 10266: 10264: 10261: 10259: 10256: 10254: 10251: 10249: 10246: 10244: 10241: 10239: 10236: 10234: 10231: 10229: 10228:Liechtenstein 10226: 10224: 10221: 10219: 10216: 10214: 10211: 10209: 10206: 10203: 10199: 10196: 10194: 10191: 10189: 10186: 10182: 10179: 10177: 10174: 10173: 10172: 10169: 10167: 10164: 10162: 10159: 10157: 10154: 10152: 10149: 10147: 10144: 10142: 10139: 10137: 10134: 10132: 10129: 10128: 10126: 10122: 10116: 10113: 10111: 10108: 10106: 10103: 10101: 10098: 10096: 10093: 10091: 10088: 10086: 10083: 10081: 10078: 10076: 10073: 10071: 10068: 10066: 10063: 10061: 10058: 10056: 10053: 10049: 10046: 10045: 10044: 10041: 10039: 10036: 10034: 10031: 10027: 10024: 10022: 10019: 10018: 10017: 10014: 10010: 10007: 10006: 10005: 10002: 10000: 9997: 9995: 9992: 9991: 9989: 9985: 9979: 9976: 9974: 9971: 9969: 9966: 9964: 9963:Latin America 9961: 9959: 9956: 9954: 9951: 9949: 9946: 9945: 9943: 9941:South America 9939: 9931: 9928: 9926: 9923: 9921: 9918: 9916: 9913: 9911: 9908: 9906: 9903: 9902: 9901: 9900:United States 9898: 9896: 9893: 9891: 9888: 9886: 9883: 9881: 9878: 9876: 9873: 9871: 9868: 9867: 9865: 9863:North America 9861: 9855: 9852: 9850: 9847: 9845: 9842: 9840: 9837: 9833: 9830: 9828: 9825: 9824: 9823: 9820: 9818: 9815: 9813: 9810: 9808: 9805: 9803: 9800: 9798: 9795: 9793: 9790: 9788: 9785: 9783: 9780: 9778: 9775: 9773: 9770: 9768: 9767:Belgian Congo 9765: 9764: 9762: 9758: 9754: 9747: 9742: 9740: 9735: 9733: 9728: 9727: 9724: 9712: 9709: 9708: 9703: 9699: 9696: 9692: 9691: 9687: 9677: 9674: 9672: 9669: 9667: 9664: 9660: 9657: 9655: 9654: 9650: 9648: 9647: 9643: 9642: 9641: 9638: 9636: 9632: 9628: 9626: 9623: 9621: 9618: 9616: 9613: 9611: 9608: 9606: 9603: 9601: 9598: 9596: 9593: 9589: 9586: 9584: 9581: 9579: 9576: 9574: 9573: 9569: 9567: 9566: 9562: 9560: 9557: 9556: 9555: 9552: 9551: 9549: 9547: 9543: 9535: 9532: 9530: 9527: 9525: 9522: 9520: 9517: 9516: 9515: 9512: 9510: 9507: 9505: 9502: 9498: 9495: 9493: 9490: 9482: 9479: 9478: 9477: 9474: 9472: 9469: 9465: 9462: 9461: 9460: 9457: 9455: 9452: 9451: 9450: 9447: 9445: 9442: 9440: 9437: 9435: 9432: 9428: 9425: 9423: 9420: 9419: 9418: 9415: 9414: 9413: 9410: 9408: 9405: 9404: 9403: 9400: 9398: 9395: 9393: 9390: 9389: 9386: 9383: 9379: 9369: 9366: 9364: 9361: 9359: 9356: 9355: 9352: 9349: 9347: 9343: 9331: 9328: 9327: 9326: 9323: 9321: 9318: 9317: 9315: 9313: 9309: 9303: 9300: 9298: 9295: 9293: 9290: 9286: 9283: 9282: 9281: 9278: 9276: 9273: 9271: 9268: 9266: 9263: 9261: 9258: 9254: 9251: 9250: 9249: 9246: 9244: 9241: 9239: 9236: 9232: 9229: 9228: 9227: 9224: 9222: 9216: 9215: 9212: 9209: 9207: 9203: 9187: 9184: 9183: 9182: 9179: 9177: 9174: 9172: 9169: 9168: 9166: 9162: 9156: 9153: 9147: 9144: 9143: 9142: 9139: 9138: 9137: 9134: 9132: 9129: 9123: 9120: 9119: 9118: 9115: 9114: 9112: 9108: 9105: 9103: 9100: 9098: 9094: 9091: 9089: 9086: 9085: 9084: 9081: 9079: 9077: 9074: 9072: 9069: 9067: 9064: 9063: 9060: 9056: 9053: 9051: 9047: 9036: 9033: 9031: 9028: 9026: 9023: 9021: 9018: 9016: 9013: 9011: 9008: 9006: 9003: 9001: 8998: 8996: 8993: 8991: 8988: 8986: 8983: 8981: 8978: 8976: 8973: 8971: 8968: 8966: 8963: 8962: 8960: 8956: 8950: 8947: 8943: 8940: 8938: 8935: 8933: 8930: 8928: 8925: 8924: 8923: 8920: 8918: 8915: 8913: 8910: 8908: 8905: 8901: 8898: 8897: 8896: 8893: 8891: 8888: 8886: 8883: 8881: 8878: 8876: 8873: 8871: 8868: 8866: 8863: 8861: 8858: 8856: 8853: 8851: 8848: 8846: 8843: 8841: 8838: 8836: 8833: 8831: 8828: 8826: 8823: 8821: 8818: 8816: 8813: 8811: 8808: 8807: 8805: 8799: 8791: 8788: 8786: 8783: 8782: 8781: 8778: 8774: 8771: 8770: 8769: 8766: 8762: 8759: 8757: 8754: 8753: 8752: 8746: 8744: 8741: 8737: 8734: 8733: 8732: 8729: 8727: 8724: 8722: 8719: 8715: 8709: 8708: 8707: 8704: 8700: 8697: 8696: 8695: 8689: 8685: 8679: 8677: 8674: 8672: 8669: 8668: 8667: 8661: 8657: 8651: 8649: 8646: 8644: 8641: 8639: 8636: 8635: 8634: 8628: 8626: 8623: 8621: 8618: 8616: 8610: 8609: 8607: 8603: 8597: 8594: 8592: 8589: 8587: 8584: 8582: 8579: 8578: 8576: 8572: 8569: 8567: 8563: 8559: 8555: 8548: 8543: 8541: 8536: 8534: 8529: 8528: 8525: 8509: 8506: 8504: 8501: 8499: 8496: 8494: 8491: 8489: 8486: 8484: 8481: 8479: 8476: 8474: 8471: 8469: 8466: 8464: 8461: 8459: 8456: 8454: 8451: 8449: 8445: 8442: 8439: 8438: 8433: 8429: 8426: 8424: 8421: 8419: 8416: 8414: 8411: 8409: 8406: 8403: 8400: 8398: 8395: 8394: 8392: 8388: 8382: 8379: 8377: 8374: 8372: 8369: 8367: 8364: 8362: 8359: 8357: 8354: 8352: 8349: 8347: 8344: 8342: 8339: 8337: 8334: 8332: 8329: 8327: 8324: 8322: 8319: 8317: 8316:Easter Island 8314: 8312: 8309: 8307: 8304: 8303: 8301: 8297: 8291: 8288: 8286: 8283: 8281: 8278: 8276: 8273: 8271: 8268: 8266: 8263: 8261: 8258: 8256: 8253: 8251: 8248: 8246: 8243: 8241: 8238: 8236: 8233: 8231: 8228: 8226: 8223: 8221: 8218: 8216: 8213: 8211: 8208: 8206: 8203: 8201: 8198: 8196: 8193: 8191: 8188: 8186: 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8168: 8166: 8163: 8161: 8158: 8156: 8153: 8151: 8148: 8146: 8143: 8141: 8138: 8136: 8133: 8131: 8128: 8126: 8123: 8121: 8118: 8116: 8113: 8111: 8108: 8106: 8103: 8101: 8098: 8096: 8093: 8091: 8088: 8086: 8083: 8081: 8078: 8076: 8073: 8071: 8068: 8066: 8063: 8061: 8058: 8056: 8053: 8051: 8048: 8046: 8043: 8041: 8038: 8036: 8033: 8031: 8028: 8026: 8023: 8021: 8018: 8017: 8015: 8011: 8004: 8003: 7998: 7995: 7993: 7990: 7988: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7958: 7955: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7942: 7938: 7936: 7933: 7931: 7928: 7926: 7923: 7921: 7918: 7916: 7913: 7911: 7908: 7906: 7903: 7901: 7898: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7876: 7873: 7871: 7868: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7855:Jabal Shammar 7853: 7851: 7848: 7845: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7835: 7831: 7829: 7826: 7824: 7821: 7819: 7816: 7814: 7811: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7781: 7780: 7778: 7774: 7768: 7765: 7763: 7760: 7758: 7755: 7753: 7750: 7748: 7745: 7743: 7740: 7738: 7735: 7733: 7730: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7718: 7715: 7714: 7712: 7708: 7702: 7701: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7685: 7682: 7680: 7677: 7675: 7672: 7670: 7667: 7665: 7662: 7660: 7657: 7655: 7652: 7650: 7647: 7645: 7642: 7640: 7637: 7635: 7632: 7630: 7627: 7625: 7622: 7620: 7617: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7605: 7602: 7600: 7597: 7595: 7592: 7590: 7587: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7570: 7567: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7526: 7524: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7511: 7501: 7498: 7496: 7493: 7491: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7481: 7478: 7476: 7473: 7471: 7468: 7464: 7461: 7459: 7456: 7455: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7416: 7415: 7413: 7411: 7407: 7401: 7398: 7397: 7395: 7393: 7389: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7347:Liechtenstein 7345: 7343: 7340: 7338: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7329: 7327: 7325: 7321: 7315: 7314: 7310: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7244: 7242: 7240: 7236: 7230: 7229: 7225: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7209: 7207: 7205: 7201: 7198: 7194: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7175: 7173: 7170: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7151: 7150:Queen regnant 7148: 7147: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7138: 7136: 7133: 7132: 7130: 7126: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7109:Republicanism 7107: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7089:Head of state 7087: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7065: 7062: 7060: 7057: 7055: 7052: 7050: 7047: 7046: 7044: 7040: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7023:Non-sovereign 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7004: 7001: 6999: 6996: 6994: 6991: 6990: 6988: 6984: 6978: 6975: 6973: 6970: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6954: 6951: 6947: 6940: 6935: 6933: 6928: 6926: 6921: 6920: 6917: 6905: 6902: 6900: 6897: 6896: 6891: 6887: 6884: 6880: 6879: 6875: 6865: 6862: 6860: 6857: 6855: 6852: 6851: 6849: 6847: 6843: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6810: 6809:Protestantism 6807: 6805: 6802: 6801: 6800: 6797: 6795: 6794:Folk religion 6792: 6790: 6787: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6774: 6773: 6770: 6769: 6767: 6765: 6761: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6742: 6738: 6735: 6731: 6730: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6721: 6719: 6716: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6698:Ethnic groups 6696: 6694: 6691: 6690: 6688: 6686: 6682: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6654: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6611:Four Beauties 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6592: 6589: 6588: 6586: 6582: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6519: 6516: 6515: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6470: 6468: 6466: 6462: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6450:Urban society 6448: 6446: 6443: 6439: 6436: 6435: 6434: 6431: 6427: 6424: 6422: 6419: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6409: 6408: 6407: 6406:Social issues 6404: 6402: 6399: 6395: 6392: 6391: 6390: 6387: 6385: 6384:Rural society 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6359: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6346: 6343: 6339: 6336: 6335: 6334: 6331: 6330: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6317: 6314: 6313: 6312: 6309: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6291: 6290: 6287: 6285: 6284:Chinese Dream 6282: 6280: 6277: 6275: 6272: 6271: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6259: 6249: 6248:Space program 6246: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6225: 6223: 6221: 6217: 6211: 6208: 6204: 6201: 6200: 6199: 6196: 6192: 6189: 6188: 6187: 6184: 6183: 6181: 6177: 6171: 6168: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6124: 6121: 6120: 6119: 6116: 6114: 6111: 6109: 6106: 6104: 6101: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6083: 6082: 6079: 6075: 6072: 6071: 6070: 6067: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6054: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6041: 6038: 6037: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6022: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6010: 5998: 5995: 5994: 5993: 5990: 5986: 5983: 5982: 5981: 5978: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5950: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5930: 5928: 5926: 5922: 5916: 5913: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5900: 5899: 5898:State Council 5896: 5892: 5889: 5888: 5887: 5884: 5880: 5877: 5876: 5875: 5872: 5866: 5863: 5862: 5861: 5858: 5854: 5851: 5849: 5846: 5845: 5844: 5841: 5840: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5827: 5824: 5823: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5800: 5797: 5796: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5784:Civil service 5782: 5781: 5779: 5777: 5773: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5750: 5746: 5743: 5742: 5741: 5738: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5725: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5715: 5713: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5694: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5665: 5663: 5661: 5657: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5636: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5591: 5589: 5587: 5583: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5556: 5554: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5523: 5521: 5517: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5490: 5488: 5485: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5472: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5432: 5430: 5426: 5418: 5415: 5413: 5410: 5409: 5408: 5405: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5392: 5391: 5390:South Central 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5376: 5373: 5372: 5370: 5368: 5364: 5358: 5355: 5353: 5350: 5348: 5345: 5343: 5340: 5339: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5327: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5291: 5290: 5287: 5283: 5280: 5278: 5275: 5274: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5264: 5262: 5260: 5256: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5234: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5177:Jin (266–420) 5175: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5158: 5157: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5146: 5143: 5142: 5140: 5138: 5134: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5112: 5111: 5108: 5104: 5101: 5100: 5099: 5096: 5094: 5091: 5090: 5088: 5086: 5082: 5074: 5071: 5069: 5066: 5064: 5061: 5060: 5059: 5056: 5054: 5051: 5050: 5048: 5046: 5042: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5020:Ethnic groups 5018: 5014: 5011: 5009: 5006: 5004: 5001: 5000: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4986: 4983: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4972: 4970: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4942: 4937: 4935: 4930: 4928: 4923: 4922: 4919: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4877: 4873: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4850: 4844: 4840: 4839: 4833: 4832: 4830: 4828:0-231-11814-7 4824: 4820: 4815: 4812: 4810:9789004177321 4806: 4802: 4801: 4796: 4792: 4789: 4783: 4779: 4774: 4771: 4765: 4761: 4760: 4754: 4750: 4744: 4741:. 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Routledge. 2693: 2692: 2686: 2685: 2682: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2659: 2652: 2647: 2639: 2635: 2629: 2622: 2617: 2609: 2605: 2599: 2591: 2584: 2577: 2572: 2568: 2549: 2543: 2539: 2529: 2526: 2524: 2521: 2519: 2516: 2514: 2511: 2509: 2506: 2504: 2501: 2499: 2496: 2494: 2491: 2489: 2488:Flag of Tibet 2486: 2484: 2481: 2480: 2476: 2470: 2465: 2462: 2451: 2447: 2444: 2442: 2439: 2438: 2432: 2430: 2425: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2386: 2384: 2380: 2379:Chumbi Valley 2375: 2370: 2366: 2364: 2358: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2345:Professor of 2343: 2341: 2329: 2324: 2322: 2317: 2315: 2310: 2309: 2307: 2306: 2303: 2292: 2287: 2282: 2281: 2276: 2273: 2271: 2268: 2266: 2263: 2261: 2258: 2257: 2256: 2255: 2251: 2250: 2245: 2242: 2240: 2237: 2235: 2232: 2230: 2227: 2225: 2222: 2220: 2217: 2215: 2212: 2210: 2207: 2205: 2202: 2200: 2197: 2195: 2192: 2190: 2187: 2185: 2182: 2180: 2177: 2175: 2172: 2171: 2170: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2160: 2157: 2151: 2150: 2145: 2140: 2139: 2135: 2125: 2118: 2110: 2100: 2097:February 2023 2091: 2087: 2084:This section 2082: 2079: 2075: 2074: 2070: 2055: 2053: 2048: 2046: 2041: 2038: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2019: 2014: 2010: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1986: 1984: 1980: 1975: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1944:Yangtze River 1941: 1940:Yangtze River 1937: 1933: 1928: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1905:Yunnan clique 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1877:Yangtze River 1874: 1870: 1866: 1861: 1852: 1847: 1842: 1837: 1827: 1817: 1812: 1805: 1800: 1793: 1788: 1781: 1776: 1769: 1764: 1757: 1752: 1745: 1740: 1733: 1728: 1727: 1720: 1717:February 2023 1711: 1707: 1704:This section 1702: 1699: 1695: 1694: 1690: 1680: 1678: 1674: 1669: 1667: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1646: 1641: 1636: 1623: 1617: 1612: 1611:Domed Chikyap 1609: 1606: 1600: 1595: 1592: 1589: 1583: 1578: 1577:Chomo Chikyap 1575: 1572: 1566: 1561: 1560:Ngari Chikyap 1558: 1555: 1549: 1544: 1541: 1538: 1532: 1527: 1526:Lhoka Chikyap 1524: 1521: 1515: 1510: 1507: 1504: 1503: 1502: 1500: 1496: 1490: 1485: 1483: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1468: 1463: 1459: 1453: 1448: 1446: 1429: 1426:February 2023 1420: 1416: 1412: 1409: 1405: 1404: 1397: 1392: 1377: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1348: 1344: 1339: 1332: 1322: 1320: 1317: 1312: 1303: 1296: 1292: 1286: 1284: 1280: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1265:compatriots. 1263: 1257: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1240: 1238: 1234: 1231: 1222: 1218: 1215: 1210: 1207: 1201: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1174: 1164: 1159: 1157: 1151: 1146: 1142: 1137: 1133: 1128: 1124: 1119: 1116: 1108: 1104: 1099: 1095: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1060: 1055: 1049:1930s to 1949 1046: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1031: 1029: 1028:Yangtze River 1025: 1021: 1017: 1012: 1009: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 987: 985: 980: 971: 962: 960: 959:Alastair Lamb 956: 952: 946: 944: 939: 934: 932: 928: 924: 919: 917: 913: 909: 905: 901: 897: 893: 887: 877: 875: 871: 867: 863: 858: 856: 852: 848: 844: 839: 837: 824: 820: 816: 812: 808: 800: 796: 792: 788: 785:, Tibet, and 784: 780: 776: 772: 768: 764: 760: 756: 748: 744: 739: 731: 726: 722: 707: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 684: 682: 678: 673: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 648:regime was a 647: 642: 640: 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 612: 608: 600: 597: 593: 590: 588:Today part of 586: 570: 568: 565: 564: 556: 554: 551: 550: 547: 541: 538: 531: 530: 527: 526: 523: 520: 518: 515: 514: 510: 507: 503: 502:Tibetan srang 499: 496: 492: 488: 484: 478: 474: 471: 467: 463: 457: 454: 450: 446: 442: 439: 433: 429: 426: 420: 416: 410: 406: 402: 396: 392: 388: 382: 378: 372: 368: 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 331: 330:Lobsang Tashi 328: 322: 319: 316: 310: 306: 302: 300: 296: 292: 289: 286: 280: 277: 274: 268: 264: 260: 258: 254: 250: 247: 246:Tenzin Gyatso 244: 238: 235: 232: 226: 222: 218: 216: 212: 209: 206: 202: 199: 197: 193: 190: 187: 185: 181: 177: 173: 170: 166: 163: 159: 156: 152: 149: 146: 139: 136: 134: 130: 126: 119: 114: 100: 96: 92: 86: 80: 72: 66: 58: 53: 47: 33: 28: 24: 19: 10359:Vatican City 10278:Soviet Union 10104: 10026:West Sumatra 9895:Newfoundland 9849:South Africa 9844:Sierra Leone 9822:North Africa 9651: 9644: 9630: 9578:sand mandala 9570: 9563: 9504:Sinicization 9476:Panchen Lama 9471:Lhamo La-tso 9454:Ganden Tripa 9248:Human rights 9122:Grand Canyon 9102:Namcha Barwa 9095: / 8773:Tibetan Army 8767: 8671:Guge kingdom 8493:South Africa 8488:Sierra Leone 8435: 8265:Two Sicilies 8200:Papal States 8000: 7971: 7939: 7832: 7698: 7458:Cook Islands 7311: 7297:Saudi Arabia 7226: 6799:Christianity 6789:Confucianism 6749:Urbanization 6685:Demographics 6661:Gang of Four 6626:Four Symbols 6525:Martial arts 6299:Prostitution 6186:Architecture 6040:Central bank 5908:Vice Premier 5860:United front 5789:Constitution 5745:Penal system 5723:Human rights 5660:Subdivisions 5498: / 5494: / 5417:Southwestern 5412:Northwestern 5115:Western Zhou 5063:Yellow River 5013:1949–present 4884: 4880: 4861: 4837: 4818: 4799: 4777: 4758: 4737: 4715:(3): 25–47, 4712: 4708: 4695: 4684: 4660: 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Springer. 4395: 4375: 4370: 4358: 4350: 4345: 4337: 4332: 4324: 4319: 4311: 4303: 4291: 4271: 4264: 4254: 4247: 4237: 4231: 4219: 4207: 4198: 4193: 4186: 4176: 4169: 4159: 4152: 4142: 4135: 4101: 4094: 4084: 4077: 4057: 4050: 4038: 4026: 4014: 4002: 3990: 3978: 3970:the original 3966:china.org.cn 3965: 3956: 3944: 3932: 3917: 3908: 3900: 3886: 3874: 3862: 3854:the original 3843: 3831: 3815: 3810: 3802: 3797: 3789:the original 3784: 3775: 3767:the original 3762: 3753: 3733: 3726: 3714:. Retrieved 3694: 3690: 3680: 3660: 3649:, retrieved 3643: 3636: 3616: 3597: 3592: 3585: 3573: 3560: 3544: 3528: 3515: 3503: 3491: 3479: 3469: 3460: 3440:, p. 6. 3395: 3383: 3374: 3365: 3357:the original 3352: 3343: 3336:Lamb (1966b) 3331: 3324:Lamb (1966b) 3319: 3299: 3291:the original 3281: 3269: 3257: 3238: 3219: 3211:the original 3201: 3193:the original 3180: 3172: 3167: 3155: 3143: 3135: 3122:, p. 5. 3102:the original 3092: 3087:, p. 28 3080: 3068: 3048: 3041: 3021: 3014: 2998: 2982: 2970: 2958: 2939: 2932: 2920: 2901: 2893: 2864: 2856: 2826: 2788: 2783: 2767: 2761: 2749: 2739: 2731: 2711: 2690: 2681: 2671:Anand (2013) 2658: 2646: 2638:the original 2628: 2616: 2608:the original 2598: 2589: 2583: 2571: 2542: 2461:China portal 2428: 2426: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2389: 2387: 2382: 2371: 2368: 2365:monasteries. 2360: 2344: 2337: 2238: 2123: 2094: 2090:adding to it 2085: 2049: 2045:Yulbars Khan 2042: 2039: 2026:Sheng Shicai 2023: 2002:Tibetan Army 1987: 1976: 1929: 1857: 1825: 1714: 1710:adding to it 1705: 1670: 1653:Tibetan Army 1650: 1645:Tibetan Army 1635:Tibetan Army 1498: 1481: 1476: 1466: 1461: 1444: 1441: 1423: 1419:adding to it 1414: 1366:Tibetan Army 1334: 1308: 1294: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1258: 1254:Chao Yu-fong 1242: 1235: 1227: 1211: 1202: 1190:World War II 1178:Why We Fight 1175: 1166: 1161: 1153: 1148: 1144: 1139: 1135: 1130: 1126: 1121: 1112: 1090:, who ruled 1064: 1043:Tibetan Army 1032: 1013: 1007: 994: 988: 984:Huang Musong 976: 947: 935: 931:Tawang tract 923:McMahon Line 920: 889: 859: 840: 755:Qing dynasty 752: 743:Rand McNally 695: 690:against the 685: 674: 668:also signed 644:The Tibetan 643: 626: 622: 606: 605: 595: 522:Succeeded by 521: 516: 498:Tibetan skar 481:• 1945 460:• Total 430:October 1950 393:January 1913 369:4 April 1912 132: 94: 85:Coat of arms 18: 10407:New Zealand 10373:Oceania and 10327:Switzerland 10288:Byelorussia 10243:Netherlands 10085:Philippines 9925:Puerto Rico 9880:El Salvador 9588:wall murals 9492:Catholicism 9076:Environment 8750:(1720–1912) 8713:(1368–1644) 8693:(1270–1350) 8614:(Neolithic) 8612:Prehistory 8432:British Raj 8404:(Sri Lanka) 8290:Württemberg 8002:South Yemen 7890:Maguindanao 7783:Afghanistan 7544:Barotseland 7480:Saint Lucia 7453:New Zealand 7362:Netherlands 7135:Chhatrapati 7119:Sovereignty 7059:Aristocracy 6565:Variety art 6560:Tea culture 6488:Calligraphy 6473:Archaeology 6333:Food safety 6128:Gold mining 6030:Aquaculture 6025:Agriculture 5985:Coast Guard 5752:Naming laws 5586:Environment 5574:South China 5053:Paleolithic 5045:Prehistoric 5003:before 1912 4485:, Praeger, 3697:: 446–462. 3578:Bell (1946) 3496:Bell (1946) 3388:Kuzmin 2011 3160:Bell (1924) 2765:Ram Rahul, 2475:Asia portal 2446:South Tibet 2153:History of 1966:. In 1932, 1849: [ 1666:Warlord Era 1614: [ 1597: [ 1580: [ 1563: [ 1546: [ 1529: [ 1512: [ 1487: [ 1450: [ 1291:André Migot 1237:André Migot 1024:Wu Zhongxin 1003:S.L. Kuzmin 843:Yuan Shikai 517:Preceded by 443:23 May 1951 407:3 July 1914 340:Legislature 299:Kalön Tripa 10432:Categories 10402:New Guinea 10382:Antarctica 10375:Antarctica 10364:Yugoslavia 10283:Azerbaijan 10238:Luxembourg 10021:New Guinea 9920:New Mexico 9910:California 9817:Madagascar 9802:Gold Coast 9797:The Gambia 9671:Tibetology 9640:Literature 9459:Dalai Lama 9312:Government 9270:Tibet Area 9265:Golden Urn 9231:Parliament 8756:Lifan Yuan 8683:(960–1279) 8620:Zhangzhung 8605:Chronology 8498:Tanganyika 8413:The Gambia 8341:Niuē-Fekai 8280:Yugoslavia 8180:Montenegro 7987:Upper Yafa 7982:Upper Asir 7619:Madagascar 7352:Luxembourg 7084:Government 7049:Abdication 7018:Hereditary 6946:Monarchies 6826:Irreligion 6723:Statistics 6693:Emigration 6656:Four Wangs 6545:Philosophy 6530:Mass media 6513:Literature 6411:Patriarchy 6374:Propaganda 6294:Corruption 6279:Censorship 6069:E-commerce 5776:Government 5569:East China 5541:Waterfalls 5487:Peninsulas 5455:Grasslands 4442:086171055X 4224:Lin (2011) 4212:Lin (2011) 3552:archives: 3536:archives: 3005:, p. 3003:Lin (2011) 2989:, p. 2925:Zhu (2020) 2673:, p. 2665:, p. 2663:Lin (2011) 2558:References 2179:Zhangzhung 2132:See also: 1960:Kuomintang 1881:Liu Wenhui 1834:See also: 1462:spyi khyab 1385:Government 1350:Mao Zedong 1214:Kuomintang 1186:Tibet Area 1115:Kuomintang 1080:Golden Urn 1068:Golden Urn 908:suzerainty 747:autonomous 719:See also: 677:Kuomintang 470:Population 215:Dalai Lama 196:Government 184:Demonym(s) 10387:Australia 10352:Gibraltar 10310:Catalonia 10233:Lithuania 10095:Singapore 10043:Indochina 10033:Hong Kong 10009:Manchuria 9978:Venezuela 9948:Argentina 9885:Greenland 9839:Nyasaland 9653:Chronicle 9615:Festivals 9427:Dpon-chen 9397:Languages 9392:Education 9141:Changtang 9083:Mountains 9050:Geography 8958:Documents 8803:conflicts 8655:(618–907) 8574:Overviews 8468:Mauritius 8361:Rarotonga 8346:Nuku Hiva 8336:Mangareva 8311:Bora Bora 8190:Neuchâtel 8160:Lithuania 8065:Catalonia 7952:Sri Lanka 7905:Manchukuo 7880:Kurdistan 7834:Indonesia 7757:Talamanca 7717:Araucanía 7700:and other 7679:Wassoulou 7423:Australia 7099:Oligarchy 6713:Languages 6666:Four Olds 6621:Four arts 6508:Libraries 6438:Structure 6401:Sexuality 6338:incidents 6311:Education 6220:Transport 6096:Renewable 6091:Petroleum 5886:President 5853:Politburo 5806:Elections 5794:Democracy 5762:Terrorism 5510:Volcanoes 5492:Northeast 5470:Mountains 5380:Northeast 5330:Geography 5237:High Qing 5058:Neolithic 5030:Dynasties 5008:1912–1949 4999:Economic 4968:Overviews 4909:225302411 4901:2044-2513 4803:, BRILL, 4729:159560382 4353:pp.14–15. 4121:cite book 3711:154376402 3593:中国西藏的历史地位 3523:archives. 2897:政治憲法與未來憲制 2563:Citations 2388:Estates ( 2353:studies, 2234:Qing rule 2199:Yuan rule 2034:Ma Bufang 2018:communist 1979:civil war 1964:Ma Bufang 1930:In 1918, 1917:Du Yuming 1901:Ma clique 1897:Ma Bufang 1088:Ma Bufang 876:in 1982. 783:provinces 641:in 1951. 631:East Asia 485:1,000,000 168:Religion 55:1912–1951 10273:Slovenia 10268:Slovakia 10258:Portugal 10146:Bulgaria 10100:Thailand 10075:Mongolia 10048:Cambodia 9968:Suriname 9958:Colombia 9782:Ethiopia 9711:Category 9595:Calendar 9529:Diaspora 9402:Religion 9206:Politics 9107:Tanggula 9097:Changtse 8801:Wars and 8676:Tsongkha 8638:Timeline 8581:Timeline 8558:articles 8483:Rhodesia 8478:Pakistan 8397:Barbados 8366:Rimatara 8356:Rapa Iti 8285:Valencia 8260:Tavolara 8250:Scotland 8215:Portugal 8175:Moldavia 8060:Bulgaria 8055:Brittany 8030:Asturias 7910:Mongolia 7900:Maldives 7762:Trinidad 7752:Suriname 7710:Americas 7694:Zimbabwe 7689:Zanzibar 7674:Wituland 7649:Ngazidja 7644:Ndzuwani 7579:Ethiopia 7302:Thailand 7282:Malaysia 7262:Cambodia 7212:Eswatini 7008:Elective 6993:Absolute 6899:Category 6772:Buddhism 6764:Religion 6741:Post-90s 6734:Post-80s 6478:Archives 6345:HIV/AIDS 6316:Literacy 6274:Abortion 6203:Internet 6160:Taxation 6143:Textiles 6123:Chemical 6118:Industry 6047:Currency 5925:Military 5733:in Tibet 5697:Politics 5634:Wildlife 5546:Wetlands 5309:COVID-19 5137:Imperial 5035:Monarchs 4995:Language 4980:Timeline 4952:articles 4860:(2013). 4797:(2010), 4509:40199339 4431:(1946), 4417:(1924), 3924:Archived 3820:Archived 3669:Archived 3625:Archived 3568:archives 3420:Archived 3308:Archived 3247:Archived 3228:Archived 2963:Zhu 2020 2772:Archived 2435:See also 2383:ragyabas 2347:Buddhist 2293:• 2260:Timeline 2252:See also 2244:PRC rule 2144:a series 2142:Part of 2063:Currency 1962:warlord 1958:and pro- 1895:warlord 1629:Military 1605:Shigatse 1603:, seat: 1586:, seat: 1552:, seat: 1535:, seat: 1518:, seat: 1499:gzhis ka 1380:Politics 1347:Chairman 1288:— 1283:Tsinghai 1008:de facto 759:expelled 696:de facto 670:a treaty 627:de facto 625:) was a 494:Currency 389:returns 205:elective 176:official 133:De facto 10315:Galicia 10293:Ukraine 10263:Romania 10213:Ireland 10208:Iceland 10198:Hungary 10188:Germany 10166:Finland 10161:Estonia 10156:Denmark 10141:Belgium 10136:Austria 10131:Albania 9973:Uruguay 9905:Arizona 9832:Morocco 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