436:
effective leadership. In addition to
Zaccaro's Model of Leader Attributes and Leader Performance described in the previous section, two other models have emerged in recent trait leadership literature. The Leader Trait Emergence Effectiveness (LTEE) Model, created by Judge, Piccolo, & Kosalka in 2009, combines the behavioral genetics and evolutionary psychology theories of how personality traits are developed into a model that explains leader emergence and effectiveness. Additionally, this model separates objective and subjective leader effectiveness into different criterion. The authors created this model to be broad and flexible as to diverge from how the relationship between traits and leadership had been studied in past research. Another model that has emerged in the trait leadership literature is the Integrated Model of Leader Traits, Behaviors, and Effectiveness. This model combines traits and behaviors in predicting leader effectiveness and tested the mediation effect of leader behaviors on the relationship between leader traits and effectiveness. The authors found that some types of leader behaviors mediated the effect between traits and leader effectiveness. The results of a Derue
64:
supporting that individual differences could still be predictors of leader effectiveness. With an increasing number of empirical studies directly supporting trait leadership, traits have reemerged in the lexicon of the scientific research into leadership. In recent years, the research about leader traits has made some progress in identifying a list of personality traits that are highly predictive of leader effectiveness. Additionally, to account for the arguments for situational leadership, researchers have used the round-robin design methodology to test whether certain individuals emerge as leaders across multiple situations. Scholars have also proposed new ways of studying the relationship of certain traits to leader effectiveness. For instance, many suggest the integration of trait and behavioral theories to understand how traits relate to leader effectiveness. Furthermore, scholars have expanded their focus and have proposed looking at more malleable traits (ones susceptible to development) in addition to the traditional dispositional traits as predictors of leader effectiveness. Context is only now beginning to be examined as a contributor to leaders' success and failure.
184:
emerges from the combined influence of multiple traits as opposed to emerging from the independent assessment of traits. Zaccaro argued that effective leadership is derived from an integrated set of cognitive abilities, social capabilities, and dispositional tendencies, with each set of traits adding to the influence of the other. The second premise is that leader traits differ in their proximal influence on leadership. This model is a multistage one in which certain distal attributes (i.e. dispositional attributes, cognitive abilities, and motives/values) serve as precursors for the development of proximal personal characteristics (i.e. social skills, problem solving skills and expertise knowledge). Adopting this categorization approach and based on several comprehensive reviews/meta-analysis of trait leadership in recent years, we tried to make an inclusive list of leader traits (Table 1). However, the investigations of leader traits are always by no means exhaustive.
27:
overall effectiveness. Many scholars have argued that leadership is unique to only a select number of individuals, and that these individuals possess certain immutable traits that cannot be developed. Although this perspective has been criticized immensely over the past century, scholars still continue to study the effects of personality traits on leader effectiveness. Research has demonstrated that successful leaders differ from other people and possess certain core personality traits that significantly contribute to their success. Understanding the importance of these core personality traits that predict leader effectiveness can help organizations with their leader selection, training, and development practices.
60:
scholars commented that any trait's effect on leadership behavior will always depend on the situation. Subsequently, leadership stopped being characterized by individual differences, and instead both behavioral and situational analyses of leadership took over. These analyses began to dominate the field of leadership research. During this period of widespread rejection, several dominant theories took the place of trait leadership theory, including
Fiedler's contingency model, Blake and Mouton's managerial grid, Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership model, and transformational and transactional leadership models.
449:
Additionally, scholars have noted that trait leadership theory usually only focuses on how leader effectiveness is perceived by followers rather than a leader's actual effectiveness. Because the process through which personality predicts the actual effectiveness of leaders has been relatively unexplored. these scholars have concluded that personality currently has low explanatory and predictive power over job performance and cannot help organizations select leaders who will be effective. Furthermore, Derue
52:
approach to the research of leadership has usually been and should always be through the study of traits. Many theorists, influenced by
Carlyle and Galton, believed that trait leadership depended on the personal qualities of the leader, however, they did not assume that leadership only resides within a select number of people. This trait perspective of leadership was widely accepted until the late 1940s and early 1950s, when researchers began to deem personality traits insufficient in predicting
457:
does not reside in the person, and it usually requires examining the whole situation. In addition to situational leadership theory, there has been growing support for other leadership theories such as transformational, transactional, charismatic, and authentic leadership theories. These theories have gained popularity because they are more normative than the trait and behavioral leadership theories.
146:. The hope is that emergence of proximal traits in trait leadership theory will help researchers elucidate the old question whether leaders are born or made. Proximal individual differences suggest that the characteristics that distinguish effective leaders from non-effective leaders are not necessarily stable through the life-span, implying that these traits may be able to be developed. Hoffman
172:
491:
century during which we stopped evaluating our leaders based on character and began judging them instead based on personality. While both extroverted and introverted leaders have been shown to be effective, we have a general proclivity towards extroverted traits, which when evaluating trait leadership, could skew our perception of what's that important.
461:
on a small set of personality traits and neglect of more malleable traits such as social skills and problem solving skills has received considerable criticism. Lastly, trait leadership often fails to consider the integration of multiple traits when studying the effects of traits on leader effectiveness.
460:
Previously, studies failed to uncover a trait or group of traits that are consistently associated with leadership emergence or help differentiate leaders from followers, but more recent research supports a link between narcissism and the emergence of leadership. Additionally, trait leadership's focus
456:
Another criticism of trait leadership is its silence on the influence of the situational context surrounding leaders. Stogdill found that persons who are leaders in one situation may not be leaders in another situation. Complementing this situational theory of leadership, Murphy wrote that leadership
183:
created a model to understand leader traits and their influence on leader effectiveness/performance. This model, shown in figure 1, is based on other models of leader traits and leader effectiveness/performance. and rests on two basic premises about leader traits. The first premise is that leadership
59:
In 1948, Stogdill stated that leadership exists between persons in a social situation, and that persons who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations. This statement has been cited ubiquitously as sounding the death knell for trait-leadership theory. Furthermore,
486:
Another way in which HR practitioners can use the research on trait leadership is for leadership development programs. Although inherent personality traits (distal/trait-like) are relatively immune to leadership development, Zaccaro suggested that proximal traits (state-like) will be more malleable
469:
Given the recent increase in evidence and support of trait leadership theory, scholars have suggested a variety of strategies for human resource departments within organizations. Companies should use personality traits as selection tools for identifying emerging leaders. These companies, however,
26:
The theory is developed from early leadership research which focused primarily on finding a group of heritable attributes that differentiate leaders from nonleaders. Leader effectiveness refers to the amount of influence a leader has on individual or group performance, followers’ satisfaction, and
490:
There is also evidence to suggest that
Americans have an Extrovert Ideal, which dictates that people, most times unconsciously, favor the traits of extroverted individuals and suppress the qualities unique to introverts. Susan Cain's research points to a transition sometime around the turn of the
51:
took this idea further. Galton found that leadership was a unique property of extraordinary individuals and suggested that the traits that leaders possessed were immutable and could not be developed. Throughout the early 1900s, the study of leadership focused on traits. Cowley commented that the
113:
attributes. For the demographics category, gender has by far received the most attention in terms of leadership; however, most scholars have found that male and female leaders are both equally effective. Task competence relates to how individuals approach the execution and performance of tasks.
96:
The investigations of leader traits are always by no means exhaustive. In recent years, several studies have made comprehensive reviews about leader traits that have been historically studied. There are many ways that traits related to leadership can be categorized; however, the two most recent
435:
Multiple models have been proposed to explain the relationship of traits to leader effectiveness. Recently, integrated trait leadership models were put forward by summarizing the historical findings and reconciling the conflict between traits and other factors such as situations in determining
478:
wrote that individuals who are high in narcissism are more likely to be a liability in certain jobs. Narcissism is just one example of a personality trait that should be explored further by HR practitioners to ensure they are not placing individuals with certain traits in the wrong positions.
63:
Despite the growing criticisms of trait leadership, the purported basis for the rejection of trait-leadership models began to encounter strong challenges in the 1980s. Zaccaro pointed out that even
Stogdill's 1948 review, although cited as evidence against leader traits, contained conclusions
482:
Complementing the suggestion that personality traits should be used as selection tools, it was found that the Big Five
Personality traits were more strongly related to leadership than intelligence. This finding suggests that selecting leaders based on their personality is more important than
448:
Although there has been an increased focus by researchers on trait leadership, this theory remains one of the most criticized theories of leadership. Over the years, many reviewers of trait leadership theory have commented that this approach to leadership is "too simplistic", and "futile".
162:
were strongly correlated with leader effectiveness. Additionally, they found that the proximal individual differences of interpersonal skills, oral communication, written communication, management skills, problem solving skills, and decision making were also strongly correlated with leader
304:
Charismatic leaders are able to influence followers by articulating a compelling vision for the future, arousing commitment to organizational objectives and inspiring commitment and a sense of self-efficacy among followers. It has a significant influence on leadership (r = .57).
1846:
Mumford MD, Zaccaro SJ, Harding FD, Fleishman EA, Reiter-Palmon R (1993). Cognitive and temperament predictors of executive ability: Principles for developing leadership capacity (Report). Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army
Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social
87:
Cultural fit and leadership value can be determined by evaluating an individual's own behavior, perceptions of their employees and peers, and the direct objective results of their organization, and then comparing these findings against the needs of the company.
483:
selecting them based on intelligence. If organizations select leaders based on intelligence, it is recommended that these individuals be placed in leadership positions when the stress level is low and the individual has the ability to be directive.
609:
did not use the word "leadership" in his discussion of the hero as divinity, as prophet, as poet, as priest, as man of letters, and as "king" ; he mentions "leader" and "leaders" only 6 times (once quite disparagingly) in that
291:
Defined as the correspondence between work and deed, and as being truthful and non deceitful. Honesty/integrity was found to be positively related to leadership effectiveness of others and surrounding factors (r = .29).
43:, which stated that "The History of the World was the Biography of Great Men". Subsequent commentators interpreted this view to conclude that the forces of extraordinary leadership shape history. Influenced by Carlyle,
409:
Technical knowledge includes methods, processes, and equipment for conducting the specialized activities of the managers’ organizational unit. It has been proved to be positively correlated with leader effectiveness.
423:
Given that leaders’ key responsibilities involve coordinating the work of multiple constituents, the ability to manage is likely crucial to leader effectiveness. This relationship has also been proved significant.
22:
is defined as integrated patterns of personal characteristics that reflect a range of individual differences and foster consistent leader effectiveness across a variety of group and organizational situations.
373:
Including a broad range of skills associated with un understanding of human behavior and the dynamics of groups, interpersonal skills were found to be significantly correlated with leader effectiveness.
1891:
Podsakoff PM, MacKenzie SB, Moorman RH, Fetter R (1990). "Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers' trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors".
223:
One dimension of Big-Five
Personality Model; refers to the tendency to be trusting, compliant, caring, and gentle. The relationship between Agreeableness and leadership is still ambiguous. In Judge
138:
Recent research has shifted from focusing solely on distal (dispositional/trait-like) characteristics of leaders to more proximal (malleable/state-like) individual differences often in the form of
271:
One dimension of Big-Five
Personality Model; represents the tendency to exhibit poor emotional adjustment and experience negative affects, such as anxiety, insecurity, and hostility. In Judge
1662:
Hoffman BJ, Woehr DJ, Maldagen-Youngjohn R, Lyons BD (2011). "Great man or great myth? A quantitative review of the: relationship between individual differences and leader effectiveness".
351:
Characterized by the satisfaction leaders derive from exerting influence over the attitudes and behaviors of others. Need for power has a positive relationship with leader effectiveness.
1536:
Chen G, Gully SM, Whiteman JA, Kilcullen RN (2000). "Examination of relationships among trait-like individual differences, state-like individual differences, and learning performance".
1789:
Lord RG, De Vader CL, Alliger GM (1986). "A meta-analysis of the relation between personality traits and leadership perceptions: An application of validity generalization procedures".
470:
should be aware of the individual traits that predict success in leader effectiveness as well as the traits that could be detrimental to leader effectiveness. For example, while Derue
474:
found that individuals who are high in
Conscientiousness, Extraversion, and Agreeableness are predicted to be more likely to be perceived as successful in leadership positions, Judge
200:
One dimension of Big-Five Personality Model; represents the tendency to be sociable, assertive, active, and to experience positive affects, such as energy and zeal. In Judge
487:
and susceptible to leadership development programs. Companies should use different types of development interventions to stretch the existing capabilities of their leaders.
329:
Creativity has been proposed as an important component of effective leadership. A significant relationship was found between creativity and leader effectiveness (r = .31).
1841:
Morgeson FP, Ilies R (2007). "Correlations between leadership traits and leadership styles" (Document). East Lansing, MI: Unpublished raw data. Michigan State University.
1631:
1616:
Derue DS, Nahrgang JD, Wellman N, Humphrey SE (2011). "Trait and behavioral theories - of leadership: An integration and :meta‐analytic test of their relative validity".
2035:
Barrick, M. R., Stewart, G. L., & Piotrowski, M. (2002). Personality and job performance: Test of the mediating effects of motivation among sales representatives.
317:
Intelligence is regarded as the most important trait in psychology. It has been identified as one of the most critical traits that must be possessed by all leaders.
65:
53:
2056:
Ilies, R., Arvey, R. D., & Bouchard, T. J. (2006). Darwinism, behavioral genetics, and organizational behavior, A review and agenda for future research.
1878:
Ng K, Ang S, Chan K (2008). "Personality and leader effectiveness: A moderated mediation model of leadership self-efficacy, job demands, and job autonomy".
2063:
Johnson, A. M., Vernon, P. A., Harris, J. A., & Jang, K. L. (2004). A behavioral investigation of the relationship between leadership and personality.
2028:
Arvey, R. D., Rotundo, M., Johnson, W., Zhang, Z., & McGue, M. (2006). The determinants of leadership role occupancy: Genetic and personality factors.
2070:
Kirkpatrick, S. A., & Locke, E. A. (1996). Direct and indirect effects of three core charismatic leadership components on performance and :attitudes.
163:
effectiveness. Their results suggested that on average, distal and proximal individual differences have a similar relationship with effective leadership.
97:
categorizations have organized traits into (1) demographic vs. task competence vs. interpersonal and (2) distal (trait-like) vs. proximal (state-like):
1723:
Judge TA, Piccolo RF, Kosalka T (2009). "The bright and dark sides of leader traits, A review and theoretical extension of the leader trait paradigm".
1400:
Barrick MR, Mitchell TR, Stewart GL (2003). "Situational and motivational influences on trait– behavior relationships". In Barrick MR, Ryan AM (eds.).
604:
2099:
1925:
Schaubroeck J, Lam SS, Cha SE (2007). "Embracing transformational leadership: Team values and the impact of leader behavior on :team performance".
1852:
Mumford MD, Zaccaro SJ, Harding FD, Jacobs TO, Fleishman EA (2000). "Leadership skills for a changing world: Solving complex social problems".
208:
1736:
Judge TA, Woolf EF, Hurst C, Livingston B (2006). "Charismatic and Transformational Leadership, A Review and an Agenda for Future Research".
1469:
Brunell AB, Gentry WA, Campbell WK, Hoffman BJ, Kuhnert KW, Demarree KG (2008). "Leader Emergence: The Case of the Narcissistic Leader".
150:
examined the effects of distal vs. proximal traits on leader effectiveness. They found that distal individual differences of achievement
1951:
255:
One dimension of Big-Five Personality Model; the disposition to be imaginative, nonconforming, unconventional, and autonomous. In Judge
126:
into this category. Lastly, interpersonal attributes are related to how a leader approaches social interactions. According to Hoffman
1710:
Judge TA, Colbert AE, Ilies R (2004). "Intelligence and Leadership: A Quantitative Review and Test of Theoretical Propositions".
239:
One dimension of Big-Five Personality Model; it comprises two related facets, namely achievement and dependability. In Judge
1938:
Schneider RJ, Hough LM, Dunnette MD (1996). "Broadsided by broad traits: How to sink science in five dimensions or less".
1401:
80:, whereas leaders with idealized traits prove more successful in more stable environments requiring less innovation and
387:
General problem solving skills were found to be one of the factors most strongly correlated with leader effectiveness.
1697:
Judge TA, Bono JE, Ilies R, Gerhardt MW (2002). "Personality and leadership: A qualitative and quantitative review".
531:
1749:
Kanfer R (1990). "Motivation theory and industrial and organizational psychology". In Dunnette MD, Hough L (eds.).
555:
1587:
de Vries, Reinout E. (2012). "Personality predictors of leadership styles and the self–other agreement problem".
339:
The motivation to achieve has been proved to have significant relationship with leader effectiveness (r = .23).
1414:
1381:
1758:
Kanfer R (1992). "Work motivation: New directions in theory and research". In Cooper CL, Robertson IT (eds.).
549:
399:
Decision skills were also found to be one of the factors most strongly correlated with leader effectiveness.
361:
Oral and written communication skills are found to be significantly correlated with leader effectiveness.
2104:
564:
519:
109:
stated that most leader traits can be organized into three categories: demographic, task competence, and
1372:
Ackerman PL, Humphreys LG (1992). "Individual differences in industrial and organizational psychology".
582:
1811:
Mann RD (1959). "A review of the relationship between personality and performance in small groups".
259:
meta-analysis, Openness was found to be significantly positively related with leadership (r = .24).
570:
2049:
Hogan, R. (1996). A socioanalytic perspective on the five-factor model. In J. S. Wiggins (ed.),
1959:
Stogdill RM (1948). "Personal factors associated with leadership: A survey of the literature".
1391:
Avolio BJ, Sosik JJ, Jung DI, Berson Y (2003). "Leadership models, methods, and applications".
540:
525:
275:
meta-analysis, Neuroticism was significantly negatively correlated with leadership (r = -.24).
243:
meta-analysis, Conscientiousness was significantly positively related to leadership (r = .28).
1985:. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. pp. 147–197.
1753:. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. pp. 75–170.
1435:
Bass & Stogdill’s handbook of leadership: Theory, research, and managerial applications
504: – Quality of one individual or group influencing or guiding others based on authority
366:
440:
study supported an integrated trait-behavioral model that can be used in future research.
8:
2094:
453:
found that leader behaviors are more predictive of leader effectiveness than are traits.
123:
1494:
1675:
House RJ, Aditya RN (1997). "The social scientific study of leadership: Quo-vadis?".
1604:
1553:
1519:
1486:
1410:
1377:
232:
119:
1767:
Kenny DA, Zaccaro SJ (1983). "An estimate of variance due to traits in leadership".
1498:
227:
meta-analysis, Agreeableness was not significantly related to leadership (r = .08).
1981:
Yukl G, Van Fleet DD (1992). "Theory and research on leadership in organizations".
1947:
1913:
1825:
1596:
1545:
1478:
1035:
1033:
1031:
1029:
543: – activity that improves a person's competency to perform in leadership roles
40:
1992:
The nature of executive leadership: A conceptual and empirical analysis of success
1027:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1015:
1013:
1011:
1009:
1917:
1600:
576:
392:
380:
155:
1376:. Vol. 3. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. pp. 223–282.
16:
Patterns of personal characteristics that foster consistent leader effectiveness
1549:
1515:
1006:
344:
44:
36:
2042:
Hogan, R. (1983). A socioanalytic theory of personality. In M. M. Page (ed.),
1444:
The Bass handbook of leadership: Theory, research, and managerial applications
2088:
1629:
Fiedler FE (1967). "Style of leadership and performance of coaching groups".
1608:
1524:. Thomas Carlyle's Collected Works. London: Chapman and Hall (published 1841)
1482:
216:
204:
110:
1403:
Personality and Work: Reconsidering the Role of Personality in Organizations
100:
2077:
Turkheimer, E. (2000). Three laws of behavior genetics and what they mean.
1952:
10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(199611)17:6<639::AID-JOB3828>3.0.CO;2-9
1557:
1490:
947:
694:
692:
513:
310:
193:
1098:
1096:
1081:
690:
688:
686:
684:
682:
680:
678:
676:
674:
672:
1828:(1982). "Leadership motive pattern and long-term success in management".
1395:. Vol. 12. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc. pp. 277–307.
264:
69:
1313:
1093:
669:
501:
415:
322:
151:
130:, Extraversion and Agreeableness should be grouped into this category.
81:
77:
73:
35:
The emergence of the concept of trait leadership can be traced back to
1144:
1337:
809:
807:
805:
803:
801:
799:
797:
795:
793:
284:
139:
2012:
Zaccaro SJ, Kemp C, Bader P (2004). "Leader traits and attributes".
1661:
1039:
507:
297:
248:
159:
105:
Based on a recent review of the trait leadership literature, Derue
1156:
1132:
981:
979:
790:
1508:
Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That Can't Stop Talking
923:
768:
766:
764:
762:
760:
758:
280:
207:, Extraversion was significantly positive related to leadership (
1782:
The essence of leadership: The four keys to leading successfully
1760:
International review of industrial and organizational psychology
1393:
Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology
996:
994:
133:
1890:
1738:
Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie A & O
976:
953:
848:
143:
2016:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. pp. 101–124.
1904:
Rosenthal SA, Pittinsky TL (2006). "Narcissistic leadership".
1845:
1325:
1207:
1087:
755:
632:
630:
628:
626:
1999:
Zaccaro SJ (2007). "Trait-based perspectives of leadership".
1301:
1120:
991:
522: – Personality model consisting of five broad dimensions
2046:(pp. 55−89). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
1615:
1468:
1319:
698:
171:
1851:
1102:
966:
964:
962:
911:
623:
1535:
1150:
1735:
1632:
Zeitschrift für Experimentelle und Angewandte Psychologie
1343:
1277:
1234:
860:
101:
Demographic, task competence and interpersonal leadership
1574:
Cowley WH (1931). "The traits of face-to-face leaders".
1455:(2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
1267:
1265:
1263:
1261:
959:
1865:
Murphy AJ (1941). "A study of the leadership process".
1246:
899:
826:
824:
822:
560:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
536:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
188:
Table 1. Leader Traits based on Zaccaro's (2004) Model
1937:
1696:
1399:
1162:
1138:
1057:
813:
1994:. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
1664:
Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology
1462:
The Managerial Grid: The Key to Leadership Excellence
1390:
1258:
929:
659:
657:
655:
653:
651:
649:
647:
645:
558: – Leadership model formulated by James Scouller
154:, energy, flexibility, dominance, honesty/integrity,
1983:
Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology
1751:
Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology
1374:
Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology
1197:
1195:
1069:
819:
731:
721:
719:
545:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
1788:
1722:
1687:
1224:
1222:
1108:
1045:
985:
887:
877:
875:
854:
772:
704:
528: – Branch of psychology focused on personality
430:
1903:
1823:
1331:
1289:
1213:
1180:
1168:
778:
743:
642:
516: – Approach to the study of human personality
2079:Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(5)
1924:
1709:
1521:On Heroes, Hero-worship and the Heroic in History
1371:
1307:
1192:
1126:
1000:
716:
510: – Charm that can inspire devotion in others
443:
2086:
2011:
1804:Narcissistic Leaders: Who Succeeds and Who Fails
1349:
1219:
935:
872:
836:
636:
1652:
917:
1762:. Vol. 7. New York: Wiley. pp. 1–53.
1426:Leadership and performance beyond expectations
1409:. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. pp. 60–82.
2053:(pp. 163−179). New York: Guilford Press.
1980:
1840:
1576:The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology
1564:
1283:
1240:
866:
134:Distal (trait-like) vs. proximal (state-like)
1766:
1569:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
970:
464:
76:of GE have demonstrated a gift for creating
1674:
1459:
1252:
905:
1471:Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
1450:
1063:
2058:Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27(2)
1877:
1688:Hughes RL, Ginnett RC, Curphy GJ (1996).
1271:
166:
2100:Industrial and organizational psychology
1976:. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
1958:
1806:. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
1657:. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
1586:
1441:
1075:
830:
710:
170:
1998:
1989:
1801:
1628:
1567:Charismatic leadership in organizations
1514:
1114:
1051:
893:
749:
737:
663:
2087:
1864:
1757:
1748:
1643:
1573:
1295:
1186:
1174:
784:
725:
585: – Business and management theory
30:
2044:1982 Nebraska symposium on motivation
1779:
1655:Management of organizational behavior
1446:(4th ed.). New York: Free Press.
1437:(3rd ed.). New York: Free Press.
1201:
2072:Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(1)
2051:The five-factor model of personality
2037:Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(1)
1971:
1810:
1505:
1432:
1423:
1355:
1228:
1163:Schneider, Hough & Dunnette 1996
1139:Barrick, Mitchell & Stewart 2003
941:
881:
842:
175:Figure 1: Model of Trait Leadership.
91:
13:
2022:
1940:Journal of Organizational Behavior
14:
2116:
1451:Bass BM, Riggio RE, eds. (2006).
986:Lord, De Vader & Alliger 1986
855:Hughes, Ginnett & Curphy 1996
773:Judge, Piccolo & Kosalka 2009
532:Individual differences psychology
579: – Organization's workforce
556:Three Levels of Leadership model
431:Other models of trait leadership
420:(Proximal - Expertise Knowledge)
406:(Proximal - Expertise Knowledge)
1653:Hersey P, Blanchard KH (1969).
1308:Schaubroeck, Lam & Cha 2007
1001:Judge, Colbert & Ilies 2004
1565:Conger JA, Kanungo RN (1998).
1464:. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co.
1332:Rosenthal & Pittinsky 2006
1214:McClelland & Boyatzis 1982
637:Zaccaro, Kemp & Bader 2004
597:
444:Criticisms of trait leadership
326:(Distal - Cognitive Abilities)
314:(Distal - Cognitive Abilities)
122:, openness to experience, and
1:
1927:Journal of Applied Psychology
1880:Journal of Applied Psychology
1830:Journal of Applied Psychology
1791:Journal of Applied Psychology
1769:Journal of Applied Psychology
1712:Journal of Applied Psychology
1699:Journal of Applied Psychology
1538:Journal of Applied Psychology
1364:
1127:Ackerman & Humphreys 1992
550:Situational leadership theory
2030:The Leadership Quarterly, 17
1918:10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.005
1867:American Sociological Review
1784:. New York: Lexington Books.
1692:. Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill.
1601:10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.03.002
617:
534: – Branch of psychology
396:(Proximal - Problem Solving)
384:(Proximal - Problem Solving)
7:
1974:Leadership in organizations
1453:Transformational Leadership
918:Hersey & Blanchard 1969
573: – Style of leadership
565:Transformational leadership
520:Big Five personality traits
494:
10:
2121:
1550:10.1037/0021-9010.85.6.835
1460:Blake R, Mouton J (1964).
370:(Proximal - Social Skills)
358:(Proximal - Social Skills)
356:Oral/written communication
1284:Morgeson & Ilies 2007
1241:Conger & Kanungo 1998
867:Yukl & Van Fleet 1992
583:Fiedler contingency model
465:Implications for practice
2014:The nature of leadership
1906:The Leadership Quarterly
1893:The Leadership Quarterly
1854:The Leadership Quarterly
1725:The Leadership Quarterly
1589:The Leadership Quarterly
1483:10.1177/0146167208324101
1442:Bass BM, Bass R (2008).
971:Kenny & Zaccaro 1983
590:
571:Transactional leadership
567: – Management style
301:(Distal - Dispositional)
288:(Distal - Dispositional)
268:(Distal - Dispositional)
252:(Distal - Dispositional)
236:(Distal - Dispositional)
220:(Distal - Dispositional)
197:(Distal - Dispositional)
1428:. New York: Free Press.
1272:Ng, Ang & Chan 2008
1253:House & Aditya 1997
906:Blake & Mouton 1964
348:(Distal - Motive/Value)
336:(Distal - Motive/Value)
66:Productive narcissistic
1813:Psychological Bulletin
1064:Bass & Riggio 2006
552: – Business model
541:Leadership development
526:Personality psychology
334:Achievement motivation
176:
167:Trait-leadership model
118:grouped intelligence,
2001:American Psychologist
1961:Journal of Psychology
1677:Journal of Management
1648:. New York: Appleton.
954:Podsakoff et al. 1990
174:
1618:Personnel Psychology
1506:Cain, Susan (2012).
1076:Bass & Bass 2008
367:Interpersonal skills
54:leader effectiveness
1990:Zaccaro SJ (2001).
1320:Brunell et al. 2008
1103:Mumford et al. 2000
1088:Mumford et al. 1993
1040:Hoffman et al. 2011
404:Technical knowledge
189:
124:emotional stability
31:History of research
2105:Leadership studies
1802:Maccoby M (2007).
1510:. New York: Crown.
930:Avolio et al. 2003
187:
177:
158:, creativity, and
41:"great man" theory
2065:Twin Research, 7,
1780:Locke EA (1991).
1646:Hereditary genius
1644:Galton F (1869).
1477:(12): 1663–1676.
1344:Judge et al. 2006
814:Judge et al. 2002
699:Derue et al. 2011
428:
427:
233:Conscientiousness
120:conscientiousness
92:Leadership traits
49:Hereditary Genius
2112:
2017:
2008:
1995:
1986:
1977:
1968:
1955:
1934:
1921:
1900:
1887:
1874:
1861:
1848:
1842:
1837:
1820:
1807:
1798:
1785:
1776:
1763:
1754:
1745:
1732:
1719:
1706:
1693:
1684:
1671:
1658:
1649:
1640:
1625:
1612:
1583:
1570:
1561:
1532:
1530:
1529:
1511:
1502:
1465:
1456:
1447:
1438:
1433:Bass BM (1990).
1429:
1424:Bass BM (1985).
1420:
1408:
1396:
1387:
1359:
1353:
1347:
1341:
1335:
1329:
1323:
1317:
1311:
1305:
1299:
1293:
1287:
1281:
1275:
1269:
1256:
1250:
1244:
1238:
1232:
1226:
1217:
1211:
1205:
1199:
1190:
1184:
1178:
1172:
1166:
1160:
1154:
1151:Chen et al. 2000
1148:
1142:
1136:
1130:
1124:
1118:
1112:
1106:
1100:
1091:
1085:
1079:
1073:
1067:
1061:
1055:
1049:
1043:
1037:
1004:
998:
989:
983:
974:
968:
957:
951:
945:
939:
933:
927:
921:
915:
909:
903:
897:
891:
885:
879:
870:
864:
858:
852:
846:
840:
834:
828:
817:
811:
788:
782:
776:
770:
753:
747:
741:
735:
729:
723:
714:
708:
702:
696:
667:
661:
640:
634:
611:
601:
561:
546:
537:
190:
186:
20:Trait leadership
2120:
2119:
2115:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2110:
2109:
2085:
2084:
2025:
2023:Further reading
2020:
1972:Yukl G (2006).
1933:(4): 1020–1030.
1824:McClelland DC,
1527:
1525:
1516:Carlyle, Thomas
1417:
1406:
1384:
1367:
1362:
1354:
1350:
1342:
1338:
1330:
1326:
1318:
1314:
1306:
1302:
1294:
1290:
1282:
1278:
1270:
1259:
1251:
1247:
1239:
1235:
1227:
1220:
1212:
1208:
1200:
1193:
1185:
1181:
1173:
1169:
1161:
1157:
1149:
1145:
1137:
1133:
1125:
1121:
1113:
1109:
1101:
1094:
1086:
1082:
1074:
1070:
1062:
1058:
1050:
1046:
1038:
1007:
999:
992:
984:
977:
969:
960:
952:
948:
940:
936:
928:
924:
916:
912:
904:
900:
892:
888:
880:
873:
865:
861:
853:
849:
841:
837:
829:
820:
812:
791:
783:
779:
771:
756:
748:
744:
736:
732:
724:
717:
709:
705:
697:
670:
662:
643:
635:
624:
620:
615:
614:
602:
598:
593:
588:
577:Human resources
559:
544:
535:
497:
467:
446:
433:
419:
405:
395:
393:Decision making
383:
381:problem solving
369:
357:
347:
335:
325:
313:
300:
287:
267:
251:
235:
219:
196:
169:
156:self-confidence
136:
103:
94:
33:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2118:
2108:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2083:
2082:
2075:
2068:
2061:
2054:
2047:
2040:
2033:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2018:
2009:
1996:
1987:
1978:
1969:
1956:
1946:(6): 639–655.
1935:
1922:
1912:(6): 617–633.
1901:
1888:
1875:
1862:
1849:
1843:
1838:
1821:
1808:
1799:
1786:
1777:
1764:
1755:
1746:
1733:
1720:
1707:
1694:
1685:
1672:
1659:
1650:
1641:
1626:
1613:
1595:(5): 809–821.
1584:
1571:
1562:
1544:(6): 835–847.
1533:
1512:
1503:
1466:
1457:
1448:
1439:
1430:
1421:
1415:
1397:
1388:
1382:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1360:
1348:
1336:
1324:
1312:
1300:
1288:
1276:
1257:
1245:
1233:
1218:
1206:
1191:
1179:
1167:
1155:
1143:
1131:
1119:
1107:
1092:
1080:
1068:
1056:
1044:
1005:
990:
975:
958:
946:
934:
922:
910:
898:
886:
871:
859:
847:
835:
818:
789:
777:
754:
742:
730:
715:
703:
668:
641:
621:
619:
616:
613:
612:
595:
594:
592:
589:
587:
586:
580:
574:
568:
562:
553:
547:
538:
529:
523:
517:
511:
505:
498:
496:
493:
466:
463:
445:
442:
432:
429:
426:
425:
421:
412:
411:
407:
401:
400:
397:
389:
388:
385:
376:
375:
371:
363:
362:
359:
353:
352:
349:
345:Need for power
341:
340:
337:
331:
330:
327:
319:
318:
315:
307:
306:
302:
294:
293:
289:
277:
276:
269:
261:
260:
253:
245:
244:
237:
229:
228:
221:
213:
212:
198:
168:
165:
135:
132:
102:
99:
93:
90:
45:Francis Galton
37:Thomas Carlyle
32:
29:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2117:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2092:
2090:
2080:
2076:
2073:
2069:
2066:
2062:
2059:
2055:
2052:
2048:
2045:
2041:
2038:
2034:
2031:
2027:
2026:
2015:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1997:
1993:
1988:
1984:
1979:
1975:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1902:
1899:(2): 107–142.
1898:
1894:
1889:
1886:(4): 733–743.
1885:
1881:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1850:
1844:
1839:
1836:(6): 737–743.
1835:
1831:
1827:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1809:
1805:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1787:
1783:
1778:
1775:(4): 678–685.
1774:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1756:
1752:
1747:
1744:(4): 203–214.
1743:
1739:
1734:
1731:(6): 855–875.
1730:
1726:
1721:
1718:(3): 542–552.
1717:
1713:
1708:
1705:(4): 765–780.
1704:
1700:
1695:
1691:
1686:
1683:(3): 409–473.
1682:
1678:
1673:
1670:(2): 347–381.
1669:
1665:
1660:
1656:
1651:
1647:
1642:
1639:(2): 200–217.
1638:
1634:
1633:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1585:
1582:(3): 304–313.
1581:
1577:
1572:
1568:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1534:
1523:
1522:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1467:
1463:
1458:
1454:
1449:
1445:
1440:
1436:
1431:
1427:
1422:
1418:
1412:
1405:
1404:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1385:
1379:
1375:
1370:
1369:
1357:
1352:
1345:
1340:
1333:
1328:
1321:
1316:
1309:
1304:
1297:
1292:
1285:
1280:
1273:
1268:
1266:
1264:
1262:
1254:
1249:
1242:
1237:
1230:
1225:
1223:
1215:
1210:
1203:
1198:
1196:
1188:
1183:
1176:
1171:
1164:
1159:
1152:
1147:
1140:
1135:
1128:
1123:
1116:
1111:
1104:
1099:
1097:
1089:
1084:
1077:
1072:
1065:
1060:
1053:
1048:
1041:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1030:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1016:
1014:
1012:
1010:
1002:
997:
995:
987:
982:
980:
972:
967:
965:
963:
955:
950:
943:
938:
931:
926:
919:
914:
907:
902:
895:
890:
883:
878:
876:
868:
863:
856:
851:
844:
839:
832:
831:Stogdill 1948
827:
825:
823:
815:
810:
808:
806:
804:
802:
800:
798:
796:
794:
786:
781:
774:
769:
767:
765:
763:
761:
759:
751:
746:
740:, p. 17.
739:
734:
727:
722:
720:
712:
711:de Vries 2012
707:
700:
695:
693:
691:
689:
687:
685:
683:
681:
679:
677:
675:
673:
665:
660:
658:
656:
654:
652:
650:
648:
646:
638:
633:
631:
629:
627:
622:
608:
607:
600:
596:
584:
581:
578:
575:
572:
569:
566:
563:
557:
554:
551:
548:
542:
539:
533:
530:
527:
524:
521:
518:
515:
512:
509:
506:
503:
500:
499:
492:
488:
484:
480:
477:
473:
462:
458:
454:
452:
441:
439:
422:
417:
414:
413:
408:
403:
402:
398:
394:
391:
390:
386:
382:
378:
377:
372:
368:
365:
364:
360:
355:
354:
350:
346:
343:
342:
338:
333:
332:
328:
324:
321:
320:
316:
312:
309:
308:
303:
299:
296:
295:
290:
286:
282:
279:
278:
274:
270:
266:
263:
262:
258:
254:
250:
247:
246:
242:
238:
234:
231:
230:
226:
222:
218:
217:Agreeableness
215:
214:
210:
206:
205:meta-analysis
203:
199:
195:
192:
191:
185:
182:
173:
164:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
131:
129:
125:
121:
117:
112:
111:interpersonal
108:
98:
89:
85:
83:
79:
75:
72:of Apple and
71:
67:
61:
57:
55:
50:
46:
42:
38:
28:
24:
21:
2078:
2071:
2064:
2057:
2050:
2043:
2036:
2029:
2013:
2004:
2000:
1991:
1982:
1973:
1964:
1960:
1943:
1939:
1930:
1926:
1909:
1905:
1896:
1892:
1883:
1879:
1870:
1866:
1857:
1853:
1833:
1829:
1816:
1812:
1803:
1794:
1790:
1781:
1772:
1768:
1759:
1750:
1741:
1737:
1728:
1724:
1715:
1711:
1702:
1698:
1689:
1680:
1676:
1667:
1663:
1654:
1645:
1636:
1630:
1621:
1617:
1592:
1588:
1579:
1575:
1566:
1541:
1537:
1526:. Retrieved
1520:
1507:
1474:
1470:
1461:
1452:
1443:
1434:
1425:
1402:
1392:
1373:
1351:
1339:
1327:
1315:
1303:
1291:
1279:
1248:
1236:
1209:
1182:
1170:
1158:
1146:
1134:
1122:
1115:Zaccaro 2001
1110:
1083:
1071:
1059:
1052:Maccoby 2007
1047:
949:
937:
925:
913:
901:
894:Fiedler 1967
889:
862:
850:
838:
780:
750:Carlyle 1840
745:
738:Carlyle 1840
733:
706:
664:Zaccaro 2007
605:
599:
514:Trait theory
489:
485:
481:
475:
471:
468:
459:
455:
450:
447:
437:
434:
311:Intelligence
272:
256:
240:
224:
201:
194:Extraversion
180:
178:
147:
137:
127:
115:
106:
104:
95:
86:
62:
58:
48:
34:
25:
19:
18:
1860:(1): 11–35.
1826:Boyatzis RE
1296:Murphy 1941
1187:Kanfer 1992
1175:Kanfer 1990
785:Cowley 1931
726:Galton 1869
603:Carlyle in
265:Neuroticism
70:Steven Jobs
2095:Leadership
2089:Categories
2081:, 160-164.
2060:, 121-141.
2007:(1): 6–16.
1873:: 674–687.
1819:: 241–270.
1797:: 402–410.
1690:Leadership
1624:(1): 7–52.
1528:2014-09-12
1416:0787960373
1383:089106043X
1365:References
1202:Locke 1991
502:Leadership
416:Management
323:Creativity
152:motivation
82:creativity
78:innovation
74:Jack Welch
68:CEOs like
1847:Sciences.
1609:1048-9843
1356:Cain 2012
1229:Yukl 2006
942:Bass 1985
882:Bass 1990
843:Mann 1959
618:Footnotes
606:On Heroes
285:integrity
140:knowledge
2074:, 36-51.
2039:, 43-51.
1967:: 35–71.
1558:11125649
1518:(1840).
1499:28823065
1491:18794326
508:Charisma
495:See also
379:General
298:Charisma
249:Openness
211:= .31).
179:Zaccaro
160:charisma
114:Hoffman
2032:, 1-20.
281:Honesty
2067:27−32.
1607:
1556:
1497:
1489:
1413:
1380:
418:skills
144:skills
1495:S2CID
1407:(PDF)
610:work.
591:Notes
476:et al
472:et al
451:et al
438:et al
273:et al
257:et al
241:et al
225:et al
202:et al
181:et al
148:et al
128:et al
116:et al
107:et al
1605:ISSN
1554:PMID
1487:PMID
1411:ISBN
1378:ISBN
142:and
1948:doi
1914:doi
1597:doi
1546:doi
1479:doi
47:in
39:'s
2091::
2005:62
2003:.
1965:25
1963:.
1944:17
1942:.
1931:92
1929:.
1910:17
1908:.
1895:.
1884:93
1882:.
1869:.
1858:11
1856:.
1834:67
1832:.
1817:56
1815:.
1795:71
1793:.
1773:68
1771:.
1742:50
1740:.
1729:20
1727:.
1716:89
1714:.
1703:87
1701:.
1681:23
1679:.
1668:84
1666:.
1637:14
1635:.
1620:.
1603:.
1593:23
1591:.
1580:26
1578:.
1552:.
1542:85
1540:.
1493:.
1485:.
1475:34
1473:.
1260:^
1221:^
1194:^
1095:^
1008:^
993:^
978:^
961:^
874:^
821:^
792:^
757:^
718:^
671:^
644:^
625:^
84:.
56:.
1954:.
1950::
1920:.
1916::
1897:1
1871:6
1622:4
1611:.
1599::
1560:.
1548::
1531:.
1501:.
1481::
1419:.
1386:.
1358:.
1346:.
1334:.
1322:.
1310:.
1298:.
1286:.
1274:.
1255:.
1243:.
1231:.
1216:.
1204:.
1189:.
1177:.
1165:.
1153:.
1141:.
1129:.
1117:.
1105:.
1090:.
1078:.
1066:.
1054:.
1042:.
1003:.
988:.
973:.
956:.
944:.
932:.
920:.
908:.
896:.
884:.
869:.
857:.
845:.
833:.
816:.
787:.
775:.
752:.
728:.
713:.
701:.
666:.
639:.
283:/
209:r
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
