Permian - Knowledge

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Carboniferous-Permian boundary, a warming event occurred. In addition to becoming warmer, the climate became notably more arid at the end of the Carboniferous and beginning of the Permian. Nonetheless, temperatures continued to cool during most of the Asselian and Sakmarian, during which the LPIA peaked. By 287 million years ago, temperatures warmed and the South Pole ice cap retreated in what was known as the Artinskian Warming Event (AWE), though glaciers remained present in the uplands of eastern Australia, and perhaps also the mountainous regions of far northern Siberia. Southern Africa also retained glaciers during the late Cisuralian in upland environments. The AWE also witnessed aridification of a particularly great magnitude.

2903:...Convincing ourselves in the field, that these strata were so distinguished as to constitute a system, connected with the carboniferous rocks on the one hand, and independent of the Trias on the other, we ventured to designate them by a geographical term, derived from the ancient kingdom of Permia, within and around whose precincts the necessary evidences had been obtained. ... For these reasons, then, we were led to abandon both the German and British nomenclature, and to prefer a geographical name, taken from the region in which the beds are loaded with fossils of an independent and intermediary character; and where the order of superposition is clear, the lower strata of the group being seen to rest upon the Carboniferous rocks. 2443: 2368: 1861: 1435: 2227: 10157: 2180: 1968: 2134: 2157: 2204: 1685: 10146: 2539: 2639:) into the atmosphere to raise world temperatures an additional five degrees Celsius. The frozen methane hypothesis helps explain the increase in carbon-12 levels found midway in the Permian–Triassic boundary layer. It also helps explain why the first phase of the layer's extinctions was land-based, the second was marine-based (and starting right after the increase in C-12 levels), and the third land-based again. 1610: 123: 1672:, which produced high aridity and extreme seasonality in Pangaea's interiors. Precipitation along the western margins of the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean was very high. Evidence for the megamonsoon includes the presence of megamonsoonal rainforests in the Qiangtang Basin of Tibet, enormous seasonal variation in sedimentation, bioturbation, and ichnofossil deposition recorded in sedimentary facies in the 1759:. Diversity, origination and extinction rates during the Early Permian were low. Trilobites underwent a diversification during the Kungurian-Wordian, the last in their evolutionary history, before declining during the Late Permian. By the Changhsingian, only a handful (4-6) genera remained. Corals exhibited a decline in diversity over the course of the Middle and Late Permian. 1379:, China. Originally used as a lithostraphic unit, T.K. Huang in 1932 raised the Lopingian to a series, including all Permian deposits in South China that overlie the Maokou Limestone. In 1995, a vote by the Subcommission on Permian Stratigraphy of the ICS adopted the Lopingian as an international standard chronostratigraphic unit. 1676:, and palaeoclimatic models of the Earth's climate based on the behaviour of modern weather patterns showing that such a megamonsoon would occur given the continental arrangement of the Permian. The aforementioned increasing equatorial aridity was likely driven by the development and intensification of this Pangaean megamonsoon. 2615:, the gas can rise into the atmosphere. Oxidizing gases in the atmosphere would destroy the toxic gas, but the hydrogen sulfide would soon consume all of the atmospheric gas available. Hydrogen sulfide levels might have increased dramatically over a few hundred years. Models of such an event indicate that the gas would destroy 2050:. If terrestrial deposition ended around the end of the Cisuralian in North America and began in Russia during the early Guadalupian, a continuous record of the transition is not preserved. Uncertain dating has led to suggestions that there is a global hiatus in the terrestrial fossil record during the late Kungurian and early 1783:. The warm zone spread in the northern hemisphere, where extensive dry desert appeared. The rocks formed at that time were stained red by iron oxides, the result of intense heating by the sun of a surface devoid of vegetation cover. A number of older types of plants and animals died out or became marginal elements. 2331:

and "Paleopterygians". The last common ancestor of all living lungfish is thought to have existed during the Early Permian. Though the fossil record is fragmentary, lungfish appear to have undergone an evolutionary diversification and size increase in freshwater habitats during the Early Permian, but

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Insects, which had first appeared and become abundant during the preceding Carboniferous, experienced a dramatic increase in diversification during the Early Permian. Towards the end of the Permian, there was a substantial drop in both origination and extinction rates. The dominant insects during the

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In the late Kungurian, cooling resumed, resulting in a cool glacial interval that lasted into the early Capitanian, though average temperatures were still much higher than during the beginning of the Cisuralian. Another cool period began around the middle Capitanian. This cool period, lasting for 3-4

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Permian System. (Zechstein of Germany — Magnesian limestone of England)—Some introductory remarks explain why the authors have ventured to use a new name in reference to a group of rocks which, as a whole, they consider to be on the parallel of the Zechstein of Germany and the magnesian limestone of

2034:. The special adaptations of synapsids enabled them to flourish in the drier climate of the Permian and they grew to dominate the vertebrates. A faunal turnover occurred around the transition between the Cisuralian and Guadalupian, with the decline of amphibians and the replacement of pelycosaurs (a 2326:

is relatively low throughout the Permian in comparison to other marine fishes, though there is an increase in diversity during the terminal Permian (Changhsingian), corresponding with the highest diversity in their evolutionary history during the Early Triassic. Diversity of freshwater fish faunas

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Sea levels dropped slightly during the earliest Permian (Asselian). The sea level was stable at several tens of metres above present during the Early Permian, but there was a sharp drop beginning during the Roadian, culminating in the lowest sea level of the entire Palaeozoic at around present sea

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The Cisuralian Series is named after the strata exposed on the western slopes of the Ural Mountains in Russia and Kazakhstan. The name was proposed by J. B. Waterhouse in 1982 to comprise the Asselian, Sakmarian, and Artinskian stages. The Kungurian was later added to conform to the Russian "Lower

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For most of the 20th century, the Permian was divided into the Early and Late Permian, with the Kungurian being the last stage of the Early Permian. Glenister and colleagues in 1992 proposed a tripartite scheme, advocating that the Roadian-Capitanian was distinct from the rest of the Late Permian,

2054:, referred to as "Olson's Gap" that obscures the nature of the transition. Other proposals have suggested that the North American and Russian records overlap, with the latest terrestrial North American deposition occurring during the Roadian, suggesting that there was an extinction event, dubbed " 1648:

During the early Wuchiapingian, following the emplacement of the Emeishan Traps, global temperatures declined as carbon dioxide was weathered out of the atmosphere by the large igneous province's emplaced basalts. The late Wuchiapingian saw the finale of the Late Palaeozoic Ice Age, when the last

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excursion signifies the extreme magnitude of this climatic shift. This extremely rapid interval of greenhouse gas release caused the Permian-Triassic mass extinction, as well as ushering in an extreme hothouse that persisted for several million years into the next geologic epoch, the Triassic.

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in 1904, and first used in a chronostratigraphic sense by Glenister and Furnish in 1961 as a substage of the Guadalupian Stage. The Capitanian was ratified as an international stage by the ICS in 2001. The GSSP for the base of the Capitanian is located at Nipple Hill in the southeast Guadalupe

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The Russian Tatarian Stage includes the Lopingian, Capitanian and part of the Wordian, while the underlying Kazanian includes the rest of the Wordian as well as the Roadian. In North America, the Permian is divided into the Wolfcampian (which includes the Nealian and the Lenoxian stages); the

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during the Permian. Permian conifers were very similar morphologically to their modern counterparts, and were adapted to stressed dry or seasonally dry climatic conditions. The increasing aridity, especially at low latitudes, facilitated the spread of conifers and their increasing prevalence

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epoch. A significant trend of increasing aridification can be observed over the course of the Cisuralian. Early Permian aridification was most notable in Pangaean localities at near-equatorial latitudes. Sea levels also rose notably in the Early Permian as the LPIA slowly waned. At the

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in 1916, Glenister and Furnish in 1961 was the first publication to use it as a chronostratigraphic term as a substage of the Guadalupian Stage. The GSSP for the base of the Wordian is located in Guadalupe Pass, Texas, within the sediments of the Getaway Limestone Member of the

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Koot, Martha B.; Cuny, Gilles; Tintori, Andrea; Twitchett, Richard J. (March 2013). "A new diverse shark fauna from the Wordian (Middle Permian) Khuff Formation in the interior Haushi-Huqf area, Sultanate of Oman: CHONDRICHTHYANS FROM THE WORDIAN KHUFF FORMATION OF OMAN".

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Huttenlocker A. K.; Sidor C. A.; Smith R. M. H. (2011). "A new specimen of Promoschorhynchus (Therapsida: Therocephalia: Akidnognathidae) from the lowermost Triassic of South Africa and its implications for therocephalian survival across the Permo-Triassic boundary".

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The Permian saw the radiation of many important conifer groups, including the ancestors of many present-day families. Rich forests were present in many areas, with a diverse mix of plant groups. The southern continent saw extensive seed fern forests of the

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Glenister BF., Wardlaw BR., Lambert LL., Spinosa C., Bowring SA., Erwin DH., Menning M., Wilde GL. 1999. Proposal of Guadalupian and component Roadian, Wordian and Capitanian stages as international standards for the middle Permian series. Permophiles

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Yan, Evgeny Viktorovich; Beutel, Rolf Georg; Lawrence, John Francis; Yavorskaya, Margarita Igorevna; Hörnschemeyer, Thomas; Pohl, Hans; Vassilenko, Dmitry Vladimirovich; Bashkuev, Alexey Semenovich; Ponomarenko, Alexander Georgievich (2020-09-13).

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subsequently declined during the middle and late Permian. Conodonts experienced their lowest diversity of their entire evolutionary history during the Permian. Permian chondrichthyan faunas are poorly known. Members of the chondrichthyan clade

907:, the largest mass extinction in Earth's history (which is the last of the three or four crises that occurred in the Permian), in which nearly 81% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial species died out, associated with the eruption of the 1384:

The Wuchiapinginan and Changhsingian were first introduced in 1962, by J. Z. Sheng as the "Wuchiaping Formation" and "Changhsing Formation" within the Lopingian series. The GSSP for the base of the Wuchiapingian is located at Penglaitan,

3429: : 417-422. From p. 419: "The carboniferous system is surmounted, to the east of the Volga, by a vast series of marls, schists, limestones, sandstones and conglomerates, to which I propose to give the name of "Permian System," … ." 7355: 2630:

Another hypothesis builds on the flood basalt eruption theory. An increase in temperature of five degrees Celsius would not be enough to explain the death of 95% of life. But such warming could slowly raise ocean temperatures until

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The terrestrial fossil record of the Permian is patchy and temporally discontinuous. Early Permian records are dominated by equatorial Europe and North America, while those of the Middle and Late Permian are dominated by temperate

1405:.The GSSP for the base of the Changhsingian is located 88 cm above the base of the Changxing Limestone in the Meishan D section, Zhejiang, China and was ratified in 2005, the boundary is defined by the first appearance of 3815: 4991:

Marchetti, Lorenzo; Forte, Giuseppa; Kustatscher, Evelyn; DiMichele, William A.; Lucas, Spencer G.; Roghi, Guido; Juncal, Manuel A.; Hartkopf-Fröder, Christoph; Krainer, Karl; Morelli, Corrado; Ronchi, Ausonio (March 2022).

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Huttenlocker, A. K., and E. Rega. 2012. The Paleobiology and Bone Microstructure of Pelycosaurian-grade Synapsids. Pp. 90–119 in A. Chinsamy (ed.) Forerunners of Mammals: Radiation, Histology, Biology. Indiana University

2569:, as well as 70% of all land organisms. It is also the only known mass extinction of insects. Recovery from the Permian–Triassic extinction event was protracted; on land, ecosystems took 30 million years to recover. 2268:

Temnospondyls reached a peak of diversity in the Cisuralian, with a substantial decline during the Guadalupian-Lopingian following Olson's extinction, with the family diversity dropping below Carboniferous levels.

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Australian glaciers melted. The end of the Permian is marked by a temperature excursion, much larger than the Emeishan Thermal Excursion, at the Permian-Triassic boundary, corresponding to the eruption of the

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was the predominant group of Permian brachiopods, accounting for up to about half of all Permian brachiopod genera. Brachiopods also served as important ecosystem engineers in Permian reef complexes. Amongst

6039: 5282:"Reassessing the chronostratigraphy and tempo of climate change in the Lower-Middle Permian of the southern Sydney Basin, Australia: Integrating evidence from U–Pb zircon geochronology and biostratigraphy" 1498:, which began forming due to the collision of Laurasia and Gondwana during the Carboniferous, reached their maximum height during the early Permian around 295 million years ago, comparable to the present 2596:, for thousands of years, contributing to the environmental stress that led to mass extinction. The reduced coastal habitat and highly increased aridity probably also contributed. Based on the amount of 6664:

Xu, R. & Wang, X.-Q. (1982): Di zhi shi qi Zhongguo ge zhu yao Diqu zhi wu jing guan (Reconstructions of Landscapes in Principal Regions of China). Ke xue chu ban she, Beijing. 55 pages, 25 plates.

7279:"Testing extinction events and temporal shifts in diversification and fossilization rates through the skyline Fossilized Birth‐Death (FBD) model: The example of some mid‐Permian synapsid extinctions" 6253: 5056:

Montañez, Isabel P.; Tabor, Neil J.; Niemeier, Deb; DiMichele, William A.; Frank, Tracy D.; Fielding, Christopher R.; Isbell, John L.; Birgenheier, Lauren P.; Rygel, Michael C. (5 January 2007).

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Cui, Yingying; Bardin, Jérémie; Wipfler, Benjamin; Demers‐Potvin, Alexandre; Bai, Ming; Tong, Yi‐Jie; Chen, Grace Nuoxi; Chen, Huarong; Zhao, Zhen‐Ya; Ren, Dong; Béthoux, Olivier (2024-03-07).

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dominated ones during the late Carboniferous in Euramerica, and result in the differentiation of the Cathaysian floras from those of Euramerica. The Gondwanan floristic region was dominated by

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Myr, was known as the Kamura Event. It was interrupted by the Emeishan Thermal Excursion in the late part of the Capitanian, around 260 million years ago, corresponding to the eruption of the

4667:"Palaeoclimate across the Late Pennsylvanian–Early Permian tropical palaeolatitudes: A review of climate indicators, their distribution, and relation to palaeophysiographic climate factors" 982:

strata in the region. Murchison, in collaboration with Russian geologists, named the period after the surrounding Russian region of Perm, which takes its name from the medieval kingdom of

1294:, a city in Perm Krai. The stage was introduced by Alexandr Antonovich Stukenberg in 1890. The Kungurian currently lacks a defined GSSP. Recent proposals have suggested the appearance of 7814:"Osteology, relationships and functional morphology of Weigeltisaurus jaekeli (Diapsida, Weigeltisauridae) based on a complete skeleton from the Upper Permian Kupferschiefer of Germany" 2611:

will periodically lose all of its dissolved oxygen allowing bacteria that live without oxygen to flourish and produce hydrogen sulfide gas. If enough hydrogen sulfide accumulates in an

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estimated to have been produced during this period, the worst-case scenario is the release of enough carbon dioxide from the eruptions to raise world temperatures five degrees Celsius.

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The GSSP for the base of the Triassic is located at the base of Bed 27c at the Meishan D section, and was ratified in 2001. The GSSP is defined by the first appearance of the conodont

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were a common component of the flora The earliest Permian (~ 298 million years ago) Cathyasian Wuda Tuff flora, representing a coal swamp community, has an upper canopy consisting of

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Glenister, Brian F.; Boyd, D. W.; Furnish, W. M.; Grant, R. E.; Harris, M. T.; Kozur, H.; Lambert, L. L.; Nassichuk, W. W.; Newell, N. D.; Pray, L. C.; Spinosa, C. (September 1992).

6432:"Reef-dwelling brachiopods record paleoecological and paleoenvironmental changes within the Changhsingian (late Permian) platform-margin sponge reef in eastern Sichuan Basin, China" 1210:; however, ammonoid localities are rare in Permian stratigraphic sections, and species characterise relatively long periods of time. All GSSPs for the Permian are based around the 1624:

The Permian was cool in comparison to most other geologic time periods, with modest pole to Equator temperature gradients. At the start of the Permian, the Earth was still in the

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in 1874. The GSSP for the base of the Sakmarian is located at the Usolka section in the southern Urals, which was ratified in 2018. The GSSP is defined by the first appearance of

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Cao, Cheng; Bataille, Clément P.; Song, Haijun; Saltzman, Matthew R.; Tierney Cramer, Kate; Wu, Huaichun; Korte, Christoph; Zhang, Zhaofeng; Liu, Xiao-Ming (3 October 2022).

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Yang, Wenli; Chen, Jitao; Gao, Biao; Zhong, Yutian; Huang, Xing; Wang, Yue; Qi, Yuping; Shen, Kui-Shu; Mii, Horng-Sheng; Wang, Xiang-dong; Shen, Shu-zhong (1 February 2023).

1284:, Russia. It was named by Karpinsky in 1874. The Artinskian currently lacks a defined GSSP. The proposed definition for the base of the Artinskian is the first appearance of 2925:

Le nom de Système Permien, nom dérivé de l'ancien royaume de Permie, aujourd'hui gouvernement de Perm, donc ce dépôt occupe une large part, semblerait assez lui convener ...

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Henderson, C. M.; Davydov and, V. I.; Wardlaw, B. R.; Gradstein, F. M.; Hammer, O. (2012-01-01), Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Schmitz, Mark D.; Ogg, Gabi M. (eds.),

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Henderson, C. M.; Davydov and, V. I.; Wardlaw, B. R.; Gradstein, F. M.; Hammer, O. (2012-01-01), Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Schmitz, Mark D.; Ogg, Gabi M. (eds.),

6184: 5897:"Stacked Parahaentzschelinia ichnofabrics from the Lower Permian of the southern Sydney Basin, southeastern Australia: Palaeoecologic and palaeoenvironmental significance" 3478:

In 1841, after a tour of Russia with French paleontologist Edouard de Verneuil, Roderick I. Murchison, in collabo- ration with Russian geologists, named the Permian System

2226: 7604:"A new phylogenetic hypothesis of Tanystropheidae (Diapsida, Archosauromorpha) and other "protorosaurs", and its implications for the early evolution of stem archosaurs" 3132:"Early Triassic trace fossils from the Three Gorges area of South China: Implications for the recovery of benthic ecosystems following the Permian–Triassic extinction" 2524:, which had declined in the late Pennsylvanian and subsequently have a patchy fossil record, survived into the Late Permian in Cathaysia and equatorial east Gondwana. 8984:"The Permian (Kungurian, Cisuralian) palaeoenvironment and palaeoclimate of the Tregiovo Basin, Italy: Palaeobotanical, palynological and geochemical investigations" 7461:"The age of North America's youngest Paleozoic continental vertebrates: a review of data from the Middle Permian Pease River (Texas) and El Reno (Oklahoma) Groups" 6010: 7402: 7131: 2179: 4896:"Chronostratigraphy and Paleoclimatology of the Lodève Basin, France: Evidence for a pan-tropical aridification event across the Carboniferous–Permian boundary" 7378: 1931:(sometimes known as scorpionflies) first appeared during the Early Permian, going on to become diverse during the Late Permian. Some Permian mecopterans, like 2879:

England. They do so, not merely because a portion of deposits has long been known by the name "grits of Perm", but because, being enormously developed in the

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Kump, L.R.; Pavlov, A.; Arthur, M.A. (2005). "Massive release of hydrogen sulfide to the surface ocean and atmosphere during intervals of oceanic anoxia".

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He proposed the name "Permian" based on the extensive region that composed the ancient kingdom of Permia; the city of Perm lies on the flanks of the Urals.

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sediments of South Africa and the Ural region of European Russia. Early Permian terrestrial faunas of North America and Europe were dominated by primitive

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Fang, Xiaomin; Song, Chunhui; Yan, Maodu; Zan, Jinbo; Liu, Chenglin; Sha, Jingeng; Zhang, Weilin; Zeng, Yongyao; Wu, Song; Zhang, Dawen (September 2016).

2133: 2028:(the group that would later include mammals) thrived and diversified greatly during the Cisuralian. Permian synapsids included some large members such as 6598:. Contributions to Permian and Carboniferous Stratigraphy, Brachiopod Palaeontology and End-Permian Mass Extinctions, In Memory of Professor Yu-Gan Jin. 5347:. Contributions to Permian and Carboniferous Stratigraphy, Brachiopod Palaeontology and End-Permian Mass Extinctions, In Memory of Professor Yu-Gan Jin. 876:

within the continental interior. Amniotes, which could better cope with these drier conditions, rose to dominance in place of their amphibian ancestors.

6207: 6067: 4784:"Sedimentary facies and carbon isotopes of the Upper Carboniferous to Lower Permian in South China: Implications for icehouse to greenhouse transition" 9013: 8988: 8299: 7581: 6129: 5987: 5934: 5901: 5873: 5820: 5795: 5689: 5315: 5255: 5230: 5031: 4966: 4900: 4696: 4671: 4643: 4536: 4130: 3222: 3189: 3161: 3136: 2399:, a group of woody gymnosperm plants, for most of the Permian, extending to high southern latitudes. The ecology of the most prominent glossopterid, 1947:, feeding on decaying wood. Several lineages such as Schizophoridae expanded into aquatic habitats by the Late Permian. Members of the modern orders 1397:

The Changhsingian was originally derived from the Changxing Limestone, a geological unit first named by the Grabau in 1923, ultimately deriving from

6108:"An upper Kungurian/lower Guadalupian (Permian) brachiopod fauna from the South Qiangtang Block in Tibet and its palaeobiogeographical implications" 4509: 3517: 3466: 1494:

Era. A magmatic arc, containing Hainan on its southwesternmost end, began to form as Panthalassa subducted under the southeastern South China. The

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Day, Michael O.; Ramezani, Jahandar; Bowring, Samuel A.; Sadler, Peter M.; Erwin, Douglas H.; Abdala, Fernando; Rubidge, Bruce S. (22 July 2015).

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trees. By the Late Permian, high thin forests had become widespread across the globe, as evidenced by the global distribution of weigeltisaurids.

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Romano, Carlo; Koot, Martha B.; Kogan, Ilja; Brayard, Arnaud; Minikh, Alla V.; Brinkmann, Winand; Bucher, Hugo; Kriwet, Jürgen (February 2016).

7710: 7037: 4608:"Aridification across the Carboniferous–Permian transition in central equatorial Pangea: The Catalan Pyrenean succession (NE Iberian Peninsula)" 6730: 6338:"A diverse assemblage of Permian echinoids (Echinodermata, Echinoidea) and implications for character evolution in early crown group echinoids" 5507:

Chen, Bo; Joachimski, Michael M.; Shen, Shu-zhong; Lambert, Lance L.; Lai, Xu-long; Wang, Xiang-dong; Chen, Jun; Yuan, Dong-xun (1 July 2013).

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under some phylogenies. They previously had their last records in the Cisuralian, are now known to have persisted into the Lopingian in China.

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Chernykh, by Valery V.; Chuvashov, Boris I.; Shen, Shu-Zhong; Henderson, Charles M.; Yuan, Dong-Xun; Stephenson, and Michael H. (2020-12-01).

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The Permian began with the Carboniferous flora still flourishing. About the middle of the Permian a major transition in vegetation began. The

8196:"Permian-Triassic Osteichthyes (bony fishes): diversity dynamics and body size evolution: Diversity and size of Permian-Triassic bony fishes" 6393: 5791:"Stratigraphical and palaeogeographical significance of the continental sedimentary transition across the Permian–Triassic boundary in Spain" 1327:

in Stratotype Canyon, Guadalupe Mountains, Texas, and was ratified in 2001. The beginning of the stage is defined by the first appearance of

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Isbell, John L.; Biakov, Alexander S.; Vedernikov, Igor L.; Davydov, Vladimir I.; Gulbranson, Erik L.; Fedorchuk, Nicholas D. (March 2016).

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Yang, Jianghai; Cawood, Peter A.; Du, Yuansheng; Condon, Daniel J.; Yan, Jiaxin; Liu, Jianzhong; Huang, Yan; Yuan, Dongxun (15 June 2018).

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Sahney, S.; Benton, M.J.; Falcon-Lang, H.J. (2010). "Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica".

6968: 6902: 3791: 3415: 9151: 5844:"Mesozoic litho- and magneto-stratigraphic evidence from the central Tibetan Plateau for megamonsoon evolution and potential evaporites" 3083:"When and how did the terrestrial mid-Permian mass extinction occur? Evidence from the tetrapod record of the Karoo Basin, South Africa" 2322:. The earliest unequivocal members of Neopterygii appear during the Early Triassic, but a Permian origin is suspected. The diversity of 2351:, a group of shark-like chondrichthyans, were widespread and abundant members of marine and freshwater faunas throughout the Permian. 2156: 3247: 2340:, reached their apex of diversity during the Carboniferous-Permian, the most famous Permian representative being the "buzz-saw shark" 1014:, though Murchison rejected this in 1871. The Permian system was controversial for over a century after its original naming, with the 9519: 8597:"Permian vegetational Pompeii from Inner Mongolia and its implications for landscape paleoecology and paleobiogeography of Cathaysia" 8089:"The youngest occurrence of embolomeres (Tetrapoda: Anthracosauria) from the Sunjiagou Formation (Lopingian, Permian) of North China" 7737: 4334: 3873:

Proposal of Guadalupian and component Roadian, Wordian and Capitanian stages as international standards for the middle Permian series

6925:"Ademosynoides asiaticus Martynov, 1936, the earliest known member of an extant beetle family (Insecta, Coleoptera, Trachypachidae)" 6757: 3915: 9394: 8231: 7989:"Phylogeny of Paleozoic limbed vertebrates reassessed through revision and expansion of the largest published relevant data matrix" 7320:"The reptile Macroleter: First vertebrate evidence for correlation of Upper Permian continental strata of North America and Russia" 6314: 1895:, which had represented the dominant group of insects during the Carboniferous, declined during the Permian. This is likely due to 1051: 543: 503: 911:. It took well into the Triassic for life to recover from this catastrophe; on land, ecosystems took 30 million years to recover. 5226:"Oxygen isotope values from high-latitudes: Clues for Permian sea-surface temperature gradients and Late Palaeozoic deglaciation" 5103: 1239:

in 1900 had proposed the "Uralian Series", but the subsequent inconsistent usage of this term meant that it was later abandoned.

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and should be regarded as a separate epoch. The tripartite split was adopted after a formal proposal by Glenister et al. (1999).

6152: 8934:"A whole noeggerathialean plant Tingia unita Wang from the earliest Permian peat-forming flora, Wuda Coalfield, Inner Mongolia" 7205: 6813:

Lin, Xiaodan; Shih, Chungkun; Li, Sheng; Ren, Dong (2019-04-29), Ren, Dong; Shih, Chung Kun; Gao, Taiping; Yao, Yunzhi (eds.),

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Hu, Lisha; Cawood, Peter A.; Du, Yuansheng; Xu, Yajun; Wang, Chenghao; Wang, Zhiwen; Ma, Qianli; Xu, Xinran (1 November 2017).

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McLoughlin, S (2012). "Glossopteris – insights into the architecture and relationships of an iconic Permian Gondwanan plant".

7665:"A Basal Nonmammaliaform Cynodont from the Permian of Zambia and the Origins of Mammalian Endocranial and Postcranial Anatomy" 6644: 6084: 5170:"Southwestern Gondwana's Permian climate amelioration recorded in coal-bearing deposits of the Moatize sub-basin (Mozambique)" 4069: 2542:

The Permian–Triassic extinction event, labeled "End P" here, is the most significant extinction event in this plot for marine

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Benton, Michael J.; Twitchett, Richard J. (7 July 2003). "How to kill (almost) all life: the end-Permian extinction event".

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Blomenkemper, Patrick; Bäumer, Robert; Backer, Malte; Abu Hamad, Abdalla; Wang, Jun; Kerp, Hans; Bomfleur, Benjamin (2021).

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Various authors recognise at least three, and possibly four extinction events in the Permian. The end of the Early Permian (

9512: 6011:"Equatorial Aridity in Western Pangea: Lower Permian Loessite and Dolomitic Paleosols in Northeastern New Mexico, U.S.A." 5462: 4852: 3185:"The survival, recovery, and diversification of metazoan reef ecosystems following the end-Permian mass extinction event" 2994:"Distributions of extinction times from fossil ages and tree topologies: the example of mid-Permian synapsid extinctions" 2698:

Davydov, Vladimir; Glenister, Brian; Spinosa, Claude; Ritter, Scott; Chernykh, V.; Wardlaw, B.; Snyder, W. (March 1998).

2097:

in the following Triassic, first appeared and diversified during the Late Permian, including the first appearance of the

1747:

within Prolecanitida during the mid-Permian, and extensively diversified during the Late Permian. Only three families of

1038:, from oldest to youngest, the Cisuralian, Guadalupian, and Lopingian. Geologists divide the rocks of the Permian into a 9037:"Bennettitalean Leaves From the Permian of Equatorial Pangea—The Early Radiation of an Iconic Mesozoic Gymnosperm Group" 8494:"Freshwater fish faunas from two Permian rift valleys of Zambia, novel additions to the ichthyofauna of southern Pangea" 4239:"Constraining assembly time of some blocks on eastern margin of Pangea using Permo-Triassic non-marine tetrapod records" 3912:

The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the boundary between the Capitanian and Wuchiapingian Stage (Permian)

7769: 7669: 5736:

Ziegler, Alfred; Eshel, Gidon; Rees, P. McAllister; Rothfus, Thomas; Rowley, David; Sunderlin, David (2 January 2007).

1955:

are known from the Late Permian. Complex wood boring traces found in the Late Permian of China suggest that members of

1236: 6992:"Archaeomalthus -(Coleoptera, Archostemata) a 'ghost adult' of Micromalthidae from Upper Permian deposits of Siberia?" 5127:"Permian diamictites in northeastern Asia: Their significance concerning the bipolarity of the late Paleozoic ice age" 2203: 5440: 4590: 2829: 2384: 2302:

The diversity of fish during the Permian is relatively low compared to the following Triassic. The dominant group of

1815: 1246:

in the southern Ural Mountains. The GSSP for the base of the Asselian is located in the Aidaralash River valley near

869: 789: 6726:"Are Insects Heading Toward Their First Mass Extinction? Distinguishing Turnover From Crises in Their Fossil Record" 2624: 2058:". The Middle Permian faunas of South Africa and Russia are dominated by therapsids, most abundantly by the diverse 1927:, reached their apex of diversity during the Permian, representing up to a third of all insects at some localities. 7733:"An investigation into the cladistic relationships and monophyly of therocephalian therapsids (Amniota: Synapsida)" 4994:"The Artinskian Warming Event: an Euramerican change in climate and the terrestrial biota during the early Permian" 2063: 896: 470: 9273: 3811:

Davydov, V.I., Glenister, B.F., Spinosa, C., Ritter, S.M., Chernykh, V.V., Wardlaw, B.R. & Snyder, W.S. 1998.

6153:"Paleoecology of the first Devonian-like sclerobiont association on Permian brachiopods from southeastern Mexico" 6014: 5962: 1632:

and spanned the entire Carboniferous period, with its most intense phase occurring during the latter part of the

1046:, each formed during corresponding time intervals called ages. Stages can be defined globally or regionally. For 1015: 7343: 2119:), arose in the Middle Permian. There were no flying vertebrates, though the extinct lizard-like reptile family 127:

Map of Earth as it appeared 260 million years ago during the Permian period, Guadalupian epoch, Capitanian stage

2355:, another extinct group of shark-like chondrichthyans, were common in freshwater habitats, and represented the 2109:, first appeared and gained a worldwide distribution during the Late Permian. Another group of therapsids, the 1573: 1426:

Leonardian (Hessian and Cathedralian stages); the Guadalupian; and the Ochoan, corresponding to the Lopingian.

1356:

Mountains of Texas, and was ratified in 2001, the beginning of the stage is defined by the first appearance of

709: 7319: 3130:

Zhao, Xiaoming; Tong, Jinnan; Yao, Huazhou; Niu, Zhijun; Luo, Mao; Huang, Yunfei; Song, Haijun (1 July 2015).

2873:

On the Geological Structure of the Central and Southern Regions of Russia in Europe, and of the Ural Mountains

2042:, although the decline of early synapsid clades was apparently a slow event that lasted about 20 Ma, from the 638: 6157: 4606:

Mujal, Eudald; Fortuny, Josep; Marmi, Josep; Dinarès-Turell, Jaume; Bolet, Arnau; Oms, Oriol (January 2018).

3938:"The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of Changhsingian Stage (Upper Permian)" 1613: 1577: 17: 9084:

Zavialova, Natalia; Blomenkemper, Patrick; Kerp, Hans; Hamad, Abdalla Abu; Bomfleur, Benjamin (2021-03-04).

4894:

Michel, Lauren A.; Tabor, Neil J.; Montañez, Isabel P.; Schmitz, Mark D.; Davydov, Vladimir (15 July 2015).

1735:

were a major group during the Early-Mid Permian, but declined during the Late Permian. Members of the order

2442: 1250:, Kazakhstan, which was ratified in 1996. The beginning of the stage is defined by the first appearance of 951: 8983: 7543: 7398:"Olson's Gap or Olson's Extinction? A Bayesian tip-dating approach to resolving stratigraphic uncertainty" 7127:"Olson's Gap or Olson's Extinction? A Bayesian tip-dating approach to resolving stratigraphic uncertainty" 6780:"A winged relative of ice‐crawlers in amber bridges the cryptic extant Xenonomia and a rich fossil record" 6107: 5957: 5896: 5843: 5790: 5281: 5225: 4993: 4938: 4666: 4607: 3936:

Jin, Yugan; Wang, Yue; Henderson, Charles; Wardlaw, Bruce R.; Shen, Shuzhong; Cao, Changqun (2006-09-01).

3834:"The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base- Sakmarian Stage (Cisuralian, Lower Permian)" 3184: 3131: 2820:

Olroyd, D.R. (2005). "Famous Geologists: Murchison". In Selley, R.C.; Cocks, L.R.M.; Plimer, I.R. (eds.).

10185: 9535: 8342: 8338:"Global climate changes account for the main trends of conodont diversity but not for their final demise" 4788: 4724: 4475: 3491: 3440: 2520:, which would go on to become in widespread the Mesozoic, first appeared during the Cisuralian in China. 1462:

and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean ("

1345:, which was ratified in 2001. The base of the Wordian is defined by the first appearance of the conodont 4126:"Permo-Triassic detrital records of South China and implications for the Indosinian events in East Asia" 8884:"Paleoecology of Noeggerathiales, an enigmatic, extinct plant group of Carboniferous and Permian times" 3332: 6589: 5684: 5563:

Joachimski, M. M.; Lai, X.; Shen, S.; Jiang, H.; Luo, G.; Chen, B.; Chen, J.; Sun, Y. (1 March 2012).

5508: 5338: 5169: 4847: 4783: 4719: 4125: 2480:

are known from the Late Permian. In Cathaysia, where a wet tropical frost-free climate prevailed, the

1066:) identifying the lower boundary of the stage. The ages of the Permian, from youngest to oldest, are: 9085: 8038:"Calibrated Diversity, Tree Topology and the Mother of Mass Extinctions: The Lesson of Temnospondyls" 7664: 6991: 2700:"Proposal of Aidaralash as Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for base of the Permian System" 2661: 2432: 1776: 1495: 8492:

Peecook, Brandon R.; Bronson, Allison W.; Otoo, Benjamin K.A.; Sidor, Christian A. (November 2021).

4939:"Late Paleozoic continental warming of a cold tropical basin and floristic change in western Pangea" 4191: 3542: 1860: 1529:

Large continental landmass interiors experience climates with extreme variations of heat and cold ("

6431: 5339:"The Capitanian (Permian) Kamura cooling event: The beginning of the Paleozoic–Mesozoic transition" 3813:

Proposal of Aidaralash as Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for base of the Permian System

1645:. This interval of rapid climate change was responsible for the Capitanian mass extinction event. 1312:

in Texas and New Mexico, where extensive marine sequences of this age are exposed. It was named by

31: 8140:"The putative lissamphibian stem-group: phylogeny and evolution of the dissorophoid temnospondyls" 7228:"Arthropod remains in the oral cavities of fossil reptiles support inference of early insectivory" 5385:

Scotese, Christopher R.; Song, Haijun; Mills, Benjamin J.W.; van der Meer, Douwe G. (April 2021).

5224:

Korte, Christoph; Jones, Peter J.; Brand, Uwe; Mertmann, Dorothee; Veizer, Ján (4 November 2008).

4535:

Scotese, Christopher R.; Song, Haijun; Mills, Benjamin J.W.; van der Meer, Douwe G. (April 2021).

2367: 9808: 9803: 9380: 8933: 8883: 8784: 8741: 8400: 8144: 8042: 7879: 7491: 6861: 6814: 6678: 6496: 6342: 4238: 3658: 3391: 2871: 1831: 1633: 1625: 1342: 1023: 1019: 6035: 5737: 4402: 3872: 3593: 2476:

from the earliest Permian of France. The oldest known fossils definitively assignable to modern

1981:

from the Late Permian of Europe. Weigeltisaurids represent the oldest known gliding vertebrates.

5387:"Phanerozoic paleotemperatures: The earth's changing climate during the last 540 million years" 4537:"Phanerozoic paleotemperatures: The earth's changing climate during the last 540 million years" 1973: 1368: 1352: 1211: 595: 7874: 6779: 4937:

Tabor, Neil J.; DiMichele, William A.; Montañez, Isabel P.; Chaney, Dan S. (1 November 2013).

4720:"Estimating the magnitude of early Permian relative sea-level changes in southern North China" 3775: 3411: 2635:

below the ocean floor near coastlines melted, expelling enough methane (among the most potent

2066:. Late Permian faunas are dominated by advanced therapsids such as the predatory sabertoothed 955: 9159: 7548: 7496: 7064: 6436: 5391: 5131: 4998: 4541: 4416:

Haq, B. U.; Schutter, S. R. (3 October 2008). "A Chronology of Paleozoic Sea-Level Changes".

4243: 2896: 2656: 2055: 1896: 1892: 1486:, causing the Paleo-Tethys Ocean to shrink. A new ocean was growing on its southern end, the 1351:

The Capitanian is named after the Capitan Reef in the Guadalupe Mountains of Texas, named by

802: 577: 488: 5475: 5280:

Shi, G. R.; Nutman, Allen P.; Lee, Sangmin; Jones, Brian G.; Bann, Glen R. (February 2022).

2371:

Map of the world at the Carboniferous-Permian boundary, showing the four floristic provinces

2261:, according to some phylogenies; according to others, stem-amniotes are represented only by 9352: 9208: 9097: 9048: 8997: 8895: 8691: 8505: 8351: 8308: 8153: 8102: 8051: 7950: 7888: 7778: 7678: 7557: 7505: 7331: 7073: 7005: 6936: 6870: 6505: 6402: 6351: 6290: 6221: 6023: 5971: 5910: 5857: 5804: 5751: 5698: 5634: 5578: 5522: 5471: 5400: 5291: 5239: 5140: 5071: 5007: 4950: 4909: 4797: 4733: 4680: 4619: 4550: 4425: 4252: 4139: 3738: 3670: 3629: 3255: 3198: 3145: 3052: 2955: 2648: 1915:), which include the largest flying insects of all time, also declined during the Permian. 1807: 1669: 1471: 1451: 1313: 1043: 4298: 3998: 3954: 3937: 3903:

Jin, Y.; Shen, S.; Henderson, C. M.; Wang, X.; Wang, W.; Wang, Y.; Cao, C. & Shang, Q.

2770: 2719: 1935:

have long proboscis that suggest they may have pollinated gymnosperms. The earliest known

8: 10139: 8737:"New data on the morphology of permian gliding weigeltisaurid reptiles of Eastern Europe" 6725: 3910: 2935:, of which this deposit occupies a large part, would seem to suit it well enough ...] 2446: 1572:(where Perm itself is located), China, and the southwest of North America, including the 1530: 1309: 1295: 1264: 1059: 9356: 9212: 9101: 9052: 9001: 8899: 8695: 8509: 8355: 8312: 8195: 8157: 8106: 8055: 7954: 7892: 7782: 7682: 7561: 7509: 7335: 7077: 7058:

Feng, Zhuo; Wang, Jun; Rößler, Ronny; Ślipiński, Adam; Labandeira, Conrad (2017-09-15).

7009: 6940: 6874: 6542: 6509: 6415: 6406: 6388: 6355: 6294: 6276: 6225: 6027: 5975: 5914: 5861: 5808: 5755: 5702: 5638: 5621:"Persistent late Permian to Early Triassic warmth linked to enhanced reverse weathering" 5582: 5526: 5404: 5295: 5243: 5144: 5075: 5011: 4954: 4913: 4801: 4737: 4684: 4623: 4554: 4429: 4256: 4143: 4091:

Scotese, C. R.; Langford, R. P. (1995). "Pangea and the Paleogeography of the Permian".

3742: 3674: 3633: 3202: 3149: 3056: 2959: 9332: 9224: 9121: 8953: 8859: 8826: 8631: 8596: 8567: 8534: 8474: 8417: 8369: 8223: 8069: 7912: 7850: 7813: 7794: 7702: 7640: 7603: 7424: 7385:. 30, The Nonmarine Permian. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science: 179–184. 7254: 7227: 7197: 7161: 7126: 7102: 7059: 7029: 6996: 6960: 6894: 6465: 6369: 6306: 6245: 6176: 5926: 5658: 5489: 5424: 5307: 5199: 5095: 5023: 4821: 4757: 4635: 4574: 4501: 4487: 4449: 4326: 4268: 4203: 3554: 3541:

Henderson, C.M.; Davydov and, V.I.; Wardlaw, B.R.; Gradstein, F.M.; Hammer, O. (2012),

3503: 3452: 3412:"First sketch of some of the principal results of a second geological survey of Russia" 3362: 3305: 3280: 3214: 3107: 3082: 3020: 2993: 2971: 2406: 1827: 1592:

is so named because it has one of the thickest deposits of Permian rocks in the world.

1523: 1507: 1467: 1434: 1242:

The Asselian was named by the Russian stratigrapher V.E. Ruzhenchev in 1954, after the

947: 822: 9303: 9255: 8535:"First direct evidence of a vertebrate three-level trophic chain in the fossil record" 8437:"Saws, Scissors, and Sharks: Late Paleozoic Experimentation with Symphyseal Dentition" 6430:

Xuesong, Tian; Wei, Wang; Zhenhua, Huang; Zhiping, Zhang; Dishu, Chen (25 June 2022).

6208:"Dynamic response of Permian brachiopod communities to long-term environmental change" 6009:

Kessler, Jennifer L. P.; Soreghan, Gerilyn S.; Wacker, Herbert J. (1 September 2001).

5057: 1323:

in Texas. The GSSP for the base of the Roadian is located 42.7m above the base of the

1018:

until 1941 considering the Permian a subsystem of the Carboniferous equivalent to the

9937: 9901: 9308: 9125: 9113: 9066: 8957: 8864: 8846: 8758: 8736: 8717: 8709: 8636: 8618: 8572: 8554: 8533:

Kriwet, Jürgen; Witzmann, Florian; Klug, Stefanie; Heidtke, Ulrich H.J (2008-01-22).

8518: 8493: 8466: 8458: 8413: 8373: 8337: 8275: 8215: 8171: 8120: 8064: 8037: 8018: 8010: 7966: 7904: 7855: 7837: 7812:

Pritchard, Adam C.; Sues, Hans-Dieter; Scott, Diane; Reisz, Robert R. (20 May 2021).

7798: 7751: 7732: 7706: 7694: 7645: 7627: 7573: 7429: 7347: 7300: 7259: 7166: 7148: 7107: 7089: 7021: 6952: 6886: 6856: 6830: 6795: 6749: 6694: 6611: 6558: 6523: 6518: 6491: 6469: 6457: 6449: 6310: 6237: 6180: 5930: 5848: 5662: 5650: 5625: 5620: 5594: 5569: 5538: 5513: 5493: 5432: 5428: 5416: 5360: 5311: 5203: 5191: 5087: 5062: 5027: 4869: 4848:"Permo-Pennsylvanian palaeotemperatures from Fe-Oxide and phyllosilicate δ18O values" 4825: 4813: 4761: 4749: 4639: 4582: 4578: 4566: 4505: 4491: 4453: 4441: 4369: 4318: 4272: 4207: 4165: 4104: 4041: 3959: 3850: 3833: 3781: 3756: 3686: 3558: 3507: 3456: 3366: 3354: 3310: 3218: 3112: 3025: 2975: 2850: 2825: 2632: 2307: 1617: 1511: 1389:, China and was ratified in 2004. The boundary is defined by the first appearance of 1281: 995: 986:

that occupied the same area hundreds of years prior, and which is now located in the

932: 567: 9228: 8478: 8421: 8364: 8073: 7916: 7569: 7517: 7033: 6964: 6898: 6373: 5789:

López-Gómez, José; Arche, Alfredo; Marzo, Mariano; Durand, Marc (12 December 2005).

5412: 5153: 5126: 5019: 4809: 4745: 4562: 4264: 3642: 3617: 3064: 2699: 1959:, the most diverse group of modern beetles, were also present by the Late Permian. 1601:

level during the Wuchiapingian, followed by a slight rise during the Changhsingian.

10180: 10031: 9906: 9875: 9672: 9360: 9251: 9216: 9179: 9105: 9056: 9005: 8949: 8945: 8903: 8854: 8838: 8796: 8750: 8699: 8626: 8608: 8562: 8546: 8513: 8448: 8409: 8359: 8316: 8265: 8227: 8207: 8161: 8110: 8059: 8000: 7958: 7896: 7845: 7827: 7786: 7746: 7686: 7635: 7617: 7565: 7513: 7472: 7419: 7411: 7339: 7290: 7249: 7241: 7156: 7140: 7097: 7081: 7060:"Late Permian wood-borings reveal an intricate network of ecological relationships" 7013: 6944: 6878: 6822: 6787: 6739: 6686: 6636: 6603: 6550: 6513: 6441: 6410: 6359: 6298: 6249: 6229: 6212: 6166: 6121: 6076: 6062: 6031: 5979: 5918: 5865: 5812: 5759: 5706: 5642: 5586: 5530: 5479: 5408: 5352: 5299: 5286: 5247: 5183: 5148: 5099: 5079: 5015: 4958: 4917: 4861: 4805: 4741: 4688: 4627: 4558: 4483: 4433: 4398: 4389:

Hills, John M. (1972). "Late Paleozoic Sedimentation in West Texas Permian Basin".

4361: 4330: 4310: 4260: 4199: 4155: 4147: 4096: 4061: 4033: 3993: 3949: 3845: 3746: 3678: 3637: 3550: 3499: 3448: 3344: 3300: 3292: 3206: 3153: 3102: 3094: 3060: 3015: 3005: 2963: 2932: 2880: 2765: 2714: 2604: 2554: 2521: 2435:

of Germany demonstrates that they had complex branching patterns similar to modern

2396: 2352: 2120: 2098: 2082: 2014: 2002: 1987: 1978: 1398: 1324: 1252: 826: 757: 612: 603: 9109: 8982:

Forte, Giuseppa; Kustatscher, Evelyn; Roghi, Guido; Preto, Nereo (15 April 2018).

7939:"Dates, nodes and character conflict: Addressing the Lissamphibian origin problem" 7690: 7017: 5058:"CO2-Forced Climate and Vegetation Instability During Late Paleozoic Deglaciation" 3978: 3183:

Martindale, Rowan C.; Foster, William J.; Velledits, Felicitász (1 January 2019).

2750: 1568:

Three general areas are especially noted for their extensive Permian deposits—the

10131: 10127: 10123: 10000: 9896: 9834: 9729: 9698: 9667: 9186: 9009: 8907: 8800: 8682: 8321: 8295:"Evolutionary history of lungfishes with a new phylogeny of post-Devonian genera" 8294: 7790: 7232: 6857:"Review of paleontological data on the evolution of aquatic beetles (Coleoptera)" 6607: 6554: 6125: 5922: 5816: 5710: 5685:"Monsoonal precipitation in the Paleo-Tethys warm pool during the latest Permian" 5444: 5356: 5303: 5251: 5187: 4922: 4895: 4692: 4631: 4594: 4299:"Novel haloarchaeal 16S rRNA gene sequences from Alpine Permo-Triassic rock salt" 4151: 3979:"The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Permian-Triassic Boundary" 3919: 3879: 3819: 3600: 3419: 3274: 3272: 3210: 3157: 2751:"The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Permian-Triassic Boundary" 2481: 2348: 2187: 1515: 1223: 1035: 798: 50: 10156: 7602:

Spiekman, Stephan N. F.; Fraser, Nicholas C.; Scheyer, Torsten M. (2021-05-03).

6106:

Shen, Shu-Zhong; Sun, Tian-Ren; Zhang, Yi-Chun; Yuan, Dong-Xun (December 2016).

5565:"Climate warming in the latest Permian and the Permian-Triassic mass extinction" 5509:"Permian ice volume and palaeoclimate history: Oxygen isotope proxies revisited" 4365: 4100: 4037: 2927:[The name of the Permian System, a name derived from the ancient kingdom of 2286:) are suggested to have originated during Permian, descending from a lineage of 1967: 1903:, due to their similar mouthparts and therefore ecology. Primitive relatives of 10150: 9969: 9839: 9734: 9703: 7085: 6924: 6826: 6690: 5646: 5484: 5457: 4962: 4865: 3977:

Hongfu, Yin; Kexin, Zhang; Jinnan, Tong; Zunyi, Yang; Shunbao, Wu (June 2001).

2805: 2749:

Hongfu, Yin; Kexin, Zhang; Jinnan, Tong; Zunyi, Yang; Shunbao, Wu (June 2001).

2636: 2593: 2388: 2315: 2287: 2276: 2262: 2258: 2193: 2124: 1998: 1940: 1920: 1871: 1806:, were progressively replaced in the continental interior by the more advanced 1791: 1650: 1642: 1569: 1328: 1320: 999: 959: 908: 900: 628: 9504: 9061: 9036: 8754: 8704: 8677: 8270: 8253: 7962: 7900: 6948: 6882: 6543:"Quantitative Approach to Diversity and Decline in Late Palaeozoic Trilobites" 6275:

Donovan, Stephen K.; Webster, Gary D.; Waters, Johnny A. (27 September 2016).

5763: 4718:

Ma, Rui; Yang, Jianghai; Wang, Yuan; Yan, Jiaxin; Liu, Jia (1 February 2023).

4196:

Permo-Triassic Salt Provinces of Europe, North Africa and the Atlantic Margins

3682: 3659:"The Guadalupian: Proposed International Standard for a Middle Permian Series" 3269: 10174: 9870: 9860: 9829: 9792: 9724: 9693: 9488: 9483: 9117: 9070: 8850: 8762: 8713: 8622: 8558: 8462: 8279: 8175: 8124: 8093: 8014: 7970: 7908: 7841: 7698: 7631: 7577: 7351: 7304: 7152: 7093: 7025: 6956: 6890: 6799: 6753: 6615: 6527: 6453: 6336:

Thompson, Jeffrey R.; Petsios, Elizabeth; Bottjer, David J. (18 April 2017).

6281: 5869: 5654: 5598: 5542: 5534: 5420: 5364: 5195: 4873: 4817: 4753: 4570: 4169: 3963: 3760: 3690: 3358: 2883:

and Orenburg, they there assume a great variety of lithological features ...

2517: 2485: 2356: 2233: 2210: 2110: 2062:. Dinocephalians become extinct at the end of the Middle Permian, during the 1932: 1912: 1819: 1796: 1756: 1736: 1519: 1269: 1260: 1111: 1101: 979: 806: 724: 711: 653: 640: 419: 410: 279: 81: 8613: 7938: 6791: 5983: 5083: 4437: 4192:"Late Permian-Early Jurassic Paleogeography of Western Tethys and the World" 3618:"A review of the Guadalupian (middle Permian) global tetrapod fossil record" 2800: 1319:

The Roadian was named in 1968 in reference to the Road Canyon Member of the

10161: 10092: 9942: 9865: 9086:"A lyginopterid pollen organ from the upper Permian of the Dead Sea region" 8868: 8842: 8721: 8640: 8576: 8550: 8470: 8219: 8115: 8088: 8022: 7859: 7765: 7649: 7476: 7433: 7415: 7263: 7245: 7170: 7144: 7111: 6744: 6461: 6277:"A last peak in diversity: the stalked echinoderms of the Permian of Timor" 6241: 6171: 5091: 4445: 4322: 3314: 3296: 3116: 3098: 3029: 2612: 2589: 2558: 2500: 2401: 2376: 2311: 2303: 2291: 2283: 2254: 2146: 2140: 2086: 2078: 2059: 2035: 1948: 1939:

appeared at the beginning of the Permian. Early beetles such as members of

1919:, the largest group of modern insects, also diversified during this time. " 1916: 1888: 1884: 1845: 1840: 1744: 1689: 1673: 1503: 1487: 1277: 1039: 991: 9365: 5437: 4587: 4314: 3592:

Cohen, K.M., Finney, S.C., Gibbard, P.L. & Fan, J.-X. (2013; updated)

10087: 9956: 9932: 9777: 9572: 9421: 9337: 8825:

Feng, Zhuo; Lv, Yong; Guo, Yun; Wei, Hai-Bo; Kerp, Hans (November 2017).

8254:"A Hiatus Obscures the Early Evolution of Modern Lineages of Bony Fishes" 7397: 6594: 6492:"Ammonoids Across the Permian/Triassic Boundary: A Cladistic Perspective" 6364: 6337: 6112: 5343: 5174: 2620: 2427: 2347:

known for its unusual spiral shaped spiral tooth whorl in the lower jaw.

2342: 2333: 2319: 2239: 2216: 2067: 2006: 1944: 1924: 1880: 1732: 1684: 1657:, more than doubling the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration. A -2% 1463: 1446:'s major landmasses were collected into a single supercontinent known as 1243: 1121: 962:

in the years 1840 and 1841. Murchison identified "vast series of beds of

865: 326: 56: 8932:

Wang, Jun; Wan, Shan; Kerp, Hans; Bek, Jiří; Wang, Shijun (March 2020).

8166: 8139: 7832: 7622: 6724:

Schachat, Sandra R; Labandeira, Conrad C (2021-03-12). Dyer, Lee (ed.).

6233: 5051: 5049: 3349: 3010: 1722:. Brachiopods were highly diverse during the Permian. The extinct order 1545:, plants with seeds enclosed in a protective cover, over plants such as 821:

Era. The concept of the Permian was introduced in 1841 by geologist Sir

10082: 10042: 9985: 9885: 9782: 9656: 9556: 9472: 9446: 9416: 9281: 8005: 7460: 4160: 4028:

Ross, C. A.; Ross, June R. P. (1995). "Permian Sequence Stratigraphy".

2939: 2578: 2566: 2538: 2512: 2494: 2463: 2436: 2380: 2323: 2272: 2163: 2115: 2075: 2071: 2030: 1991: 1802: 1740: 1728: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1589: 1581: 1542: 1207: 1171: 1156: 1126: 1063: 983: 924: 892: 888: 884: 880: 857: 845: 632: 624: 608: 401: 365: 315: 101: 66: 10145: 8435:

Tapanila, Leif; Pruitt, Jesse; Wilga, Cheryl D.; Pradel, Alan (2020).

8211: 7295: 6302: 1923:", an extinct group of winged insects thought to be related to modern 1698:-forming productid brachiopod (Middle Permian, Glass Mountains, Texas) 1206:

Historically, most marine biostratigraphy of the Permian was based on

10097: 10047: 10021: 9980: 9927: 9772: 9748: 9629: 9619: 9608: 9451: 9441: 9426: 9274:"Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's)" 9220: 8453: 8436: 6445: 6080: 5590: 5458:"Early Wuchiapingian cooling linked to Emeishan basaltic weathering?" 5046: 4297:

Radax, Christian; Gruber, Claudia; Stan-Lotter, Helga (August 2001).

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The Permian climate was also extremely seasonal and characterised by

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seem to have been widespread on Pangaea. Such dry conditions favored

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Lerosey-Aubril, Rudy; Feist, Raimund (2012), Talent, John A. (ed.),

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Isozaki, Yukio; Kawahata, Hodaka; Minoshima, Kayo (1 January 2007).

3540: 3489: 3438: 2581:, a subclass of cephalopods, surprisingly survived this occurrence. 1247: 994:

recognised Permian strata in a large area of North America from the

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Sixth and last period of the Paleozoic Era 299–252 million years ago

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Modesto, Sean P.; Scott, Diane M.; Reisz, Robert R. (1 July 2009).

7182: 7180: 6063:"Caspian-like relict molluscan fauna in the South American Permian" 2898:

Geology of Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains. Vol. 1: Geology

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during the Carboniferous. Pangaea was surrounded by the superocean

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Schneebeli-Hermann, Elke (2012), "Extinguishing a Permian World",

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Classic Permian strata in the Glass Mountains of the Permian Basin

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University of California offers a more modern Permian stratigraphy

4990: 2894: 2869: 10071: 10011: 9598: 9582: 9467: 9462: 9372: 9034: 6590:"Extinction patterns of Late Permian (Lopingian) corals in China" 6150: 5742: 3401:, Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, accessed 2012-02-21 3398: 2680: 2508: 2504: 2450: 2051: 1780: 1534: 1459: 1447: 1386: 1376: 1146: 1136: 943: 853: 849: 837: 695: 392: 383: 122: 111: 8595:

Wang, J.; Pfefferkorn, H. W.; Zhang, Y.; Feng, Z. (2012-03-27).

7982: 7980: 7177: 6685:, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 723–788, 5168:

Götz, Annette E.; Hancox, P. John; Lloyd, Andrew (1 June 2020).

2275:, a group of aquatic crocodile-like limbed vertebrates that are 1658: 1609: 883:) saw a major faunal turnover, with most lineages of primitive " 10107: 9990: 9624: 9314: 4605: 4356:

Parrish, J. T. (1995). "Geologic Evidence of Permian Climate".

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Lucas, S.G. (July 2017). "Permian tetrapod extinction events".

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radiation to kill off species that had survived the toxic gas.

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The Permian witnessed the diversification of the two groups of

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Murchison's first sighting of the Permian, at Vyazniki in 1841

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fused to each other and Pangea by the end of the Permian. The

887:" synapsids becoming extinct, being replaced by more advanced 809:

Period 298.9 million years ago (Mya), to the beginning of the

7977: 7875:"The first gliding reptiles from the upper Permian of Russia" 7818: 7608: 6777: 6151:

Torres-Martinez, M. A.; Vinn, O.; Martin-Aguilar, L. (2021).

5738:"Tracing the tropics across land and sea: Permian to present" 5124: 3281:"Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time" 2895:

Murchison, R.I.; de Verneuil, E.; von Keyserling, A. (1845).

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Murchison, R.I.; de Verneuil, E.; von Keyserling, A. (1842).

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times, finally became extinct before the end of the Permian.

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appeared in the Late Carboniferous, represented by primitive

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block collided with Baltica during the Cisuralian, while the

1443: 852:). The world at the time was dominated by the supercontinent 703: 5683:

Shields, Christine A.; Kiehl, Jeffrey T. (1 February 2018).

5384: 4936: 4534: 2592:, poured onto the Earth's surface in what is now called the 1470:, a large ocean that existed between Asia and Gondwana. The 1336:

The Wordian was named in reference to the Word Formation by

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Kemp, Anne; Cavin, Lionel; Guinot, Guillaume (April 2017).

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10.1130/0016-7606(2001)113<1229:TRMFVE>2.0.CO;2

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Tabor, Neil J.; Poulsen, Christopher J. (24 October 2008).

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Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G. (2004).

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swamps reminiscent of Carboniferous flora survived only in

1779:. The period saw a massive desert covering the interior of 1695: 1546: 1502:, but became heavily eroded as the Permian progressed. The 1475: 963: 778: 772: 8981: 4893: 1222:

with hard tooth-like oral elements. Conodonts are used as

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Huttenlocker, Adam K.; Sidor, Christian A. (2020-12-01).

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New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin

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Olszewski, Thomas D.; Erwin, Douglas H. (15 April 2004).

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Verneuil, E. (1842). "Correspondance et communications".

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Terrestrial life in the Permian included diverse plants,

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Olroyd, Savannah L.; Sidor, Christian A. (August 2017).

3080: 923:, rocks of equivalent age in Germany had been named the 903:. The Permian (along with the Paleozoic) ended with the 9180:

Palaeos: Life Through Deep Time > The Permian Period

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