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969:, which consists of a pair of mercury bulb thermometers, one with a wet "sock" to measure the wet-bulb temperature and the other with the bulb exposed and dry for the dry-bulb temperature. The thermometers are attached to a swivelling handle, which allows them to be whirled around so that water evaporates from the sock and cools the wet bulb until it reaches
2475:"The relationship between the isobaric and adiabatic processes is quite obscure. Comparisons indicate, however, that the two temperatures are rarely different by more than a few tenths of a degree Celsius, and the adiabatic version is always the smaller of the two for unsaturated air. Since the difference is so small, it is usually neglected in practice."
2471:
As the value referred to as "thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature" is also achieved via an adiabatic process, some engineers and others may use the term "adiabatic wet-bulb temperature" to refer to the "thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature". As mentioned above, meteorologists and others may use the term
696:
Meteorologists and others may use the term "isobaric wet-bulb temperature" to refer to the "thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature". It is also called the "adiabatic saturation temperature", though meteorologists also use "adiabatic saturation temperature" to mean "temperature at the saturation level",
1322:
For the case of the wet-bulb thermometer, imagine a drop of water with unsaturated air blowing over it. As long as the vapor pressure of water in the drop (function of its temperature) is greater than the partial pressure of water vapor in the air stream, evaporation will take place. Initially, the
992:
In this case, a stream of unsaturated air is cooled. The heat from cooling that air is used to evaporate some water which increases the humidity of the air. At some point the air becomes saturated with water vapor (and has cooled to the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature). In this case we can write
2557:
implemented new regulations to protect high school students from heat-related emergencies during outdoor activities. Specific guidelines and restrictions are in place for wet-bulb globe temperatures between 82.0 °F (27.8 °C) and 92.0 °F (33.3 °C); wet-bulb globe temperatures of
707:
For an accurate wet-bulb thermometer, "the wet-bulb temperature and the adiabatic saturation temperature are approximately equal for air-water vapor mixtures at atmospheric temperature and pressure. This is not necessarily true at temperatures and pressures that deviate significantly from ordinary
2529:
It has been thought that a sustained wet-bulb temperature exceeding 35 °C (95 °F)—given the body's requirement to maintain a core temperature of about 37°C—is likely to be fatal even to fit and healthy people, unclothed in the shade next to a fan; at this temperature human bodies switch
1326:
Instead, as the drop starts cooling, it is now colder than the air, so convective heat transfer begins to occur from the air to the drop. Furthermore, the evaporation rate depends on the difference of concentration of water vapor between the drop-stream interface and the distant stream (i.e. the
648:
For air at a known pressure and dry-bulb temperature, the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature corresponds to unique values of the relative humidity and the dew point temperature. It therefore may be used for the practical determination of these values. The relationships between these values are
2172:
2305:
1981:
527:
If a thermometer is wrapped in a water-moistened cloth, it will behave differently. The drier and less humid the air is, the faster the water will evaporate. The faster water evaporates, the lower the thermometer's temperature will be relative to air temperature.
2460:
is the temperature a volume of air would have if cooled adiabatically to saturation and then compressed adiabatically to the original pressure in a moist-adiabatic process. Such cooling may occur as air pressure reduces with altitude, as noted in the article on
1454:
692:
The temperature of an air sample that has passed over a large surface of liquid water in an insulated channel is the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature—the air has become saturated by passing through a constant-pressure, ideal, adiabatic saturation chamber.
2550:, parts of the world could become uninhabitable due to deadly wet-bulb temperatures. A 2020 study reported cases where a 35 °C (95 °F) wet-bulb temperature had already occurred, albeit too briefly and in too small a locality to cause fatalities.
1330:
After a certain period, an equilibrium is reached: the drop has cooled to a point where the rate of heat carried away in evaporation is equal to the heat gain through convection. At this point, the following balance of energy per interface area is true:
1108:
645:, but higher than the dew point temperature. The lower the relative humidity (the drier the air), the greater the gaps between each pair of these three temperatures. Conversely, when the relative humidity rises to 100%, the three figures coincide.
2538:
heat waves, which saw wet-bulb temperatures no greater than 28 °C (82 °F). A 2022 study on the effect of heat on young people found that the critical wet-bulb temperature at which heat stress can no longer be compensated,
2423:. At any given ambient temperature, less relative humidity results in a greater difference between the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures; the wet-bulb is colder. The precise relative humidity is determined by reading from a
2543:, in young, healthy adults performing tasks at modest metabolic rates mimicking basic activities of daily life was about 30.55°C in 36–40°C humid environments, but progressively decreased in hotter, dry ambient environments.
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is the difference between the dry-bulb temperature and the wet-bulb temperature. If there is 100% humidity, dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures are identical, making the wet-bulb depression equal to zero in such conditions.
3575:
976:
An actual wet-bulb thermometer reads a temperature that is slightly different from the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature, but they are very close in value. This is due to a coincidence: for a water-air system the
518:
of 55 °C (131 °F). A reading of 35 °C (95 °F) – equivalent to a heat index of 71 °C (160 °F) – is considered the theoretical human survivability limit for up to six hours of exposure.
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502:
supplied by the parcel. A wet-bulb thermometer indicates a temperature close to the true (thermodynamic) wet-bulb temperature. The wet-bulb temperature is the lowest temperature that can be reached under current
2181:
2530:
from shedding heat to the environment, to gaining heat from it. In practice, such ideal conditions for humans to cool themselves will not always exist – hence the high fatality levels in the
1862:
2372:
then the temperature of the drop in
Experiment 2 is the same as the wet-bulb temperature in Experiment 1. Due to a coincidence, for the mixture of air and water vapor this is the case, the ratio (called
2609:. This implied wet-bulb temperatures of about 33.5 °C (92.3 °F) and 34.7 °C (94.5 °F) respectively. The government urged residents to stay out of the sun and drink plenty of water.
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from the bulb, cooling it below ambient temperature. To determine relative humidity, ambient temperature is measured using an ordinary thermometer, better known in this context as a
546:
evaporates more quickly in drier air, cooling down the skin faster. If the relative humidity is 100%, no water can evaporate, and cooling by sweating or evaporation is not possible.
535:. 0% means the air is completely dry, and 100% means the air contains all the water it can hold in the present circumstances and it cannot absorb any more water (from any source).
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Living organisms can survive only within a certain temperature range. When the ambient temperature is excessive, many animals cool themselves to below ambient temperature by
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of a mixture of air and water vapor. The value indicated by a simple wet-bulb thermometer often provides an adequate approximation of the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature.
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Water can evaporate only if the air around it can absorb more water. This is measured by comparing how much water is in the air to the maximum that could be in the air—the
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1702:
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1327:"original" stream, unaffected by the drop), and on a convective mass transfer coefficient, which is a function of the components of the mixture (i.e. water and air).
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2037:
2010:
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NWSTC Remote
Training Module; SKEW T LOG P DIAGRAM AND SOUNDING ANALYSIS; RTM - 230; National Weather Service Training Center; Kansas City, MO 64153; July 31, 2000
542:
in humans. The drier the air, the more moisture it can take up beyond what is already in it, and the easier it is for extra water to evaporate. The result is that
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Experiment 2 is what happens in a common wet-bulb thermometer, meaning that its reading is fairly close to the thermodynamic ("real") wet-bulb temperature.
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When relative humidity is 100%, a wet-bulb thermometer can also no longer be cooled by evaporation, so it will read the same as an unwrapped thermometer.
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due to heat stress. The effectiveness of evaporative cooling depends upon humidity; wet-bulb temperature, or more complex calculated quantities such as
3868:
641:
For a parcel of air that is less than saturated (i.e., air with less than 100 percent relative humidity), the wet-bulb temperature is lower than the
3485:
Pal, Jeremy S.; Eltahir, Elfatih A. B. (2015). "Future temperature in southwest Asia projected to exceed a threshold for human adaptability".
2526:, give a useful indication of the degree of heat stress, and are used by several agencies as the basis for heat stress prevention guidelines.
1985:
Now let's go back to our original "thermodynamic wet-bulb" experiment, Experiment 1. If the air stream is the same in both experiments (i.e.
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Lower wet-bulb temperatures that correspond with drier air in summer can translate to energy savings in air-conditioned buildings due to:
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ever recorded at 81 °C (178 °F) with a temperature of 42 °C (108 °F) and a 35 °C (95 °F) dew point.
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In practice the value reported by a wet-bulb thermometer differs slightly from the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature because:
494:
The wet-bulb temperature is defined as the temperature of a parcel of air cooled to saturation (100% relative humidity) by the
2593:
A heat wave in August 2015 saw temperatures of 48.6 °C (119.5 °F) and a dew point of 29.5 °C (85.1 °F) at
2167:{\displaystyle (T_{0}-T_{\mathrm {sat} })\cdot c_{\mathrm {s} }=(T_{0}-T_{\mathrm {eq} })\cdot {\frac {h_{\mathrm {c} }}{k'}}}
246:
A sling psychrometer. The sock is wet with distilled water and whirled around for a minute or more before taking the readings.
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3114:
3090:
780:
735:
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assuming there is no further evaporation into the air; it is the temperature where condensation (dew) and clouds would form.
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45:
2300:{\displaystyle T_{0}-T_{\mathrm {sat} }=(T_{0}-T_{\mathrm {eq} })\cdot {\frac {h_{\mathrm {c} }}{k'\cdot c_{\mathrm {s} }}}}
806:
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888:
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91:
83:
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1976:{\displaystyle (H_{\mathrm {sat} }-H_{0})\cdot \lambda =(T_{0}-T_{\mathrm {eq} })\cdot {\frac {h_{\mathrm {c} }}{k'}}}
813:
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3660:"Feels-Like Temp Reaches 164 Degrees in Iran, 159 in Iraq; Days Off Ordered as Mideast Broils in Extreme Heat Wave"
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cannot carry out normal outdoor activities past a wet-bulb temperature of 32 °C (90 °F), equivalent to a
2923:
795:
160:
3409:"Evaluating the 35°C wet-bulb temperature adaptability threshold for young, healthy subjects (PSU HEAT Project)"
1449:{\displaystyle (H_{\mathrm {sat} }-H_{0})\cdot \lambda \cdot k'=(T_{0}-T_{\mathrm {eq} })\cdot h_{\mathrm {c} }}
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The water supplied to the sock is at the same temperature as the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature of the air
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Air flows past the sock quickly enough to prevent evaporated moisture from affecting evaporation from the sock
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981:(see below) happens to be close to 1, although for systems other than air and water they might not be close.
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1103:{\displaystyle (H_{\mathrm {sat} }-H_{0})\cdot \lambda =(T_{0}-T_{\mathrm {sat} })\cdot c_{\mathrm {s} }}
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1252:
1115:
984:
To understand why this is so, first consider the calculation of the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature.
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Experimentally, the wet-bulb thermometer reads closest to the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature if:
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to saturation by evaporation of water into it, all latent heat being supplied by the volume of air.
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The following locations have recorded wet-bulb temperatures of 34 °C (93 °F) or higher. (
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383:
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185:
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403:
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are typically at airports, so other locations in the city may have experienced higher values.)
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The thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature is the temperature a volume of air would have if cooled
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i.e. the temperature the parcel would achieve if it expanded adiabatically until saturated.
487:); at lower humidity the wet-bulb temperature is lower than dry-bulb temperature because of
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2015:
1988:
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336:
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8:
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978:
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from reaching the wet-bulb temperature of the human physiological limit of 35 °C.
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1804:
674:
398:
330:
3407:
Vecellio, Daniel J.; Wolf, S. Tony; Cottle, Rachel M.; Kenney, W. Larry (2022-02-01).
2558:
92.1 °F (33.4 °C) or greater require all outdoor activities to be canceled.
2472:"isobaric wet-bulb temperature" to refer to the "thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature".
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reach 30 °C (86 °F). A similar wet-bulb temperature was reached during the
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350:
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3131:"Potentially fatal combinations of humidity and heat are emerging across the globe"
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A wet-bulb thermometer can also be used outdoors in sunlight in combination with a
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393:
287:
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2601:, and 46 °C (115 °F) with a dew point of 32 °C (90 °F) in
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and water in dogs and other mammals); this helps to prevent potentially fatal
4301:
3987:
3784:
3522:"New rules go into effect to protect SC high school athletes in extreme heat"
3434:
2906:
2468:
This term, as defined in this article, may be most prevalent in meteorology.
310:
3609:"Heat and Humidity Near the Survivability Threshold: It's Already Happening"
3293:
3146:"Too Hot to Handle: How Climate Change May Make Some Places Too Hot to Live"
4164:
4139:
4072:
3949:
3726:"Global heating pushes tropical regions towards limits of human livability"
3452:
3393:
3374:
3312:
2822:
2715:
2515:
2430:
882:
623:
The wet-bulb temperature is the lowest temperature that may be achieved by
388:
2039:
are the same), then we can equate the right-hand sides of both equations:
475:
covered in cloth which has been soaked in water at ambient temperature (a
345:
4253:
4092:
3992:
3753:"Projections of tropical heat stress constrained by atmospheric dynamics"
3576:"Iran city hits suffocating heat index of 165 degrees, near world record"
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950:
634:
is the temperature to which the ambient air must be cooled to reach 100%
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472:
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325:
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4258:
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4144:
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3924:
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2572:
2416:
942:
787: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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410:
378:
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965:
A widely used device for measuring wet- and dry-bulb temperature is a
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3049:
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2659:
2387:
The sock is shielded from radiant heat exchange with its surroundings
1505:) (note that the air in this region is and has always been saturated)
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277:
242:
762:
562:
127:
4278:
4240:
4154:
3899:
3350:"The emergence of heat and humidity too severe for human tolerance"
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2849:
2412:
2407:
The temperature of the water supplied to the sock is not controlled
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253:
1323:
heat required for the evaporation will come from the drop itself.
4149:
3701:
Calculation assumed air pressure of 760 mmHg (101 kPa).
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2433:
are instruments with both a wet-bulb and a dry-bulb thermometer.
2365:{\displaystyle {\dfrac {h_{\mathrm {c} }}{k'c_{\mathrm {s} }}}=1}
315:
2949:
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2863:
2809:
2511:
16:
Temperature read by a thermometer covered in water-soaked cloth
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A 2015 study concluded that depending on the extent of future
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2427:
of wet-bulb versus dry-bulb temperatures, or by calculation.
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The sock is not perfectly shielded from radiant heat exchange
543:
3751:
Zhang, Yi; Held, Isaac; Fueglistaler, Stephan (March 2021).
3269:"An adaptability limit to climate change due to heat stress"
3164:"Adiabatic saturation temperature - Glossary of Meteorology"
483:, the wet-bulb temperature is equal to the air temperature (
3934:
2606:
2598:
3712:"Interactive Map: Daily Maximum Wet-Bulb Temperature (°C)"
708:
atmospheric conditions, or for other gas–vapor mixtures."
3967:
3348:
Raymond, Colin; Matthews, Tom; Horton, Radley M. (2020).
2613:
320:
3468:"Why you need to worry about the 'wet-bulb temperature'"
3406:
3242:
3876:
3750:
3347:
3328:"How Hot Is It, Really? Temperature Indexes Disagree"
2317:
2315:
2184:
2047:
2018:
1991:
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1827:
1807:
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1714:
1671:
1635:
1601:
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1542:
1534:
water content of the distant air (same unit as above)
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1339:
1292:
1255:
1226:
1196:
1188:
initial water content of the air (same unit as above)
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1118:
1001:
993:
the following balance of energy per mass of dry air:
680:
2404:
Air flow rate past the sock may be less than optimum
152:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2491:
2364:
2299:
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2031:
2004:
1975:
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3817:3 ways to get wet-bulb temperatures for engineers
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4299:
3827:Indirect evaporative cooler cools below wet-bulb
3223:"Wet-bulb temperature - Glossary of Meteorology"
3181:VanWylen, Gordon J; Sonntag, Richard E. (1973).
2561:
3250:"Dry Bulb, Wet Bulb and Dew Point Temperatures"
3180:
3686:"Relative Humidity and Wet-bulb from Dewpoint"
3547:"Wet Bulb Globe Temperature Monitoring (WBGT)"
3862:
3634:"The Deadly Combination of Heat and Humidity"
3573:
3343:
3341:
3266:
3078:
1493:water content of interface at equilibrium (kg
440:
4011:Convective available potential energy (CAPE)
1658:convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m·K)
953:that has its bulb wrapped in cloth—called a
700:The thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature is a
3832:Wet-bulb and dew-point calculator from NOAA
3822:Wet-bulb chart for snow making (Fahrenheit)
957:—that is kept wet with distilled water via
750:Learn how and when to remove these messages
712:Temperature reading of wet-bulb thermometer
591:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
60:Learn how and when to remove these messages
3869:
3855:
3484:
3338:
3085:. The Fairmont Press, Inc. pp. 288–.
3082:HVAC Controls: Operation & Maintenance
447:
433:
3465:
3459:
3442:
3424:
3383:
3373:
3302:
3292:
3267:Sherwood, S.C.; Huber, M. (25 May 2010).
3150:Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet
3072:
3031:to 1.5 °C would prevent most of the
2984:Effects of climate change on human health
2498:Effects of climate change on human health
1627:water drop temperature at equilibrium (K)
949:Wet-bulb temperature is measured using a
925:Learn how and when to remove this message
907:Learn how and when to remove this message
847:Learn how and when to remove this message
611:Learn how and when to remove this message
230:Learn how and when to remove this message
212:Learn how and when to remove this message
110:Learn how and when to remove this message
3567:
3400:
3184:Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics
1749:{\displaystyle H_{\mathrm {sat} }-H_{0}}
936:
479:) and over which air is passed. At 100%
241:
3519:
3325:
961:action. Such an instrument is called a
627:of a water-wetted, ventilated surface.
4300:
3606:
2614:Highest recorded wet-bulb temperatures
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1147:saturated water content of the air (kg
3850:
1857:Let us rearrange that equation into:
3260:
3187:(2nd ed.). Wiley. p. 448.
2991:
858:
785:adding citations to reliable sources
756:
715:
589:adding citations to reliable sources
556:
150:adding citations to reliable sources
121:
66:
25:
3973:Convective condensation level (CCL)
3466:Timperley, Jocelyn (31 July 2022).
2522:(WBGT) which also takes account of
13:
4179:Equivalent potential temperature (
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2288:
2264:
2244:
2241:
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2207:
2204:
2148:
2128:
2125:
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1957:
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1486:{\displaystyle H_{\mathrm {sat} }}
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1471:
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1349:
1277:{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {sat} }}
1268:
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1140:{\displaystyle H_{\mathrm {sat} }}
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1128:
1125:
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1073:
1070:
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1014:
1011:
874:tone or style may not reflect the
681:Thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature
507:by the evaporation of water only.
82:tone or style may not reflect the
14:
4329:
4031:Conditional symmetric instability
3877:Meteorological data and variables
3810:
3554:South Carolina High School League
3326:Zumbrun, Josh (August 11, 2023).
2977:
1846:{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {eq} }}
1756:throughout the entire experiment)
1620:{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {eq} }}
731:This section has multiple issues.
41:This article has multiple issues.
4318:Meteorological data and networks
3978:Lifting condensation level (LCL)
3837:Shortcut to calculating wet-bulb
3143:
2995:
1651:{\displaystyle h_{\mathrm {c} }}
945:featuring a wet-bulb thermometer
889:guide to writing better articles
863:
761:
720:
561:
260:
126:
92:guide to writing better articles
71:
30:
3963:Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)
3744:
3718:
3704:
3678:
3652:
3626:
3600:
3539:
3520:Shelton, David (26 July 2018).
3513:
3478:
3426:10.1152/japplphysiol.00738.2021
3319:
2924:Port Hedland, Western Australia
2492:Wet-bulb temperature and health
1799:driving force for heat transfer
1706:driving force for mass transfer
1593:air temperature at distance (K)
772:needs additional citations for
739:or discuss these issues on the
137:needs additional citations for
49:or discuss these issues on the
4226:Wet-bulb potential temperature
4068:Level of free convection (LFC)
3574:Jason Samenow (31 July 2015).
3233:
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3156:
3137:
3123:
3099:
3060:Wet-bulb potential temperature
2458:adiabatic wet-bulb temperature
2452:Adiabatic wet-bulb temperature
2250:
2219:
2134:
2103:
2082:
2048:
1943:
1912:
1900:
1866:
1784:
1765:
1691:
1672:
1428:
1397:
1374:
1340:
1082:
1048:
1036:
1002:
1:
4269:Pressure-gradient force (PGF)
4191:Sea surface temperature (SST)
4026:Convective momentum transport
3842:Heat Stress Index Calculation
3413:Journal of Applied Physiology
3065:
2582:saw wet-bulb temperatures in
2562:Heat waves with high humidity
2510:(sweat in humans and horses,
2440:(which measures the incident
1853:, the equilibrium is reached)
1313:specific heat of air (J/kg·K)
1284:saturated air temperature (K)
538:This is part of the cause of
4083:Bulk Richardson number (BRN)
3273:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
3027:Study results indicate that
522:
7:
4287:Maximum potential intensity
4053:Free convective layer (FCL)
4016:Convective inhibition (CIN)
3690:US National Weather Service
3038:
2784:La Paz, Baja California Sur
2703:Yannarie, Western Australia
1247:initial air temperature (K)
498:of water into it, with the
10:
4334:
4308:Atmospheric thermodynamics
4221:Wet-bulb globe temperature
4078:Maximum parcel level (MPL)
3777:10.1038/s41561-021-00695-3
3607:Henson, Bob (9 May 2020).
3254:www.engineeringtoolbox.com
3109:. Oxford Reference. 2008.
3045:Atmospheric thermodynamics
2981:
2797:Soto la Marina, Tamaulipas
2520:wet-bulb globe temperature
2495:
2446:Wet Bulb Globe Temperature
1210:latent heat of water (J/kg
552:
21:Wet-bulb globe temperature
18:
4277:
4239:
4201:Thermodynamic temperature
4135:Forest fire weather index
4091:
4001:
3948:
3882:
2463:lifted condensation level
2415:below 100 percent, water
1790:{\displaystyle (T_{0}-T)}
1697:{\displaystyle (H-H_{0})}
1562:mass transfer coefficient
361:Thermodynamic equilibrium
4123:Equivalent temperature (
4036:Convective temperature (
3920:Surface weather analysis
3334:– via www.wsj.com.
1203:{\displaystyle \lambda }
673:increased efficiency of
667:Increased efficiency of
664:load for ventilation air
370:Measures and instruments
19:Not to be confused with
4170:Potential temperature (
3915:Surface solar radiation
3294:10.1073/pnas.0913352107
3107:A Dictionary of Weather
3029:limiting global warming
254:Humidity and hygrometry
4160:Relative humidity (RH)
4048:Equilibrium level (EL)
4021:Convective instability
3375:10.1126/sciadv.aaw1838
3079:Guy W. Gupton (2002).
2588:1995 Chicago heat wave
2366:
2301:
2168:
2033:
2006:
1977:
1847:
1815:
1791:
1750:
1698:
1652:
1621:
1587:
1555:
1528:
1487:
1450:
1307:
1278:
1241:
1204:
1182:
1141:
1104:
946:
880:. The reason given is:
796:"Wet-bulb temperature"
702:thermodynamic property
247:
161:"Wet-bulb temperature"
2580:2015 Indian heat wave
2569:Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
2367:
2302:
2169:
2034:
2032:{\displaystyle T_{0}}
2007:
2005:{\displaystyle H_{0}}
1978:
1848:
1816:
1792:
1751:
1708:(constantly equal to
1699:
1653:
1622:
1588:
1586:{\displaystyle T_{0}}
1556:
1529:
1527:{\displaystyle H_{0}}
1488:
1451:
1308:
1306:{\displaystyle c_{s}}
1279:
1242:
1240:{\displaystyle T_{0}}
1205:
1183:
1181:{\displaystyle H_{0}}
1142:
1105:
963:wet-bulb thermometer.
940:
245:
4249:Atmospheric pressure
4216:Wet-bulb temperature
4118:Dry-bulb temperature
4113:Dew point depression
3507:10.1038/nclimate2833
3227:glossary.ametsoc.org
3168:glossary.ametsoc.org
2836:Machilipatnam mandal
2421:dry-bulb thermometer
2377:) being close to 1.
2313:
2182:
2045:
2016:
1989:
1863:
1825:
1805:
1762:
1712:
1669:
1633:
1599:
1570:
1540:
1511:
1462:
1337:
1290:
1253:
1224:
1194:
1165:
1116:
999:
781:improve this article
643:dry-bulb temperature
585:improve this section
540:apparent temperature
485:dry-bulb temperature
477:wet-bulb thermometer
461:wet-bulb temperature
420:Wet-bulb temperature
283:Dew point depression
146:improve this article
4211:Virtual temperature
4196:Temperature anomaly
3890:Adiabatic processes
3769:2021NatGe..14..133Z
3613:Weather Underground
3499:2016NatCC...6..197P
3366:2020SciA....6.1838R
3332:Wall Street Journal
3285:2010PNAS..107.9552S
3209:"accessed 20080408"
2967:Paysandú Department
2643:Ras Al Khaimah City
2508:evaporative cooling
2485:wet-bulb depression
2479:Wet-bulb depression
2444:) to calculate the
2442:radiant temperature
2425:psychrometric chart
2375:psychrometric ratio
979:psychrometric ratio
971:thermal equilibrium
675:evaporative coolers
651:psychrometric chart
625:evaporative cooling
512:heat-adapted people
489:evaporative cooling
3983:Precipitable water
3638:The New York Times
3007:. You can help by
2731:Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
2362:
2354:
2297:
2164:
2029:
2002:
1973:
1843:
1811:
1787:
1746:
1694:
1648:
1617:
1583:
1554:{\displaystyle k'}
1551:
1524:
1483:
1446:
1303:
1274:
1237:
1200:
1178:
1137:
1100:
967:sling psychrometer
947:
505:ambient conditions
331:Humidity buffering
248:
4295:
4294:
4264:Pressure gradient
4073:Lifted index (LI)
3757:Nature Geoscience
3116:978-0-19-954144-7
3092:978-0-88173-394-5
3025:
3024:
2975:
2974:
2759:, San Luis Potosi
2603:Bandar-e Mahshahr
2438:globe thermometer
2353:
2295:
2162:
1971:
1814:{\displaystyle T}
935:
934:
927:
917:
916:
909:
878:used on Knowledge
876:encyclopedic tone
857:
856:
849:
831:
754:
649:illustrated in a
636:relative humidity
630:By contrast, the
621:
620:
613:
533:relative humidity
481:relative humidity
457:
456:
384:Sat. vap. density
269:Specific concepts
240:
239:
232:
222:
221:
214:
196:
120:
119:
112:
86:used on Knowledge
84:encyclopedic tone
64:
4325:
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3857:
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3804:
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3799:
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3739:
3737:
3722:
3716:
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3708:
3702:
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3650:
3649:
3647:
3645:
3630:
3624:
3623:
3621:
3619:
3604:
3598:
3597:
3595:
3593:
3588:on 26 April 2016
3584:. Archived from
3571:
3565:
3564:
3562:
3560:
3551:
3543:
3537:
3536:
3534:
3532:
3526:Post and Courier
3517:
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3476:
3475:
3463:
3457:
3456:
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3428:
3404:
3398:
3397:
3387:
3377:
3360:(19): eaaw1838.
3354:Science Advances
3345:
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3127:
3121:
3120:
3103:
3097:
3096:
3076:
3020:
3017:
2999:
2992:
2988:Thermoregulation
2838:, Andhra Pradesh
2625:
2624:
2620:Weather stations
2571:saw the highest
2567:On 8 July 2003,
2502:Thermoregulation
2371:
2369:
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1187:
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1059:
1035:
1034:
1022:
1021:
1020:
930:
923:
912:
905:
901:
898:
892:
891:for suggestions.
887:See Knowledge's
867:
866:
859:
852:
845:
841:
838:
832:
830:
789:
765:
757:
746:
724:
723:
716:
662:dehumidification
616:
609:
605:
602:
596:
565:
557:
449:
442:
435:
297:General concepts
264:
250:
249:
235:
228:
217:
210:
206:
203:
197:
195:
154:
130:
122:
115:
108:
104:
101:
95:
94:for suggestions.
90:See Knowledge's
75:
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67:
56:
34:
33:
26:
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4324:
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4273:
4235:
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4129:
4107:
4087:
4042:
3997:
3944:
3878:
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3813:
3808:
3807:
3797:
3795:
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3719:
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3692:
3684:
3683:
3679:
3669:
3667:
3666:. 5 August 2015
3658:
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3632:
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3601:
3591:
3589:
3581:Washington Post
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3105:
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3100:
3093:
3077:
3073:
3068:
3041:
3021:
3015:
3012:
3005:needs expansion
2990:
2982:Main articles:
2980:
2937:Empalme, Sonora
2616:
2564:
2542:
2524:solar radiation
2504:
2494:
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886:
872:This section's
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80:This article's
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4206:Vapor pressure
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3811:External links
3809:
3806:
3805:
3763:(3): 133–137.
3743:
3732:. 8 March 2021
3717:
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3493:(2): 197–200.
3477:
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3419:(2): 340–345.
3399:
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3279:(21): 9552–5.
3259:
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2979:
2978:Climate change
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2647:Ras Al Khaimah
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2631:City and state
2629:
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2584:Andhra Pradesh
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2555:South Carolina
2548:global warming
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2388:
2361:
2358:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2335:
2327:
2322:
2290:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2274:
2266:
2261:
2255:
2252:
2246:
2243:
2238:
2234:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2218:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2201:
2197:
2192:
2188:
2160:
2157:
2150:
2145:
2139:
2136:
2130:
2127:
2122:
2118:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2102:
2096:
2091:
2087:
2084:
2078:
2075:
2072:
2067:
2063:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2026:
2022:
1999:
1995:
1969:
1966:
1959:
1954:
1948:
1945:
1939:
1936:
1931:
1927:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1911:
1908:
1905:
1902:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1883:
1880:
1877:
1872:
1868:
1855:
1854:
1839:
1836:
1831:
1810:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1757:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1718:
1693:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1677:
1674:
1660:
1659:
1644:
1639:
1628:
1613:
1610:
1605:
1594:
1580:
1576:
1565:
1549:
1546:
1535:
1521:
1517:
1506:
1502:
1496:
1494:
1479:
1476:
1473:
1468:
1442:
1437:
1433:
1430:
1424:
1421:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1396:
1392:
1389:
1385:
1382:
1379:
1376:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1357:
1354:
1351:
1346:
1342:
1315:
1314:
1300:
1296:
1285:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1259:
1248:
1234:
1230:
1219:
1213:
1211:
1199:
1189:
1175:
1171:
1160:
1156:
1150:
1148:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1122:
1096:
1091:
1087:
1084:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1067:
1063:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1008:
1004:
941:A wet-and-dry
933:
932:
915:
914:
871:
869:
862:
855:
854:
769:
767:
760:
755:
729:
728:
726:
719:
713:
710:
682:
679:
678:
677:
671:
669:cooling towers
665:
619:
618:
569:
567:
560:
554:
551:
524:
521:
455:
454:
452:
451:
444:
437:
429:
426:
425:
423:
422:
413:
408:
407:
406:
396:
394:Water activity
391:
386:
381:
375:
372:
371:
367:
366:
364:
363:
358:
353:
351:Avogadro's law
348:
343:
333:
328:
323:
318:
313:
308:
302:
299:
298:
294:
293:
291:
290:
288:Psychrometrics
285:
280:
274:
271:
270:
266:
265:
257:
256:
238:
237:
220:
219:
134:
132:
125:
118:
117:
79:
77:
70:
65:
39:
38:
36:
29:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4330:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4305:
4303:
4288:
4285:
4284:
4282:
4280:
4276:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4259:Barotropicity
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4246:
4244:
4242:
4238:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4182:
4177:
4175:
4173:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4161:
4158:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4098:
4096:
4094:
4090:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4039:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4008:
4006:
4004:
4000:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3988:Precipitation
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3955:
3953:
3951:
3947:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3887:
3885:
3881:
3872:
3867:
3865:
3860:
3858:
3853:
3852:
3849:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3814:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3747:
3731:
3727:
3721:
3713:
3707:
3691:
3687:
3681:
3665:
3661:
3655:
3640:. 6 June 2015
3639:
3635:
3629:
3614:
3610:
3603:
3587:
3583:
3582:
3577:
3570:
3555:
3548:
3542:
3527:
3523:
3516:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3481:
3473:
3469:
3462:
3454:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3403:
3395:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3344:
3342:
3333:
3329:
3322:
3314:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3263:
3255:
3251:
3245:
3236:
3228:
3224:
3218:
3210:
3204:
3196:
3190:
3186:
3185:
3177:
3169:
3165:
3159:
3151:
3147:
3140:
3132:
3126:
3118:
3112:
3108:
3102:
3094:
3088:
3084:
3083:
3075:
3071:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3042:
3036:
3034:
3030:
3019:
3010:
3006:
3003:This section
3001:
2998:
2994:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2962:
2961:
2957:
2955:
2951:
2948:
2945:
2944:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2932:
2931:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2919:
2918:
2914:
2912:
2908:
2905:
2902:
2901:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2889:
2888:
2884:
2882:
2878:
2875:
2872:
2871:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2859:
2858:
2854:
2851:
2848:
2845:
2844:
2840:
2837:
2834:
2831:
2830:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2818:
2817:
2814:Saudi Arabia
2813:
2811:
2808:
2805:
2804:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2792:
2791:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2779:
2778:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2766:
2765:
2761:
2758:
2755:
2752:
2751:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2739:
2738:
2734:
2732:
2728:
2725:
2724:
2720:
2717:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2698:
2697:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2685:
2684:
2681:Saudi Arabia
2680:
2678:
2675:
2672:
2671:
2667:
2665:
2661:
2658:
2655:
2654:
2650:
2648:
2644:
2641:
2638:
2637:
2633:
2630:
2627:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2565:
2559:
2556:
2551:
2549:
2544:
2537:
2533:
2532:2003 European
2527:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2503:
2499:
2489:
2486:
2476:
2473:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2459:
2449:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2434:
2432:
2431:Psychrometers
2428:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2406:
2403:
2400:
2399:
2398:
2392:
2389:
2386:
2385:
2384:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2359:
2356:
2341:
2336:
2333:
2320:
2307:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2272:
2259:
2253:
2236:
2232:
2227:
2223:
2216:
2199:
2195:
2190:
2186:
2177:
2176:Rearranging:
2174:
2158:
2155:
2143:
2137:
2120:
2116:
2111:
2107:
2100:
2089:
2085:
2065:
2061:
2056:
2052:
2040:
2024:
2020:
1997:
1993:
1983:
1967:
1964:
1952:
1946:
1929:
1925:
1920:
1916:
1909:
1906:
1903:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1870:
1858:
1829:
1808:
1800:
1781:
1778:
1773:
1769:
1758:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1716:
1707:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1675:
1665:
1664:
1663:
1637:
1629:
1603:
1595:
1578:
1574:
1566:
1563:
1547:
1544:
1536:
1519:
1515:
1507:
1466:
1458:
1457:
1456:
1435:
1431:
1414:
1410:
1405:
1401:
1394:
1390:
1387:
1383:
1380:
1377:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1344:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1319:
1298:
1294:
1286:
1257:
1249:
1232:
1228:
1220:
1197:
1190:
1173:
1169:
1161:
1120:
1112:
1111:
1110:
1089:
1085:
1065:
1061:
1056:
1052:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1006:
994:
990:
989:
985:
982:
980:
974:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
944:
939:
929:
926:
911:
908:
900:
890:
885:
884:
879:
877:
870:
861:
860:
851:
848:
840:
829:
826:
822:
819:
815:
812:
808:
805:
801:
798: –
797:
793:
792:Find sources:
786:
782:
776:
775:
770:This section
768:
764:
759:
758:
753:
751:
744:
743:
738:
737:
732:
727:
718:
717:
709:
705:
703:
698:
694:
690:
688:
687:adiabatically
676:
672:
670:
666:
663:
659:
658:
657:
654:
652:
646:
644:
639:
637:
633:
628:
626:
615:
612:
604:
594:
590:
586:
580:
579:
575:
570:This section
568:
564:
559:
558:
550:
547:
545:
541:
536:
534:
529:
520:
517:
513:
508:
506:
501:
497:
492:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
450:
445:
443:
438:
436:
431:
430:
428:
427:
421:
417:
414:
412:
409:
405:
402:
401:
400:
397:
395:
392:
390:
387:
385:
382:
380:
377:
376:
374:
373:
369:
368:
362:
359:
357:
354:
352:
349:
347:
344:
342:
338:
334:
332:
329:
327:
324:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
311:Concentration
309:
307:
304:
303:
301:
300:
296:
295:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
275:
273:
272:
268:
267:
263:
259:
258:
255:
252:
251:
244:
234:
231:
216:
213:
205:
194:
191:
187:
184:
180:
177:
173:
170:
166:
163: –
162:
158:
157:Find sources:
151:
147:
141:
140:
135:This article
133:
129:
124:
123:
114:
111:
103:
93:
87:
85:
78:
69:
68:
63:
61:
54:
53:
48:
47:
42:
37:
28:
27:
22:
4215:
4180:
4171:
4165:Mixing ratio
4140:Haines Index
4124:
4102:
4037:
3950:Condensation
3796:. Retrieved
3760:
3756:
3746:
3734:. Retrieved
3730:The Guardian
3729:
3720:
3706:
3693:. Retrieved
3689:
3680:
3668:. Retrieved
3663:
3654:
3642:. Retrieved
3637:
3628:
3616:. Retrieved
3612:
3602:
3590:. Retrieved
3586:the original
3579:
3569:
3557:. Retrieved
3553:
3541:
3529:. Retrieved
3525:
3515:
3490:
3486:
3480:
3472:The Guardian
3471:
3461:
3416:
3412:
3402:
3357:
3353:
3331:
3321:
3276:
3272:
3262:
3253:
3244:
3235:
3226:
3217:
3203:
3183:
3176:
3167:
3158:
3149:
3144:Buis, Alan.
3139:
3125:
3106:
3101:
3081:
3074:
3026:
3013:
3009:adding to it
3004:
2823:Bandar Abbas
2716:Villahermosa
2617:
2552:
2545:
2536:2010 Russian
2528:
2516:hyperthermia
2505:
2484:
2482:
2474:
2470:
2467:
2457:
2455:
2437:
2435:
2429:
2411:At relative
2410:
2396:
2382:
2379:
2374:
2308:
2178:
2175:
2041:
1984:
1859:
1856:
1798:
1705:
1661:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1318:Experiment 2
1317:
1316:
995:
991:
988:Experiment 1
987:
986:
983:
975:
966:
962:
954:
948:
921:
903:
894:
883:MOS:QUESTION
881:
873:
843:
834:
824:
817:
810:
803:
791:
779:Please help
774:verification
771:
747:
740:
734:
733:Please help
730:
706:
699:
695:
691:
684:
655:
647:
640:
629:
622:
607:
598:
583:Please help
571:
548:
537:
530:
526:
509:
493:
476:
464:
460:
458:
419:
399:H. indicator
389:Mixing ratio
346:Liquid water
226:
208:
199:
189:
182:
175:
168:
156:
144:Please help
139:verification
136:
106:
97:
81:
57:
50:
44:
43:Please help
40:
4313:Temperature
4254:Baroclinity
4101:Dew point (
4093:Temperature
3993:Water vapor
3664:Weather.com
1662:Note that:
951:thermometer
897:August 2021
837:August 2017
500:latent heat
496:evaporation
473:thermometer
469:temperature
326:Evaporation
4302:Categories
4231:Wind chill
4145:Heat index
4003:Convection
3940:Wind shear
3925:Visibility
3905:Lapse rate
3695:4 February
3066:References
3055:Heat index
3016:April 2021
2928:Australia
2748:Venezuela
2707:Australia
2573:heat index
2496:See also:
2417:evaporates
2413:humidities
943:hygrometer
807:newspapers
736:improve it
516:heat index
471:read by a
411:Hygrometer
379:Heat index
356:Nucleation
172:newspapers
46:improve it
3930:Vorticity
3910:Lightning
3895:Advection
3793:232146008
3785:1752-0908
3559:16 August
3531:16 August
3435:8750-7587
3050:Dew point
2877:Chicxulub
2744:Maracaibo
2735:Pakistan
2718:, Tabasco
2668:Pakistan
2660:Jacobabad
2553:In 2018,
2280:⋅
2254:⋅
2233:−
2196:−
2138:⋅
2117:−
2086:⋅
2062:−
1947:⋅
1926:−
1907:λ
1904:⋅
1888:−
1779:−
1734:−
1679:−
1432:⋅
1411:−
1384:⋅
1381:λ
1378:⋅
1362:−
1198:λ
1086:⋅
1062:−
1043:λ
1040:⋅
1024:−
742:talk page
632:dew point
601:July 2021
572:does not
523:Intuition
467:) is the
278:Dew point
202:July 2021
52:talk page
4279:Velocity
4241:Pressure
4155:Humidity
4058:Helicity
3900:Buoyancy
3798:19 April
3736:19 April
3670:16 March
3644:16 March
3453:34913738
3394:32494693
3313:20439769
3039:See also
2971:Uruguay
2954:Veracruz
2898:Myanmar
2852:, Odisha
2850:Balasore
2634:Country
2448:(WBGT).
2337:′
2276:′
2159:′
1968:′
1821:reaches
1564:(kg/m⋅s)
1548:′
1391:′
660:Reduced
341:Pressure
100:May 2021
4150:Humidex
4063:K Index
3883:General
3765:Bibcode
3495:Bibcode
3444:8799385
3385:7209987
3362:Bibcode
3304:2906879
3281:Bibcode
3033:tropics
2958:Mexico
2941:Mexico
2894:Rangoon
2885:Mexico
2881:Yucatán
2801:Mexico
2788:Mexico
2775:Mexico
2762:Mexico
2757:Matlapa
2721:Mexico
2628:WT (°C)
2595:Samawah
2541:wb,crit
1797:is the
1704:is the
1503:dry air
1157:dry air
959:wicking
821:scholar
593:removed
578:sources
553:General
339:)
316:Density
186:scholar
3791:
3783:
3618:10 May
3592:4 June
3487:Nature
3451:
3441:
3433:
3392:
3382:
3311:
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