32:
781:
716:
675:
835:
956:, the different ways in which we make sense of the world around us. That is done by employing the mental skills at one's disposal like thinking, perception, memory, awareness, reasoning, and judgment. Although cognitive processes can be only inferred and cannot be seen directly, they all have very important practical implications within a legal context.
959:
If one were to accept that the way people think, perceive, reason, and judge is not always perfect, it becomes easier to understand why cognitive processes and the factors influencing the processes are studied by psychologists in matters of law, one being the grave implications that this imperfection
573:
is someone who claimed to have witnessed an event or have hearsay information, but whose identity is being withheld from at least one party (typically the criminal defendant). The information from the confidential informant may have been used by a police officer or other official acting as a hearsay
935:
in which the eyewitness picks out a suspect from a group of people in the police station are often grossly suggestive, and they give the false impression that the witness remembered the suspect. In another study, students watched a staged crime. An hour later they looked through photos. A week later
623:
witness is one who testifies about what someone else said or wrote. In most court proceedings there are many limitations on when hearsay evidence is admissible. Such limitations do not apply to grand jury investigations, many administrative proceedings, and may not apply to declarations used in
917:
may result from such factors as faulty observation and recollection, or bias, or may involve a witness's knowingly giving false testimony. If several people witness a crime, it is possible to look for commonalities in their testimony, which are more likely to represent events as they occurred,
633:
is one who allegedly has specialized knowledge relevant to the matter of interest, which knowledge purportedly helps to either make sense of other evidence, including other testimony, documentary evidence or physical evidence (e.g., a fingerprint). An expert witness may or may not also be a
652:
is one who incriminates former accomplices in a crime who following receive either a lower sentence, immunity or also a protection of themselves or/and their family by the court. After they have provided the court with their testimony they often enter into a witness protection program.
983:, whose testimony is perceived as truthful and believable. Other witnesses may be perceived as less credible, or to have no credibility. Assessment of credibility is made of each witness, and is not affected by the number of witnesses who testify. Several factors affect witnesses'
918:
although differences are to be expected and don't of themselves indicate dishonesty. Witness identification will help investigators get an idea of what a criminal suspect looks like, but eyewitness recollection include mistaken or misleading elements.
1394:
Dowd, Rebecca; Hunter, Jill; Liddell, Belinda; McAdam, Jane; Nickerson, Angela; Bryant, Richard (11 July 2018). "Filling Gaps and
Verifying Facts: Assumptions and Credibility Assessment in the Australian Refugee Review Tribunal".
936:
they were asked to pick the suspect out of lineups. 8% of the people in the lineups were mistakenly identified as criminals. 20% of the innocent people whose photographs were included were mistakenly identified.
963:
The study of witness memory has dominated the realm of investigation. As Huff and
Rattner note, the single most important factor contributing to wrongful conviction is eyewitness misidentification.
929:; others heard from a clerk who claimed to identify the defendant. In the former case, 18% percent found the defendant guilty, but in the latter case, 72% found the defendant guilty (Loftus 1988).
885:
means calling a witness, who has already given testimony in a proceeding, to give further testimony. A court may give leave to a party to recall a witness only to give evidence about a matter
1546:
Leippe, Michael R.; Manion, Andrew P.; Romanczyk, Ann (August 1992). "Eyewitness persuasion: How and how well do fact finders judge the accuracy of adults' and children's memory reports?".
197:
1359:
Huff, C. Ronald; Rattner, Arye; Sagarin, Edward; MacNamara, Donal E. J. (5 September 2016). "Guilty Until Proved
Innocent: Wrongful Conviction and Public Policy".
925:
in a criminal case. Jurors heard a description of a robbery-murder, a prosecution argument, and then an argument for the defense. Some jurors heard only
838:
897:
Witnesses are usually permitted to testify only what they experienced first-hand. In most cases, they may not testify about something they were told (
949:
Another study looked at 65 cases of "erroneous criminal convictions of innocent people." In 45% of the cases, eyewitness mistakes were responsible.
491:
is someone who, either voluntarily or under compulsion, provides testimonial evidence, either oral or written, of what they know or claim to know.
624:
support of an arrest or search warrant. Also some types of statements are not deemed to be hearsay and are not subject to such limitations.
1207:
Ebbesen, Ebbe B.; Rienick, Cynthia B. (1998). "Retention interval and eyewitness memory for events and personal identifying attributes".
1663:
Lakatos, I. (1970). Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programmes. In: Lakatos, I. & Musgrave, A. E. (eds.),
1010:, a credible witness is one "whose credibility commends itself to the presiding magistrate ... the trustworthiness" of whom is good.
474:
1684:
Roediger III, H. L. (2001). Reconstructive Memory, Psychology of. IN: Smelser, N. J. & Baltes, P. B. (eds.) International
1026:, a credible witness to a Will means a witness who is not incapacitated by mental deficiency, conflict of interest, or crime.
879:
may be used by the side that called the witness but usually only to contradict specific testimony from the cross-examination.
1322:
889:
by another party if the second party's testimony contradicts evidence given by the original witness on direct examination.
1677:
Read, J. D. (2001). Eyewitness Memory: Psychological
Aspects. IN: Smelser, N. J. & Baltes, P. B. (eds.) International
569:
Although informally a witness includes whoever perceived the event, in law, a witness is different from an informant. A
1018:
Credible witnesses must be used to give meaning or existence to certain types of legal documents. For example, in most
1128:
1022:, at least two witnesses must sign their names to a will in order to verify that it was executed by the testator. In
1650:
1632:
1605:
1503:
1431:
987:. Generally, witnesses are perceived as more credible when they are perceived as more accurate and less suggestible.
816:
763:
702:
75:
53:
745:
46:
1519:
Newcombe, Peter A.; Bransgrove, Jennifer (July 2007). "Perceptions of witness credibility: Variations across age".
1656:
Johnson, M. K. (2001). False
Memories, Psychology of. IN: Smelser, N. J. & Baltes, P. B. (eds.) International
901:). That restriction does not apply to expert witnesses, but they may testify only in the area of their expertise.
606:, touch). That perception might be either with the unaided human sense or with the aid of an instrument, such as
1076:
994:, the term could be used in relation to the giving of testimony, or for the witnessing of documents. In modern
741:
1736:
1727:
382:
347:
250:
1159:
1041:
467:
357:
1719:
634:
percipient witness, as in a doctor or may or may not have treated the victim of an accident or crime.
1046:
914:
260:
149:
737:
726:
688:
387:
40:
20:
1573:
Wong, Anna (2020). "Looks Can Be
Deceiving: The Irrelevance of Demeanour in Witness Assessments".
1129:"Good practices for the protection of witnesses in criminal proceedings involving organized crime"
1335:
1035:
1019:
926:
913:, studies have established that individual, separate witness testimony is often flawed. Mistaken
910:
730:
1756:
506:
is a legal document that commands a person to appear at a proceeding. It is used to compel the
342:
202:
164:
144:
57:
792:
1751:
1447:
Tenney, Elizabeth R.; MacCoun, Robert J.; Spellman, Barbara A.; Hastie, Reid (January 2007).
460:
323:
313:
217:
187:
182:
952:
The formal study of eyewitness memory is usually undertaken within the broader category of
876:
643:
testifies about the personality of a defendant if it helps to solve the crime in question.
298:
283:
226:
139:
134:
119:
8:
1638:
843:
303:
1476:
1376:
1267:
1081:
868:
559:
543:
439:
288:
245:
207:
1646:
1628:
1601:
1499:
1468:
1464:
1427:
1380:
1305:
1259:
1224:
1103:
1051:
872:
639:
595:
547:
404:
367:
362:
308:
293:
192:
1480:
1555:
1528:
1460:
1404:
1368:
1297:
1285:
1251:
1216:
1071:
849:
539:
399:
377:
352:
278:
255:
235:
129:
1301:
1731:
1532:
864:
372:
240:
173:
159:
1372:
1183:
1559:
1220:
1136:
658:
629:
318:
212:
91:
1745:
1309:
1263:
932:
648:
502:, before a deposition officer, or in a variety of other legal proceedings. A
154:
124:
1705:
Thompson C P, Herrmann D, Read J D, Bruce D, Payne D G, Toglia, M P (1998).
1448:
1472:
1424:
The people's law dictionary : taking the mystery out of legal language
1023:
1007:
939:
694:
551:
494:
A witness might be compelled to provide testimony in court, before a grand
448:
434:
1408:
1228:
995:
984:
867:. The side that calls the witness first asks questions in what is called
860:
611:
531:
511:
1271:
909:
Although eyewitness testimony is often assumed to be more reliable than
886:
780:
991:
871:. The opposing side then may ask their own questions in what is called
607:
583:
535:
414:
393:
1243:
1323:
Convicting the
Innocent: Sixty-Five Actual Errors of Criminal Justice
1255:
1056:
976:
953:
603:
527:
523:
507:
443:
114:
1674:. Cambridge, MA: Harward University Press. (Original edition: 1979).
715:
834:
503:
499:
424:
1449:"Calibration Trumps Confidence as a Basis for Witness Credibility"
1160:"Witness protection and anonymity | The Crown Prosecution Service"
554:, it is compulsory to comply with the subpoena and either take an
1003:
898:
619:
599:
563:
332:
1724:
1061:
943:
519:
1600:(3rd ed.). London: Butterworths. 1988. pp. 373–374.
1336:"NCJRS Abstract - National Criminal Justice Reference Service"
1737:
Victims and witnesses of crime (Directgov, England and Wales)
980:
922:
921:
One study involved an experiment, in which subjects acted as
591:
515:
975:
is a person who acts as a witness, including through giving
1693:
Adult
Eyewitness Testimony: Current Trends and Developments
1446:
1358:
555:
495:
429:
99:
1286:"University of Nebraska Center for Great Plains Studies"
1393:
1707:
Eyewitness Memory: Theoretical and
Applied Perspective
1545:
1643:
Understanding
History: A Primer of Historical Method
1013:
1700:
Identification Evidence: A Psychological Evaluation
1667:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 59–89.
590:) is one with knowledge obtained through their own
1686:Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences
1679:Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences
1658:Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences
1518:
942:effects in which the presence of a weapon impairs
666:is one whose identity is kept secret by the court.
1743:
1242:Loftus, Belinda; Coppock, Christopher (1988).
1206:
16:Person who can attest to the reality of a fact
1592:
1590:
1588:
1241:
960:can have within the criminal justice system.
468:
1698:Shepherd J W, Ellis H D, Davies G M (1982).
1681:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. (pp. 5217–5221).
1660:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. (pp. 5254–5259).
1548:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1493:
1521:Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology
744:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
703:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1585:
1494:Lehman, Jeffrey; Phelps, Shirelle (2005).
946:for surrounding details is also an issue.
475:
461:
1702:. Aberdeen University Press, Aberdeen, UK
1598:Words and phrases legally defined, Vol. 1
817:Learn how and when to remove this message
764:Learn how and when to remove this message
76:Learn how and when to remove this message
855:In a court proceeding, a witness may be
833:
39:This article includes a list of general
1695:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
1316:
562:to testify truthfully under penalty of
1744:
1691:Ross D F, Read J D, Toglia M P (1994)
1627:. New York: Fordham University Press.
1498:. Detroit: Thomson/Gale. p. 407.
1672:Eyewitness Testimony. Revised edition
1665:Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge
859:(requested to testify) by either the
1572:
1421:
1397:International Journal of Refugee Law
1098:
1096:
829:
775:
742:adding citations to reliable sources
709:
668:
574:witness to obtain a search warrant.
25:
1688:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 12844–12849.
1496:West's Encyclopedia of American Law
998:, a credible witness is one who is
13:
1617:
45:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
1768:
1713:
1093:
1014:Witnessing of wills and documents
684:This section has multiple issues.
514:. Usually, it can be issued by a
1465:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01847.x
779:
714:
673:
30:
1566:
1539:
1512:
1487:
1440:
1415:
1387:
1352:
1064:(a word which originally meant
692:or discuss these issues on the
1645:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
1623:Garraghan, Gilbert J. (1946).
1328:
1278:
1235:
1200:
1176:
1152:
1121:
1077:United States Marshals Service
966:
904:
1:
1670:Loftus, Elizabeth F. (1996).
1302:10.1080/2052546.1977.11908818
1209:Journal of Applied Psychology
1087:
1625:A Guide to Historical Method
1533:10.1016/j.appdev.2007.04.003
892:
383:Declaration against interest
251:Self-authenticating document
7:
1426:. New York, NY: MJF Books.
1373:10.1177/0011128786032004007
1042:Eyewitness (disambiguation)
1029:
498:, before an administrative
10:
1773:
1560:10.1037/0022-3514.63.2.181
1221:10.1037/0021-9010.83.5.745
18:
1296:(75): 50. February 1977.
1047:Eyewitness identification
915:eyewitness identification
261:Hague Evidence Convention
150:Eyewitness identification
1422:Hill, Gerald N. (2002).
1020:common law jurisdictions
848:as a witness during the
577:
388:Present sense impression
198:Public policy exclusions
21:Witness (disambiguation)
1361:Crime & Delinquency
1036:Courthouse facility dog
927:circumstantial evidence
911:circumstantial evidence
60:more precise citations.
1709:. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
1575:Criminal Law Quarterly
852:
571:confidential informant
165:Consciousness of guilt
1725:Child Witness Project
1453:Psychological Science
1290:Plains Anthropologist
837:
314:Recorded recollection
877:redirect examination
738:improve this section
348:in United States law
19:For other uses, see
1409:10.1093/ijrl/eey017
1325:by Borchard, pg 367
1244:"Bridging the Gulf"
954:cognitive processes
883:Recalling a witness
544:criminal proceeding
188:Laying a foundation
1730:2013-10-12 at the
1140:. 2008. p. 19
1082:Witness protection
869:direct examination
853:
791:. You can help by
510:of a witness in a
444:trusts and estates
324:Dead Man's Statute
289:Direct examination
246:Best evidence rule
1720:Eyewitness memory
1639:Gottschalk, Louis
1052:Eyewitness memory
1038:or courthouse dog
875:. In some cases,
873:cross-examination
830:Calling a witness
827:
826:
819:
809:
808:
774:
773:
766:
707:
664:anonymous witness
640:character witness
596:visual perception
548:government agency
522:representing the
485:
484:
405:Implied assertion
368:Dying declaration
363:Excited utterance
309:Proffer agreement
294:Cross-examination
107:Types of evidence
86:
85:
78:
1764:
1612:
1611:
1594:
1583:
1582:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1543:
1537:
1536:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1491:
1485:
1484:
1444:
1438:
1437:
1419:
1413:
1412:
1391:
1385:
1384:
1356:
1350:
1349:
1347:
1346:
1332:
1326:
1320:
1314:
1313:
1282:
1276:
1275:
1256:10.2307/25557277
1239:
1233:
1232:
1204:
1198:
1197:
1195:
1194:
1180:
1174:
1173:
1171:
1170:
1156:
1150:
1149:
1147:
1145:
1133:
1125:
1119:
1118:
1116:
1115:
1100:
1072:Material witness
973:credible witness
850:Nuremberg Trials
847:
839:Heinrich Buscher
822:
815:
804:
801:
783:
776:
769:
762:
758:
755:
749:
718:
710:
699:
677:
676:
669:
540:defense attorney
477:
470:
463:
400:Learned treatise
378:Ancient document
358:Business records
256:Ancient document
236:Chain of custody
88:
87:
81:
74:
70:
67:
61:
56:this article by
47:inline citations
34:
33:
26:
1772:
1771:
1767:
1766:
1765:
1763:
1762:
1761:
1742:
1741:
1732:Wayback Machine
1716:
1620:
1618:Further reading
1615:
1608:
1596:
1595:
1586:
1571:
1567:
1544:
1540:
1517:
1513:
1506:
1492:
1488:
1445:
1441:
1434:
1420:
1416:
1392:
1388:
1357:
1353:
1344:
1342:
1334:
1333:
1329:
1321:
1317:
1284:
1283:
1279:
1240:
1236:
1205:
1201:
1192:
1190:
1188:psycnet.apa.org
1182:
1181:
1177:
1168:
1166:
1158:
1157:
1153:
1143:
1141:
1131:
1127:
1126:
1122:
1113:
1111:
1108:www.justice.gov
1102:
1101:
1094:
1090:
1032:
1016:
1002:"speaking from
969:
907:
895:
841:
832:
823:
812:
811:
810:
805:
799:
796:
789:needs expansion
770:
759:
753:
750:
735:
719:
678:
674:
580:
481:
373:Party admission
241:Judicial notice
183:Burden of proof
125:Real (physical)
82:
71:
65:
62:
52:Please help to
51:
35:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1770:
1760:
1759:
1754:
1740:
1739:
1734:
1722:
1715:
1714:External links
1712:
1711:
1710:
1703:
1696:
1689:
1682:
1675:
1668:
1661:
1654:
1636:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1613:
1606:
1584:
1565:
1554:(2): 181–197.
1538:
1527:(4): 318–331.
1511:
1504:
1486:
1439:
1432:
1414:
1386:
1367:(4): 518–544.
1351:
1327:
1315:
1277:
1234:
1215:(5): 745–762.
1199:
1175:
1164:www.cps.gov.uk
1151:
1137:United Nations
1120:
1091:
1089:
1086:
1085:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1031:
1028:
1015:
1012:
968:
965:
933:Police lineups
906:
903:
894:
891:
831:
828:
825:
824:
807:
806:
786:
784:
772:
771:
722:
720:
713:
708:
682:
681:
679:
672:
659:secret witness
630:expert witness
579:
576:
483:
482:
480:
479:
472:
465:
457:
454:
453:
452:
451:
446:
437:
432:
427:
419:
418:
410:
409:
408:
407:
402:
397:
390:
385:
380:
375:
370:
365:
360:
355:
350:
345:
343:in English law
337:
336:
335:and exceptions
329:
328:
327:
326:
321:
319:Expert witness
316:
311:
306:
301:
296:
291:
286:
281:
273:
272:
266:
265:
264:
263:
258:
253:
248:
243:
238:
230:
229:
227:Authentication
223:
222:
221:
220:
215:
210:
205:
200:
195:
190:
185:
177:
176:
170:
169:
168:
167:
162:
157:
152:
147:
142:
137:
132:
127:
122:
117:
109:
108:
104:
103:
95:
94:
84:
83:
38:
36:
29:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1769:
1758:
1757:Witness (law)
1755:
1753:
1750:
1749:
1747:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1717:
1708:
1704:
1701:
1697:
1694:
1690:
1687:
1683:
1680:
1676:
1673:
1669:
1666:
1662:
1659:
1655:
1652:
1651:0-394-30215-X
1648:
1644:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1633:0-8371-7132-6
1630:
1626:
1622:
1621:
1609:
1607:9780406080431
1603:
1599:
1593:
1591:
1589:
1580:
1576:
1569:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1542:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1515:
1507:
1505:9780787663773
1501:
1497:
1490:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1443:
1435:
1433:9781567315530
1429:
1425:
1418:
1410:
1406:
1403:(1): 71–103.
1402:
1398:
1390:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1355:
1341:
1340:www.ncjrs.gov
1337:
1331:
1324:
1319:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1281:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1250:(38): 25–28.
1249:
1245:
1238:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1203:
1189:
1185:
1184:"APA PsycNet"
1179:
1165:
1161:
1155:
1139:
1138:
1130:
1124:
1109:
1105:
1099:
1097:
1092:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1033:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1011:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
988:
986:
982:
978:
974:
964:
961:
957:
955:
950:
947:
945:
941:
937:
934:
930:
928:
924:
919:
916:
912:
902:
900:
890:
888:
884:
880:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
851:
845:
840:
836:
821:
818:
803:
800:November 2010
794:
790:
787:This section
785:
782:
778:
777:
768:
765:
757:
754:November 2010
747:
743:
739:
733:
732:
728:
723:This section
721:
717:
712:
711:
706:
704:
697:
696:
691:
690:
685:
680:
671:
670:
667:
665:
661:
660:
654:
651:
650:
649:crown witness
644:
642:
641:
635:
632:
631:
625:
622:
621:
615:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
575:
572:
567:
565:
561:
557:
553:
552:jurisdictions
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
492:
490:
478:
473:
471:
466:
464:
459:
458:
456:
455:
450:
447:
445:
441:
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
422:
421:
420:
416:
412:
411:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
395:
391:
389:
386:
384:
381:
379:
376:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
341:
340:
339:
338:
334:
331:
330:
325:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
310:
307:
305:
302:
300:
297:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
276:
275:
274:
271:
268:
267:
262:
259:
257:
254:
252:
249:
247:
244:
242:
239:
237:
234:
233:
232:
231:
228:
225:
224:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
194:
191:
189:
186:
184:
181:
180:
179:
178:
175:
172:
171:
166:
163:
161:
158:
156:
155:Genetic (DNA)
153:
151:
148:
146:
145:Demonstrative
143:
141:
138:
136:
133:
131:
128:
126:
123:
121:
118:
116:
113:
112:
111:
110:
106:
105:
101:
97:
96:
93:
90:
89:
80:
77:
69:
66:November 2009
59:
55:
49:
48:
42:
37:
28:
27:
22:
1752:Evidence law
1706:
1699:
1692:
1685:
1678:
1671:
1664:
1657:
1642:
1624:
1597:
1578:
1574:
1568:
1551:
1547:
1541:
1524:
1520:
1514:
1495:
1489:
1459:(1): 46–50.
1456:
1452:
1442:
1423:
1417:
1400:
1396:
1389:
1364:
1360:
1354:
1343:. Retrieved
1339:
1330:
1318:
1293:
1289:
1280:
1247:
1237:
1212:
1208:
1202:
1191:. Retrieved
1187:
1178:
1167:. Retrieved
1163:
1154:
1142:. Retrieved
1135:
1123:
1112:. Retrieved
1110:. 2014-11-07
1107:
1065:
1024:Canadian law
1017:
1008:Scottish law
999:
989:
972:
970:
962:
958:
951:
948:
940:Weapon focus
938:
931:
920:
908:
896:
882:
881:
856:
854:
813:
797:
793:adding to it
788:
760:
751:
736:Please help
724:
700:
693:
687:
686:Please help
683:
663:
657:
655:
647:
645:
638:
636:
628:
626:
618:
616:
587:
586:witness (or
581:
570:
568:
558:or solemnly
493:
488:
486:
449:Criminal law
392:
269:
218:Similar fact
98:Part of the
72:
63:
44:
1104:"Discovery"
996:English law
985:credibility
967:Credibility
905:Reliability
861:prosecution
842: [
612:stethoscope
532:civil trial
353:Confessions
304:Impeachment
193:Materiality
140:Inculpatory
135:Exculpatory
120:Documentary
58:introducing
1746:Categories
1345:2018-04-16
1193:2022-11-05
1169:2020-12-14
1144:21 October
1114:2020-10-22
1088:References
992:common law
689:improve it
608:microscope
588:eyewitness
584:percipient
550:. In many
546:, or by a
536:prosecutor
534:or by the
518:or by the
487:In law, a
415:common law
394:Res gestae
279:Competence
203:Spoliation
41:references
1381:145281693
1310:0032-0447
1264:0263-9475
1057:Informant
977:testimony
893:Testimony
725:does not
695:talk page
528:defendant
524:plaintiff
508:testimony
284:Privilege
270:Witnesses
208:Character
174:Relevance
115:Testimony
1728:Archived
1641:(1950).
1481:10464801
1473:17362377
1272:25557277
1030:See also
504:subpoena
500:tribunal
435:Property
425:Contract
299:Redirect
92:Evidence
1229:9806014
1066:witness
1004:hearsay
899:hearsay
887:adduced
865:defense
863:or the
746:removed
731:sources
620:hearsay
600:hearing
594:(e.g.,
564:perjury
538:or the
526:or the
489:witness
333:Hearsay
130:Digital
54:improve
1649:
1631:
1604:
1502:
1479:
1471:
1430:
1379:
1308:
1270:
1262:
1227:
1062:Martyr
1006:." In
944:memory
923:jurors
857:called
592:senses
560:affirm
520:lawyer
413:Other
102:series
43:, but
1477:S2CID
1377:S2CID
1268:JSTOR
1248:Circa
1132:(PDF)
981:court
846:]
604:smell
578:Types
542:in a
530:in a
516:judge
512:trial
440:Wills
417:areas
213:Habit
1647:ISBN
1629:ISBN
1602:ISBN
1500:ISBN
1469:PMID
1428:ISBN
1306:ISSN
1260:ISSN
1225:PMID
1146:2020
729:any
727:cite
556:oath
496:jury
430:Tort
160:Lies
1556:doi
1529:doi
1461:doi
1405:doi
1369:doi
1298:doi
1252:doi
1217:doi
1000:not
990:At
979:in
795:.
740:by
662:or
627:An
610:or
100:law
1748::
1587:^
1579:68
1577:.
1552:63
1550:.
1525:28
1523:.
1475:.
1467:.
1457:18
1455:.
1451:.
1401:30
1399:.
1375:.
1365:32
1363:.
1338:.
1304:.
1294:22
1292:.
1288:.
1266:.
1258:.
1246:.
1223:.
1213:83
1211:.
1186:.
1162:.
1134:.
1106:.
1095:^
971:A
844:de
698:.
656:A
646:A
637:A
617:A
614:.
602:,
598:,
582:A
566:.
442:,
1653:.
1635:.
1610:.
1581:.
1562:.
1558::
1535:.
1531::
1508:.
1483:.
1463::
1436:.
1411:.
1407::
1383:.
1371::
1348:.
1312:.
1300::
1274:.
1254::
1231:.
1219::
1196:.
1172:.
1148:.
1117:.
1068:)
820:)
814:(
802:)
798:(
767:)
761:(
756:)
752:(
748:.
734:.
705:)
701:(
476:e
469:t
462:v
79:)
73:(
68:)
64:(
50:.
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.