453:". Negotiations between the CCP and Nanjing continued. However, when a conference of Northeastern officers in January 1937 overwhelmingly resolved not to surrender peacefully, the CCP reluctantly decided that they could not abandon their allies and pledged to fight alongside them if the KMT attacked. The situation was again reversed when the five most senior Northeastern generals met separately and decided to surrender. The radical officers were enraged and assassinated one of the generals on 2 February, but this only turned the majority of the soldiers against the plan to stand and fight. The Northeastern Army peacefully surrendered to advancing KMT forces and was divided into new units, which were sent to Hebei, Hunan, and Anhui. Yang Hucheng, however, was arrested and eventually executed, while the leaders of the Anti-Japanese Comrade Society defected to the Red Army. Zhang was kept under house arrest for over 50 years before emigrating to Hawaii in 1993.
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their best chance to combat the
Japanese, while killing him would only provoke retaliation from the Nanjing Government. The Northeastern Army sent a telegram to Nanjing explaining to the Chinese public why they had arrested Chiang and the 8 demands they had for his release. These included an immediate end to civil war against the CCP, expulsion of pro-Japanese factions from the Nationalist government, and the adoption of an active anti-Japanese military stance. They attempted to broadcast these demands publicly, but Nationalist censorship prevented their publication outside the Communist-held areas.
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Communists were willing to conclude a truce, Zhang covertly agreed. He proposed to Chiang Kai-shek that he reverse the
Nationalist policy of prioritizing the purge of Communists, and instead focusing on military preparation against Japanese aggression. After Chiang refused, Zhang began to plot a coup in "great secrecy". By June 1936, the secret agreement between Zhang and the CCP had been successfully settled.
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332:, to which Zhang was re-assigned as commander after his return from a tour of Europe. The Nationalist armies initially gave no notice to the Communist exhortations for war against Japan, but this began to change because of the Red Army's "eastern expedition" from February to April 1936. The Communists declared that they were sending a detachment through
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The army was deeply divided on the appropriate response. Yang
Hucheng and the Anti-Japanese Comrade Society wanted to stand and fight if the KMT army attacked, and refuse to negotiate until Zhang was released. The Communist representatives strongly disagreed and cautioned that civil war would, in the words of Zhou Enlai, "make China into
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arrived in Xi'an to represent the CCP in negotiations. At first, Chiang was opposed to negotiating with a CCP delegate, but withdrew his opposition when it became clear that his life and freedom were largely dependent on
Communist goodwill towards him. Influencing his decision was also the arrival of
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After Chiang returned to
Nanjing, he announced a cease fire in the civil war. However, he also repudiated any promises that he had made in Xi'an. He had Zhang imprisoned and charged with treason. Chiang then sent 37 army divisions north to surround the Northeastern Army and force them to stand down.
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A faction of the army led by Yang
Hucheng and the radical young officers of the "Anti-Japanese Comrade Society" wanted to execute Chiang, but Zhang and the Communists insisted that he be kept alive in order to maintain the possibility of a united front. They argued that an alliance with Chiang was
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led the
Communist negotiating team, which after two weeks agreed to release Chiang. Although Chiang publicly repudiated the verbal promises he made in Xi'an, a ceasefire was declared and talks with Zhou continued. The rapprochement between the Communists and Nationalists outraged the Japanese, and
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stopped them by force. Although defeated militarily, the Red Army had convinced the Shanxi peasantry of their patriotism and gained 8,000 new recruits on their retreat. Zhang was likewise impressed and began to see them as potential allies rather than foes. When Mao announced on March 14 that the
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over ten years earlier. Zhou began the conversation by saying: "In the ten years since we have met, you seem to have aged very little." Chiang nodded and said: "Enlai, you were my subordinate. You should do what I say." Zhou replied that if Chiang would halt the civil war and resist the
Japanese
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instead, the Red Army would willingly accept Chiang's command. By the end of the meeting, Chiang promised to end the civil war, to resist the
Japanese together, and to invite Zhou to Nanjing for further talks. Chiang was released on 26 December and returned to Nanjing with Zhang Xueliang.
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Madame Chiang on 22 December, who had travelled to Xi'an hoping to secure his speedy release, fearing military intervention from factions within the
Kuomintang. On 24 December, Chiang received Zhou for a meeting, the first time the two had seen each other since Zhou had left
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Before the incident, Chiang Kai-shek had followed a strategy of "first internal pacification, then external resistance" that entailed eliminating the CCP before confronting Japanese aggression. This strategy was deeply unpopular among many groups in China, including the
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The Xi'an Incident was a turning point for the CCP. Chiang's leadership over political and military affairs in China was affirmed, while the CCP was able to expand its own strength under the new united front, which played a role in the
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complex. On 12 December 1936, bodyguards of Chang and Yang stormed the cabin where Chiang was sleeping. Chiang was able to escape but suffered an injury in the process. He was eventually detained by Zhang's troops in the morning.
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As conflicting reports of the events reached the capital, the Nationalist government was sent into disarray. The response to the coup from high-level officials was divided. The Military Affairs Commission led by
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in 1931. Northeastern Army soldiers and officers had also begun to fraternize with the Communists and were convinced of the need for a united Nationalist-Communist front against Japan.
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complex. Some radical army officers wanted Chiang executed, but both Zhang and the CCP strongly opposed such a move. They wanted to pressure Chiang into changing his policies instead.
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Zhang's father had been assassinated by Japan in 1928. Over time, Zhang came to view Chiang as ignoring the threat of Japan because of Chiang's focus on opposing the Communists.
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The three principals involved in the Xi'an Incident: Thumbnail for Zhang Xueliang, Yang Hucheng, and Chiang Kai-shek (photo taken 2 months before the incident)
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In November 1936, Zhang asked Chiang to come to Xi'an to raise the morale of troops unwilling to fight the Communists. After Chiang agreed, Zhang informed
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in that region, was widely criticized for this loss of territory. In response, Chang temporarily resigned from his position and went on a tour of Europe.
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into Chinese territory. After two weeks of intense negotiations between Chiang, his captors, and representatives of the
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The rapprochement between the Communists and Nationalists outraged the Japanese, and eventually helped lead to the
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Eastman, Lloyd E. (1991). "Nationalist China during the Nanking decade, 1927-1937". In Eastman, Lloyd E. (ed.).
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against the CCP. In the meanwhile, the impending war against Japan led to nationwide unrest and surge of
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leadership in China, continued the civil war against the CCP despite lacking popular support.
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recommended a military campaign against Xi'an, and immediately send a regiment to capture
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Bullet hole made while Northeastern Army soldiers were storming the Huaqing Pool complex
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Ch'en, Jerome (1991). "The Communist movement, 1927-1937". In Eastman, Lloyd E. (ed.).
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were strongly in favor of negotiating a settlement to ensure the safety of Chiang.
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by a Nationalist army he was there to review. Chiang's captors hoped to end the
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and Hubei. Letting the Red Army through would have broken the encirclement, so
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provinces. They were besieged by a number of nationalist armies, including the
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and had begun to establish themselves in a new base area on the border between
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The Collapse of Nationalist China: How Chiang Kai-shek Lost China's Civil War
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Map showing the situation of China during the Xi'an Incident in December 1936
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Chinese-Soviet Relations, 1937–1945: The Diplomacy of Chinese Nationalism
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receives Chiang Kai Shek at the Nanjing Airport after the Xi'an Incident.
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and purged members of the CCP in the Kuomintang, effectively ending the
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Negotiating room where Chiang Kai-shek met with Zhou Enlai and Lin Boqu
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By late 1935 the Communists had narrowly avoided destruction on their
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The Making of China's War with Japan: Zhou Enlai and Zhang Xueliang
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History and Popular Memory: The Power of Story in Moments of Crisis
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was a major Chinese political crisis from 12 to 26 December 1936.
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China 1945 : Mao's revolution and America's fateful choice
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General He Yingqin: The Rise and Fall of Nationalist China
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General He Yingqin: The Rise and Fall of Nationalist China
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248:, who had succeeded his father as head of the
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19:For the 1981 film based on the incident, see
1553:Wartime perception of the Chinese Communists
1127:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
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735:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
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1028:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
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715:(First ed.). New York. p. 29.
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701:(New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1997), p. 4.
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1008:Zhou Enlai: A Political Life
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548:. New York, NY: 1804 Books.
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470:Chinese Communist Revolution
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15:
9:
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4:
3:
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1770:1936 in China
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1564:Dixie Mission
1562:
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942:, p. 78.
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841:
834:
829:
827:
819:
818:Worthing 2016
814:
812:
805:, p. 67.
804:
799:
797:
795:
788:, p. 48.
787:
782:
775:
770:
763:
762:Worthing 2017
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751:
746:
738:
732:
724:
722:9780307595881
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644:Worthing 2017
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613:
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589:
582:
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571:, p. 68.
570:
565:
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555:9781736850084
551:
547:
540:
538:
530:
525:
521:
508:
507:Sian Incident
502:
498:
483:
480:
479:
473:
471:
465:
463:
459:
454:
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451:another Spain
443:
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239:
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232:In 1931, the
229:
215:
206:
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195:
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187:
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162:
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156:
153:and confront
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110:
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99:Xī'ān Shìbiàn
96:
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90:
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78:
74:
66:
64:
60:
52:
50:
46:
42:
37:
30:
26:
22:
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1675:
1644:
1621:
1538:
1473:715 Incident
1310:
1183:
1167:. Springer.
1163:
1143:
1124:
1103:
1082:
1063:
1044:
1025:
1013:. Retrieved
1007:
987:
960:
935:
923:
916:Eastman 1991
901:Wakeman 2003
896:
884:
872:
849:
840:
786:Eastman 1991
781:
769:
757:
745:
712:
706:
698:
693:
666:
624:
612:
600:
588:
583:, p. 5.
576:
564:
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524:
506:
501:
466:
455:
447:
414:
410:
393:Kong Xiangxi
377:
372:Huaqing Pool
365:
311:
280:
258:
231:
190:Huaqing Pool
186:Yang Hucheng
179:
163:
143:house arrest
130:
128:
93:Hanyu Pinyin
25:
1437:Canton Coup
940:Garver 1988
750:Taylor 2009
697:Ray Huang,
686:Taylor 2009
671:Taylor 2009
617:Taylor 2009
593:Taylor 2009
581:Garver 1988
569:Taylor 2009
529:Taylor 2009
1754:Categories
1620:Operation
1529:Long March
1134:0520234073
1073:0195363744
1054:0521385911
1035:0521385911
1015:28 January
928:Paine 2012
659:Ch'en 1991
629:Ch'en 1991
605:Ch'en 1991
488:References
417:Zhou Enlai
381:He Yingqin
368:Mao Zedong
342:Yan Xishan
314:Long March
307:Kuomintang
244:. General
209:Background
194:Zhou Enlai
107:Wade–Giles
1775:War scare
1728:1961–1972
1718:1950–1958
1657:1948–1949
1622:Beleaguer
1616:1945–1949
1606:1945–1947
1545:1937–1946
1525:1934–1936
1515:1933–1934
1505:1931–1934
1495:1930–1934
1443:1927–1949
1402:Post-1945
1245:campaigns
889:Itoh 2016
877:Itoh 2016
833:Itoh 2016
774:Itoh 2016
731:cite book
516:Citations
433:Aftermath
1689:Incident
1687:Amethyst
1678:Incident
1647:incident
1398:Pre-1945
1335:Red Army
848:(2023).
476:See also
421:Lin Boqu
385:Tongguan
1645:Kiangya
950:Sources
442:Lin Sen
322:Ningxia
287:Nanjing
1382:
1190:
1171:
1150:
1131:
1112:
1089:
1070:
1051:
1032:
994:
958:about
860:
719:
552:
349:Events
334:Shanxi
493:Notes
318:Gansu
147:Xi'an
1703:1950
1671:1949
1639:1948
1629:1947
1592:1946
1578:1945
1560:1944
1535:1936
1453:1927
1433:1926
1423:1924
1413:1923
1359:etc.
1188:ISBN
1169:ISBN
1148:ISBN
1129:ISBN
1110:ISBN
1087:ISBN
1068:ISBN
1049:ISBN
1030:ISBN
1017:2023
992:ISBN
858:ISBN
737:link
717:ISBN
550:ISBN
419:and
391:and
338:Rehe
320:and
252:and
184:and
129:The
69:西安事变
55:西安事變
1643:SS
1756::
1372:)
1357:,
1353:,
1337:)
1319:/
1295:)
1277:)
1257:/
908:^
856:.
825:^
810:^
793:^
733:}}
729:{{
678:^
651:^
636:^
536:^
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464:.
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558:.
23:.
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