Mesoamerica - Knowledge

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liberated through death and returns to the gods, who are then able to create more life. Secondly, it justifies war, since the most valuable sacrifices are obtained through conflict. The death of the warrior is the greatest sacrifice and gives the gods the energy to go about their daily activities, such as the bringing of rain. Warfare and capturing prisoners became a method of social advancement and a religious cause. Finally, it justifies the control of power by the two ruling classes, the priests and the warriors. The priests controlled the religious ideology, and the warriors supplied the sacrifices. Historically, it was also believed those sacrificed were chosen by the gods, this idea of being "chosen" was decided by the gods. This was then displayed by acts, such as being struck by lightning. If someone was struck by lightning and a sacrifice was needed they would often be chosen by their population, as they believed they were chosen by the gods.

3805: 890: 569: 4202: 1907: 3689:. The different forms of sacrifice are reflected in the imagery used to evoke ideological structure and sociocultural organization in Mesoamerica. In the Maya area, for example, steles depict bloodletting rituals performed by ruling elites, eagles and jaguars devouring human hearts, jade circles or necklaces that represented hearts, and plants and flowers that symbolized both nature and the blood that provided life. Imagery also showed pleas for rain or pleas for blood, with the same intention to replenish the divine energy. Ritual sacrifice was done in efforts to appease the gods, and was done with the purpose of protection of the population. 4230: 3660:, and anthropozoomorphic sculptures, and in day-to-day objects. The qualities of these gods and their attributes changed over time and with cultural influences from other Mesoamerican groups. The gods are at once three: creator, preserver, and destroyer, and at the same time just one. An important characteristic of Mesoamerican religion was the dualism among the divine entities. The gods represented the confrontation between opposite poles: the positive, exemplified by light, the masculine, force, war, the sun, etc.; and the negative, exemplified by darkness, the feminine, repose, peace, the moon, etc. 3259: 513: 3710: 527: 4654: 1759: 492:, which were endemic among the colonists but new to North America, caused the deaths of upwards of 90% of the indigenous people, resulting in great losses to their societies and cultures. Over the next centuries, Mesoamerican indigenous cultures were gradually subjected to Spanish colonial rule. Aspects of the Mesoamerican cultural heritage still survive among the indigenous peoples who inhabit Mesoamerica. Many continue to speak their ancestral languages and maintain many practices hearkening back to their Mesoamerican roots. 6909: 8455: 1678: 3620: 3640: 3126: 3793: 1469: 1324: 4147:. This is largely based on the fact that most works that survived the Spanish conquest were public monuments. These monuments were typically erected by rulers who sought to visually legitimize their sociocultural and political position; by doing so, they intertwined their lineage, personal attributes and achievements, and legacy with religious concepts. As such, these monuments were specifically designed for public display and took many forms, including 583: 614: 137: 4112: 40: 555: 901: 2971: 1899: 541: 1806: 1144: 3918: 1869:. The apparent "Mexicanization" of architecture at Chichén Itzá led past researchers to believe that Chichén Itzá existed under the control of a Toltec empire. Chronological data refutes this early interpretation, and it is now known that Chichén Itzá predated the Toltec; Mexican architectural styles are now used as an indicator of strong economic and ideological ties between the two regions. 2828: 3165: 4216: 3949:. Dates or events were always tied to a compass direction, and the calendar specified the symbolic geographical characteristic peculiar to that period. Resulting from the significance held by the cardinal directions, many Mesoamerican architectural features, if not entire settlements, were planned and oriented according to directionality. 1063:, or the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt. There are 83 inactive and active volcanoes within the Sierra Madre range, including 11 in Mexico, 37 in Guatemala, 23 in El Salvador, 25 in Nicaragua, and 3 in northwestern Costa Rica. According to the Michigan Technological University, 16 of these are still active. The tallest active volcano is 3724:, is the ritualized practice of drawing blood from oneself. It is commonly seen or represented through iconography as performed by ruling elites in highly ritualized ceremonies, but it was easily practiced in mundane sociocultural contexts (i.e., non-elites could perform autosacrifice). The act was typically performed with 610:. "Mesoamerica" is broadly defined as the area that is home to the Mesoamerican civilization, which comprises a group of peoples with close cultural and historical ties. The exact geographic extent of Mesoamerica has varied through time, as the civilization extended North and South from its heartland in southern Mexico. 2001:, initially an important Early Classic center contemporaneous with Teotihuacan, maintained its political structure (it did not collapse) and continued to function as a regionally important center during the Postclassic. The latter portion of the Postclassic is generally associated with the rise of the 1860:

Chichén Itzá was originally thought to have been a Postclassic site in the northern Maya lowlands. Research over the past few decades has established that it was first settled during the Early/Late Classic transition but rose to prominence during the Terminal Classic and Early Postclassic. During its

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in Mexico. The distance between the two coasts is roughly 200 km (120 mi). The northern side of the Isthmus is swampy and covered in dense jungle—but the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, as the lowest and most level point within the Sierra Madre mountain chain, was nonetheless a main transportation,

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In representing numbers, a series of bars and dots were employed. Dots had a value of one, and bars had a value of five. This type of arithmetic was combined with symbolic numerology: '2' was related to origins, as all origins can be thought of as doubling; '3' was related to household fire; '4' was

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Ceremonial centers were always built to be visible. Pyramids were meant to stand out from the rest of the city, to represent the gods and their powers. Another characteristic feature of the ceremonial centers is historic layers. All the ceremonial edifices were built in various phases, one on top of

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The rules of the ballgame are not known, but it was probably similar to volleyball, where the object is to keep the ball in play. In the most well-known version of the game, the players struck the ball with their hips, though some versions used forearms or employed rackets, bats, or handstones. The

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Two characteristics are most notable in Mesoamerican architecture. Firstly, the intimate connection between geography, astronomy, and architecture: very often, urban centers or even single buildings are aligned to cardinal directions and/or along particular constellations. Secondly, iconography was

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Several distinct sub-regions within Mesoamerica are defined by a convergence of geographic and cultural attributes. These sub-regions are more conceptual than culturally meaningful, and the demarcation of their limits is not rigid. The Maya area, for example, can be divided into two general groups:

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in 1493. In world history, Mesoamerica was the site of two historical transformations: (i) primary urban generation, and (ii) the formation of New World cultures from the mixtures of the indigenous Mesoamerican peoples with the European, African, and Asian peoples who were introduced by the Spanish

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The Postclassic (beginning 900–1000 CE, depending on area) is, like the Late Classic, characterized by the cyclical crystallization and fragmentation of various polities. The main Maya centers were located in the northern lowlands. Following Chichén Itzá, whose political structure collapsed during

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The Late Classic period (beginning c. 600 CE until 909 CE) is characterized as a period of interregional competition and factionalization among the numerous regional polities in the Maya area. This largely resulted from the decrease in Tikal's socio-political and economic power at the beginning of

1198:. The northern Maya lowlands, especially the northern portion of the Yucatán peninsula, are notable for their nearly complete lack of rivers (largely due to the absolute lack of topographic variation). Additionally, no lakes exist in the northern peninsula. The main source of water in this area is 3777:

Sacrifice had great importance in the social and religious aspects of Mesoamerican culture. First, it showed death transformed into the divine. Death is the consequence of a human sacrifice, but it is not the end; it is but the continuation of the cosmic cycle. Death creates life—divine energy is

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Following the Spanish conquests in the sixteenth century, Spanish friars taught indigenous scribes to write their languages in alphabetic texts. Many oral histories of the prehispanic period were subsequently recorded in alphabetic texts. The indigenous in central and southern Mexico continued to

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scripts. Five or six different scripts have been documented in Mesoamerica, but archaeological dating methods, and a certain degree of self-interest, create difficulties in establishing priority and thus the forebear from which the others developed. The best documented and deciphered Mesoamerican

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The names given to the days, months, and years in the Mesoamerican calendar came, for the most part, from animals, flowers, heavenly bodies, and cultural concepts that held symbolic significance in Mesoamerican culture. This calendar was used throughout the history of Mesoamerican by nearly every

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Mesoamerican cultures that lived in the lowlands and coastal plains settled down in agrarian communities somewhat later than did highland cultures because there was a greater abundance of fruits and animals in these areas, which made a hunter-gatherer lifestyle more attractive. Fishing also was a

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Tikal came to dominate much of the southern Maya lowlands politically, economically, and militarily during the Early Classic. An exchange network centered at Tikal distributed a variety of goods and commodities throughout southeast Mesoamerica, such as obsidian imported from central Mexico (e.g.,

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in Guatemala; the Early Classic's temporal limits generally correlate to the main periods of these sites. Monte Albán in Oaxaca is another Classic-period polity that expanded and flourished during this period, but the Zapotec capital exerted less interregional influence than the other two sites.

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ascended at the height of the Classic period; it formed a military and commercial empire whose political influence stretched south into the Maya area and northward. Upon the collapse of Teotihuacán around 600 CE, competition between several important political centers in central Mexico, such as

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During the Early Classic, Teotihuacan participated in and perhaps dominated a far-reaching macro-regional interaction network. Architectural and artifact styles (talud-tablero, tripod slab-footed ceramic vessels) epitomized at Teotihuacan were mimicked and adopted at many distant settlements.

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on dinner plates around the world. One writer estimated these indigenous tribes developed three-fifths of the crops now grown in cultivation, most of them in Mesoamerica. Having secured their food supply, the Mesoamerican societies turned to intellectual pursuits. In a millennium or less, a

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period of Venus. Maya of the European contact period said that knowing the past aided in both understanding the present and predicting the future (Diego de Landa). The 260-day cycle was a calendar to govern agriculture, observe religious holidays, mark the movements of celestial bodies, and

3353:. The book consisted of a long strip of the prepared bark, which was folded like a screenfold to define individual pages. The pages were often covered and protected by elaborately carved book boards. Some books were composed of square pages while others were composed of rectangular pages. 3015:

Given that Mesoamerica was broken into numerous and diverse ecological niches, none of the societies that inhabited the area were self-sufficient, although very long-distance trade was common only for very rare goods, or luxury materials. For this reason, from the last centuries of the

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religious and societal structures, for example, as accompaniment to celebrations and funerals. Some Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Maya, commonly played various instruments such as drums, flutes and whistles. Although most of the original Mayan music disappeared following the

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The Classic period is marked by the rise and dominance of several polities. The traditional distinction between the Early and Late Classic is marked by their changing fortune and their ability to maintain regional primacy. Of paramount importance are Teotihuacán in central Mexico and

3173: 3211:, the movements of various other planets, and conjunctions of celestial bodies. These almanacs also made future predictions concerning celestial events. These tables are remarkably accurate, given the technology available, and indicate a significant level of knowledge among Maya 1921:

in the central Guatemala highlands, were important southern highland Maya centers. The latter site, Kaminaljuyú, is one of the longest occupied sites in Mesoamerica and was continuously inhabited from c. 800 BCE to around 1200 CE. Other important highland Maya groups include the

4159:, and other types of architectural elements (e.g., roofcombs). Other themes expressed include tracking time, glorifying the city, and veneration of the gods—all of which were tied to explicitly aggrandizing the abilities and the reign of the ruler who commissioned the artwork. 3326:

writing systems of Mesoamerica, and their interpretation, have been subject to much debate. One important ongoing discussion regards whether non-Maya Mesoamerican texts can be considered examples of true writing or whether non-Maya Mesoamerican texts are best understood as

1825:, so named after the hills where they are mainly found. Puuc settlements are specifically associated with a unique architectural style (the "Puuc architectural style") that represents a technological departure from previous construction techniques. Major Puuc sites include 3141:

in Mesoamerica. Although very different in styles, all kinds of Mesoamerican architecture show some kind of interrelation, due to very significant cultural exchanges that occurred during thousands of years. Among the most well-known structures in Mesoamerica, the flat-top

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Ceremonial centers were the nuclei of Mesoamerican settlements. The temples provided spatial orientation, which was imparted to the surrounding town. The cities with their commercial and religious centers were always political entities, somewhat similar to the European

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The majority of artwork created during this historical time was about these topics, religion and politics. Rulers were drawn and sculpted. Historical tales and events were then translated into pieces of art, and art was used to relay religious and political messages.

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period (8000 BCE– 1000 BCE) onward, regions compensated for the environmental inadequacies by specializing in the extraction of certain abundant natural resources and then trading them for necessary unavailable resources through established commercial trade networks.

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in Mayan). The geographic vision is also tied to the cardinal points. Certain geographical features are linked to different parts of this cosmovision. Thus mountains and tall trees connect the middle and upper worlds; caves connect the middle and nether worlds.

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Among the Aztecs, the name of each day was associated with a cardinal point (thus conferring symbolic significance), and each cardinal direction was associated with a group of symbols. Below are the symbols and concepts associated with each direction:

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The Mesoamerican ballgame was a sport with ritual associations played for over 3000 years by nearly all pre-Columbian peoples of Mesoamerica. The sport had different versions in different places during the millennia, and a modern version of the game,

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Autosacrifice was not limited to male rulers, as their female counterparts often performed these ritualized activities. They are typically shown performing the rope and thorns technique. A recently discovered queen's tomb in the Classic Maya site of

1369:. The last three periods, representing the core of Mesoamerican cultural fluorescence, are further divided into two or three sub-phases. Most of the time following the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century is classified as the Colonial period. 2997:

the other, to the point that what we now see is usually the last stage of construction. Ultimately, the ceremonial centers were the architectural translation of the identity of each city, as represented by the veneration of their gods and masters.

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is due to the incorporation of ideological and religious elements from the first primitive religion of Fire, Earth, Water and Nature. Astral divinities (the sun, stars, constellations, and Venus) were adopted and represented in anthropomorphic,

3192:, which could be thought of as the four "directional pillars" that support the year. These four times of the year were, and still are, important as they indicate seasonal changes that directly impact the lives of Mesoamerican agriculturalists. 5047:

Coe (1994), p. 45 ("The only domestic animals were dogs—the principal source of meat for much of Preclassic Mesoamerica—and turkeys—understandably rare because that familiar bird consumes very large quantities of corn and is thus expensive to

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While the game was played casually for simple recreation, including by children and perhaps even women, the game also had important ritual aspects, and major formal ballgames were held as ritual events, often featuring human sacrifice.

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Shared traits in Mesoamerican mythology are characterized by their common basis as a religion that—though in many Mesoamerican groups developed into complex polytheistic religious systems—retained some shamanistic elements.

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rose to prominence during the Middle Postclassic and dominated the north for c. 200 years. After Mayapán's fragmentation, the political structure in the northern lowlands revolved around large towns or city-states, such as

2009:. One of the more commonly known cultural groups in Mesoamerica, the Aztec politically dominated nearly all of central Mexico, the Gulf Coast, Mexico's southern Pacific Coast (Chiapas and into Guatemala), Oaxaca, and 1605:, an important Classic-era site that eventually dominated economic and interaction spheres throughout Mesoamerica. The settlement of Teotihuacan is dated to the later portion of the Late Preclassic, or roughly 50 CE. 4374: 683:

of the early to middle 20th century, Kirchhoff defined this zone as a cultural area based on a suite of interrelated cultural similarities brought about by millennia of inter- and intra-regional interaction (i.e.,

4092:, and flowers. It is related on the one hand to the luminous Sun and the noon heat, and on the other to rain filled with alcohol. The rabbit, the principal symbol of the West, was associated with farmers and with 3663:

The typical Mesoamerican cosmology sees the world as separated into a day world watched by the sun and a night world watched by the moon. More importantly, the three superposed levels of the world are united by a

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represents one of the oldest permanent agricultural villages in the area, and one of the first to use pottery. During the Early and Middle Preclassic, the site developed some of the earliest examples of defensive

3346:. No Precolumbian Mesoamerican society is known to have had widespread literacy, and literacy was probably restricted to particular social classes, including scribes, painters, merchants, and the nobility. 851:

and the Totonac flier dance; 13 as a ritual number; ritual period of 20 x 13 = 260 days; the mythic concept of one or more afterworlds and the difficult journey in reaching them; good and bad omen days; a

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Among the many types of calendars the Maya maintained, the most important include a 260-day cycle, a 360-day cycle or 'year', a 365-day cycle or year, a lunar cycle, and a Venus cycle, which tracked the

5412: 4059:). The North contrasts with the East in that it is conceptualized as dry, cold, and oppressive. It is considered the nocturnal part of the universe and includes the dwellings of the dead. The dog ( 3414:

linked to the four corners of the universe; '5' expressed instability; '9' pertained to the underworld and the night; '13' was the number for light, '20' for abundance, and '400' for infinity. The

6800: 833:), military orders (eagle knights and jaguar knights), clay pellets for blowguns, cotton-pad armor, traveling merchants who act as spies, wars for the purpose of securing sacrificial victims 2032:, the Tarascan state was one of the few to actively and continuously resist Aztec domination during the Late Postclassic. Other important Postclassic cultures in Mesoamerica include the 1861:

apogee, this widely known site economically and politically dominated the northern lowlands. Its participation in the circum-peninsular exchange route, possible through its port site of

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and their subsequent conquest of the Aztecs between 1519 and 1521. Many other cultural groups did not acquiesce until later. For example, Maya groups in the Petén area, including the

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the lowlands and highlands. The lowlands are further divided into the southern and northern Maya lowlands. The southern Maya lowlands are generally regarded as encompassing northern

3747:(among other locations). Another form of autosacrifice was conducted by pulling a rope with attached thorns through the tongue or earlobes. The blood produced was then collected on 1793:

region of Guatemala. Around 710, Tikal arose again and started to build strong alliances and defeat its worst enemies. In the Maya area, the Late Classic ended with the so-called "

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Generally applied to the Maya area, the Terminal Classic roughly spans the time between c. 800/850 and c. 1000 CE. Overall, it generally correlates with the rise to prominence of

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and agricultural production by the close of the period. Transformations of natural environments have been a common feature at least since the mid Holocene. Archaic sites include

3885:. Often, the architectural organization of Mesoamerican sites was based on precise calculations derived from astronomical observations. Well-known examples of these include the 3001:

were common public monuments throughout Mesoamerica and served to commemorate notable successes, events, and dates associated with the rulers and nobility of the various sites.

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hunter-gatherer tribal groupings to the organization of sedentary agricultural villages. In the subsequent Formative period, agriculture and cultural traits such as a complex

4366: 5794: 4063:) has a very specific meaning, as it accompanies the deceased during the trip to the lands of the dead and helps them cross the river of death that leads to nothingness. ( 5972:

La Población del Valle de Teotihuacán: Representativa de las que Habitan las Regiones Rurales del Distrito Federal y de los Estados de Hidalgo, Puebla, México y Tlaxcala

2896:) was an occasional substitute for maize in producing flour. Fruit was also important in the daily diet of Mesoamerican cultures. Some of the main ones consumed include 606:

often refers to a larger area in the Americas, but it has also previously been used more narrowly to refer to Mesoamerica. An example is the title of the 16 volumes of

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developed in the southern Maya highlands and lowlands, and at a few sites in the northern Maya lowlands. The earliest Maya sites coalesced after 1000 BCE, and include

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the period. It was therefore during this time that other sites rose to regional prominence and were able to exert greater interregional influence, including Caracol,

6760:: Open access international scientific journal devoted to the archaeological study of the American and Iberian peoples. It contains research articles on Mesoamerica. 6809: 5183: 8497: 1499:. Specific dates vary, but these sites were occupied from roughly 1200 to 400 BCE. Remains of other early cultures interacting with the Olmec have been found at 4081:, and rain. The west was associated with the cycles of vegetation, specifically the temperate high plains that experience light rains and the change of seasons. 3526:

collected extensive information on plants, animals, soil types, among other matters from native informants in Book 11, The Earthly Things, of the twelve-volume

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have been found throughout Mesoamerica. They vary considerably in size, but they all feature long narrow alleys with side walls to bounce the balls against.

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also known as the Occidente, is poorly understood. This period is best represented by the thousands of figurines recovered by looters and ascribed to the "

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are common throughout Mesoamerica. Some of the more important ones served as loci of human occupation in the area. The longest river in Mesoamerica is the

5404: 3759:(also known as El Perú) had a ceremonial stingray spine placed in her genital area, suggesting that women also performed bloodletting in their genitalia. 1436:

in Mesoamerica. The initial phases of the Archaic involved the cultivation of wild plants, transitioning into informal domestication and culminating with

1797:", a transitional period coupling the general depopulation of the southern lowlands and development and florescence of centers in the northern lowlands. 1746:. Towards the end of the Early Classic, this conflict lead to Tikal's military defeat at the hands of Caracol in 562, and a period commonly known as the 5477:. This total does not include those, since they are outside Mesoamerica, and there is discussion whether these areas were actually used for ballplaying. 4783:

Powers, Amanda K.; Garita-Alvarado, Carlos A.; Rodiles-Hernández, Rocío; Berning, Daniel J.; Gross, Joshua B.; Ornelas-García, Claudia Patricia (2019).

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Some Mesoamerican cultures never achieved dominant status or left impressive archaeological remains but are nevertheless noteworthy. These include the

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began to cultivate other crops throughout Mesoamerica. Maize was the most common domesticate, but the common bean, tepary bean, scarlet runner bean,

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The history of human occupation in Mesoamerica is divided into stages or periods. These are known, with slight variation depending on region, as the

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began moving south into Mesoamerica from the North, and became politically and culturally dominant in central Mexico, as they displaced speakers of

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ball was made of solid rubber, and weighed up to 4 kg or more, with sizes that differed greatly over time or according to the version played.

688:). Mesoamerica is recognized as a near-prototypical cultural area. This term is now fully integrated into the standard terminology of precolumbian 4048:, cane, and movement. The East was linked to the world priests and associated with vegetative fertility, or, in other words, tropical exuberance. 1862: 4581: 3804: 8507: 6940: 3410:

nature that characterized Mesoamerican ideology. As mentioned, the Mesoamerican numbering system was vigesimal (i.e., based on the number 20).

376: 231:. Mesoamerica is also one of only five regions of the world where writing is known to have independently developed (the others being ancient 2931:

for transportation is one notable difference between Mesoamerica and the cultures of the South American Andes. Other animals, including the

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memorialize public officials. The 260-day cycle was also used for divination, and (like the Catholic calendar of saints) to name newborns.

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The following is a list of some of the specialized resources traded from the various Mesoamerican sub-regions and environmental contexts:

6859: 6839: 5906: 1298: 889: 5070: 3439:, in terms of harvest weight the world's most important crop. But the inhabitants of Mexico and northern Central America also developed 2846:

and lowlands of Mesoamerica began to develop agricultural practices with early cultivation of squash and chili. The earliest example of

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obsidian, whose trade and distribution is argued to have been economically controlled by Teotihuacan, is found throughout Mesoamerica.

3901:'s "Group E", the first known observatory in the Maya area. Perhaps the earliest observatory documented in Mesoamerica is that of the 568: 6064:

The Nahuas After the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Central Mexico, Sixteenth Through Eighteenth Centuries

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major provider of food to lowland and coastal Mesoamericans creating a further disincentive to settle down in permanent communities.

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were the primary source of animal protein in ancient Mesoamerica, and dog bones are common in midden deposits throughout the region.

1463: 5597: 927:, Mesoamerica possesses a complex combination of ecological systems, topographic zones, and environmental contexts. These different 8405: 5383: 4181:, but musical instruments were found, as well as carvings and depictions, that clearly show how music played a central role in the 3565: 5142:

Bernardino de Sahagun, Historia de las cosas de Nueva Espana; Diego Duran, The Book of The Gods and Rites, Oklahoma; The Books of

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considered integral part of architecture, with buildings often being adorned with images of religious and cultural significance.

318:, and large ceremonial centers were built, interconnected by a network of trade routes for the exchange of luxury goods, such as 5770: 8212: 8098: 5164:

Lecount, Lisa J. "Like Water for Chocolate: Feasting and Political Ritual among the Late Classic Maya at Xunantunich, Belize."

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are differentiated by the cyclical crystallization and fragmentation of the various political entities throughout Mesoamerica.

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The Flayed God: the Mesoamerican Mythological Tradition; Sacred Texts and Images from pre-Columbian Mexico and Central America

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and quail sacrifice; paper and rubber as sacrificial offerings; a pantheon of gods or spirits; acrobatic flier dance (see the

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The Maya closely observed and duly recorded the seasonal markers. They prepared almanacs recording past and recent solar and

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or El Chircal in Honduras, this place reflects the Olmec influence that existed in Central America in the pre-classic period.

2587: 2149: 195:. As a cultural area, Mesoamerica is defined by a mosaic of cultural traits developed and shared by its indigenous cultures. 8202: 8166: 8105: 4187: 3682: 1174:

and runs north for 970 km (600 mi)—480 km (300 mi) of which are navigable—eventually draining into the

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produce written texts in the colonial period, many with pictorial elements. An important scholarly reference work is the

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included a broad understanding of the cycles of planets and other celestial bodies. Special importance was given to the

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Braswell, Geoffrey E. (2003). "Introduction: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction". In Geoffrey E. Braswell (ed.).

4273: 3635:. In this form, it helps the dead cross the Chicnahuapan, a river that separates the world of the living from the dead. 3349:

The Mesoamerican book was typically written with brush and colored inks on a paper prepared from the inner bark of the

203: 4929: 8527: 8146: 6238: 5780: 5206: 4635: 123: 1633:, signifying a radical shift in socio-cultural and political structure. San José Mogote was eventually overtaken by 8161: 8151: 8093: 8071: 8054: 8049: 7968: 6844: 6406: 6372: 5099:Šprajc, Ivan. "El Sol en Chichén Itzá y Dzibilchaltún: la supuesta importancia de los equinoccios en Mesoamérica". 3768: 3331:

conventions that express ideas, specifically religious ones, but don't represent the phonetics of spoken language.

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materials. By 2000 BCE, corn was the staple crop in the region, and remained so through modern times. The Ramón or

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The Sierra Madre mountains, which consist of several smaller ranges, run from northern Mesoamerica south through

5346: 3534:, compiled in the third quarter of the sixteenth century. Bernardino de Sahagún reported the ritualistic use of 2178: 1373: 1358: 1305:

forest. The biodiversity is among the richest in the world, though the number of species in the red list of the

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Companion planting was practiced in various forms by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. They domesticated

3138: 3017: 2958:, birds, and various types of insects. They also hunted for luxury items, such as feline fur and bird plumage. 1385: 676: 61: 1126:

is 224 m (735 ft) above mean sea level. This area also represents the shortest distance between the

741:) for ritual purposes, as a medium for writing, and the use of agave for cooking and clothing; cultivation of 8425: 8410: 6926: 4832: 4263: 2162: 1590: 1354: 1278: 90: 375:, and Guatemala laid the basis for the Mesoamerican cultural area. All this was facilitated by considerable 8458: 8110: 7735: 7462: 7167: 6886: 4268: 3263: 3253: 3137:

Mesoamerican architecture is the collective name given to urban, ceremonial and public structures built by

810: 415: 57: 28: 6410: 4964: 4595: 1906: 1404:

The Mesoamerican Paleo-Indian period precedes the advent of agriculture and is characterized by a nomadic

1060: 8522: 7592: 6734: 6333: 6152: 4785:"A geographical cline in craniofacial morphology across populations of Mesoamerican lake-dwelling fishes" 3698: 3588: 3508: 2974: 2612: 1998: 1032:

mountains to the low flatlands of the northern Yucatán Peninsula. The tallest mountain in Mesoamerica is

439: 319: 224: 3568:

is another Aztec codex with written text and illustrations collected from the indigenous viewpoint. The

1488: 1024:

There is extensive topographic variation in Mesoamerica, ranging from the high peaks circumscribing the

72: 7770: 7755: 7053: 7038: 6534: 6162:

The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion

6059: 5979: 3010: 2818: 2333: 2099: 2072: 1433: 871: 526: 1412:, was a large component of the subsistence strategy of the Mesoamerican Paleo-Indian. These sites had 574: 8156: 8088: 8059: 8044: 7780: 7705: 6067: 4626: 4573: 4288: 4106: 3886: 3704: 3120: 2822: 2341: 1286: 1163: 909: 603: 311: 236: 24: 6700: 6219: 939:, or highlands (situated between 1,000 and 2,000 meters above sea level). In the low-lying regions, 7740: 7657: 7240: 6953: 6337: 5155:

Mann, Charles C. 1491: Revelations of the Americas before Columbus. Vinton Press. 2005. pp. 196–97.

3315:

has been conserved partly in indigenous scripts and partly in the postinvasion transcriptions into

3184:

Agriculturally based people historically divide the year into four seasons. These included the two

2870:

and squash all became common cultivates by 3500 BCE. At the same time, these communities exploited

2506: 2212: 1246: 884: 685: 560: 6918: 6311: 5078: 4651:. Número especial 5. Julio de 2000. Raíces/ Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. México. 3952:

In Maya cosmology, each cardinal point was assigned a specific color and a specific jaguar deity (

3523: 817:(base 20) number system); "century" of fifty-two years; eighteen-month calendar; screen-fold books 8392: 8083: 7990: 7662: 7372: 7367: 6285: 5667: 5433: 3897:; these are aligned to serve as astronomical observatories. The name of this complex is based on 3812: 3592: 3569: 3312: 2325: 2127: 1778:, and Calakmul (which was allied with Caracol and may have assisted in the defeat of Tikal), and 1715: 1583: 1377: 1318: 1119: 1029: 383: 50: 4806: 2854:, a cave in Oaxaca. Earlier maize samples have been documented at the Los Ladrones cave site in 1092: 1080: 314:, were diffused through the area. Villages began to become socially stratified and develop into 8369: 8176: 7765: 7568: 6778: 5405:"Feeding the gods: Hundreds of skulls reveal massive scale of human sacrifice in Aztec capital" 5180:"The "How" of the Three Sisters: The Origins of Agriculture in Mesoamerica and the Human Niche" 4878: 4243: 4037: 3839: 3512: 3159: 2909: 2233: 1179: 1111: 848: 794: 622: 447: 422:

and the Zapotec cultures. The Mesoamerican writing tradition reached its height in the Classic

364: 303: 220: 6562:"Jaguar and puma captivity and trade among the Maya: Stable isotope data from Copan, Honduras" 5890: 5233:

General History of the Things of New Spain by Fray Bernardino de Sahagún: The Florentine Codex

3756: 2954:

Societies of this region did hunt certain wild species for food. These animals included deer,

8462: 8326: 8246: 7889: 7785: 7394: 6622: 6614: 6319: 6041: 6033: 5930: 5922: 5860: 5434:"Archaeologists Announce Discoveries At The Ancient Maya Site Of Waka' In Northern Guatemala" 3808: 3787: 3584: 3233: 3143: 2689: 2408: 2103: 1975: 853: 784: 772: 689: 680: 307: 295: 215:

colonization of the Americas. Mesoamerica is one of the six areas in the world where ancient

6019:(1943). "Mesoamérica. Sus Límites Geográficos, Composición Étnica y Caracteres Culturales". 4338:

Wyatt, Andrew R.; Monaghan, John (2010-12-13). "Mesoamerica". In Holloway, Thomas H. (ed.).

3575:

Evidence shows that wild animals were captured and traded for symbolic and ritual purposes.

1388:, and changes in economic organization (including increased interregional interaction). The 8487: 8336: 7307: 7025: 6573: 6497: 6380: 4235: 4022: 3624: 3381: 3365: 3258: 3229: 2843: 2510: 2436: 2432: 2329: 1923: 1892: 1638: 1472: 1282: 1230: 1195: 1115: 407: 360: 4025:

maintain the association of cardinal directions with each color, but use different names.

3334:

Mesoamerican writing is found in several mediums, including large stone monuments such as

2118:, the Chontales, the Huaves, and the Pipil, Xincan and Lencan peoples of Central America. 1330:

is one of the largest archaeological sites, urban centers, and tourist attractions of the

1005: 707:

Some of the significant cultural traits defining the Mesoamerican cultural tradition are:

367:. Frequent contact and cultural interchange between the early Olmec and other cultures in 8: 7985: 7645: 7582: 7558: 7389: 7250: 7196: 7137: 7108: 7048: 7043: 6824: 5992:

Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures

4283: 4041: 3929:, an example of a Mesoamerican settlement planned according to concepts of directionality 3905:. This complex consisted of three plain stelae and a temple oriented with respect to the 3561: 3544: 3489: 3407: 3323: 2892: 2887: 1681: 940: 283: 97: 20: 6577: 6501: 5573: 5375: 5258:

Hofmann, Albert (1971). "Teonanácatl and Ololiuqui, two ancient magic drugs of Mexico".

4430: 2171: 2021: 1985:

In central Mexico, the early portion of the Postclassic correlates with the rise of the

1076: 8273: 7894: 7857: 7730: 7176: 7098: 7058: 7033: 6688: 6596: 6561: 6528: 6449: 6207: 5836: 5727: 5702: 5589: 5474: 4898: 4207: 4034: 3902: 3893:. A unique and common architectural complex found among many Mesoamerican sites is the 3504: 3271: 2923:

Mesoamerica lacked animals suitable for domestication, most notably domesticated large

2859: 2547: 2195: 1685: 1524: 1520: 1393: 1366: 518: 5999: 3953: 2220: 1865:, allowed Chichén Itzá to remain highly connected to areas such as central Mexico and 1613: 1059:. In central and southern Mexico, a portion of the Sierra Madre chain is known as the 8354: 7973: 7795: 7760: 7621: 7616: 7597: 7406: 7233: 6993: 6674: 6655: 6626: 6601: 6548: 6538: 6515: 6453: 6441: 6433: 6394: 6384: 6351: 6341: 6315: 6299: 6289: 6261: 6244: 6234: 6193: 6176: 6166: 6140: 6130: 6098: 6081: 6071: 6045: 6003: 5953: 5934: 5896: 5866: 5842: 5821: 5815: 5786: 5776: 5752: 5735: 5719: 5681: 5671: 5647: 5637: 5552: 5304: 5296: 5212: 5202: 4902: 4702: 4631: 4512: 4508: 4470: 4466: 4404: 4400: 4345: 4182: 4178: 4144: 4089: 3922: 3815: 3516: 3304: 2540: 2353: 2305: 1838: 1535: 1508: 1334: 1331: 1294: 959:. The highlands show much more climatic diversity, ranging from dry tropical to cold 640: 582: 462: 419: 387: 199: 148: 6757: 5593: 5584: 3709: 1758: 554: 8435: 8430: 8420: 8349: 8026: 7980: 7923: 7852: 7710: 7604: 7553: 7531: 7384: 7331: 7270: 6591: 6581: 6505: 6425: 6323: 6160: 5995: 5974:(in Spanish). Mexico City: Talleres Gráficos de la Secretaría de Educación Pública. 5711: 5697: 5579: 5286: 4890: 4843: 4788: 4784: 4504: 4462: 4396: 4258: 4221: 4074: 4018: 3557: 3531: 3308: 3267: 3237: 2595: 2591: 2045: 1947: 1939: 1609: 1421: 1237:(or Noh Petén), held out against the Spanish until 1697. Other large lakes include 1084: 1025: 960: 944: 928: 823:: specialized markets, "department store" markets subdivided according to specialty 726: 474: 244: 2851: 2640: 532: 8321: 7822: 7810: 7790: 7745: 7695: 7635: 7577: 7538: 7526: 7519: 7428: 7245: 7228: 7203: 6586: 6275: 5749:

Legacy of Mesoamerica, The: History and Culture of a Native American Civilization

5291: 5274: 4894: 4339: 4253: 3942: 3728: 3686: 3648: 3602: 3444: 3432: 3274:

dated to around 150 CE. Mesoamerica is one of the five places in the world where

2839: 2795: 2767: 2738: 2710: 1866: 1731: 1630: 1626: 1551: 1451: 1405: 1037: 1033: 896:

flourished from 600 BCE to 100 CE, and may have had a population of over 100,000.

844: 746: 164: 1589:

The Preclassic in the central Mexican highlands is represented by such sites as

1408:

subsistence strategy. Big-game hunting, similar to that seen in contemporaneous

1238: 1064: 762:, mirrors of polished stone, turbans, sandals with heels, textiles adorned with 391: 8466: 8415: 8314: 8278: 8258: 8241: 8181: 7945: 7837: 7815: 7805: 7800: 7652: 7630: 7514: 7509: 7494: 7489: 7416: 7362: 7314: 7285: 7191: 7181: 6854: 6016: 5990:

Grofe, Michael J. (2016), "Astronomy in Mesoamerica", in Selin, Helaine (ed.),

5811: 5766: 4060: 3610: 3598: 3496: 3460: 3377: 3220: 3196: 2575: 2559: 2364: 2115: 2049: 2017: 1963: 1389: 1381: 1362: 1274: 1210: 1183: 1175: 1127: 1104: 1088: 1012:, the Southern Pacific Lowlands, and Southeast Mesoamerica (including northern 967:

with warm temperatures and moderate rainfall. The rainfall varies from the dry

952: 780: 636: 287: 275: 6510: 6485: 5790: 5231: 4758: 3492:

due to its symbolic meaning and abundance. Gods were praised and named after.

2636: 2288: 2280: 1918: 1723: 1634: 1602: 1555: 1338: 411: 8481: 8440: 8309: 8301: 8268: 8005: 7955: 7847: 7842: 7832: 7677: 7640: 7548: 7543: 7445: 7350: 6519: 6437: 6429: 6126: 5856: 5723: 5700:; Smith-Stark, Thomas (September 1986). "Meso-America as a linguistic area". 5693: 5659: 5300: 4848: 4782: 4278: 4125: 3606: 3393: 3369: 3283: 3089: 2944: 2928: 2616: 1990: 1822: 1794: 1719: 1677: 1579: 1409: 1254: 1233:, in northern Guatemala, is notable as where the last independent Maya city, 1187: 1131: 964: 956: 948: 916: 750: 701: 664: 540: 291: 232: 160: 156: 152: 6398: 6303: 6248: 6180: 6144: 6085: 5685: 5651: 5127:

Myths of Mesoamerican Cultures Reflect a Knowledge and Practice of Astronomy

2102:

groups (which may or may not have been related to the Olmecs), the northern

1790: 1191: 1008:. Other areas include Central Mexico, West Mexico, the Gulf Coast Lowlands, 931:

are classified into two broad categories: the lowlands (those areas between

8344: 8283: 8263: 8253: 7963: 7935: 7685: 7423: 7357: 7326: 7275: 7147: 7076: 7013: 7003: 6891: 6605: 6552: 6445: 5967: 5882:

La Méso-Amérique: L'art pré-hispanique du Mexique et de l'Amérique centrale

5739: 5308: 5216: 5143: 4936: 3877:

Observatories were built at some sites, including the round observatory at

3832: 3721: 3632: 3619: 3452: 3448: 3419: 3418:

was also used, and its representation at the Late Preclassic occupation of

3373: 3328: 3316: 2653: 2571: 2276: 2252: 2216: 2095: 2006: 1955: 1910:

Mesoamerica and Central America in the 16th century before Spanish arrival

1850: 1500: 1496: 1417: 1350: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1171: 1167: 1004:. The northern lowlands cover the remainder of the northern portion of the 993: 697: 693: 443: 279: 216: 6355: 3792: 3639: 3338:, carved directly onto architecture, carved or painted over stucco (e.g., 3125: 2771: 2714: 2025: 1747: 1714:, which was predominantly used by the Maya during the Early Classic), and 1657: 453:

During the early post-Classic period, Central Mexico was dominated by the

8400: 8359: 8290: 7995: 7884: 7827: 7750: 7587: 7563: 7452: 7290: 7208: 7186: 7162: 7008: 6998: 6228: 3926: 3477: 3456: 3300: 3241: 3177: 3129:

Illustration that recreates the structures of the archaeological site of

3104: 2940: 2681: 2579: 2428: 2392: 2349: 2268: 2111: 2076: 1959: 1943: 1515:. Research in the Pacific Lowlands of Chiapas and Guatemala suggest that 1479:

The first complex civilization to develop in Mesoamerica was that of the

1468: 1323: 1242: 1075:. Other volcanoes of note include Tacana on the Mexico–Guatemala border, 1072: 763: 722: 656: 505: 430: 423: 206:

societies flourished in Mesoamerica for more than 3,000 years before the

180: 4177:

Archaeological studies have never discovered any written music from the

3244:

of Oaxaca continue using modernized forms of the Mesoamerican calendar.

2624: 2502: 2412: 1527:

associated with various sculptures found at the Late Preclassic site of

588: 7930: 7899: 7720: 7715: 7379: 7340: 7302: 7220: 7093: 6978: 6973: 6233:. Mazal Holocaust Collection. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. 6156: 6034:"The Modern Ballgames of Sinaloa: a Survival of the Aztec Ullamaliztli" 5664:

American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America

4879:"Archaeobiology: Squash Seeds Yield New View of Early American Farming" 4172: 4120: 4002: 3960: 3890: 3882: 3819: 3714: 3657: 3415: 3399: 3295: 3212: 3039: 2990: 2970: 2599: 2494: 2272: 2256: 2107: 2053: 1971: 1931: 1846: 1762: 1543: 1290: 1159: 1147: 1052: 893: 867: 830: 806: 798: 742: 672: 625:, Honduras. An example of Mesomerican art during the preclassic Period. 435: 399: 349: 327: 211: 192: 5731: 5549:

The Memory of Bones: Body, Being and Experience Among the Classic Maya

4833:"The human impact imprint on modern pollen spectra of the Mayan lands" 4715: 4190:, some of it mixed with the incoming Spanish music and exists to date. 3463:(except for a few domesticated in the United States); and many of the 2673: 2665: 1927: 1879: 1786: 1487:

throughout the Preclassic period. The main sites of the Olmec include

1372:

The differentiation of early periods (i.e., up through the end of the

972: 613: 466: 136: 19:

This article is about the cultural area. For the economic region, see

8377: 8036: 8010: 7940: 7918: 7911: 7690: 7467: 7401: 7297: 7120: 7103: 6988: 6983: 6957: 4152: 3933:

It has been argued that among Mesoamerican societies the concepts of

3859: 3535: 3473: 3291: 3287: 3228:

culture. Even today, several Maya groups in Guatemala, including the

3189: 3185: 3033: 2775: 2718: 2490: 2478: 2187: 1967: 1884: 1779: 1735: 1722:

in Guatemala. Tikal was often in conflict with other polities in the

1598: 1447: 1437: 1342: 1302: 1266: 985: 932: 857: 840: 814: 802: 759: 715: 668: 648: 633: 336: 299: 259: 251: 188: 176: 6652:

The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors: Archaeology of Mesoamerica

5775:. Vol. 2. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 212–216. 5327: 4111: 3299:

writing system, and therefore the most widely known, is the classic

2947:. Turkey was the first to be domesticated locally, around 3500 BCE. 2474: 2458: 1914: 39: 7904: 7504: 7440: 7411: 7321: 7280: 7088: 7068: 6948: 5715: 5473::98) Slightly over 200 ballcourts have also been identified in the 4792: 4606: 4248: 4140: 4136: 3946: 3906: 3898: 3744: 3725: 3130: 2978: 2948: 2924: 2783: 2726: 2669: 2657: 2498: 2486: 2466: 2440: 2420: 2404: 2384: 2345: 2309: 2292: 2284: 2248: 2088: 2065: 2037: 2010: 1979: 1888: 1842: 1782: 1775: 1743: 1727: 1629:. Also of importance, the site was one of the first to demonstrate 1618: 1594: 1512: 1492: 1484: 1442: 1432:

The Archaic period (8000–2000 BCE) is characterized by the rise of

1413: 1045: 1013: 989: 924: 660: 485: 395: 341: 331: 315: 184: 6560:

Sugiyama, Nawa; Fash, William L.; France, Christine A. M. (2018).

5634:

The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction

4739: 2396: 2317: 1771: 1563: 1114:, a low plateau that breaks up the Sierra Madre chain between the 1067:

at 5,452 m (17,887 ft). This volcano, which retains its

7876: 7609: 7499: 7457: 7345: 7157: 7152: 7081: 4678: 3894: 3740: 3652: 3469: 3343: 3275: 3062: 3051: 3043: 2993:, and each person could identify with the city where they lived. 2897: 2883: 2791: 2787: 2734: 2730: 2685: 2677: 2632: 2567: 2482: 2470: 2400: 2388: 2264: 2157:

Honduras, Guatemala, Belize, obsidian and pyrite points, Iztapan

2080: 2052:

resided north of the Totonac, mainly in the modern-day states of

2033: 1951: 1935: 1845:. While generally concentrated within the area in and around the 1739: 1649: 1645: 1575: 1571: 1234: 1199: 1123: 1100: 1096: 1068: 1056: 912: 900: 630: 546: 489: 368: 271: 267: 6808: 6764: 6721:

Mesoweb.com: a comprehensive site for Mesoamerican civilizations

4554: 2462: 1567: 947:

are most common, as is true for most of the coastline along the

8382: 7481: 7435: 7142: 7129: 4156: 4093: 4085: 3878: 3823: 3736: 3628: 3539: 3440: 3403: 3339: 3335: 3081: 3047: 3029: 2955: 2917: 2913: 2901: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2855: 2799: 2759: 2755: 2742: 2706: 2702: 2563: 2337: 2228: 2191: 2057: 2041: 2002: 1994: 1986: 1898: 1653: 1547: 1203: 1041: 1009: 1001: 997: 968: 797:(a 260-day ritual calendar and a 365-day calendar based on the 776: 738: 652: 644: 458: 454: 372: 263: 172: 168: 5950:

Death And The Classic Maya Kings, Chapter Three Royal Funerals

5804:

Mesoamerica's Classic Heritage: From Teotihuacan to the Aztecs

5747:

Carmack, Robert M.; Gasco, Janine L.; Gossen, Gary H. (1996).

5666:. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics, 4. New York: 5315: 3172: 8233: 8128: 7667: 6965: 6949: 5769:(2001). "Mesoamerica: An Overview". In Davíd Carrasco (ed.). 5275:"Hallucinogenic drugs in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures" 4148: 4116: 4078: 4056: 4052: 4045: 4006: 3978: 3934: 3917: 3871: 3797: 3748: 3665: 3500: 3464: 3436: 3406:

as having both literal and symbolic value, the result of the

3204: 3055: 2998: 2982: 2905: 2879: 2875: 2847: 2832: 2779: 2763: 2722: 2628: 2620: 2583: 2555: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2454: 2424: 2416: 2321: 2313: 2260: 2224: 2208: 2084: 2061: 1854: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1810: 1805: 1694: 1622: 1559: 1539: 1528: 1516: 1504: 1480: 1327: 1250: 1226: 1155: 1143: 734: 730: 719: 618: 470: 403: 356: 345: 255: 240: 6325:

Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain

5007: 5005: 4927: 4115:

Art with ideological and political meaning: depiction of an

3164: 3146:

are a landmark feature of the most developed urban centers.

1103:, which is an island formed by both volcanoes rising out of 480:

The distinct Mesoamerican cultural tradition ended with the

344:, and ceramics. While Mesoamerican civilization knew of the 7262: 6615:"The Architectural Background of the Pre-Hispanic Ballgame" 4649:

Atlas del México Prehispánico. Revista Arqueología mexicana

3992: 3964: 3938: 3867: 3481: 3208: 3200: 3100: 3096: 3085: 2932: 2827: 2524: 1818: 1306: 323: 228: 6720: 5692: 5492: 5480: 4721: 1202:

that are accessed through natural surface openings called

442:, ensued. At this time during the Epi-Classic period, the 5802:

Carrasco, Davíd; Jones, Lindsay; Sessions, Scott (2002).

5107: 5017: 5002: 4701:. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc. p. 12. 4132: 3863: 3108: 2936: 829:: wooden swords with stone chips set into the edges (see 6752: 4930:"Pre-Columbian Magnetic Sculptures in Western Guatemala" 1269:

are present in Mesoamerica; the more well known are the

704:, respectively, have not entered into widespread usage. 639:, who noted that similarities existed among the various 6260:(in Spanish). Mexico: Secretaría de Educación Pública. 6092: 5627:. Vol. 2: Mesoamerica. Cambridge University Press. 5625:

Cambridge History of the Native peoples of The Americas

5516: 5452: 1378:

different configurations of socio-cultural organization

1209:

With an area of 8,264 km (3,191 sq mi),

1048:. Its peak elevation is 5,636 m (18,490 ft). 6619:

The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame

6038:

The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame

5927:

The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame

5623:

Adams, Richard E. W.; MacLeod, Murdo J., eds. (2000).

5029: 3422:

is one of the earliest uses of zero in human history.

2133:

Summary of the chronology and cultures of Mesoamerica

1221:

is perhaps most well known as the location upon which

1135:

communication, and economic route within Mesoamerica.

1071:

name, is located 70 km (43 mi) southeast of

975:

to the humid southern Pacific and Caribbean lowlands.

6093:

López Austin, Alfredo; López Luján, Leonardo (1996).

5801: 5504: 4666: 4294:

Painting in the Americas before European colonization

2036:

along the eastern coast (in the modern-day states of

1162:, which forms in Guatemala at the convergence of the 779:

floors; ball courts with stone rings (see the use of

250:

Beginning as early as 7000 BCE, the domestication of

6765:

Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520–1820

5636:. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 1–44. 5528: 4909: 4197: 3681:

Generally, sacrifice can be divided into two types:

3168:"Head Variant" or "Patron Gods" glyphs for Maya days 1337:. It is located in the archaeological region of the 386:, complex urban polities began to develop among the 352:, neither of these became technologically relevant. 167:, thus comprising the lands of central and southern 6671:

The Paleoindian and Archaic Cultures of Mesoamerica

6226: 5862:

Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies

5347:"Transcript of "The Maya myth of the morning star"" 5333: 5051: 4542: 4530: 3735:, and blood was drawn from piercing or cutting the 1644:The Preclassic in western Mexico, in the states of 860:

and natural deities, and a shared system of symbols

64:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 6559: 6477:The Ancient Civilizations of Mesoamerica: A Reader 5994:, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 1–12, 5746: 5321: 4745: 4684: 4660: 4612: 4560: 3511:agricultural technique. The cornstalk served as a 3468:comparatively short time, they invented their own 1849:, the style has been documented as far away as at 1726:, as well as with others outside of it, including 1534:During the Middle and Late Preclassic period, the 1312: 469:. Towards the end of the post-Classic period, the 6097:(in Spanish). Mexico City: El Colegio de México. 3431:Mesoamerica would deserve its place in the human 700:, which refer to northern Mexico and the western 461:. The lowland Maya area had important centers at 355:Among the earliest complex civilizations was the 223:), and the second in the Americas, alongside the 8479: 6330:Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva España 5772:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures 3889:pyramid at Chichen Itza and the Observatorio at 3282:The Mesoamerican scripts deciphered to date are 6486:"Astronomy and its role in ancient Mesoamerica" 6121:Markman, Roberta H.; Markman, Peter T. (1992). 5820:(4th ed.). New York: Thames & Hudson. 5376:"Creation Story of the Maya | Living Maya Time" 4727: 484:in the 16th century. Eurasian diseases such as 8498:History of indigenous peoples of North America 6668: 6646:. Austin: University of Texas Press 1964–1976. 6120: 5658: 4830: 4100: 3912: 3425: 874:that have spread through the area by diffusion 377:regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica 363:and extended inland and southwards across the 6934: 6794: 6362: 6332: ed.). Santa Fe, NM and Salt Lake City: 4807:"Science Show – Bosawas Bioreserve Nicaragua" 4428: 4337: 4051:North: wind, death, the dog, the jaguar, and 1765:, Temple of the Feathered Serpent, 650–900 CE 1531:suggest a date of between 1800 and 1500 BCE. 477:empire covering most of central Mesoamerica. 6669:Zeitlin, Robert N.; Zeitlin, Judith (2000). 6490:The Role of Astronomy in Society and Culture 6411:"City Size in Late Post-Classic Mesoamerica" 5920: 5806:. Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado. 5622: 5486: 4429:Kilroy-Ewbank, Lauren (September 12, 2017). 1601:. These sites were eventually superseded by 6735:National Museum of Anthropology and History 6654:(3rd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press. 6475:Smith, Michael E.; Masson, Marilyn (2000). 6474: 6363:Sharer, Robert J.; Traxler, Loa P. (2006). 6151: 6111: 5986:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1964. 5947: 5458: 5273:Carod-Artal, F.J. (January–February 2015). 5272: 5113: 5011: 4699:The Mythology of Mexico and Central America 4009:, associated with the color yellow and the 3570:ancient Aztecs used a variety of entheogens 3528:General History of the Things of New Spain, 3050:skins, birds and bird feathers (especially 2372:Classic Maya Centers, Teotihuacan, Zapotec 2121: 1978:were in eastern Guatemala and northwestern 1293:second in size in the Americas only to the 602:literally means "middle America" in Greek. 495: 16:Pre-Columbian cultural area in the Americas 6941: 6927: 6801: 6787: 6621:. New York: Thames & Hudson. pp. 6367:(6th ed.). Stanford University Press. 6310: 6040:. New York: Thames & Hudson. pp. 5929:. New York: Thames & Hudson. pp. 5229: 5133:July 18, 2003 (accessed January 25, 2016). 4759:"MTU Volcanoes Page – World Reference Map" 4638:) Oxford: Oxford University Press; p. 906. 3995:, associated with the color black and the 3578: 839:: the practice of various forms of ritual 745:; grinding of corn softened with ashes or 6612: 6595: 6585: 6533:. Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge: 6509: 6284:(1st pbk ed.). Oxford and New York: 6258:Agricultura y civilización en Mesoamérica 6015: 5583: 5578:(MA thesis). Louisiana State University. 5470: 5290: 4847: 4840:Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana 4696: 4672: 4364: 4344:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 24–41. 2965: 2858:, c. 5500 BCE. Slightly thereafter, semi- 1483:, who inhabited the Gulf Coast region of 1464:Olmec influences on Mesoamerican cultures 1217:is Mexico's largest freshwater lake, but 1110:One important topographic feature is the 643:within the region that included southern 124:Learn how and when to remove this message 6753:WAYEB: European Association of Mayanists 6058: 6031: 5923:"Rubber and Rubber Balls in Mesoamerica" 5879: 5838:The Olmecs: America's First Civilization 5765: 5631: 5534: 5498: 4722:Campbell, Kaufman & Smith-Stark 1986 4536: 4494: 4110: 3967:, associated with the color red and the 3916: 3803: 3791: 3708: 3638: 3618: 3566:Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis 3257: 3171: 3163: 3124: 2969: 2826: 2807: 1905: 1897: 1804: 1757: 1676: 1467: 1322: 1142: 1122:to the south. At its highest point, the 899: 888: 612: 135: 6772:"Google Scholar Citations: Mesoamerica" 6274: 6187: 5855: 5546: 5257: 5196: 5057: 5035: 5023: 4461:, Oxford University Press, 2022-02-21, 4395:, Oxford University Press, 2022-02-21, 4318:Education | National Geographic Society 1710:Pachuca) and highland Guatemala (e.g., 1457: 1273:, the second largest in the world, and 1154:Outside of the northern Maya lowlands, 904:Landscape of the Mesoamerican highlands 608:The Handbook of Middle American Indians 8480: 6649: 6526: 6483: 6255: 6190:Mesoamerican Chronology: Periodization 5551:. Houston: University of Texas Press. 5522: 5177: 4824: 4068:Dogs in Mesoamerican folklore and myth 3647:The great breadth of the Mesoamerican 3515:for the beans to climb, and the beans 3153: 1989:and an empire based at their capital, 692:studies. Conversely, the sister terms 617:Anthropomorphic figure from the Proto- 379:, especially along the Pacific coast. 8508:Indigenous peoples of Central America 6922: 6782: 6405: 6371: 6230:Aztec medicine, health, and nutrition 5989: 5966: 5952:. Austin: University of Texas Press. 5888: 5834: 5817:Mexico: from the Olmecs to the Aztecs 5571: 5510: 4915: 4876: 4870: 4548: 4341:A Companion to Latin American History 1382:increasing socio-political complexity 978: 414:. During this period, the first true 6116:. New York: Oxford University Press. 4928:Paul A. Dunn; Vincent H. Malmström. 4333: 4331: 3713:Ritual human sacrifice portrayed in 3435:if its inhabitants had only created 3262:One of the earliest examples of the 2850:dates to c. 4000 BCE and comes from 2028:and Guerrero. With their capital at 1809:Detail of the Nunnery Quadrangle at 1621:, ceremonial structures, the use of 1384:, the adoption of new and different 1213:is the largest lake in Mesoamerica. 296:mythological and religious tradition 208:Spanish colonization of the Americas 155:that begins in the southern part of 62:adding citations to reliable sources 33: 6644:Handbook of Middle American Indians 6617:. In E. Michael Whittington (ed.). 6281:Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest 6036:. In E. Michael Whittington (ed.). 5925:. In E. Michael Whittington (ed.). 5892:The Oxford Companion to Archaeology 5810: 5071:"Science, civilization and society" 4733: 4627:Oxford English Reference Dictionary 4139:and generally focused on themes of 3981:, assigned the color white and the 3835:, is still played in a few places. 3826:depicting a ballplayer in full gear 3360:Handbook of Middle American Indians 2091:, remained independent until 1697. 1895:), that competed with one another. 1800: 1178:. Other rivers of note include the 390:, with the rise of centers such as 13: 6328:. Vol. I–XII (translation of 5865:. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. 5247:– via World Digital Library. 5098: 4584:from the original on Jan 25, 2024. 4371:Art of the Americas to World War I 4324:from the original on Dec 30, 2023. 4274:Indigenous peoples of the Americas 3762: 3488:Maize played an important role in 3362:, Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources 3247: 3038:Maya lowlands and the Gulf Coast: 2060:and Zapotec cultures, centered at 1138: 140:Mesoamerica and its cultural areas 14: 8539: 6709: 6530:The Mesoamerican Indian Languages 6192:. Vol. 2. pp. 222–226. 6000:10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_10270-2 5575:Ancient Maya music now with sound 4377:from the original on Nov 7, 2023. 4328: 3874:as the morning and evening star. 2106:groups, often referred to as the 1954:in the Guatemalan highlands. The 8454: 8453: 7781:West South Central United States 6907: 6673:. Vol. 2. pp. 45–122. 6227:Ortiz de Montellano, B. (1990). 5797:from the original on 2020-08-09. 5440:from the original on 10 May 2010 5322:Sugiyama, Fash & France 2018 5186:from the original on 2021-04-14. 4746:Carmack, Gasco & Gossen 1996 4685:Carmack, Gasco & Gossen 1996 4661:Carmack, Gasco & Gossen 1996 4613:Carmack, Gasco & Gossen 1996 4561:Carmack, Gasco & Gossen 1996 4455:"The Archaeology of Mesoamerica" 4389:"The Archaeology of Mesoamerica" 4228: 4214: 4200: 3796:A small ceremonial ballcourt at 3769:Human sacrifice in Aztec culture 3692: 3499:8,000 to 10,000 years ago, then 3068:Guatemalan highlands: Obsidian ( 2068:respectively, inhabited Oaxaca. 1917:, in the Chiapas highlands, and 1672: 1637:, the subsequent capital of the 1271:Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System 581: 567: 553: 539: 525: 511: 290:, resulted in a transition from 38: 8001:Latin America and the Caribbean 7867:Latin America and the Caribbean 6463:from the original on 2018-10-08 6165:. London: Thames & Hudson. 5909:from the original on 2022-10-16 5884:(in French). Paris: Flammarion. 5841:. London: Thames & Hudson. 5615: 5600:from the original on 2021-04-10 5585:10.31390/gradschool_theses.3498 5565: 5540: 5464: 5426: 5415:from the original on 2021-10-13 5397: 5386:from the original on 2021-01-20 5368: 5357:from the original on 2021-08-17 5339: 5266: 5251: 5240:from the original on 2020-12-02 5230:de Sahagún, Bernardino (1577). 5223: 5190: 5171: 5158: 5149: 5136: 5119: 5092: 5063: 5041: 4971: 4957: 4921: 4859:from the original on 2018-05-18 4831:Franco-Gaviria, Felipe (2018). 4813:from the original on 2011-05-11 4799: 4776: 4765:from the original on 2011-04-08 4751: 4690: 4641: 4618: 4588: 4566: 4073:West: the house, the deer, the 3773:Human sacrifice in Maya culture 3114: 1753: 1399: 1313:Chronology, culture and history 1260: 783:and the practice of the ritual 629:The term was first used by the 429:In Central Mexico, the city of 49:needs additional citations for 23:. For the geographic area, see 8493:Classic period in the Americas 6746:concerning war in Mesoamerica 6650:Weaver, Muriel Porter (1993). 6112:O'Brien, Patrick, ed. (2005). 5948:Fitzsimmons, James L. (2009). 5662:(1997). William Bright (ed.). 4509:10.1093/obo/9780199766567-0194 4495:Woodfill, Brent (2018-10-25), 4488: 4467:10.1093/obo/9780199766581-0263 4447: 4431:"Mesoamerica, an introduction" 4422: 4401:10.1093/obo/9780199766581-0263 4381: 4367:"Mesoamerica, an introduction" 4358: 4306: 4135:expression was conditioned by 3311:writing systems. An extensive 2977:, the Classic period ruler of 2812: 2071:The Postclassic ends with the 1872: 1641:, during the Late Preclassic. 756:Clothing and personal articles 504:Ancient Mesoamerican sites in 1: 6114:Oxford Atlas of World History 5984:The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule 5889:Fagan, Brian M., ed. (1996). 5751:. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 4299: 4264:Hispanic and Latino Americans 3941:are associated with the four 3387: 2831:Examples of the diversity of 1523:may have preceded the Olmec. 1279:Rio Platano Biosphere Reserve 1019: 359:culture, which inhabited the 8518:Pre-Columbian cultural areas 8513:Indigenous peoples in Mexico 7463:Middle East and North Africa 7168:Middle East and North Africa 6587:10.1371/journal.pone.0202958 6379:(1st ed.). Malden, MA: 5921:Filloy Nadal, Laura (2001). 5292:10.1016/j.nrleng.2011.07.010 5279:Neurología (English Edition) 5146:of Mani, Kaua, and Chumayel. 5129:, University of New Mexico, 4895:10.1126/science.276.5314.894 4269:Indigenous peoples of Mexico 3853: 3676: 3643:Zapotec mask of the Bat God. 3294:, and they are often called 3278:has developed independently. 3264:Mesoamerican writing systems 3254:Mesoamerican writing systems 1821:settlements in the northern 1055:. The chain is historically 878: 872:number of grammatical traits 801:); use of locally developed 416:Mesoamerican writing systems 29:Mesoamerica (disambiguation) 7: 6334:School of American Research 5895:. Oxford University Press. 4965:"the kingdom of this world" 4503:, Oxford University Press, 4193: 4101:Political and religious art 4017:Later cultures such as the 3945:and linked together by the 3913:Symbolism of space and time 3781: 3720:Autosacrifice, also called 3699:Bloodletting in Mesoamerica 3589:Mesoamerican creation myths 3426:Food, medicine, and science 3139:pre-Columbian civilizations 2144:Important cultures, cities 2056:and northern Veracruz. The 457:culture, and Oaxaca by the 10: 8544: 8503:History of Central America 7756:Northeastern United States 6814:Indigenous North Americans 6758:Arqueologia Iberoamericana 6726:Museum of the Templo Mayor 6535:Cambridge University Press 6484:Šprajc, Ivan (June 2011). 6188:Mendoza, Ruben G. (2001). 5835:Diehl, Richard A. (2004). 5178:Landon, Amanda J. (2008). 5168:103.4 (2001): 935–53. Web. 4877:Roush, Wade (9 May 1997). 4809:. Abc.net.au. 2006-08-19. 4574:"Exploring the Maya World" 4497:"Mesoamerican Archaeology" 4170: 4104: 3881:and the "Observatorio" at 3785: 3766: 3702: 3696: 3596: 3582: 3391: 3251: 3157: 3118: 3061:Central Mexico: Obsidian ( 3011:Trade in Maya civilization 3008: 3004: 2819:Agriculture in Mesoamerica 2816: 2170:Agricultural settlements, 2125: 1667: 1461: 1427: 1380:that are characterized by 1316: 963:; the dominant climate is 882: 856:based on a combination of 712:Horticulture and plant use 473:of Central Mexico built a 18: 8449: 8391: 8368: 8335: 8299: 8232: 8126: 8034: 8025: 7954: 7875: 7676: 7480: 7261: 7219: 7128: 7119: 7067: 7024: 6964: 6905: 6820: 6527:Suaréz, Jorge A. (1983). 6511:10.1017/S1743921311002171 6068:Stanford University Press 5547:Houston, Stephen (2006). 5201:. New York: McGraw-Hill. 4600:Google Arts & Culture 4578:Google Arts & Culture 4289:Middle America (Americas) 4107:Category:Mesoamerican art 3705:Sacrifice in Maya culture 3519:, benefitting the maize. 3121:Mesoamerican architecture 2823:Maya diet and subsistence 2439:; Central American area: 2291:; Central American area: 2143: 2140: 2137: 1511:, and as far south as in 1450:, Guatemala, where maize 1287:Bosawas Biosphere Reserve 1061:Eje Volcánico Transversal 1040:located on the border of 935:and 1000 meters) and the 308:tradition of ball playing 219:arose independently (see 25:Middle America (Americas) 8528:Regions of North America 8242:Antarctic/Southern Ocean 7241:Transantarctic Mountains 6613:Taladoire, Eric (2001). 6430:10.1177/0096144204274396 6418:Journal of Urban History 6338:University of Utah Press 5334:Ortiz de Montellano 1990 5197:Hofmann, Albert (1980). 5075:www.mt-oceanography.info 4979:"Los Ladrones cave site" 4849:10.18268/BSGM2018v70n1a4 4697:Bierhorst, John (1990). 4630:, 2nd ed. (rev.) 2002. ( 4166: 3956:). They are as follows: 3560:). An earlier work, the 2507:Classic Veracruz culture 2435:apogee; Western Mexico: 2213:San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan 2122:Chronology in chart form 1902:The Aztec Empire in 1512 1684:viewed from atop of the 1489:San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán 1341:in what is now northern 1297:. The highlands present 885:Geography of Mesoamerica 496:Etymology and definition 424:Maya logosyllabic script 304:complex calendric system 7991:Caribbean South America 6286:Oxford University Press 5668:Oxford University Press 5572:Bourg, Cameron (2005). 5166:American Anthropologist 5114:Miller & Taube 1993 4365:Kilroy-Ewbank, Lauren. 3943:cardinal compass points 3593:Mesoamerican world tree 3579:Mythology and worldview 3548:(agglutinative form of 3538:mushrooms known to the 3313:Mesoamerican literature 2232:Central American Area: 2128:Mesoamerican chronology 1878:the Early Postclassic, 1319:Mesoamerican chronology 1120:Sierra Madre de Chiapas 1028:and within the central 793:: use of two different 7766:Southern United States 7569:Scandinavian Peninsula 6312:Sahagún, Bernardino de 6256:Palerm, Ángel (1972). 6032:Leyenaar, Ted (2001). 5880:Duverger, Ch. (1999). 4459:Latin American Studies 4393:Latin American Studies 4244:Americas (terminology) 4143:and/or sociopolitical 4128: 4124:(skull-rack) from the 3930: 3827: 3801: 3717: 3644: 3636: 3572:within their society. 3486: 3279: 3181: 3169: 3160:Mesoamerican calendars 3134: 3070:San Martin Jilotepeque 2985: 2966:Political organization 2835: 2179:Preclassic (Formative) 2073:arrival of the Spanish 1911: 1903: 1814: 1766: 1689: 1476: 1386:subsistence strategies 1346: 1180:Rio Grande de Santiago 1151: 1112:Isthmus of Tehuantepec 905: 897: 849:Danza de los Voladores 675:. In the tradition of 641:pre-Columbian cultures 626: 448:Oto-Manguean languages 418:were developed in the 406:in Guatemala, and the 365:Isthmus of Tehuantepec 221:cradle of civilization 141: 27:. For other uses, see 8247:Antarctic Convergence 7786:Western United States 6744:Selected bibliography 6320:Arthur J. O. Anderson 5260:Bulletin on Narcotics 5199:LSD, my problem child 4984:. UAC. Archived from 4114: 3920: 3807: 3795: 3788:Mesoamerican ballgame 3712: 3642: 3622: 3585:Mesoamerican religion 3583:Further information: 3524:Bernardino de Sahagún 3429: 3303:. Others include the 3286:combining the use of 3261: 3175: 3167: 3128: 2975:K'inich Kan B'alam II 2973: 2838:By roughly 6000 BCE, 2830: 2817:Further information: 2808:Other characteristics 1909: 1901: 1808: 1761: 1680: 1471: 1454:date to c. 3500 BCE. 1434:incipient agriculture 1406:hunting and gathering 1376:) generally reflects 1326: 1229:Empire, was founded. 1146: 1118:to the north and the 923:10° and 22° northern 903: 892: 785:Mesoamerican ballgame 681:archaeological theory 616: 139: 7308:Greater Central Asia 6381:Blackwell Publishing 5125:Roxanne V. Pacheco, 5101:Arqueología Mexicana 4236:Latin America portal 4188:Spanish colonization 3366:Mesoamerican codices 3199:, the phases of the 2860:agrarian communities 2511:Teuchitlan tradition 2437:Teuchitlan tradition 2358:Shaft Tomb Tradition 2330:Altar de Sacrificios 2287:; Valley of Oaxaca: 2219:; Valley of Oaxaca: 1662:shaft tomb tradition 1627:hieroglyphic writing 1458:Preclassic/Formative 1361:(or Formative), the 1283:Patuca National Park 1116:Sierra Madre del Sur 961:mountainous climates 813:; numbers (see also 361:Gulf Coast of Mexico 58:improve this article 8459:Continents of Earth 7986:Brazilian Highlands 7390:Indian subcontinent 7251:Antarctic Peninsula 7049:Southern Hemisphere 7044:Northern Hemisphere 6578:2018PLoSO..1302958S 6502:2011IAUS..260...87S 5353:. 21 October 2019. 4596:"Who Are the Maya?" 4284:Mesoamerican region 4088:, dried herbs, the 4084:South: rabbit, the 3562:Badianus Manuscript 3490:Mesoamerican feasts 3154:Calendrical systems 2981:, as depicted on a 2893:Brosimum alicastrum 2186:Unknown culture in 2134: 2110:, that include the 2020:(also known as the 1682:Pyramid of the Moon 1525:Radiocarbon samples 1473:Olmec Colossal Head 1392:period through the 1281:, Tawahka Asangni, 1277:(consisting of the 1091:in Costa Rica, and 827:Weapons and warfare 312:architectural style 159:and extends to the 21:Mesoamerican region 8523:Historical regions 8274:Great Barrier Reef 7895:Mainland Australia 7059:Western Hemisphere 7034:Eastern Hemisphere 6642:, general editor. 6479:. Wiley-Blackwell. 6095:El pasado indígena 5501:, pp. 125–26. 5475:American Southwest 4208:Mesoamerica portal 4129: 3931: 3923:Avenue of the Dead 3903:Monte Alto culture 3828: 3802: 3718: 3645: 3637: 3552:(god, sacred) and 3459:; all the world's 3309:Epi-Olmec/Isthmian 3280: 3272:La Mojarra Stela 1 3182: 3170: 3135: 3028:Pacific lowlands: 2986: 2836: 2606:Early Postclassic 2509:; Western Mexico: 2493:; Central Mexico: 2427:; Central Mexico: 2356:; Western Mexico: 2348:; Central Mexico: 2241:Middle Preclassic 2215:; Central Mexico: 2196:Monte Alto culture 2183:2000 BCE – 250 CE 2132: 2024:) were located in 1912: 1904: 1815: 1767: 1690: 1686:Pyramid of the Sun 1521:Monte Alto Culture 1477: 1475:No. 3 1200–900 BCE 1347: 1309:grows every year. 1152: 979:Cultural sub-areas 915:joining North and 906: 898: 771:: construction of 627: 519:Holy Spirit Grotto 382:In the subsequent 302:numeric system, a 142: 8475: 8474: 8355:Mediterranean Rim 8228: 8227: 8167:Mediterranean Sea 8021: 8020: 7974:Amazon Rainforest 7796:Canadian Prairies 7761:Pacific Northwest 7622:Iberian Peninsula 7598:Italian Peninsula 7407:Arabian Peninsula 7234:Antarctic Plateau 6994:Three/Four Worlds 6916: 6915: 6860:Eastern Woodlands 6680:978-0-521-35165-2 6661:978-0-01-263999-3 6632:978-0-500-05108-5 6544:978-0-521-22834-3 6407:Smith, Michael E. 6390:978-0-631-23015-1 6373:Smith, Michael E. 6347:978-0-87480-082-1 6316:Charles E. Dibble 6295:978-0-19-517611-7 6267:978-968-13-0994-7 6199:978-0-19-510815-6 6172:978-0-500-05068-2 6136:978-0-06-250528-6 6125:. San Francisco: 6104:978-968-16-4890-9 6077:978-0-8047-1927-8 6051:978-0-500-05108-5 6009:978-94-007-3934-5 5959:978-0-292-79370-5 5940:978-0-500-05108-5 5902:978-0-19-507618-9 5872:978-0-393-31755-8 5848:978-0-500-28503-9 5827:978-0-500-27722-5 5758:978-0-13-337445-2 5698:Kaufman, Terrence 5677:978-0-19-509427-5 5643:978-0-292-70587-6 5558:978-0-292-71319-2 5487:Filloy Nadal 2001 5026:, p. 126–27. 4615:, pp. 40–80. 4518:978-0-19-976656-7 4476:978-0-19-976658-1 4410:978-0-19-976658-1 4351:978-1-4443-3884-3 4179:pre-Columbian era 3368:survive from the 3203:, the periods of 2805: 2804: 2647:Late Postclassic 2517:Terminal Classic 2354:Epi-Olmec culture 2302:400 BCE – 200 CE 2223:. The Maya area: 2202:Early Preclassic 1970:and northwestern 1550:. Middle to Late 1536:Maya civilization 1509:Teopantecuanitlan 1422:projectile points 1335:Maya civilization 1225:, capital of the 1006:Yucatán Peninsula 945:tropical climates 854:religious complex 749:; harpoon-shaped 671:and northwestern 621:culture found at 384:Preclassic period 310:, and a distinct 282:, as well as the 200:pre-Columbian era 149:historical region 134: 133: 126: 108: 8535: 8457: 8456: 8436:Global Southwest 8431:Global Southeast 8421:Global Northwest 8416:Global Northeast 8406:Global Heartland 8350:Indian Ocean Rim 8032: 8031: 7924:Island Melanesia 7610:Balkan Peninsula 7385:Himalayan states 7332:Russian Far East 7126: 7125: 7054:Water Hemisphere 6943: 6936: 6929: 6920: 6919: 6911: 6910: 6803: 6796: 6789: 6780: 6779: 6775: 6749: 6740: 6731: 6704: 6698: 6694: 6692: 6684: 6665: 6640:Wauchope, Robert 6636: 6609: 6599: 6589: 6556: 6523: 6513: 6480: 6471: 6469: 6468: 6462: 6415: 6402: 6368: 6365:The Ancient Maya 6359: 6307: 6276:Restall, Matthew 6271: 6252: 6223: 6217: 6213: 6211: 6203: 6184: 6148: 6117: 6108: 6089: 6066:. Stanford, CA: 6055: 6028: 6012: 5975: 5963: 5944: 5917: 5915: 5914: 5885: 5876: 5852: 5831: 5807: 5798: 5762: 5743: 5689: 5655: 5628: 5609: 5608: 5606: 5605: 5587: 5569: 5563: 5562: 5544: 5538: 5532: 5526: 5525:, p. 87-95. 5520: 5514: 5508: 5502: 5496: 5490: 5484: 5478: 5468: 5462: 5459:Fitzsimmons 2009 5456: 5450: 5449: 5447: 5445: 5430: 5424: 5423: 5421: 5420: 5401: 5395: 5394: 5392: 5391: 5380:maya.nmai.si.edu 5372: 5366: 5365: 5363: 5362: 5343: 5337: 5336:, p. 67-71. 5331: 5325: 5319: 5313: 5312: 5294: 5270: 5264: 5263: 5255: 5249: 5248: 5246: 5245: 5227: 5221: 5220: 5194: 5188: 5187: 5175: 5169: 5162: 5156: 5153: 5147: 5140: 5134: 5123: 5117: 5111: 5105: 5104: 5096: 5090: 5089: 5087: 5086: 5077:. Archived from 5067: 5061: 5055: 5049: 5045: 5039: 5033: 5027: 5021: 5015: 5009: 5000: 4999: 4997: 4996: 4990: 4983: 4975: 4969: 4968: 4961: 4955: 4954: 4950: 4948: 4947: 4941: 4935:. Archived from 4934: 4925: 4919: 4913: 4907: 4906: 4889:(5314): 894–95. 4874: 4868: 4867: 4865: 4864: 4858: 4851: 4842:. 70, 1: 61–78. 4837: 4828: 4822: 4821: 4819: 4818: 4803: 4797: 4796: 4780: 4774: 4773: 4771: 4770: 4755: 4749: 4748:, pp. 9–11. 4743: 4737: 4731: 4725: 4719: 4713: 4712: 4694: 4688: 4682: 4676: 4670: 4664: 4658: 4652: 4645: 4639: 4624:"Meso-America", 4622: 4616: 4610: 4604: 4603: 4592: 4586: 4585: 4570: 4564: 4558: 4552: 4546: 4540: 4534: 4528: 4527: 4526: 4525: 4492: 4486: 4485: 4484: 4483: 4451: 4445: 4444: 4442: 4441: 4426: 4420: 4419: 4418: 4417: 4385: 4379: 4378: 4373:. Khan Academy. 4362: 4356: 4355: 4335: 4326: 4325: 4310: 4259:Hispanic America 4238: 4233: 4232: 4231: 4224: 4222:Geography portal 4219: 4218: 4217: 4210: 4205: 4204: 4203: 4155:, architectural 3751:held in a bowl. 3729:prismatic blades 3532:Florentine Codex 3480:, including the 3268:Epi-Olmec script 3180:of Tikal (Mutal) 2840:hunter-gatherers 2690:Peñol de Cerquin 2520:800–900/1000 CE 2299:Late Preclassic 2154:10,000–3500 BCE 2135: 2131: 1966:were in western 1853:to the east and 1801:Terminal Classic 1631:inherited status 1610:Valley of Oaxaca 1586:, among others. 1087:in El Salvador, 1026:Valley of Mexico 809:(logo-syllabic) 773:stepped pyramids 727:floating gardens 679:, the prevalent 677:cultural history 585: 571: 557: 543: 529: 515: 482:Spanish conquest 129: 122: 118: 115: 109: 107: 66: 42: 34: 8543: 8542: 8538: 8537: 8536: 8534: 8533: 8532: 8478: 8477: 8476: 8471: 8445: 8387: 8364: 8331: 8295: 8224: 8213:South China Sea 8122: 8065:Central America 8017: 7950: 7871: 7823:Northern Mexico 7811:Northern Canada 7791:Atlantic Canada 7746:Mountain states 7672: 7527:European Russia 7520:Southern Russia 7476: 7429:Iranian Plateau 7257: 7246:West Antarctica 7229:East Antarctica 7215: 7115: 7063: 7039:Land Hemisphere 7020: 6960: 6947: 6917: 6912: 6908: 6903: 6835:Northwest Coast 6816: 6807: 6770: 6747: 6738: 6729: 6712: 6707: 6696: 6695: 6686: 6685: 6681: 6662: 6633: 6572:(9): e0202958. 6545: 6466: 6464: 6460: 6413: 6391: 6348: 6296: 6268: 6241: 6215: 6214: 6205: 6204: 6200: 6173: 6137: 6105: 6078: 6060:Lockhart, James 6052: 6017:Kirchhoff, Paul 6010: 5980:Gibson, Charles 5960: 5941: 5912: 5910: 5903: 5873: 5849: 5828: 5812:Coe, Michael D. 5783: 5767:Carrasco, Davíd 5759: 5678: 5644: 5618: 5613: 5612: 5603: 5601: 5570: 5566: 5559: 5545: 5541: 5533: 5529: 5521: 5517: 5513:, p. 1-12. 5509: 5505: 5497: 5493: 5485: 5481: 5471:Taladoire (2001 5469: 5465: 5457: 5453: 5443: 5441: 5436:. May 6, 2004. 5432: 5431: 5427: 5418: 5416: 5403: 5402: 5398: 5389: 5387: 5374: 5373: 5369: 5360: 5358: 5345: 5344: 5340: 5332: 5328: 5320: 5316: 5271: 5267: 5256: 5252: 5243: 5241: 5228: 5224: 5209: 5195: 5191: 5176: 5172: 5163: 5159: 5154: 5150: 5141: 5137: 5124: 5120: 5112: 5108: 5097: 5093: 5084: 5082: 5069: 5068: 5064: 5056: 5052: 5046: 5042: 5034: 5030: 5022: 5018: 5010: 5003: 4994: 4992: 4988: 4981: 4977: 4976: 4972: 4963: 4962: 4958: 4952: 4945: 4943: 4939: 4932: 4926: 4922: 4914: 4910: 4875: 4871: 4862: 4860: 4856: 4835: 4829: 4825: 4816: 4814: 4805: 4804: 4800: 4781: 4777: 4768: 4766: 4761:. Geo.mtu.edu. 4757: 4756: 4752: 4744: 4740: 4732: 4728: 4720: 4716: 4709: 4695: 4691: 4687:, pp. 5–8. 4683: 4679: 4671: 4667: 4659: 4655: 4646: 4642: 4623: 4619: 4611: 4607: 4594: 4593: 4589: 4572: 4571: 4567: 4559: 4555: 4547: 4543: 4535: 4531: 4523: 4521: 4519: 4493: 4489: 4481: 4479: 4477: 4453: 4452: 4448: 4439: 4437: 4427: 4423: 4415: 4413: 4411: 4387: 4386: 4382: 4363: 4359: 4352: 4336: 4329: 4312: 4311: 4307: 4302: 4254:Central America 4234: 4229: 4227: 4220: 4215: 4213: 4206: 4201: 4199: 4196: 4175: 4169: 4109: 4103: 4005:, Bacab of the 3991:, Bacab of the 3977:, Bacab of the 3963:, Bacab of the 3915: 3856: 3809:Ballgame marker 3790: 3784: 3775: 3765: 3763:Human sacrifice 3733:stingray spines 3707: 3701: 3695: 3687:human sacrifice 3679: 3613: 3603:Olmec mythology 3595: 3581: 3451:, essential to 3445:Italian cuisine 3443:, now basic to 3428: 3416:concept of zero 3396: 3390: 3307:, Zapotec, and 3256: 3250: 3248:Writing systems 3162: 3156: 3123: 3117: 3095:Coastal areas: 3013: 3007: 2968: 2882:for fibers and 2825: 2815: 2810: 2221:San José Mogote 2130: 2124: 1993:(also known as 1893:Mérida, Yucatán 1875: 1867:Central America 1803: 1756: 1675: 1670: 1614:San José Mogote 1552:Preclassic Maya 1466: 1460: 1430: 1402: 1374:Late Preclassic 1321: 1315: 1263: 1231:Lake Petén Itzá 1141: 1139:Bodies of water 1038:dormant volcano 1034:Pico de Orizaba 1022: 981: 910:Middle American 908:Located on the 887: 881: 868:linguistic area 845:human sacrifice 837:Ritual and myth 811:writing systems 690:anthropological 596: 595: 594: 591: 586: 577: 572: 563: 558: 549: 544: 535: 530: 521: 516: 498: 227:in present-day 183:, and parts of 165:Central America 130: 119: 113: 110: 67: 65: 55: 43: 32: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8541: 8531: 8530: 8525: 8520: 8515: 8510: 8505: 8500: 8495: 8490: 8473: 8472: 8470: 8469: 8467:Physical Earth 8450: 8447: 8446: 8444: 8443: 8438: 8433: 8428: 8423: 8418: 8413: 8408: 8403: 8397: 8395: 8389: 8388: 8386: 8385: 8380: 8374: 8372: 8366: 8365: 8363: 8362: 8357: 8352: 8347: 8341: 8339: 8333: 8332: 8330: 8329: 8324: 8319: 8318: 8317: 8306: 8304: 8297: 8296: 8294: 8293: 8288: 8287: 8286: 8281: 8279:Mariana Trench 8276: 8266: 8261: 8259:Atlantic Ocean 8256: 8251: 8250: 8249: 8238: 8236: 8230: 8229: 8226: 8225: 8223: 8222: 8220:Southern Ocean 8217: 8216: 8215: 8210: 8208:East China Sea 8200: 8199: 8198: 8188: 8187: 8186: 8185: 8184: 8179: 8174: 8164: 8159: 8154: 8149: 8142:Atlantic Ocean 8139: 8133: 8131: 8124: 8123: 8121: 8120: 8119: 8118: 8113: 8103: 8102: 8101: 8096: 8086: 8081: 8076: 8075: 8074: 8069: 8068: 8067: 8062: 8047: 8041: 8039: 8029: 8023: 8022: 8019: 8018: 8016: 8015: 8014: 8013: 8003: 7998: 7993: 7988: 7983: 7978: 7977: 7976: 7971: 7960: 7958: 7952: 7951: 7949: 7948: 7946:Remote Oceania 7943: 7938: 7933: 7928: 7927: 7926: 7916: 7915: 7914: 7909: 7908: 7907: 7902: 7897: 7881: 7879: 7873: 7872: 7870: 7869: 7864: 7863: 7862: 7861: 7860: 7855: 7840: 7835: 7830: 7825: 7820: 7819: 7818: 7816:Western Canada 7813: 7808: 7806:Eastern Canada 7803: 7801:Central Canada 7798: 7793: 7788: 7783: 7778: 7773: 7768: 7763: 7758: 7753: 7748: 7743: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7708: 7703: 7698: 7693: 7688: 7682: 7680: 7674: 7673: 7671: 7670: 7665: 7660: 7655: 7650: 7649: 7648: 7643: 7638: 7628: 7627: 7626: 7625: 7624: 7614: 7613: 7612: 7602: 7601: 7600: 7590: 7585: 7575: 7574: 7573: 7572: 7571: 7561: 7556: 7551: 7546: 7536: 7535: 7534: 7529: 7524: 7523: 7522: 7517: 7515:South Caucasus 7512: 7510:North Caucasus 7502: 7492: 7486: 7484: 7478: 7477: 7475: 7474: 7473: 7472: 7471: 7470: 7465: 7460: 7450: 7449: 7448: 7443: 7433: 7432: 7431: 7421: 7420: 7419: 7417:South Caucasus 7409: 7399: 7398: 7397: 7392: 7387: 7377: 7376: 7375: 7370: 7360: 7355: 7354: 7353: 7348: 7338: 7337: 7336: 7335: 7334: 7319: 7318: 7317: 7312: 7311: 7310: 7295: 7294: 7293: 7288: 7286:Aralkum Desert 7283: 7273: 7267: 7265: 7259: 7258: 7256: 7255: 7254: 7253: 7243: 7238: 7237: 7236: 7225: 7223: 7217: 7216: 7214: 7213: 7212: 7211: 7206: 7201: 7200: 7199: 7194: 7184: 7174: 7173: 7172: 7171: 7170: 7165: 7160: 7155: 7140: 7134: 7132: 7123: 7117: 7116: 7114: 7113: 7112: 7111: 7101: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7085: 7084: 7077:Africa-Eurasia 7073: 7071: 7065: 7064: 7062: 7061: 7056: 7051: 7046: 7041: 7036: 7030: 7028: 7022: 7021: 7019: 7018: 7017: 7016: 7011: 7006: 7001: 6991: 6986: 6981: 6976: 6970: 6968: 6962: 6961: 6946: 6945: 6938: 6931: 6923: 6914: 6913: 6906: 6904: 6902: 6901: 6900: 6899: 6894: 6884: 6879: 6874: 6873: 6872: 6867: 6857: 6852: 6847: 6842: 6837: 6832: 6827: 6821: 6818: 6817: 6810:Cultural areas 6806: 6805: 6798: 6791: 6783: 6777: 6776: 6768: 6761: 6755: 6750: 6741: 6732: 6723: 6718: 6711: 6710:External links 6708: 6706: 6705: 6697:|journal= 6679: 6666: 6660: 6647: 6637: 6631: 6610: 6557: 6543: 6524: 6481: 6472: 6403: 6389: 6369: 6360: 6346: 6308: 6294: 6272: 6266: 6253: 6239: 6224: 6216:|journal= 6198: 6185: 6171: 6149: 6135: 6118: 6109: 6103: 6090: 6076: 6056: 6050: 6029: 6023:(in Spanish). 6021:Acta Americana 6013: 6008: 5987: 5977: 5964: 5958: 5945: 5939: 5918: 5901: 5886: 5877: 5871: 5857:Diamond, Jared 5853: 5847: 5832: 5826: 5808: 5799: 5781: 5763: 5757: 5744: 5716:10.2307/415477 5694:Campbell, Lyle 5690: 5676: 5660:Campbell, Lyle 5656: 5642: 5629: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5611: 5610: 5564: 5557: 5539: 5527: 5515: 5503: 5491: 5479: 5463: 5451: 5425: 5411:. 2018-06-21. 5409:Science | AAAS 5396: 5367: 5338: 5326: 5314: 5265: 5250: 5222: 5207: 5189: 5170: 5157: 5148: 5135: 5118: 5106: 5091: 5062: 5050: 5040: 5038:, p. 100. 5028: 5016: 5001: 4970: 4956: 4953:(10.1 KB) 4920: 4918:, p. 248. 4908: 4869: 4823: 4798: 4793:10.1101/684431 4775: 4750: 4738: 4726: 4714: 4707: 4689: 4677: 4673:Kirchhoff 1943 4665: 4653: 4640: 4617: 4605: 4587: 4565: 4553: 4551:, p. 762. 4541: 4529: 4517: 4487: 4475: 4446: 4421: 4409: 4380: 4357: 4350: 4327: 4304: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4297: 4296: 4291: 4286: 4281: 4276: 4271: 4266: 4261: 4256: 4251: 4246: 4240: 4239: 4225: 4211: 4195: 4192: 4171:Main article: 4168: 4165: 4102: 4099: 4098: 4097: 4082: 4071: 4061:xoloitzcuintle 4049: 4015: 4014: 4000: 3986: 3972: 3914: 3911: 3855: 3852: 3786:Main article: 3783: 3780: 3764: 3761: 3697:Main article: 3694: 3691: 3678: 3675: 3627:is one of the 3625:xoloitzcuintle 3611:Maya mythology 3599:Aztec religion 3580: 3577: 3556:(mushroom) in 3517:fixed nitrogen 3507:, forming the 3427: 3424: 3389: 3386: 3252:Main article: 3249: 3246: 3197:lunar eclipses 3158:Main article: 3155: 3152: 3119:Main article: 3116: 3113: 3112: 3111: 3093: 3066: 3059: 3036: 3006: 3003: 2967: 2964: 2927:. The lack of 2842:living in the 2814: 2811: 2809: 2806: 2803: 2802: 2753: 2750: 2746: 2745: 2700: 2697: 2693: 2692: 2651: 2648: 2644: 2643: 2610: 2607: 2603: 2602: 2553: 2550: 2544: 2543: 2521: 2518: 2514: 2513: 2501:; Gulf Coast: 2451: 2448: 2444: 2443: 2381: 2378: 2377:Early Classic 2374: 2373: 2370: 2367: 2361: 2360: 2352:; Gulf Coast: 2334:Piedras Negras 2303: 2300: 2296: 2295: 2245: 2242: 2238: 2237: 2206: 2205:2000–1000 BCE 2203: 2199: 2198: 2184: 2181: 2175: 2174: 2168: 2167:3500–1800 BCE 2165: 2159: 2158: 2155: 2152: 2146: 2145: 2142: 2139: 2126:Main article: 2123: 2120: 1874: 1871: 1857:to the south. 1813:, 10th century 1802: 1799: 1755: 1752: 1720:Motagua valley 1674: 1671: 1669: 1666: 1639:Zapotec empire 1554:sites include 1459: 1456: 1452:pollen samples 1429: 1426: 1420:-style fluted 1401: 1398: 1317:Main article: 1314: 1311: 1262: 1259: 1211:Lake Nicaragua 1184:Grijalva River 1176:Gulf of Mexico 1140: 1137: 1128:Gulf of Mexico 1107:in Nicaragua. 1105:Lake Cocibolca 1083:in Guatemala, 1021: 1018: 980: 977: 953:Gulf of Mexico 883:Main article: 880: 877: 876: 875: 861: 834: 824: 818: 791:Record keeping 788: 781:natural rubber 766: 753: 637:Paul Kirchhoff 604:Middle America 593: 592: 587: 580: 578: 573: 566: 564: 559: 552: 550: 545: 538: 536: 531: 524: 522: 517: 510: 508: 501: 500: 499: 497: 494: 132: 131: 46: 44: 37: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8540: 8529: 8526: 8524: 8521: 8519: 8516: 8514: 8511: 8509: 8506: 8504: 8501: 8499: 8496: 8494: 8491: 8489: 8486: 8485: 8483: 8468: 8464: 8460: 8452: 8451: 8448: 8442: 8439: 8437: 8434: 8432: 8429: 8427: 8424: 8422: 8419: 8417: 8414: 8412: 8409: 8407: 8404: 8402: 8399: 8398: 8396: 8394: 8390: 8384: 8381: 8379: 8376: 8375: 8373: 8371: 8367: 8361: 8358: 8356: 8353: 8351: 8348: 8346: 8343: 8342: 8340: 8338: 8334: 8328: 8325: 8323: 8320: 8316: 8313: 8312: 8311: 8308: 8307: 8305: 8303: 8298: 8292: 8289: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8277: 8275: 8272: 8271: 8270: 8269:Pacific Ocean 8267: 8265: 8262: 8260: 8257: 8255: 8252: 8248: 8245: 8244: 8243: 8240: 8239: 8237: 8235: 8231: 8221: 8218: 8214: 8211: 8209: 8206: 8205: 8204: 8203:Pacific Ocean 8201: 8197: 8194: 8193: 8192: 8189: 8183: 8180: 8178: 8175: 8173: 8170: 8169: 8168: 8165: 8163: 8160: 8158: 8157:Caribbean Sea 8155: 8153: 8150: 8148: 8145: 8144: 8143: 8140: 8138: 8135: 8134: 8132: 8130: 8125: 8117: 8114: 8112: 8109: 8108: 8107: 8104: 8100: 8099:by population 8097: 8095: 8092: 8091: 8090: 8087: 8085: 8082: 8080: 8077: 8073: 8072:South America 8070: 8066: 8063: 8061: 8058: 8057: 8056: 8055:North America 8053: 8052: 8051: 8048: 8046: 8043: 8042: 8040: 8038: 8033: 8030: 8028: 8024: 8012: 8009: 8008: 8007: 8006:Southern Cone 8004: 8002: 7999: 7997: 7994: 7992: 7989: 7987: 7984: 7982: 7981:Andean States 7979: 7975: 7972: 7970: 7967: 7966: 7965: 7962: 7961: 7959: 7957: 7956:South America 7953: 7947: 7944: 7942: 7939: 7937: 7934: 7932: 7929: 7925: 7922: 7921: 7920: 7917: 7913: 7910: 7906: 7903: 7901: 7898: 7896: 7893: 7892: 7891: 7888: 7887: 7886: 7883: 7882: 7880: 7878: 7874: 7868: 7865: 7859: 7856: 7854: 7851: 7850: 7849: 7846: 7845: 7844: 7841: 7839: 7836: 7834: 7831: 7829: 7826: 7824: 7821: 7817: 7814: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7804: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7792: 7789: 7787: 7784: 7782: 7779: 7777: 7774: 7772: 7769: 7767: 7764: 7762: 7759: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7713: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7699: 7697: 7694: 7692: 7689: 7687: 7684: 7683: 7681: 7679: 7678:North America 7675: 7669: 7666: 7664: 7661: 7659: 7656: 7654: 7651: 7647: 7644: 7642: 7641:Low Countries 7639: 7637: 7634: 7633: 7632: 7629: 7623: 7620: 7619: 7618: 7617:South-western 7615: 7611: 7608: 7607: 7606: 7605:South-eastern 7603: 7599: 7596: 7595: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7584: 7583:Mediterranean 7581: 7580: 7579: 7576: 7570: 7567: 7566: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7549:British Isles 7547: 7545: 7542: 7541: 7540: 7537: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7508: 7507: 7506: 7503: 7501: 7498: 7497: 7496: 7493: 7491: 7488: 7487: 7485: 7483: 7479: 7469: 7466: 7464: 7461: 7459: 7456: 7455: 7454: 7451: 7447: 7446:Levantine Sea 7444: 7442: 7439: 7438: 7437: 7434: 7430: 7427: 7426: 7425: 7422: 7418: 7415: 7414: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7404: 7403: 7400: 7396: 7393: 7391: 7388: 7386: 7383: 7382: 7381: 7378: 7374: 7371: 7369: 7366: 7365: 7364: 7361: 7359: 7356: 7352: 7349: 7347: 7344: 7343: 7342: 7339: 7333: 7330: 7329: 7328: 7325: 7324: 7323: 7320: 7316: 7313: 7309: 7306: 7305: 7304: 7301: 7300: 7299: 7296: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7278: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7268: 7266: 7264: 7260: 7252: 7249: 7248: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7235: 7232: 7231: 7230: 7227: 7226: 7224: 7222: 7218: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7202: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7190: 7189: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7179: 7178: 7175: 7169: 7166: 7164: 7161: 7159: 7156: 7154: 7151: 7150: 7149: 7146: 7145: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7138:Mediterranean 7136: 7135: 7133: 7131: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7118: 7110: 7107: 7106: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7083: 7080: 7079: 7078: 7075: 7074: 7072: 7070: 7066: 7060: 7057: 7055: 7052: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7031: 7029: 7027: 7023: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6996: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6972: 6971: 6969: 6967: 6963: 6959: 6955: 6951: 6944: 6939: 6937: 6932: 6930: 6925: 6924: 6921: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6889: 6888: 6885: 6883: 6880: 6878: 6875: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6862: 6861: 6858: 6856: 6853: 6851: 6848: 6846: 6843: 6841: 6838: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6822: 6819: 6815: 6811: 6804: 6799: 6797: 6792: 6790: 6785: 6784: 6781: 6773: 6769: 6767: 6766: 6762: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6745: 6742: 6736: 6733: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6713: 6702: 6690: 6682: 6676: 6672: 6667: 6663: 6657: 6653: 6648: 6645: 6641: 6638: 6634: 6628: 6624: 6620: 6616: 6611: 6607: 6603: 6598: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6579: 6575: 6571: 6567: 6563: 6558: 6554: 6550: 6546: 6540: 6536: 6532: 6531: 6525: 6521: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6503: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6487: 6482: 6478: 6473: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6431: 6427: 6424:(4): 403–34. 6423: 6419: 6412: 6408: 6404: 6400: 6396: 6392: 6386: 6382: 6378: 6374: 6370: 6366: 6361: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6326: 6321: 6317: 6313: 6309: 6305: 6301: 6297: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6282: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6263: 6259: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6240:0-8135-1562-9 6236: 6232: 6231: 6225: 6221: 6209: 6201: 6195: 6191: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6168: 6164: 6163: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6132: 6128: 6124: 6119: 6115: 6110: 6106: 6100: 6096: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6079: 6073: 6069: 6065: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6014: 6011: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5988: 5985: 5981: 5978: 5976:2 vols. in 3. 5973: 5969: 5968:Gamio, Manuel 5965: 5961: 5955: 5951: 5946: 5942: 5936: 5932: 5928: 5924: 5919: 5908: 5904: 5898: 5894: 5893: 5887: 5883: 5878: 5874: 5868: 5864: 5863: 5858: 5854: 5850: 5844: 5840: 5839: 5833: 5829: 5823: 5819: 5818: 5813: 5809: 5805: 5800: 5796: 5792: 5788: 5784: 5782:9780195108156 5778: 5774: 5773: 5768: 5764: 5760: 5754: 5750: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5710:(3): 530–58. 5709: 5705: 5704: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5679: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5645: 5639: 5635: 5630: 5626: 5621: 5620: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5577: 5576: 5568: 5560: 5554: 5550: 5543: 5536: 5535:Duverger 1999 5531: 5524: 5519: 5512: 5507: 5500: 5499:Leyenaar 2001 5495: 5489:, p. 30. 5488: 5483: 5476: 5472: 5467: 5460: 5455: 5439: 5435: 5429: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5400: 5385: 5381: 5377: 5371: 5356: 5352: 5348: 5342: 5335: 5330: 5323: 5318: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5293: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5269: 5261: 5254: 5239: 5235: 5234: 5226: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5208:0-07-029325-2 5204: 5200: 5193: 5185: 5181: 5174: 5167: 5161: 5152: 5145: 5139: 5132: 5128: 5122: 5116:, p. 30. 5115: 5110: 5102: 5095: 5081:on 2021-05-11 5080: 5076: 5072: 5066: 5059: 5054: 5044: 5037: 5032: 5025: 5020: 5014:, p. 25. 5013: 5008: 5006: 4991:on 2012-02-15 4987: 4980: 4974: 4966: 4960: 4942:on 2012-11-09 4938: 4931: 4924: 4917: 4912: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4873: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4841: 4834: 4827: 4812: 4808: 4802: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4779: 4764: 4760: 4754: 4747: 4742: 4735: 4730: 4723: 4718: 4710: 4704: 4700: 4693: 4686: 4681: 4674: 4669: 4662: 4657: 4650: 4644: 4637: 4636:0-19-860652-4 4633: 4629: 4628: 4621: 4614: 4609: 4601: 4597: 4591: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4569: 4563:, p. 55. 4562: 4557: 4550: 4545: 4538: 4537:Carrasco 2001 4533: 4520: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4491: 4478: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4450: 4436: 4432: 4425: 4412: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4384: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4361: 4353: 4347: 4343: 4342: 4334: 4332: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4314:"Mesoamerica" 4309: 4305: 4295: 4292: 4290: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4279:Latin America 4277: 4275: 4272: 4270: 4267: 4265: 4262: 4260: 4257: 4255: 4252: 4250: 4247: 4245: 4242: 4241: 4237: 4226: 4223: 4212: 4209: 4198: 4191: 4189: 4184: 4180: 4174: 4164: 4160: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4131:Mesoamerican 4127: 4126:Ramirez Codex 4123: 4122: 4118: 4113: 4108: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4069: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4036: 4032: 4031: 4030: 4026: 4024: 4020: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4001: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3987: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3973: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3959: 3958: 3957: 3955: 3950: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3928: 3924: 3919: 3910: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3875: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3858:Mesoamerican 3851: 3847: 3843: 3841: 3836: 3834: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3799: 3794: 3789: 3779: 3774: 3770: 3760: 3758: 3752: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3727: 3723: 3716: 3711: 3706: 3700: 3693:Autosacrifice 3690: 3688: 3684: 3683:autosacrifice 3674: 3671: 3667: 3661: 3659: 3654: 3650: 3641: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3621: 3617: 3612: 3608: 3607:Maya religion 3604: 3600: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3576: 3573: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3546: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3530:known as the 3529: 3525: 3520: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3509:Three Sisters 3506: 3502: 3498: 3493: 3491: 3485: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3423: 3421: 3417: 3411: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3398:Mesoamerican 3395: 3394:Maya numerals 3385: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3361: 3354: 3352: 3347: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3332: 3330: 3325: 3320: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3260: 3255: 3245: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3225: 3222: 3216: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3193: 3191: 3187: 3179: 3174: 3166: 3161: 3151: 3147: 3145: 3140: 3132: 3127: 3122: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3091: 3090:Motagua River 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3064: 3060: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3026: 3025: 3022: 3019: 3012: 3002: 3000: 2994: 2992: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2963: 2959: 2957: 2952: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2929:draft animals 2926: 2921: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2894: 2889: 2888:Breadnut tree 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2852:Guilá Naquitz 2849: 2845: 2841: 2834: 2829: 2824: 2820: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2754: 2752:1821–present 2751: 2749:Postcolonial 2748: 2747: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2701: 2698: 2695: 2694: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2652: 2650:1200–1521 CE 2649: 2646: 2645: 2642: 2641:Joya de Cerén 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2611: 2608: 2605: 2604: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2554: 2551: 2549: 2546: 2545: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2519: 2516: 2515: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2449: 2447:Late Classic 2446: 2445: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2379: 2376: 2375: 2371: 2368: 2366: 2363: 2362: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2304: 2301: 2298: 2297: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2255:; Maya area: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2244:1000–400 BCE 2243: 2240: 2239: 2236: 2235: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2207: 2204: 2201: 2200: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2182: 2180: 2177: 2176: 2173: 2169: 2166: 2164: 2161: 2160: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2147: 2136: 2129: 2119: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2092: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2069: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2014: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1983: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1920: 1916: 1908: 1900: 1896: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1881: 1870: 1868: 1864: 1863:Isla Cerritos 1858: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1823:Maya lowlands 1820: 1812: 1807: 1798: 1796: 1795:Maya collapse 1792: 1788: 1784: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1764: 1760: 1751: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1707: 1705: 1699: 1696: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1673:Early Classic 1665: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1642: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1615: 1611: 1606: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1587: 1585: 1581: 1580:Dzibilchaltun 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1532: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1474: 1470: 1465: 1455: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1444: 1439: 1435: 1425: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1410:North America 1407: 1397: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1370: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1333: 1332:pre-Columbian 1329: 1325: 1320: 1310: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1258: 1256: 1255:Lake Xolotlan 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1207: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1188:Motagua River 1185: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1150:in Honduras. 1149: 1145: 1136: 1133: 1132:Pacific Ocean 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1108: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1049: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1017: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 976: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 957:Caribbean Sea 954: 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 917:South America 914: 911: 902: 895: 891: 886: 873: 870:defined by a 869: 865: 862: 859: 855: 850: 846: 842: 838: 835: 832: 828: 825: 822: 819: 816: 812: 808: 804: 800: 796: 792: 789: 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 767: 765: 761: 757: 754: 752: 751:digging stick 748: 744: 740: 736: 732: 728: 724: 721: 717: 713: 710: 709: 708: 705: 703: 702:United States 699: 695: 691: 687: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 635: 632: 624: 620: 615: 611: 609: 605: 601: 590: 584: 579: 576: 570: 565: 562: 556: 551: 548: 542: 537: 534: 533:Joya de Cerén 528: 523: 520: 514: 509: 507: 503: 502: 493: 491: 487: 483: 478: 476: 472: 468: 464: 460: 456: 451: 449: 445: 444:Nahua peoples 441: 437: 432: 427: 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 380: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 353: 351: 347: 343: 339: 338: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 261: 257: 253: 248: 246: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 213: 209: 205: 201: 196: 194: 190: 186: 182: 178: 174: 170: 166: 162: 161:Pacific coast 158: 157:North America 154: 153:cultural area 150: 146: 138: 128: 125: 117: 106: 103: 99: 96: 92: 89: 85: 82: 78: 75: – 74: 73:"Mesoamerica" 70: 69:Find sources: 63: 59: 53: 52: 47:This article 45: 41: 36: 35: 30: 26: 22: 8465: / 8463:List of seas 8461: / 8426:Global South 8411:Global North 8345:Atlantic Rim 8284:Ring of Fire 8264:Indian Ocean 8254:Arctic Ocean 8196:Persian Gulf 8191:Indian Ocean 8172:Adriatic Sea 8137:Arctic Ocean 7969:Amazon Basin 7964:Amazon Plain 7936:Near Oceania 7736:Mid-Atlantic 7700: 7686:Aridoamerica 7646:Northwestern 7559:Northwestern 7532:Southeastern 7424:Greater Iran 7363:Southeastern 7358:Pacific Asia 7327:Pacific Asia 7315:Northeastern 7271:Asia–Pacific 7014:Fourth World 7004:Second World 6896: 6892:Aridoamerica 6870:Southeastern 6865:Northeastern 6763: 6748:(in Spanish) 6739:(in Spanish) 6730:(in Spanish) 6716:Maya Culture 6670: 6651: 6643: 6618: 6569: 6565: 6529: 6493: 6489: 6476: 6465:. Retrieved 6421: 6417: 6409:(May 2005). 6376: 6364: 6329: 6324: 6314:(1950–82) . 6280: 6257: 6229: 6189: 6161: 6153:Miller, Mary 6122: 6113: 6094: 6063: 6037: 6027:(1): 92–107. 6024: 6020: 5991: 5983: 5971: 5949: 5926: 5911:. Retrieved 5891: 5881: 5861: 5837: 5816: 5803: 5771: 5748: 5707: 5701: 5663: 5633: 5624: 5616:Bibliography 5602:. Retrieved 5574: 5567: 5548: 5542: 5530: 5518: 5506: 5494: 5482: 5466: 5454: 5442:. Retrieved 5428: 5417:. Retrieved 5408: 5399: 5388:. Retrieved 5379: 5370: 5359:. Retrieved 5350: 5341: 5329: 5317: 5285:(1): 42–49. 5282: 5278: 5268: 5259: 5253: 5242:. Retrieved 5232: 5225: 5198: 5192: 5173: 5165: 5160: 5151: 5144:Chilam Balam 5138: 5130: 5121: 5109: 5100: 5094: 5083:. Retrieved 5079:the original 5074: 5065: 5058:Diamond 1999 5053: 5043: 5036:Diamond 1999 5031: 5024:Diamond 1999 5019: 5012:O'Brien 2005 4993:. Retrieved 4986:the original 4973: 4959: 4944:. Retrieved 4937:the original 4923: 4911: 4886: 4882: 4872: 4861:. Retrieved 4839: 4826: 4815:. Retrieved 4801: 4778: 4767:. Retrieved 4753: 4741: 4729: 4717: 4698: 4692: 4680: 4668: 4656: 4648: 4643: 4625: 4620: 4608: 4599: 4590: 4577: 4568: 4556: 4544: 4532: 4522:, retrieved 4501:Anthropology 4500: 4490: 4480:, retrieved 4458: 4449: 4438:. Retrieved 4435:Smarthistory 4434: 4424: 4414:, retrieved 4392: 4383: 4370: 4360: 4340: 4317: 4308: 4176: 4161: 4130: 4119: 4064: 4027: 4016: 4010: 3996: 3982: 3968: 3951: 3932: 3876: 3857: 3848: 3844: 3837: 3829: 3816:Lowland Maya 3776: 3753: 3722:bloodletting 3719: 3680: 3669: 3662: 3646: 3633:Quetzalcoatl 3614: 3574: 3553: 3549: 3543: 3527: 3521: 3505:common beans 3494: 3487: 3430: 3420:Tres Zapotes 3412: 3397: 3358: 3355: 3351:Ficus amacus 3350: 3348: 3333: 3329:pictographic 3321: 3317:Latin script 3296:hieroglyphic 3284:logosyllabic 3281: 3226: 3217: 3194: 3188:and the two 3183: 3178:emblem glyph 3148: 3136: 3115:Architecture 3023: 3014: 2995: 2987: 2960: 2953: 2945:domesticated 2922: 2891: 2837: 2662:Tzintzuntzan 2654:Tenochtitlan 2609:900–1200 CE 2552:900–1519 CE 2342:Rio Amarillo 2277:Takalik Abaj 2253:Tres Zapotes 2247:Olmec area: 2234:Los Naranjos 2231: 2217:Chalcatzingo 2150:Paleo-Indian 2093: 2070: 2030:Tzintzuntzan 2015: 2007:Aztec Empire 1984: 1913: 1876: 1859: 1851:Chichen Itza 1816: 1768: 1754:Late Classic 1748:Tikal Hiatus 1708: 1700: 1691: 1643: 1607: 1588: 1533: 1501:Takalik Abaj 1497:Tres Zapotes 1478: 1441: 1431: 1403: 1400:Paleo-Indian 1371: 1351:Paleo-Indian 1348: 1275:La Mosquitia 1264: 1261:Biodiversity 1239:Lake Atitlán 1223:Tenochtitlan 1219:Lake Texcoco 1215:Lake Chapala 1208: 1172:Pasion River 1153: 1109: 1065:Popocatépetl 1050: 1030:Sierra Madre 1023: 994:Quintana Roo 982: 941:sub-tropical 936: 920: 907: 863: 843:, including 836: 826: 820: 807:hieroglyphic 803:pictographic 790: 769:Architecture 768: 755: 711: 706: 698:Oasisamerica 694:Aridoamerica 667:lowlands of 628: 623:Los Naranjos 607: 599: 597: 479: 463:Chichén Itzá 452: 428: 392:Aguada fénix 381: 354: 335: 292:paleo-Indian 249: 217:civilization 197: 144: 143: 120: 114:October 2022 111: 101: 94: 87: 80: 68: 56:Please help 51:verification 48: 8488:Mesoamerica 8441:Global West 8401:Global East 8360:Pacific Rim 8302:waterbodies 8291:World Ocean 8116:New Zealand 7996:The Guianas 7885:Australasia 7828:West Indies 7751:New England 7731:Great Lakes 7701:Mesoamerica 7588:Middle East 7564:Scandinavia 7453:Middle East 7291:Caspian Sea 7197:Great Lakes 7177:Sub-Saharan 7163:Middle East 7026:Hemispheres 7009:Third World 6999:First World 6952:'s primary 6897:Mesoamerica 6850:Great Basin 6157:Taube, Karl 5523:Šprajc 2011 5351:www.ted.com 4663:, p. . 3975:Can Tzicnal 3927:Teotihuacan 3887:El Castillo 3631:of the god 3545:teōnanācatl 3478:mathematics 3457:Indian food 3301:Maya script 3242:Mixe people 3213:astronomers 2813:Subsistence 2682:Mixco Viejo 2637:Kaminaljuyú 2548:Postclassic 2523:Maya area: 2453:Maya area: 2450:600–900 CE 2429:Teotihuacan 2393:Chunchucmil 2383:Maya area: 2380:200–600 CE 2369:200–900 CE 2350:Teotihuacan 2326:San Bartolo 2289:Monte Albán 2281:Kaminaljuyú 2269:Xunantunich 2104:Uto-Aztecan 2022:P'urhépecha 1960:El Salvador 1958:resided in 1944:Mixco Viejo 1919:Kaminaljuyú 1873:Postclassic 1724:Petén Basin 1635:Monte Albán 1603:Teotihuacán 1584:San Bartolo 1556:Kaminaljuyú 1416:blades and 1394:Postclassic 1367:Postclassic 1339:Petén Basin 1265:Almost all 1243:Lake Izabal 1196:Hondo River 1073:Mexico City 988:, southern 764:rabbit hair 723:agriculture 657:El Salvador 634:ethnologist 600:Mesoamerica 561:Casa Blanca 506:El Salvador 431:Teotihuacan 412:Monte Albán 398:in Mexico; 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