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increase in number and geographical distribution of windfarms in the coming years, more effective measures are needed to cover security blind spots, including those below the waterline. Issues around intelligence sharing among various stakeholders and governing bodies will also need to be addressed. Furthermore, such infrastructure is vulnerable to greyzone/hybrid warfare, and this should be taken into account when developing and implementing security measures. Hostile actors have already been observed surveilling EU maritime infrastructure further indicating the potential for greyzone hybrid warfare, which could potentially trigger NATO article 5. Insufficient consideration has been given to addressing these threats through robust risk assessment and fit-for-purpose security protocols to counter the risk of serious threats. In addition, a large proportion of critical parts for constructing and maintaining maritime wind and solar infrastructure is manufactured outside of the EU/NATO states, which potentially represents a supply chain risk. Cybersecurity is another important area of concern; in 2022, the German wind turbine company Nordex SE was attacked using ransomware and in the same year, following a cyberattack on the Viasat Inc. KA-SAT satellite network, the German wind turbine manufacturer
Enercon temporarily lost communication with 5,800 of its wind turbines.
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tower to gain access to the entire unit within minutes of arriving onsite. Similar access to offshore turbines involves driving to a dock or pier, loading necessary tools and supplies into boat, a voyage to the wind turbine(s), securing the boat to the turbine structure, transferring tools and supplies to and from boat to turbine and turbine to boat and performing the rest of the steps in reverse order. In addition to standard safety gear such as a hardhat, gloves and safety glasses, an offshore turbine technician may be required to wear a life vest, waterproof or water-resistant clothing and perhaps even a survival suit if working, sea and atmospheric conditions make rapid rescue in case of a fall into the water unlikely or impossible. Typically at least two technicians skilled and trained in operating and handling large power boats at sea are required for tasks that one technician with a driver's license can perform on land in a fraction of the time at a fraction of the cost.
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commonly used form of grid connections for offshore wind turbines. However, there are significant limitations that prevent HVAC from being practical, especially as the distance to offshore turbines increases. First, HVAC is limited by cable charging currents, which are a result of capacitance in the cables. Undersea AC cables have a much higher capacitance than overhead AC cables, so losses due to capacitance become much more significant, and the voltage magnitude at the receiving end of the transmission line can be significantly different from the magnitude at the generating end. In order to compensate for these losses, either more cables or reactive compensation must be added to the system. Both of these add costs to the system. Additionally, because HVAC cables have both
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800:(up to 200 nautical miles off the baseline) is not part of the State's territory but is subject to the coastal State's exclusive jurisdiction and control for selected purposes, one of which is the production of energy from winds. This means that within this zone, the coastal State has the right to install and operate offshore wind farms and to establish safety zones around them that must be respected by all ships, as long as due notice of the installation has been given. Also, neither installations nor safety zones can interfere with sea lanes that are considered essential for international navigation.
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1130:“Offshore wind energy developers are starting to respond to the lack of WTIVs capable of installing offshore wind turbines of 12 MW and greater, but there is still uncertainty regarding the ability of the global fleet to handle planned installations of offshore wind capacity by the mid-2020s (Hartkopf-Mikkelsen 2020; Rystad Energy 2020). A Tufts University analysis of global supply chain impacts on the emerging U.S. offshore wind energy market indicates that the current global WTIV fleet is unprepared to install wind turbines of 12 MW and larger (Bocklet et al. 2021).”
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reality these issues have been replicated. It has become difficult to balance environmental considerations in the planning process with relevant stakeholders such as local residents. The marine spatial planning of offshore wind farms is incredibly political, with an array of agendas and actors that seek to influence the process. However, as marine spatial planning offers a common legal framework, it has been claimed to be an overall benefit for environmental considerations to be realised in relation to offshore wind developments.
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807:. Within this zone the purpose of producing energy is not explicitly mentioned as a high seas freedom, and the legal status of offshore wind facilities is therefore unclear. In academia, it has been argued that the uncertainty of the legal status of offshore wind facilities on the high seas could become an object of interstate disputes over the rights of use. As a solution, it has been suggested that offshore wind facilities could be incorporated as a high seas freedom by being considered as ships or
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submerged in water. With one of the main reasons for interest in offshore wind power being the higher wind speeds, some of the loading differences will come from higher shearing forces between the top and bottom of the wind turbine due to differences in wind speeds. There should also be considerations for the buffeting loads that will be experienced by the waves around the base of the tower, which converges on the use of steel tubular towers for offshore wind applications.
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around 50 metres (160 ft) of sea depth. Beyond that, floating foundation turbines would be required, potentially allowing installation at depths of up to one kilometre (3,300 ft) based on currently proposed technologies. Based on an analysis of viable water depths and wind speeds over seven metres per second (23 ft/s), it has been estimated that there is over 17
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activities during periods of migration and reproduction can have disruptive impacts towards marine wildlife such as seabirds and fish. In addition, the installation of offshore wind infrastructure has been claimed to be a key impactor in the displacement of marine wildlife such as seabirds, however the available published work on this matter is limited.
634:(TW) of offshore wind technical potential in just the 50 countries studied, not including most OECD countries such as Australia, Japan, the United States or Western Europe. Well-endowed countries such as Argentina and China have almost 2 TW and 3 TW of potential respectively, illustrating the vast potential of offshore wind in such locations.
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1011:. For cathodic protection, galvanized anodes are attached to the monopile and have enough of a potential difference with the steel to be preferentially corroded over the steel used in the monopile. Some coatings that have been applied to offshore wind turbines include hot dip zinc coatings and 2-3 epoxy coatings with a polyurethane topcoat.
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connection helps transfer the loads experienced by the turbine tower to the more stable monopile foundation of the turbine. One technique for strengthening the grout used in the connections is to include weld beads known as shear keys along the length of the grout connection to prevent any sliding between the monopile and the tower.
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cable paths for the use of a minimal amount of cable materials. One way to reduce the cost of the cables used in these applications is to convert the copper conductors to aluminum conductors, however the suggested replacement brings up an issue of increased cable motion and potential damage since aluminum is less dense than copper.
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increased, a developing domain of academic research has continuously looked into a range of environmental side effects during the turbine life cycle phases of construction, operations and decommissioning. The various environmental consequences impact a range of marine species including seabirds, turtles, fish, seals, and whales.
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https://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/resultList.jsf?dswid=4151&language=en&searchType=SIMPLE&query=joanne+moss&af=%5B%5D&aq=%5B%5B%5D%5D&aq2=%5B%5B%5D%5D&aqe=%5B%5D&noOfRows=50&sortOrder=author_sort_asc&sortOrder2=title_sort_asc&onlyFullText=false&sf=undergraduate
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The
Netherlands announced on 11 February 2022 that the government increased its offshore wind target to 21 GW by 2030. That would meet approximately 75% of the countries electricity needs. With this, offshore wind energy makes an important contribution to achieving the increased climate target of 55%
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Most wind/solar infrastructure has historically not been monitored or had any concrete security measures in place; it is only in the aftermath of the Nord stream attack that companies are starting to monitor offshore wind farms using, for example, remote monitoring CCTV and drones. Given the expected
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In
November 2020, the European Commission announced the European Union Strategy on Offshore Renewable Energy to aid the target of climate change neutrality by 2050. The core part of the strategy is to expand Europe's offshore wind industry by using its role to incentivise collaboration between member
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As the offshore wind industry has evolved and expanded on a rapid scale, a number of
European Directives have been created concerning the necessary environmental considerations that must be taken into account by developers. In 2008, the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive was formed with its
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Using high-voltage direct current (HVDC) cables has been a proposed alternative to using HVAC cables. HVDC transmission cables are not affected by the cable charging currents and experience less power loss because HVDC does not transmit reactive power. With less losses, undersea HVDC lines can extend
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to drive a large hollow steel pile 25 metres (82 ft) deep into the seabed, through a 0.5-metre (20 in) layer of larger stone and gravel to minimize erosion around the pile. These piles can be four metres (13 ft) in diameter with approximately 50-millimetre (2.0 in) thick walls. A
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Since offshore wind turbines are constantly exposed to salt and water, the steel used for the monopile and turbine tower must be treated for corrosion resistance, especially at the base of the tower in the “splash zone” for waves breaking against the tower and in the monopile. Two techniques that can
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As a general rule, fixed foundation offshore wind turbines are considered technically viable in areas with water depth less than 50 metres (160 ft) and average wind speeds over 7 metres per second (23 ft/s). Floating offshore wind turbines are considered technically viable with water depths
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In 2010, the US Energy
Information Agency said "offshore wind power is the most expensive energy generating technology being considered for large scale deployment". The 2010 state of offshore wind power presented economic challenges significantly greater than onshore systems, with prices in the range
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The cost of offshore has historically been higher than that of onshore, but costs decreased to $ 78/MWh in 2019. Offshore wind power in Europe became price-competitive with conventional power sources in 2017. Offshore wind generation grew at over 30 percent per year in the 2010s. As of 2020, offshore
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relationship between offshore wind and the environment. As well as the commonly regarded considerations of wind conditions and profitability in the planning phase, the specific placement of offshore wind farms can have substantial benefits for the marine environment without harming business capital.
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Evidence suggests from a study which was conducted surrounding noise offsets from offshore wind farms that the installation process can alter the physical and behavioural processes of animals such as porpoises and seals. The welfare of seabirds is at risk due to the potential for collisions with the
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The cost of the turbine represents just one third to one half of total costs in offshore projects today, the rest comes from infrastructure, maintenance, and oversight. Costs for foundations, installation, electrical connections and operation and maintenance (O&M) are a large share of the total
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The advantage of locating wind turbines offshore is that the wind is much stronger off the coasts, and unlike wind over land, offshore breezes can be strong in the afternoon, matching the time when people are using the most electricity. Offshore turbines can also be located close to the load centers
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Because of their remote nature, prognosis and health-monitoring systems on offshore wind turbines will become much more necessary. They would enable better planning just-in-time maintenance, thereby reducing the operations and maintenance costs. According to a report from a coalition of researchers
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In order to transport the energy from offshore wind turbines to onshore energy plants, cabling has to be placed along the ocean floor. The cabling has to be able to transfer large amounts of current efficiently which requires optimization of the materials used for the cabling as well as determining
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The technical exploitable resource potential for offshore wind is a factor of the average wind speed and water depth, as it is only possible to generate electricity from offshore wind resources where turbines can be anchored. Currently, fixed foundation offshore wind turbines can be installed up to
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A 2013 review of the engineering aspects of turbines like the sizes used onshore, including the electrical connections and converters, considered that the industry had in general been overoptimistic about the benefits-to-costs ratio and concluded that the "offshore wind market doesn’t look as if it
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Research conducted in Spain found that the visual presence of offshore wind farms can decrease the demand for recreational tourism, yielding negative national and local economic consequences for coastal communities that are home to a developing offshore wind industry. However, others have regarded
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It has been noted that all forms of underwater noise from offshore developments have the capacity to reduce the survival rate of marine animals. Since 2015, there has been a surge in whale deaths across the East coast of the United States of
America. However, because construction of wind farms off
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A steel jacket structure comes from an adaptation to the offshore wind industry of concepts that have been in use in the oil and gas industry for decades. Their main advantage lies in the possibility of reaching higher depths (up to 80m). Their main limitations are due to the high construction and
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Offshore wind resources are by their nature both huge in scale and highly dispersed, considering the ratio of the planet's surface area that is covered by oceans and seas compared to land mass. Wind speeds offshore are known to be considerably higher than for the equivalent location onshore due to
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Maintenance of offshore wind farms is much more expensive than for onshore installations. For example, a single technician in a pickup truck can quickly, easily and safely access turbines on land in almost any weather conditions, exit his or her vehicle and simply walk over to and into the turbine
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As the offshore wind industry has developed, a range of environmental considerations have come to the fore concerning the spatial planning decision processes of the turbines. As demonstrated in the above section, a wide array of environmental concerns have been made in recent times concerning the
1247:(ICCP) is used to protect wind turbine monopiles and floating wind turbine platforms. ICCP systems are increasingly popular as a solution against corrosion, as they do not require on-site monitoring, and are more eco-friendly and cost-effective than traditional galvanic systems. While traditional
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There are several different types of technologies that are being explored as viable options for integrating offshore wind power into the onshore grid. The most conventional method is through high-voltage alternating current (HVAC) transmission lines. HVAC transmission lines are currently the most
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Since offshore wind turbines are located in oceans and large lakes, the materials used for the turbines have to be modified from the materials used for land based wind turbines and optimized for corrosion resistance to salt water and the new loading forces experienced by the tower being partially
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Almost all currently operating offshore wind farms employ fixed foundation turbines, with the exception of a few pilot projects. Fixed foundation offshore wind turbines have fixed foundations underwater, and are installed in relatively shallow waters of up to 50 to 60 metres (160 to 200 ft).
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In 2011, Ørsted estimated that while offshore wind turbines were not yet competitive with fossil fuels, they would be in 15 years. Until then, state funding and pension funds would be needed. At the end of 2011, there were 53 European offshore wind farms in waters off
Belgium, Denmark, Finland,
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had by far the largest capacity with 3,681 MW. Denmark was second with 1,271 MW installed and
Belgium was third with 571 MW. Germany came fourth with 520 MW, followed by the Netherlands (247 MW), Sweden (212 MW), Finland (26 MW), Ireland (25 MW), Spain (5
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While the offshore wind industry has grown dramatically over the last several decades, there is still a great deal of uncertainty associated with how the construction and operation of these wind farms affect marine animals and the marine environment. However, as the capacity of offshore wind has
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have been used in recent years for economically constructing fixed-bottom offshore wind farms in shallow-water locations. Each uses a single, generally large-diameter, foundation structural element to support all the loads (weight, wind, etc.) of a large above-surface structure. Other types are
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have been proposed for use in offshore installations. Thanks to the installation offshore and their lower center of gravity, these turbines can in principle be built bigger than horizontal axis turbines, with proposed designs of up to 20 MW capacity per turbine. This could improve the economy of
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Cost for installed offshore turbines fell 30% to $ 78/MWh in 2019, a more rapid drop than other types of renewable energy. It has been suggested that innovation at scale could deliver 25% cost reduction in offshore wind by 2020. Offshore wind power market plays an important role in achieving the
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process while incorporating strong environmental protections. Specifically, the
Department of Interior approved “wind energy areas” off the coast where projects can move through the regulatory approval process more quickly. The first offshore wind farm in the USA is the 30-megawatt, 5 turbine
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A growing expectation is that the politics of spatial planning will become increasingly complex. As renewable energy targets need to be met, it has been claimed that the development of offshore wind was largely in part to solve the political issues that onshore wind infrastructures face, yet in
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A main investor for Europe has been the
European Investment Bank. The EIB has been investing in offshore renewable energy, co-financing around 40% of all capacity in Europe. Since 2003, the EIB has sponsored 34 offshore wind projects in Europe, including facilities in Belgium, Denmark, Germany,
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One of the advancements that characterises the current development within the offshore industry are technologies that allow for offshore wind projects further off the shore where wind availability is higher. In particular, the adoption of floating foundation technologies has proved to be a
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There are also several proposed developments in North America. Projects are under development in the United States in wind-rich areas of the East Coast, Great Lakes, and Pacific coast. In January 2012, a "Smart for the Start" regulatory approach was introduced, designed to expedite the siting
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which mitigates against any adverse effects towards the marine environment by offshore wind infrastructures. The EIA was implemented as a means of preventing further disturbance towards aspects including marine organisms, the seabed and the ecosystem as a whole that are generated from critical
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Offshore wind farms tend to have larger turbines when compared to onshore installations, and the trend is towards a continued increase in size. Economics of offshore wind farms tend to favor larger turbines, as installation and grid connection costs decrease per unit energy produced. Moreover,
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The installation and deinstallation as well as the required maintenance of offshore wind structures have the potential to produce substantially negative environmental impacts towards the marine environment. The timing of such processes is key since it has been found that the presence of these
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At the end of 2015, 3,230 turbines at 84 offshore wind farms across 11 European countries had been installed and grid-connected, making a total capacity of 11,027 MW. The history of the development of wind farms in the North Sea, as regards the United Kingdom, indicates three phases: coastal,
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this link as overstated, with part of the public opinion claiming support for the physical visual presence of the turbines. This sub-issue represents how research surrounding offshore wind is still relatively novel as well as through the introduction of new claims remaining highly contested.
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For the ease of installing the towers and connecting them to the seabed, they are installed in two parts, the portion below the water surface and the portion above the water. The two portions of the tower are joined by a transition piece which is filled with a grouted connection. The grouted
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Locating wind turbines offshore exposes the units to high humidity, salt water and salt water spray which negatively affect service life, cause corrosion and oxidation, increase maintenance and repair costs and in general make every aspect of installation and operation much more difficult,
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By 2017, the installed offshore wind power capacity worldwide was 20 GW. In 2018, offshore wind provided just 0.3% of the global electricity supply. Nevertheless, just in 2018 an additional amount of 4.3 GW of offshore wind capacity was employed on a worldwide scale. In Denmark, 50% of the
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substructure system is a more recent concept developed to reach deeper waters than monopile systems, with depths up to 60 m possible. This technology consists of three monopiles linked together through a joint piece at the top. The main advantage of this solution is the simplicity of the
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The threat of invasive species has been noted as a significant environmental risk from offshore wind acting as a suitable home. The impacts can include the possible destabilisation of biodiversity due to the presence of alien species causing the extinction of other forms of marine life.
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in bodies of water, usually at sea. There are higher wind speeds offshore than on land, so offshore farms generate more electricity per amount of capacity installed. Offshore wind farms are also less controversial than those on land, as they have less impact on people and the landscape.
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Offshore wind projects in the United States cost US$ 4,000 per kilowatt to build in 2023, compared to US\$ 1,363 per kilowatt for onshore wind farms. The cost of offshore wind has increased by 36% since 2019, while the cost of onshore wind has increased by only 5% over the same period.
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infrastructure such as offshore wind installations. If the development of an offshore wind infrastructure fails to comply with the measures associated with an EIA, the operator is obliged to compensate the environment in another aspect in order to nullify the damage it may create.
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the absence of land mass obstacles and the lower surface roughness of water compared to land features such as forests and savannah, a fact that is illustrated by global wind speed maps that cover both onshore and offshore areas using the same input data and methodology. For the
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flowing through them, there can be additional losses. Because of these losses, underground HVAC lines are limited in how far they can extend. The maximum appropriate distance for HVAC transmission for offshore wind power is considered to be around 80 kilometres (50 mi).
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As private offshore wind developers have become increasingly aware of the environmental side-effects, a turn to more sustainable methods of construction have occurred. This can be seen through partnerships with charities and local communities. In 2022, it was announced that
282:(GWEC) anticipates a significant expansion, projecting an additional 380 GW by 2032 to reach a total of 447 GW. However, market challenges in Europe and the US could slow progress, with only a third of the anticipated capacity expected to be installed between 2023 and 2027.
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turbines, as well as causing the birds to adjust their travel routes which can significantly impact their endurance as a migratory specie. Alongside this, the presence of offshore wind farms may cause seabirds to change their behaviour due to the visual and noise offsets.
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along the coasts, such as large cities, eliminating the need for new long-distance transmission lines. However, there are several disadvantages of offshore installations, related to more expensive installation, difficulty of access, and harsher conditions for the units.
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Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom, with an operating capacity of 3,813 MW, while 5,603 MW was under construction. Offshore wind farms worth €8.5 billion ($ 11.4 billion) were under construction in European waters in 2011.
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has begun to incorporate environmental protections into its procedures. In 2022, the Scottish government published a study outlining a mathematical formula for its own collision risk model which calculated the potential for seabirds to collide into wind turbines.
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Beyond 2022 there is expected to be a shortage of offshore wind turbine installation vessels (WTIVs), especially those capable of installing 10 MW+ turbines, with demand for vessels capable of installing offshore wind turbines projected to outpace supply by 2024.
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Röckmann C., Lagerveld S., Stavenuiter J. (2017) Operation and Maintenance Costs of Offshore Wind Farms and Potential Multi-use Platforms in the Dutch North Sea. In: Buck B., Langan R. (eds) Aquaculture Perspective of Multi-Use Sites in the Open Ocean. Springer,
720:) platform motions and turbine motions, as well as the dynamic characterization of mooring lines for floating systems. Foundations and substructures make up a large fraction of offshore wind systems, and must take into account every single one of these factors.
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As the first offshore wind farms reach their end of life, a demolition industry develops to recycle them at a cost of DKK 2-4 million ($ 300,000-600,000 USD) roughly per MW, to be guaranteed by the owner. The first offshore wind farm to be decommissioned was
782:(United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea) which regulates the rights and responsibilities of the States in regard to the use of the oceans. The maritime zone in which the offshore wind turbines are located determines which regulatory rules apply.
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Because of the many factors involved, one of the biggest difficulties with offshore wind farms is the ability to predict loads. Analysis must account for the dynamic coupling between translational (surge, sway, and heave) and rotational (roll, pitch, and
505:, from $ 207/MWh to $ 64/MWh. These cost estimates are based on projections that anticipate a ninefold increase in global offshore wind energy deployment, supported by advancements in infrastructure such as supply chains, ports, and transmission systems.
763:, many of these phases have been deliberately streamlined by authorities in order to minimize hurdles, and this policy has been extended for coastal wind farms with a concept called ’one-stop-shop’. The United States introduced a similar model called
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is expected to become a major source of energy for countries in the region. According to the Marienborg Declaration, signed in 2022, all EU Baltic Sea states have announced their intentions to have 19.6 gigawatts of offshore wind in operation by 2030.
1369:. Such reefs can indirectly facilitate the diversification of marine organisms, thus a variety of species can thrive. However, offshore wind farms have the ability to harm marine habitats due to an interference with the sediment on top of the seabed.
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Operation and maintenance costs typically represent 53% of operational expenditures, and 25% - 30% of the total lifecycle costs for offshore wind farms. O&Ms are considered one of the major barriers for further development of this resource.
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Corrosion is also a serious problem and requires detailed design considerations. The prospect of remote monitoring of corrosion looks very promising, using expertise utilised by the offshore oil/gas industry and other large industrial plants.
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wind power had become a significant part of northern Europe power generation, though it remained less than 1 percent of overall world electricity generation. A big advantage of offshore wind power compared to onshore wind power is the higher
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the coast of New Jersey has not begun as of August 2023, it is unlikely that these whale deaths are linked to offshore wind; rather, vessel strikes and fishing net entanglements are the more likely culprit of these deaths according to NOAA.
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facilities have been specifically built in the regions with high concentration of offshore wind developments. For large offshore wind farm projects, offshore wind ports become strategic hubs of the supply chain for the installations.
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Outside of Europe, the Chinese government had set ambitious targets of 5 GW of installed offshore wind capacity by 2015 and 30 GW by 2020 that would eclipse capacity in other countries. However, in May 2014 the capacity of
1274:), making field data from these turbines available would be invaluable in validating complex analysis codes used for turbine design. Reducing this barrier would contribute to the education of engineers specializing in wind energy.
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had developed a global partnership which aims to promote an increase in offshore wind infrastructure projects whilst also ensuring that beneficial impacts for biodiversity must be promoted and prioritised. Offshore wind provider
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France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and the United Kingdom, totaling more over €10 billion in loans. The EIB funded €3.7 billion in maritime renewable energy between 2019 and 2023 and has future plans for financing of wind farms.
756:(EU), different national standards are to be streamlined into more cohesive guidelines to lower costs. The standards require that a loads analysis is based on site-specific external conditions such as wind, wave and currents.
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6%. About 12 GW of offshore wind power capacity was operational, mainly in Northern Europe, with 3,755 MW of that coming online during 2015. As of 2020 90% of the offshore global market was represented by European companies.
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Monopiles up to 11 metres (36 ft) diameter at 2,000 tonnes can be made, but the largest so far are 1,300 tons which is below the 1,500 tonnes limit of some crane vessels. The other turbine components are much smaller.
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By January 2014, 69 offshore wind farms had been constructed in Europe with an average annual rated capacity of 482 MW. The total installed capacity of offshore wind farms in European waters reached 6,562 MW. The
501:(NREL) forecast a reduction in offshore wind energy costs by 2035. They estimate that the levelized cost for fixed-bottom offshore wind will decrease from $ 75 per megawatt-hour (MWh) in 2021 to $ 53/MWh in 2035, and for
1070:) are used to install foundation and turbine. As of 2019 the next generation of vessels are being built, capable of lifting 3–5,000 tons to 160 metres (520 ft). The large components can be difficult to install, and
1241:. To limit the effects of corrosion on the blades of a wind turbine, a protective tape of elastomeric materials is applied, though the droplet erosion protection coatings provide better protection from the elements.
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meaning that an installation of given nameplate capacity will produce more electricity at a site with more consistent and stronger wind which is usually found offshore and only at very few specific points onshore.
708:(AUV), and remote satellite sensing, although these technologies should be assessed and refined, according to a report from a coalition of researchers from universities, industry, and government, supported by the
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494:(IRENA). This rise contrasts with the declining trend observed in other renewable energy sources such as onshore wind and solar photovoltaics (PV), despite the upward trend in materials and equipment costs.
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Moss, Joanne “Critical perspectives: North Sea offshore wind farms.: Oral histories, aesthetics and selected legal frameworks relating to the North Sea.” (2021, Master’s Thesis, Uppsala University, Sweden)
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Other limitations of offshore wind power are related to the still limited number of installations. The offshore wind industry is not yet fully industrialized, as supply bottlenecks still exist as of 2017.
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per unit of electricity generated, comparable to that of onshore wind farms. Offshore installations also have the advantage of limited impact of noise and on the landscape compared to land-based projects.
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includes inshore water areas such as lakes, fjords and sheltered coastal areas as well as deeper-water areas. Most offshore wind farms employ fixed-foundation wind turbines in relatively shallow water.
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2644:(Facilitating Offshore Wind in India) to identify potential zones for development of off-shore wind power in India and to stimulate R & D activities in this area. In 2014 FOWIND commissioned
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Offshore windfarms, including floating windfarms, provide a small but growing fraction of total windfarm power generation. Such power generation capacity must grow substantially to help meet the
5525:"Renewable energy from the high seas: Geo-spatial modelling of resource potential and legal implications for developing offshore wind projects beyond the national jurisdiction of coastal States"
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A maintenance organization performs maintenance and repairs of the components, spending almost all its resources on the turbines. The conventional way of inspecting the blades is for workers to
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The planning and permitting phase can cost more than $ 10 million, take 5–7 years and have an uncertain outcome. The industry is putting pressure on governments to improve the processes. In
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By 2050, the expectation is that the installed offshore wind power capacity will reach 1550 GW on a worldwide scale. Compared to the capacity of 2017 that corresponds to an 80-fold increase.
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973:, commissioned in October 2017, is the first operational floating wind farm, with a capacity of 30 MW. Other kinds of floating turbines have been deployed, and more projects are planned.
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1102:, cable ducts for sub-marine cables, turbine tower flange, etc.) is attached to the now deeply driven pile, the sand and water are removed from the centre of the pile and replaced with
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As of 2020, energy production from winds on the high seas is not yet technically feasible due to the difficulties that follow from deeper water. However, the advancing technology of
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much farther than HVAC. This makes HVDC preferable for siting wind turbines very far offshore. However, HVDC requires power converters in order to connect to the AC grid. Both
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Offshore wind turbine components are large. Transporting of components between manufacturing and assembling facilities before the installation is to be minimized. As a result,
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For locations with depths over about 60–80 m, fixed foundations are uneconomical or technically unfeasible, and floating wind turbines anchored to the ocean floor are needed.
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for offshore installations compared to onshore wind farms. The cost of installation and electrical connection also increases rapidly with distance from shore and water depth.
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384:(OECD) predicted in 2016 that offshore wind power will grow to 8% of ocean economy by 2030, and that its industry will employ 435,000 people, adding $ 230 billion of value.
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electricity was supplied by wind energy in 2018 out of which 15% was offshore. The average size of turbines installed was 6.8 MW in 2018, 7.2 MW in 2019 and 8.2 MW in 2020.
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278:
In 2022, the offshore wind industry marked its second-largest yearly growth, adding 8.8 GW and increasing global capacity to 64.3 GW—a 16% rise from the previous year. The
5150:
838:
Estimated technical potential for fixed and floating offshore wind in Vietnam in terms of installed power capacity in megawatts (MW) within 200 kilometers of the shoreline
8169:
1974:
1562:
7730:
8659:
6427:
5942:
2645:
548:
Operational expenditures for wind farms are split between Maintenance (38%), Port Activities (31%), Operation (15%), License Fees (12%), and Miscellaneous Costs (4%).
4450:
2274:
1637:
8208:
7183:
2510:
1177:
have been considered for this. Although LCCs are a much more widespread technology and cheaper, VSCs have many more benefits, including independent active power and
5013:
7956:
4694:
2360:
2049:
6356:
Torres-Olguin, Raymundo; Molinas, Marta; Undeland, Tore (October 2012). "Offshore Wind Farm Grid Integration by VSC Technology With LCC-Based HVDC Transmission".
5720:
2199:
1790:
8314:
490:
In 2022, the cost of electricity from new offshore wind projects increased from USD 0.079/kWh to USD 0.081/kWh compared to the previous year, as reported by the
6548:
5066:
4912:
2618:
announced its two wind turbine pilot program that will be 27 miles offshore from Virginia Beach. The area is undergoing a survey that will last for 4–6 weeks.
2435:
381:
923:
installation, which is done by installing the three monopiles and then adding the upper joint. The larger base also decreases the risk of getting overturned.
778:
The installation and operation of offshore wind turbines are regulated in both national and international law. The relevant international legal framework is
8371:
1715:
1197:, will give ships access to renewable energy while at sea. Connecting ships to electricity generated by offshore wind farms, the system is designed to cut
3713:
1258:
down the blade, taking a day per turbine. Some farms inspect the blades of three turbines per day by photographing them from the monopile through a 600mm
5978:
1865:
859:
provides an estimate of technical potential for that country for both fixed foundation and floating offshore wind turbines according to the water depth.
225:
is going to be big". In 2013, offshore wind power contributed to 1,567 MW of the total 11,159 MW of wind power capacity constructed that year.
4365:
5524:
5390:
4645:
8292:
4969:
2739:
891:. Offshore turbines require different types of bases for stability, according to the depth of water. To date a number of different solutions exist:
6832:
Bergström, Lena; Kautsky, Lena; Malm, Torleif; Rosenberg, Rutger; Wahlberg, Magnus; Capetillo, Nastassja Åstrand; Wilhelmsson, Dan (19 March 2014).
6404:"These floating charging points will let ships draw electricity from offshore wind farms – and could recharge battery-powered vessels of the future"
6403:
4064:
3990:
681:
Water depth, currents, seabed, migration, and wave action, all of which drive mechanical and structural loading on potential turbine configurations.
487:
offshore wind farms do not have the same restriction in size of onshore wind turbines, such as availability of land or transportation requirements.
5626:
3169:
1106:. An additional layer of even larger stone, up to 0.5 m diameter, is applied to the surface of the seabed for longer-term erosion protection.
8446:
7443:
7022:"The factors affecting stakeholders' acceptance of offshore wind farms along the western coast of Taiwan: Evidence from stakeholders' perceptions"
6603:
6255:
5387:"N.J. must make wind farm permitting process as quick and easy as possible | Commentary | NewJerseyNewsroom.com - Your State. Your News"
4535:
4222:
3949:
395:. The development of the full potential of Europe's offshore wind energy is one of the key actions in the Clean Energy section of the Green Deal.
8012:
4305:
1251:
cathodic protection (GACP) systems operate on the natural driving force between two metals, ICCP systems use a continuous external power source.
779:
5832:
4015:
2807:
1430:
8348:
6424:
6090:
4423:
3567:
3444:
895:
Most foundations are monopile (single column) base, six metres (20 ft) in diameter, is used in waters up to 30 metres (100 ft) deep.
4090:
1178:
6001:
5958:
3795:
1349:
states, publish guidance surrounding the role of wind development in light of EU law as well as to support various private-public projects.
1237:
is more important than for an onshore turbine. Some wind farms located far from possible onshore bases have service teams living on site in
4886:
435:
the sealed nacelle. Sustained high-speed operation and generation also increases wear, maintenance and repair requirements proportionally.
8634:
7883:
6237:
6059:
6026:
7158:
4346:
6883:"Environmental impacts of offshore wind installation, operation and maintenance, and decommissioning activities: A case study of Brazil"
6219:
5809:
6881:
C, O. Mauricio Hernandez; Shadman, Milad; Amiri, Mojtaba Maali; Silva, Corbiniano; Estefen, Segen F.; La Rovere, Emilio (1 July 2021).
8037:
7990:
7792:
5344:
2629:
approximately 20 km from shore and over 400 MW in capacity. Other Canadian projects include one on the Pacific west coast.
1336:
declared a fifteen million pound investment package into the local area of Norfolk in order to support climate change based projects.
221:
of an offshore wind turbine in Europe was about 3 MW, and the capacity of future turbines was expected to increase to 5 MW.
7651:
6518:
6146:
5282:
4280:
8087:
5742:
360:
7108:
5759:
4496:
3825:
1271:
709:
674:
It is necessary to obtain several types of information in order to plan the commissioning of an offshore wind farm. These include:
7905:
7810:
4939:
2632:
India is looking at the potential of offshore wind power plants, with a 100 MW demonstration plant being planned off the coast of
8985:
1954:
1489:
8598:
5412:
5142:
4825:
770:
In the EU, the revised Renewable Energy Directive of 2018 has simplified the permitting process to help initiate wind projects.
8415:
8180:
6630:"Environmental impact assessment framework for offshore wind energy developments based on the marine Good Environmental Status"
4594:
2875:
2841:
2773:
17:
8498:
5341:"NYT Nordsø-samarbejde kan gøre Nordsøen til Silicon Valley for havvindmøller | Energi-, Forsynings- og Klimaministeriet"
4115:
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8695:
8670:
8143:
5902:
5648:
4604:
3039:
1244:
491:
8258:
8117:
7843:
1181:. New research has been put into developing hybrid HVDC technologies that have a LCC connected to a VSC through a DC cable.
8768:
8620:
8205:
5326:
4723:
Sun, Xiaojing; Huang, Diangui; Wu, Guoqing (May 2012). "The current state of offshore wind energy technology development".
4460:
3546:
3005:
2705:
498:
248:
7133:
6936:
5116:
3612:
431:
time-consuming, more dangerous and far more expensive than sites on land. The humidity and temperature is controlled by
7237:"The impact of offshore wind farms on beach recreation demand:Policy intake from an economic study on the Catalan coast"
6294:
4686:
738:
Moreover, as power generation efficiency of wind farms downwind of offshore wind farms was found to decrease, strategic
9005:
8990:
5717:
4799:
4667:
4481:
Will Wade and Jennifer A Dlouhy. Bloomberg reporters. (7 September 2023). "US Offshore Wind Slammed by Runaway Costs".
1304:
1284:
898:
Conventional steel jacket structures, as used in the oil and gas industry, in water 20–80 metres (70–260 ft) deep.
597:
In September 2018 contracts were awarded for Vineyard Wind, Massachusetts, USA at a cost of between $ 65-$ 74 per MWh.
8318:
5429:
4325:
3467:
8228:
7333:"The case for offshore wind farms, artificial reefs and sustainable tourism in the French mediterranean[sic]"
7067:
Koschinski, S.; Culik, BM; Damsgaard Henriksen, O.; Tregenza, N.; Ellis, G.; Jansen, C.; Kathe, G. (1 January 2003).
6556:
6335:
5468:
1460:
655:
238:
off-coastal and deep offshore in the period 2004 through to 2021. Through the development of offshore wind power the
4517:
7444:"Over the Sea and Far Away? A Consideration of the Planning, Politics and Public Perception of Offshore Wind Farms"
5265:
4860:
4309:
4137:
1067:
251:
was only 565 MW. Offshore capacity in China increased by 832 MW in 2016, of which 636 MW were made in China.
6148:
Supply chain, port infrastructure and logistics study for offshore wind farm development in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu
5199:"Accelerating deployment of offshore wind energy alter wind climate and reduce future power generation potentials"
2648:
to undertake pre-feasibility studies in eight zones in Tamil Nadu which have been identified as having potential.
391:
expects that offshore wind energy will be of increasing importance in the future, as offshore wind is part of its
8823:
4551:
4482:
1341:
642:
51:
8062:
7069:"Behavioural reactions of free-ranging porpoises and seals to the noise of a simulated 2 MW windpower generator"
5463:
1365:
A significant positive environmental impact of offshore wind installations is the potential for the creation of
7861:
7828:
7669:
5492:
4531:
3724:
1209:
502:
8390:"America Is Finally Getting Its First Offshore Wind Farm. Conservatives Are Trying to Make Sure It's the Last"
935:
9082:
7476:
7292:"The Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms (OWFs) on Local Tourism and Recreation -- Evolving Lessons from Practice"
6789:
1019:
990:
scale of offshore wind farms. However, no large-scale demonstrations of this technology have been installed.
705:
626:/m of sea area, per year, delivered to grid. The energy per sea area is roughly independent of turbine size.
8545:
4991:
9244:
8933:
7501:"Wind power, landscape and strategic, spatial planning—The construction of 'acceptable locations' in Wales"
5089:
3417:
982:
348:
Some major U.S. projects have been stymied due to inflation even after subsidies became available from the
8723:
6491:
6174:
1170:
1043:
981:
Although the great majority of onshore and all large-scale offshore wind turbines currently installed are
529:
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9204:
9114:
9092:
8865:
3397:
2321:
2104:
2029:
1695:
1483:
1174:
1093:
The typical construction process for a wind turbine sub-sea monopile foundation in sand includes using a
667:
365:
334:
7548:"The politics of Estonia's offshore wind energy programme: Discourse, power and marine spatial planning"
6014:
On Kaskasi, Seaway 7 also utilised .. vibro pile driving technology to reduce underwater noise emissions
3497:
1161:
883:, tripod, and jacketed, with various foundations at the sea floor including monopile or multiple piles,
8938:
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7209:
3654:
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1328:
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986:
728:
279:
210:
7596:
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7021:
6882:
6696:
9139:
8888:
8389:
5746:
3550:
2415:
580:
338:
5197:
Akhtar, Naveed; Geyer, Beate; Rockel, Burkhardt; Sommer, Philipp S.; Schrum, Corinna (3 June 2021).
5097:
5042:
171:
9159:
8761:
8340:
4620:
4427:
3441:
2611:
1442:
1310:
1292:
1198:
1193:
An offshore electricity recharging system named Stillstrom, to be launched by Danish shipping firm
954:
685:
579:
3&4 due to government tender and size, and €49.90 per MWh (without transmission) at the 600 MW
8038:"Borssele 3 and 4 - Blauwwind - Under Construction Offshore Wind Farm - Netherlands | 4C Offshore"
9218:
4455:
2580:
1398:
1263:
1234:
1087:
884:
797:
651:
414:
349:
333:
Costs of offshore wind power are decreasing much faster than expected. By 2016, four contracts (
7685:"Maritime Security and the Wind. Threats and Risks to renewable energy infrastructures offshore"
6695:
Vaissière, Anne-Charlotte; Levrel, Harold; Pioch, Sylvain; Carlier, Antoine (1 September 2014).
5776:
9154:
9149:
8913:
7597:"Planners to the rescue: Spatial planning facilitating the development of offshore wind energy"
6089:
Tziavos, Nikolaos I.; Hemida, Hassan; Metje, Nicole; Baniotopoulos, Charalampos (8 June 2016).
6067:
6034:
2596:
1238:
1148:
1008:
793:
and therefore, the regulation of offshore wind turbines are fully under national jurisdiction.
7710:
Gupte, Eklavya; Elliott, Stuart; Edwardes-Evans, Henry; Griffin, Rosemary (20 February 2023).
7370:
Punt, Maarten J.; Groeneveld, Rolf A.; van Ierland, Ekko C.; Stel, Jan H. (15 November 2009).
6963:"Artificial reef effect in relation to offshore renewable energy conversion: state of the art"
4037:
3542:
8948:
8943:
8908:
8893:
8860:
8803:
8798:
7159:"Assessing the Impact of Underwater Sounds on Fishes and Other Forms of Marine Life | Tethys"
6578:
4760:"Is the supply chain ready for the green transformation? The case of offshore wind logistics"
3586:"After a decade of dithering, the US east coast went all in on offshore wind power this week"
3402:
2626:
2621:
Canadian wind power in the province of Ontario is pursuing several proposed locations in the
1530:
1438:
944:
888:
815:
121:
86:
47:
6579:"WWF and Ørsted in new global partnership to unite action on climate and ocean biodiversity"
6318:
Anaya-Lara, Olimpo; Campos-Gaona, David; Moreno-Goytia, Edgar; Adam, Grain (10 April 2014).
3879:
834:
8995:
8898:
8808:
8793:
8571:
7982:
7608:
7512:
7455:
7383:
7248:
7080:
7033:
6894:
6845:
6755:
6708:
6641:
6462:
6365:
6098:
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Engineering and Computational Mechanics
5931:
5682:
5539:
5449:
5210:
4771:
4732:
4240:
1770:
804:
605:
7793:"EU-NATO Task Force on the resilience of critical infrastructure: Final assessment report"
7712:"Dutch intelligence warns of Russian sabotage against its key maritime, energy facilities"
6526:
4913:"Tender design, output gains key to DONG's record-low Borssele 1&2 offshore bid price"
1225:
Turbines are much less accessible when offshore (requiring the use of a service vessel or
1214:
8:
9192:
9144:
9102:
8977:
8903:
8855:
8754:
7372:"Spatial planning of offshore wind farms: A windfall to marine environmental protection?"
5673:
Perez-Collazo, C (2 January 2015). "A review of combined wave and offshore wind energy".
5577:
4577:
4205:
4188:
1099:
1098:
transition piece (complete with pre-installed features such as boat-landing arrangement,
1082:
1078:
has also been used to keep the vibrating pile driver steady when installing foundations.
1075:
1004:
919:
904:
392:
388:
120:
was the world's largest offshore wind farm. Other projects in the planning stage include
7612:
7516:
7459:
7387:
7252:
7084:
7037:
6898:
6849:
6759:
6712:
6645:
6466:
6369:
5686:
5543:
5214:
4775:
4736:
3514:
2665:
List of countries by cumulative installed offshore wind power capacity at year end (MW)
1324:
300:
8928:
7855:
7822:
7663:
7577:
7481:
7313:
7272:
7235:
Voltaire, Louinord; Loureiro, Maria L.; Knudsen, Camilla; Nunes, Paulo A. L. D (2017).
6997:
6962:
6918:
6863:
6858:
6833:
6771:
6697:"Biodiversity offsets for offshore wind farm projects: The current situation in Europe"
6677:
6381:
6121:
5555:
5239:
5198:
3412:
1509:
1114:
842:
786:
255:
218:
93:
7291:
7210:"Researchers are looking for answers amid spike in beached whales at the Jersey Shore"
6293:
Daniel, John; Liu, Shu; Ibanez, Eduardo; Pennock, Ken; Reed, Gregory; Hanes, Spencer.
3679:
254:
The offshore wind construction market remains quite concentrated. By the end of 2015,
209:
Europe is the world leader in offshore wind power, with the first offshore wind farm (
9211:
9180:
8835:
7774:
7632:
7624:
7569:
7528:
7524:
7485:
7399:
7352:
7317:
7276:
7264:
7049:
7002:
6984:
6922:
6910:
6775:
6743:
6724:
6681:
6669:
6331:
6125:
6113:
5908:
5898:
5559:
5416:
5321:
5244:
5226:
5014:"First Large US Offshore Wind Project Sets Record-Low Price Starting at $ 74 per MWh"
4600:
4527:
3829:
2603:
and marine biologists believe the bases of the five, 6-megawatt wind turbines off of
1617:
1542:
808:
610:
369:
113:
8423:
7620:
7581:
7045:
6867:
6385:
789:(up to 12 nautical miles from the baseline of the coast) the coastal State has full
9024:
8495:
7764:
7692:
7616:
7559:
7520:
7471:
7463:
7395:
7391:
7344:
7303:
7256:
7088:
7041:
6992:
6974:
6902:
6853:
6834:"Effects of offshore wind farms on marine wildlife—a generalized impact assessment"
6763:
6716:
6659:
6649:
6470:
6373:
6323:
6105:
5698:
5690:
5547:
5234:
5218:
4779:
4740:
3899:"Wind in power 2013 European statistics" The European Wind Energy Association, 2014
3859:
2490:
2254:
1023:
Several foundation structures for offshore wind turbines in the port of Bremerhaven
659:
432:
8147:
7348:
7020:
Chen, Jyun-Long; Liu, Hsiang-Hsi; Chuang, Ching-Ta; Lu, Hsueh-Jung (1 June 2015).
5929:
Black, Anders Rosborg; Mathiesen, Troels; Hilbert, Lisbeth Rischel (12 May 2015).
5863:
2566:
1007:
and the use of coatings to reduce corrosion pitting, which is a common source for
594:
of £57.50 per MWh making the price cheaper than nuclear and competitive with gas.
167:
9134:
9129:
9087:
8502:
8262:
8212:
7260:
6720:
6475:
6450:
6431:
5724:
5627:"Offshore wind foundation shift hinges on serial build gains | New Energy Update"
5303:
5172:
5093:
5034:
4744:
4393:
4389:
4329:
4287:
3448:
2615:
2600:
2179:
1366:
1152:
970:
867:
739:
267:
133:
7729:
Monaghan, Sean; Svendsen, Otto; Darrah, Michael; Arnold, Ed (19 December 2023).
7696:
7684:
5551:
742:
may need to consider – cross-national – limits and potentials for optimization.
9109:
9097:
9046:
8013:"Ørsted fully commissions Borssele 1 & 2 offshore wind farm in Netherlands"
6906:
6654:
6629:
5728:
5694:
5444:
5222:
4784:
4759:
4368:
3864:
3847:
3407:
2353:
2267:
2192:
1858:
1783:
1708:
1682:
1630:
1555:
1259:
1248:
753:
717:
647:
587:
373:
319:
230:
117:
105:
80:
Unlike the typical use of the term "offshore" in the marine industry, offshore
7467:
7331:
Westerberg, Vanja; Jacobsen, Jette Bredahl; Lifran, Robert (1 February 2013).
6377:
6327:
5366:
4887:"Oil & Gas Giant to Build Dutch Borssele III & IV Offshore Wind Farms"
9238:
9223:
9077:
8918:
7778:
7769:
7752:
7628:
7573:
7564:
7547:
7532:
7403:
7356:
7268:
7134:"Displacement of seabirds by an offshore wind farm in the North Sea | Tethys"
7053:
6988:
6937:"Displacement of seabirds by an offshore wind farm in the North Sea | Tethys"
6914:
6728:
6673:
6273:
6117:
5912:
5307:
5230:
4522:
2610:
Another offshore wind farm that is in the planning phase is off the coast of
2526:
2512:
2451:
2437:
2376:
2362:
2290:
2276:
2215:
2201:
2140:
2126:
2065:
2051:
1990:
1976:
1881:
1867:
1806:
1792:
1731:
1717:
1653:
1639:
1578:
1564:
1333:
847:
623:
569:
112:(13%) account for more than 75% of the global installed capacity. The 1.4 GW
6496:
6295:"National Offshore Wind Energy Grid Interconnection Study Executive Summary"
5046:
4497:"Floating wind turbines could open up vast ocean tracts for renewable power"
4398:
3796:"Wind in our Sails, A report by the European Wind Energy Association - 2011"
3769:
3543:
Levelized Cost of New Generation Resources in the Annual Energy Outlook 2011
1143:
9119:
8880:
8818:
8170:"London Array's own website announcement of commencement of offshore works"
7636:
7006:
6109:
5367:"Dynamics Modeling and Loads Analysis of an Offshore Floating Wind Turbine"
5248:
4322:
3926:
3752:
2604:
2340:
1845:
1218:
663:
591:
201:
43:
8236:
7308:
7066:
6979:
5297:"An international design standard for offshore wind turbines: IEC 61400-3"
4864:
1327:- a specialist provider in offshore wind and the environmentalist charity
258:
had installed 63% of the world's 11 GW offshore wind power capacity;
8960:
8519:
6435:
4223:"High-power offshore wind turbines need medium-voltage converter systems"
3452:
2622:
2503:
2117:
2042:
1967:
1094:
790:
692:
Existing hardware for measurements includes Light Detection and Ranging (
89:
for deeper waters are in an earlier phase of development and deployment.
39:
6664:
5703:
3824:
1031:
961:
is the world's first full-scale floating wind turbine, installed in the
901:
Gravity base structures, for use at exposed sites in water 20–80 m deep.
745:
Some of the guidelines for designing offshore wind farms are set out in
517:
455:
402:
promising technology for unlocking the wind potential on deeper waters.
9124:
8955:
8785:
8777:
8285:"The 600-MW Gemini offshore wind farm is successfully up & running"
7093:
7068:
6317:
5070:
4992:"A Stunningly Low Price for Offshore Wind: Massachusetts Moves Forward"
2584:
1230:
1226:
1221:, the western part of the Baltic Sea between Germany and Denmark (2010)
1063:
304:
239:
81:
69:
31:
30:"Offshore wind" redirects here. For the meteorological phenomenon, see
8447:"In Rhode Island, offshore wind farm emerging as popular fishing spot"
7931:
6451:"Droplet Erosion Protection Coatings for Offshore Wind Turbine Blades"
5262:"Wind turbines Part 3: Design requirements for offshore wind turbines"
4170:
Energy Transition Outlook 2019. A global and regional forecast to 2050
166:
Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on
8965:
8847:
7957:"The Netherlands hits offshore wind target of 4.5 GW with Hollandse…"
7753:"Addressing Hybrid Threats: Priorities for the EU in 2020 and Beyond"
5897:. Ng, Chong, Ran, Li. Duxford, UK: Elsevier, WP Woodhead Publishing.
5718:"Classification and Certification of Floating Offshore Wind Turbines"
3914:
The European offshore wind industry - key trends and statistics 2013
2576:
1071:
962:
855:
from 50 to 1,000 metres (160 to 3,280 ft). The displayed map of
746:
619:
568:
Auctions in 2016 for future projects have reached costs of €54.5 per
73:
55:
6201:
5833:"Seawind steps up development of radical two-blade offshore turbine"
5430:
Streamline Renewable Energy Policy and make Australia a World Leader
4970:"Offshore wind cheaper than nuclear as auction smashes expectations"
4291:
3951:
The European offshore wind industry - key trends and statistics 2015
2591:
Most of the current projects are in European and East Asian waters.
9031:
8830:
7184:"NJ whale deaths: See the full list to learn how each of them died"
6767:
1514:
1103:
880:
826:
631:
576:
573:
422:
of offshore wind power compared to other sources in Germany in 2018
183:
97:
6238:"Offshore wind could see crunch of installation vessels from 2024"
5802:"Blue H Technologies Launches World's First Floating Wind Turbine"
4424:"Price diagram: Real and predicted prices for offshore wind power"
4306:
The European offshore wind industry key 2011 trends and statistics
9041:
9018:
9013:
8549:
7709:
6272:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
5979:"Load-orienting technology will make offshore installation safer"
5322:
Development of Offshore Wind Recommended Practice for U.S. Waters
2633:
2428:
856:
760:
292:
263:
214:
109:
9175:
8572:"MOU Signed for First Ever Offshore Wind Power Project in India"
7876:"DONG Tables Hornsea Project One Offshore Construction Schedule"
5597:"Challenges in design of foundations for offshore wind turbines"
4646:"Studie: Stromgestehungskosten erneuerbare Energien - März 2018"
993:
9056:
9051:
9036:
8923:
8578:. Press Information Bureau, Government of India. 1 October 2014
7844:"Satellite cyber attack paralyzes 11GW of German wind turbines"
6088:
5086:
2641:
2325:
1255:
1194:
966:
296:
259:
125:
8372:"Offshore Wind One Step Closer to Reality in the Mid-Atlantic"
6628:
Abramic, A.; Cordero-Penin, V.; Haroun, R. (1 November 2022).
1388:
1270:
from universities, industry, and government (supported by the
830:
Progression of expected wind turbine evolution to deeper water
818:
is a step towards the realization of deepwater wind projects.
803:
Beyond the exclusive economic zones are the high seas, or the
341:) were already below the lowest of the predicted 2050 prices.
8746:
8596:
7369:
6831:
5956:
Paulsson, Lars; Hodges, Jeremy; Martin, Chris (13 May 2019).
5895:
Offshore wind farms : technologies, design and operation
5082:
5062:
4266:
4168:
1931:
957:, installed the world's first floating wind turbine in 2007.
724:
701:
697:
693:
299:
were turbine suppliers for 90% of offshore wind power, while
101:
7731:"NATO's Role in Protecting Critical Undersea Infrastructure"
7728:
7234:
6397:
6395:
6355:
4411:
Real prices have moved to half of what the experts predicted
565:
renewable target in most of the countries around the world.
205:
An illustration of a hypothetical offshore wind farm in 1977
27:
Wind turbines in marine locations for electricity production
8472:"Offshore wind energy heading to waters off Virginia Beach"
8088:"Seajacks, Van Oord to Install East Anglia ONE Foundations"
6815:"Environmental Effects of Wind and Marine renewable Energy"
6814:
6694:
5371:
5146:
4826:"A Driving FORCE for Projecting Offshore Wind Energy Costs"
4690:
4016:"Detailed appraisal of the offshore wind industry in China"
419:
308:
193:
189:
8635:"Offshore wind in Europe – key trends and statistics 2020"
7650:
Gronholt pedersen, Jacob; Kate, Abnett (26 October 2023).
6627:
6549:"Aldrende havmølleparker åbner marked for klog nedrivning"
6002:"Kaskasi breaks ground with new ways to install monopiles"
5330:, April 2013. Accessed: 20 November 2013. OSTI ID: 1078076
4366:"Largest Offshore Wind Farm Generates First Power in U.K."
4116:"Global Wind Industry Hits Record 62 GW Installed In 2015"
4091:"World's Biggest Windmills Now Make Jumboi Jets Look Tiny"
2646:
Center for Study of Science, Technology and Policy (CSTEP)
8063:"Borssele III and IV Offshore Wind Farm, the Netherlands"
7906:"World's Largest Offshore Wind Farm Fully Up and Running"
6392:
6202:"Net Zero newsletter (September 2022) from Trivium China"
6091:"Grouted connections on offshore wind turbines: a review"
5959:"Offshore Wind Will Need Bigger Boats. Much Bigger Boats"
5320:
Musial, W. D.; Sheppard, R. E.; Dolan, D.; Naughton, B. "
4065:"A U.S. State Has Key to $ 10 Billion Offshore Wind Boom"
1233:
for heavy service such as gearbox replacement), and thus
939:
Blue H Technologies - World's First Floating Wind Turbine
910:
Tripod suction caisson structures, in water 20–80 m deep.
749:-3, but in the US several other standards are necessary.
124:
in the United Kingdom at 4.8 GW, and Greater Changhua in
7330:
6173:
Elkinton, C.; Blatiak, A.; Ameen, H. (16 October 2013).
5085:. 2020. "Offshore Wind Technical Potential by Country":
4347:"Wind Energy Markets: Experts See Solid Offshore Growth"
3568:"Offshore wind power price plunges by a third in a year"
7290:
Glasson, John; Durning, Bridget; Welch, Kellie (2022).
6744:"The habitat-creation potential of offshore wind farms"
5760:
Japan: Experimental Offshore Floating Wind Farm Project
5196:
3991:"A Sea of Change: Energy Security in the Baltic region"
1495:
Offshore wind farms with a capacity of at least 600 MW
727:
between tower and foundation may stress the grout, and
322:
estimated that energy from offshore wind turbines cost
6320:
Grid Integration of Offshore Wind Farms – Case Studies
4940:"Vattenfall wins Kriegers Flak with record €49.90/MWh"
846:
Tripods foundation for offshore wind farms in 2008 in
382:
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
7649:
7546:
Tafon, Ralph; Howarth, David; Griggs, Steven (2019).
5928:
5649:"Installation Vessels: Reaching the Limit and Beyond"
4262:
The installation and servicing of offshore wind farms
3660:. Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC). 10 February 2016
6172:
5955:
4323:
17 EU countries planning massive offshore wind power
3801:. European Wind Energy Association. 2011. p. 11
3604:
871:
Most common types of fixed offshore wind foundations
92:
As of 2022, the total worldwide offshore wind power
8597:R. Srikanth; Sangeetha Kandavel (29 January 2015).
7378:. The DPSIR framework for Biodiversity Assessment.
7289:
6448:
6220:"Tight months (and years) ahead in the C/SOV space"
5067:
Global: Expanding Offshore Wind to Emerging Markets
4549:
4135:
3723:. Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC). Archived from
8118:"East Anglia One Now Officially Fully Operational"
8067:Power Technology | Energy News and Market Analysis
7652:"Europe's wind power goal hits new snag: security"
7545:
6880:
6292:
5957:
5930:
4088:
2636:(2014). In 2013, a group of organizations, led by
7811:"Russia-backing Conti claims Nordex cyber attack"
7477:20.500.11820/7d82ed6e-7939-4c96-b711-117ada11d313
5933:Corrosion Protection of Offshore Wind Foundations
5743:Japan starts up offshore wind farm near Fukushima
5493:"United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea"
5006:
4488:
2659:
9236:
8621:"New Offshore Wind Energy Roadmap | RVO.nl"
8496:Offshore wind development hits a snag in Ontario
5619:
3456:, 22 November 2010. Retrieved: 22 November 2010.
1397:Collision-risk models are a fine example of how
586:In September 2017 contracts were awarded in the
7019:
6054:
6052:
5749:, 12 November 2013. Accessed: 11 November 2013.
5058:
5056:
4596:Clean oceans and the blue economy Overview 2024
4335:, 30 November 2011. Accessed: 10 December 2011.
4295:, 15 November 2011. Accessed: 10 December 2011.
3643:. Global Wind Energy Council. 10 February 2015.
3613:"A New Weapon Against Climate Change May Float"
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8315:"Gemini offshore wind project fully completed"
7552:Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space
6742:Wilson, Jennifer C.; Elliott, Michael (2009).
6449:Valaker, E.A.; Armada, S.; Wilson, S. (2015).
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2599:which was commissioned in December 2016. Many
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5766:, 11 October 2013. Accessed: 12 October 2013.
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4758:Poulsen, Thomas; Lema, Rasmus (1 June 2017).
3909:
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3503:. Global Wind Energy Council. pp. 8, 99.
1427:The examples and perspective in this section
994:Turbine construction materials considerations
234:MW), Norway (2 MW) and Portugal (2 MW).
7683:Bueger, Christian; Edmunds, Timothy (2023).
7448:Journal of Environmental Policy and Planning
6489:
6049:
6019:
5522:
5369:Technical Report NREL/TP-500-41958 page 75,
5053:
3916:, The European Wind Energy Association, 2014
1151:for offshore wind parks is being moved by a
8520:"Ontario to approve Great Lakes wind power"
8369:
6492:"Dong bruger supertele til vingeinspektion"
6256:"Offshore Wind Market Report: 2021 Edition"
5732:, November 2010. Retrieved: 16 August 2012.
4984:
4757:
4593:Bank, European Investment (25 April 2024).
4494:
4344:
3820:
3818:
3816:
3764:
3762:
3747:
3745:
3708:
3706:
3704:
3702:
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5582:. International Energy Agency. p. 23.
5523:Elsner, Paul; Suarez, Suzette (May 2019).
5143:"Overcoming problems with crumbling grout"
5140:
5076:
4962:
4800:"Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2022"
4722:
4718:
4716:
4714:
4712:
4451:"America's Wind-Farm Revolution Is Broken"
4210:. International Energy Agency. p. 16.
4193:. International Energy Agency. p. 15.
3902:
3561:
3559:
3436:
3434:
3432:
1445:, or create a new section, as appropriate.
1409:
731:are used in several British sea turbines.
637:
600:
8416:"Block Island Wind Farm - Deepwater Wind"
7768:
7750:
7563:
7475:
7307:
7092:
6996:
6978:
6960:
6857:
6663:
6653:
6474:
6351:
6349:
6347:
5855:
5702:
5283:International Electrotechnical Commission
5238:
5173:"Are wind farms slowing each other down?"
5117:"University Collaboration on Wind Energy"
5050:, 13 March 2015. Accessed: 13 March 2015.
4783:
4625:European Commission - European Commission
4256:
4254:
3988:
3929:. European Wind Energy Association (EWEA)
3927:"Wind in Power: 2014 European statistics"
3863:
1461:Learn how and when to remove this message
1352:
8517:
7418:"4 Background: Collision risk modelling"
6887:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
6807:
5830:
5675:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
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5028:
4764:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
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3880:"The offshore wind energy nano-industry"
3848:"The offshore wind energy nano-industry"
3826:Environmental and Energy Study Institute
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3759:
3742:
3697:
3630:
3578:
3465:
2575:
1287:in Sweden in November 2015, followed by
1272:Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future
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1142:
1121:
1018:
934:
866:
841:
833:
825:
764:
710:Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future
684:Marine growth, salinity, icing, and the
641:
622:, wind turbine energy is around 30
604:
413:
359:
291:of 2.5-3.0 million Euro/MW. That year,
200:
38:
8489:
8444:
8289:Windpower Engineering & Development
8218:, 8 March 2011. Accessed: 8 March 2011.
7841:
7808:
7441:
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6358:IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy
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5586:
5413:"Subtask 1: Critical Deployment Issues"
5389:. NewJerseyNewsroom.com. Archived from
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5286:, August 2005. Accessed: 12 March 2011.
5110:
5108:
5106:
4709:
4338:
4273:
4220:
3556:
3429:
1490:Lists of offshore wind farms by country
1298:
1262:, avoiding to go up. Others use camera
879:Types of underwater structures include
688:characteristics of the sea or lake bed.
14:
9237:
8724:"WFO Global Offshore Wind Report 2023"
8696:"WFO Global Offshore Wind Report 2022"
8660:"WFO_Global Offshore Wind Report 2021"
8198:
7498:
7296:Journal of Energy and Power Technology
6790:"EUR-Lex - 52020DC0741 - EN - EUR-Lex"
6634:Environmental Impact Assessment Review
6414:from the original on 20 February 2022.
6344:
6311:
5924:
5922:
4931:
4919:from the original on 17 September 2016
4684:
4251:
4166:
3839:
1944:Four different domestic manufacturers
8750:
7993:from the original on 19 November 2018
7809:Tsanova, Tsvetomira (18 April 2022).
7751:Bajarūnas, Eitvydas (22 March 2020).
6604:"Norfolk Zone Community Benefit Fund"
6418:
5966:from the original on 11 October 2020.
5892:
5888:
5886:
5884:
5571:
5569:
5518:
5516:
5486:
5484:
5482:
5480:
5478:
5453:, June 2012. Retrieved: 26 June 2012.
4950:from the original on 10 November 2016
4937:
4905:
4545:
4543:
4495:Rosa-Aquino, Paola (29 August 2021).
4182:
4180:
4162:
4160:
4158:
4136:European Commission (22 April 2020).
4131:
4129:
3845:
1508:
1342:Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
1245:Impressed current cathodic protection
1147:An offshore structure for housing an
492:International Renewable Energy Agency
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311:were the leading offshore operators.
182:Global cumulative offshore capacity (
9199:
8351:from the original on 24 January 2016
7279:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
5637:from the original on 5 October 2019.
5445:"Nearshore wind turbines in Denmark"
5423:
5359:
5327:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
5103:
4592:
4507:from the original on 30 August 2021.
4448:
4316:
4089:Jessica Shankleman (28 April 2016).
4062:
3610:
3547:US Energy Information Administration
3491:
3489:
3466:Vloemans, Pepijn (27 January 2022).
1413:
1026:
646:Four offshore wind farms are in the
609:Map of Global Offshore Wind Speeds (
512:
499:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
450:
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8518:Hamilton, Tyler (15 January 2008).
7594:
6060:"Constructing a turbine foundation"
6027:"Offshore Wind Turbine Foundations"
6012:from the original on 4 April 2023.
5919:
5794:
5769:
5575:
5491:United Nations (10 December 1982).
5141:Tramontana, Tea (31 October 2012).
4575:
4364:Bakewell, Sally (29 October 2012).
4281:Seaturbines competitive in 15 years
4203:
4186:
4038:"China tops offshore turbine chart"
3565:
2583:offshore wind farm, 3.5 km outside
953:, which was ultimately acquired by
862:
446:
24:
8098:from the original on 20 April 2018
6555:. 20 February 2016. Archived from
6402:Wallace, Abby (20 February 2022).
6135:from the original on 4 April 2023.
6033:. 9 September 2009. Archived from
5989:from the original on 4 April 2023.
5977:Foxwell, David (16 October 2020).
5881:
5566:
5513:
5475:
5279:International Standard IEC 61400-3
5039:Pi and turbines - a useful context
4938:Steel, William (9 November 2016).
4863:. The Carbon Trust. Archived from
4697:from the original on 29 April 2016
4687:"Where offshore wind was invented"
4540:
4241:"Global Offshore Wind Report 2023"
4221:Poynter, Chris (13 October 2021).
4177:
4155:
4126:
3947:
3638:"GWEC Global Wind Statistics 2014"
2607:are acting as an artificial reef.
1309:Offshore wind farms have very low
1305:Environmental impact of wind power
1277:
1138:
773:
508:
25:
9256:
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6778:– via Wiley Online Library.
6176:U.S. Offshore Wind Port Readiness
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5843:from the original on 21 June 2020
5469:Bureau of Ocean Energy Management
4685:Prinds, Karsten (20 April 2011).
4345:Tildy Bayar (30 September 2011).
3486:
2638:Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC)
1171:line commutated converters (LCCs)
1068:wind turbine installation vessels
559:
9210:
9198:
9187:
9186:
9174:
8716:
8688:
8652:
8627:
8613:
8590:
8564:
8538:
8511:
8464:
8438:
8408:
8382:
8363:
8333:
8307:
8277:
8251:
8221:
8162:
8136:
8110:
8080:
8055:
8030:
8005:
7975:
7949:
7924:
7898:
7868:
7842:Willuhn, Marian (1 March 2022).
7835:
7802:
7785:
7744:
7722:
7703:
7676:
7643:
7588:
7539:
7525:10.1016/j.landusepol.2009.01.006
7499:Cowell, Richard (1 April 2010).
7492:
7435:
7410:
7363:
7324:
7283:
7228:
7207:
7201:
7176:
7151:
7126:
7101:
7060:
7013:
6954:
6929:
6874:
6825:
6782:
6735:
6688:
6621:
6596:
6571:
6541:
6511:
6483:
6442:
6267:
6248:
6230:
6212:
6194:
6166:
6082:
5993:
5970:
5949:
5864:"Floating wind turbine launched"
5601:The E&T Energy and Power Hub
5311:, 2005. Accessed: 12 March 2011.
5266:Austrian Standards International
5153:from the original on 12 May 2016
4310:European Wind Energy Association
2496:
2421:
2346:
2260:
2185:
2152:Borssele III & IV (731.5 MW)
2110:
2035:
1960:
1924:
1851:
1776:
1701:
1623:
1548:
1418:
1329:World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
1175:voltage source converters (VSCs)
1074:can improve handling precision.
1030:
1009:hydrogen induced stress cracking
976:
811:, installations and structures.
696:), Sonic Detection and Ranging (
516:
454:
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7621:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.11.010
7046:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.02.012
5831:de Vries, Eize (1 April 2020).
5752:
5735:
5711:
5641:
5603:. 9 August 2017. Archived from
5456:
5438:
5405:
5378:
5333:
5314:
5289:
5272:
5255:
5190:
5165:
5134:
4879:
4853:
4843:
4818:
4792:
4751:
4678:
4660:
4638:
4613:
4586:
4569:
4511:
4475:
4442:
4416:
4382:
4357:
4233:
4214:
4197:
4108:
4082:
4056:
4030:
4008:
3982:
3969:
3941:
3919:
3893:
3872:
3672:
3647:
3566:Lee, Andrew (22 October 2019).
1014:
217:in 1991. In 2009, the average
52:Alpha Ventus Offshore Wind Farm
8776:
8546:"Naikun Wind Development, Inc"
7961:Crosswind Hollandse Kust Noord
7396:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.07.013
7073:Marine Ecology Progress Series
7026:Ocean & Coastal Management
6838:Environmental Research Letters
5862:Madslien, Jorn (5 June 2009).
4042:reNEWS - Renewable Energy News
3519:reNEWS - Renewable Energy News
3507:
3459:
2660:Offshore wind power by country
2019:Siemens Gamesa SG 11.0-200 DD
1213:Offshore wind turbines of the
1204:
706:autonomous underwater vehicles
13:
1:
9083:Blade element momentum theory
7932:"Seagreen Wind Energy - Home"
7595:Jay, Stephen (1 April 2010).
7349:10.1016/j.tourman.2012.04.008
6000:Foxwell, David (6 May 2022).
5472:. Accessed: 20 November 2013.
3655:"Global Wind Statistics 2015"
3611:Reed, Stanley (4 June 2020).
3515:"Orsted clears Taiwan hurdle"
3423:
2002:Hollandse Kust Noord (759 MW)
1665:Hornsea Project One (1218 MW)
1607:Siemens Gamesa SG 8.0-167 DD
1590:Hornsea Project Two (1368 MW)
1133:
678:Offshore wind characteristics
420:levelized cost of electricity
9073:2020s in wind power research
8229:"London Array - The Project"
7320:– via Lidsen Journals.
7261:10.1016/j.marpol.2017.03.019
6859:10.1088/1748-9326/9/3/034012
6721:10.1016/j.marpol.2014.03.023
6490:Bjørn Godske (2 June 2016).
6476:10.1016/j.egypro.2015.11.430
5631:analysis.newenergyupdate.com
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4745:10.1016/j.energy.2012.02.054
4599:. European Investment Bank.
4550:European Commission (2020).
4485:Retrieved 14 September 2023.
4018:. The Carbon Trust. May 2014
3418:Unconventional wind turbines
2077:Borssele I & II (752 MW)
1318:Environmental considerations
1239:offshore accommodation units
409:
249:offshore wind power in China
7:
9093:Energy return on investment
8599:"Tapping the offshore wind"
7697:10.13140/RG.2.2.23647.64167
6519:"3 Ways to Inspect a Blade"
5552:10.1016/j.enpol.2019.01.064
4861:"Offshore Wind Accelerator"
4449:Ryan, Carol (8 July 2023).
4138:"Onshore and offshore wind"
3398:List of offshore wind farms
3391:
2571:
2480:Siemens Gamesa SWT-8.4-167
2244:Siemens Gamesa SWT-7.0-154
1484:List of offshore wind farms
1478:Largest offshore wind farms
1441:, discuss the issue on the
987:vertical-axis wind turbines
930:
145:
10:
9261:
7860:: CS1 maint: url-status (
7827:: CS1 maint: url-status (
7668:: CS1 maint: url-status (
6961:Langhamer, Olivia (2012).
6907:10.1016/j.rser.2021.110994
6655:10.1016/j.eiar.2022.106862
5893:Chong, Ng (3 March 2016).
5695:10.1016/j.rser.2014.09.032
5579:Offshore Wind Outlook 2019
5223:10.1038/s41598-021-91283-3
5100:. Accessed: 30 April 2020.
4785:10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.181
4579:Offshore Wind Outlook 2019
4394:"Midt i en disruptionstid"
4245:Global Wind Energy Council
4207:Offshore Wind Outlook 2019
4190:Offshore Wind Outlook 2019
3865:10.4024/N04PL13A.ntp.09.02
3852:Nanotechnology Perceptions
3774:Global Wind Energy Council
2625:, including the suspended
2405:Siemens Gamesa SWT-3.6-120
1487:
1481:
1340:core element involving an
1302:
1229:for routine access, and a
942:
372:by 2050 pathway to combat
303:(then named DONG Energy),
280:Global Wind Energy Council
140:
29:
9168:
9140:Variable renewable energy
9065:
9004:
8976:
8879:
8846:
8784:
7601:Marine Pollution Bulletin
7468:10.1080/15239080802242787
6967:TheScientificWorldJournal
6378:10.1109/TSTE.2012.2200511
6328:10.1002/9781118701638.ch5
6263:U.S. Department of Energy
5747:The Sydney Morning Herald
5385:Jamie D. (11 June 2009).
5073:. Accessed: 30 April 2020
4518:The Ocean Economy in 2030
3770:"Global Wind Report 2021"
3753:"Global Wind Report 2019"
3714:"Global Wind Report 2018"
3551:U.S. Department of Energy
3498:"Global Wind Report 2023"
3440:Madsen & Krogsgaard.
2538:Gemini Wind Farm (600 MW)
2302:Walney Extension (659 MW)
70:generation of electricity
9160:Wind resource assessment
8259:"E_Facts | figures"
8017:www.power-technology.com
7770:10.1177/1781685820912041
7565:10.1177/2399654418778037
7442:Haggett, Claire (2008).
5777:"Floating Wind Turbines"
4286:16 November 2011 at the
4063:Ryan, Joe (2 May 2016).
3442:Offshore Wind Power 2010
2227:East Anglia ONE (714 MW)
1807:58.1670806°N 2.6985194°W
1311:global warming potential
1189:Marine vessel connection
1088:gravity base foundations
955:Seawind Ocean Technology
907:, in water 20–80 m deep.
821:
285:
6182:. Garrad Hassan America
5723:3 December 2013 at the
4552:"A European Green Deal"
4456:The Wall Street Journal
4328:26 January 2020 at the
1910:MHI Vestas V164-9.5 MW
1835:MHI Vestas V164-9.5 MW
1410:Security considerations
1399:marine spatial planning
1162:real and reactive power
905:Tripod piled structures
798:exclusive economic zone
638:Planning and permitting
601:Offshore wind resources
350:Inflation Reduction Act
266:came third with 8% and
9155:Wind profile power law
9150:Wind power forecasting
8501:9 January 2012 at the
8376:Renewable Energy World
7507:. Forest transitions.
6425:Accommodation Platform
6110:10.1680/jencm.16.00004
5941:. NACE International.
5781:Floating Wind Turbines
4648:. Fraunhofer ISE. 2018
4351:Renewable Energy World
4173:. DNV GL. p. 124.
3989:Trakimavicius, Lukas.
3830:"Offshore Wind Energy"
3755:. GWEC. 19 March 2019.
3680:"OFFSHORE WIND | GWEC"
2597:Block Island Wind Farm
2588:
2555:Siemens Gamesa SWT-4.0
2527:54.036000°N 5.963000°E
2463:Kriegers Flak (605 MW)
2377:51.643889°N 1.553611°E
2291:54.044000°N 3.522000°W
2169:MHI Vestas V164 9.5MW
2141:51.707000°N 2.912389°E
1991:52.715111°N 4.251000°E
1812:58.1670806; -2.6985194
1760:MHI Vestas V164-10 MW
1579:53.910000°N 1.551806°E
1353:Environmental concerns
1222:
1179:reactive power control
1156:
1149:HVDC converter station
1024:
940:
872:
851:
839:
831:
816:floating wind turbines
765:"Smart from the Start"
671:
614:
503:floating offshore wind
423:
377:
206:
87:Floating wind turbines
58:
18:Offshore wind industry
9181:Wind power portal
7309:10.21926/jept.2204037
7113:datazone.birdlife.org
4483:Yahoo Finance website
4304:Justin Wilkes et al.
3403:Floating wind turbine
2627:Trillium Power Wind 1
2579:
2452:55.06278°N 13.00472°E
2388:London Array (630 MW)
2105:Borssele III & IV
1893:Triton Knoll (857 MW)
1212:
1195:Maersk Supply Service
1146:
1122:Installation capacity
1022:
945:Floating wind turbine
938:
870:
845:
837:
829:
723:Load transfer in the
670:until September 2018.
666:. The latter was the
645:
608:
417:
363:
213:) being installed in
204:
48:electrical substation
42:
8986:Consulting companies
8794:Airborne wind energy
8506:Alberta Oil Magazine
7376:Ecological Economics
7109:"BirdLife Data Zone"
6559:on 24 September 2018
6430:19 July 2011 at the
5741:Elaine Kurtenbach. "
5464:Smart from the Start
5450:Danish Energy Agency
5302:21 July 2011 at the
5122:. Cornell University
5092:10 June 2020 at the
4392:(21 December 2016).
3592:on 29 September 2018
3447:30 June 2011 at the
2614:. On 3 August 2018,
2296:54.044000; -3.522000
2216:52.66583°N 2.29556°E
2066:51.70278°N 3.07611°E
1955:Hollandse Kust Noord
1732:56.58806°N 1.74111°W
1654:53.88500°N 1.79111°E
1439:improve this section
1429:may not represent a
1299:Environmental impact
1086:tripods (steel) and
1083:monopile foundations
927:installation costs.
805:international waters
729:elastomeric bearings
668:largest in the world
66:offshore wind energy
9245:Offshore wind farms
9215:Additional portals:
9145:Virtual power plant
8978:Wind power industry
8856:Lists of wind farms
8451:Energy News Network
8239:on 21 February 2014
8150:on 6 September 2018
8144:"About the project"
7613:2010MarPB..60..493J
7517:2010LUPol..27..222C
7460:2008JEPP...10..289H
7388:2009EcoEc..69...93P
7253:2017MarPo..81..116V
7085:2003MEPS..265..263K
7038:2015OCM...109...40C
6980:10.1100/2012/386713
6899:2021RSERv.14410994C
6850:2014ERL.....9c4012B
6760:2009WiEn...12..203W
6713:2014MarPo..48..172V
6646:2022EIARv..9706862A
6467:2015EnPro..80..263V
6370:2012ITSE....3..899T
6226:. 17 February 2022.
6037:on 28 February 2010
5687:2015RSERv..42..141P
5544:2019EnPol.128..919E
5215:2021NatSR..1111826A
5069:". Washington, DC:
5043:Original, in Danish
4994:. 26 September 2018
4972:. 11 September 2017
4776:2017RSERv..73..758P
4737:2012Ene....41..298S
4556:European Commission
4463:on 8 September 2023
4142:European Commission
3948:Ho, Andrew (2015).
3846:Platt, Jim (2013).
3468:"Energia per tutti"
2666:
2532:54.036000; 5.963000
2522: /
2447: /
2382:51.643889; 1.553611
2372: /
2330:Siemens Gamesa 7 MW
2286: /
2211: /
2146:51.707000; 2.912389
2136: /
2094:Siemens Gamesa 8MW
2061: /
2030:Borssele I & II
1996:52.715111; 4.251000
1986: /
1877: /
1818:Moray East (950 MW)
1802: /
1727: /
1649: /
1584:53.910000; 1.551806
1574: /
1496:
1201:from idling ships.
1100:cathodic protection
1076:Dynamic positioning
1005:cathodic protection
951:Blue H Technologies
497:Researchers at the
389:European Commission
114:Hornsea Project Two
62:Offshore wind power
8321:on 21 January 2019
8295:on 21 January 2019
8211:2011-03-09 at the
8042:www.4coffshore.com
7983:"Borssele 1&2"
7936:SeagreenWindEnergy
7337:Tourism Management
7094:10.3354/meps265263
6244:. 7 February 2022.
5607:on 7 December 2017
5419:on 28 August 2009.
5203:Scientific Reports
4915:. 17 August 2016.
4893:. 12 December 2016
4674:. 27 January 2002.
4430:on 26 January 2020
4122:. 3 February 2016.
4044:. 22 February 2017
3617:The New York Times
3413:Offshore wind port
2664:
2589:
2457:55.06278; 13.00472
1743:Seagreen (1075 MW)
1737:56.58806; -1.74111
1494:
1223:
1157:
1115:offshore wind port
1081:A large number of
1042:. You can help by
1025:
941:
873:
852:
840:
832:
809:artificial islands
787:territorial waters
672:
615:
528:. You can help by
466:. You can help by
424:
418:Comparison of the
378:
356:Future development
256:Siemens Wind Power
219:nameplate capacity
207:
94:nameplate capacity
59:
9232:
9231:
8824:on public display
7912:. 30 January 2020
7188:Asbury Park Press
6794:eur-lex.europa.eu
6208:. September 2022.
6064:Horns Rev project
5904:978-0-08-100780-8
5837:Windpower Monthly
4606:978-92-861-5754-7
4526:, 27 April 2016.
4247:. 28 August 2023.
3521:. 6 December 2017
3389:
3388:
2564:
2563:
2221:52.66583; 2.29556
2071:51.70278; 3.07611
1659:53.88500; 1.79111
1506:Site coordinates
1471:
1470:
1463:
1215:Rødsand Wind Farm
1060:
1059:
611:Global Wind Atlas
572:(MWh) at the 700
546:
545:
484:
483:
179:
178:
16:(Redirected from
9252:
9219:Renewable energy
9214:
9202:
9201:
9190:
9189:
9179:
9178:
9025:GE Offshore Wind
8771:
8764:
8757:
8748:
8747:
8742:
8741:
8739:
8737:
8728:
8720:
8714:
8713:
8711:
8709:
8700:
8692:
8686:
8685:
8683:
8681:
8675:
8669:. Archived from
8664:
8656:
8650:
8649:
8647:
8645:
8631:
8625:
8624:
8617:
8611:
8610:
8608:
8606:
8594:
8588:
8587:
8585:
8583:
8568:
8562:
8561:
8559:
8557:
8548:. Archived from
8542:
8536:
8535:
8533:
8531:
8515:
8509:
8493:
8487:
8486:
8484:
8482:
8468:
8462:
8461:
8459:
8457:
8442:
8436:
8435:
8433:
8431:
8426:on 29 April 2015
8422:. Archived from
8412:
8406:
8405:
8403:
8401:
8386:
8380:
8379:
8367:
8361:
8360:
8358:
8356:
8337:
8331:
8330:
8328:
8326:
8317:. Archived from
8311:
8305:
8304:
8302:
8300:
8291:. Archived from
8281:
8275:
8274:
8272:
8270:
8265:on 10 April 2018
8261:. Archived from
8255:
8249:
8248:
8246:
8244:
8235:. Archived from
8225:
8219:
8206:First foundation
8204:Wittrup, Sanne.
8202:
8196:
8195:
8193:
8191:
8185:
8179:. Archived from
8174:
8166:
8160:
8159:
8157:
8155:
8146:. Archived from
8140:
8134:
8133:
8131:
8129:
8114:
8108:
8107:
8105:
8103:
8084:
8078:
8077:
8075:
8073:
8059:
8053:
8052:
8050:
8048:
8034:
8028:
8027:
8025:
8023:
8009:
8003:
8002:
8000:
7998:
7979:
7973:
7972:
7970:
7968:
7953:
7947:
7946:
7944:
7942:
7928:
7922:
7921:
7919:
7917:
7902:
7896:
7895:
7893:
7891:
7886:on 20 April 2018
7882:. Archived from
7872:
7866:
7865:
7859:
7851:
7839:
7833:
7832:
7826:
7818:
7806:
7800:
7799:
7797:
7789:
7783:
7782:
7772:
7748:
7742:
7741:
7735:
7726:
7720:
7719:
7707:
7701:
7700:
7680:
7674:
7673:
7667:
7659:
7647:
7641:
7640:
7592:
7586:
7585:
7567:
7543:
7537:
7536:
7496:
7490:
7489:
7479:
7439:
7433:
7432:
7430:
7428:
7414:
7408:
7407:
7367:
7361:
7360:
7328:
7322:
7321:
7311:
7287:
7281:
7280:
7232:
7226:
7225:
7223:
7221:
7205:
7199:
7198:
7196:
7194:
7180:
7174:
7173:
7171:
7169:
7155:
7149:
7148:
7146:
7144:
7130:
7124:
7123:
7121:
7119:
7105:
7099:
7098:
7096:
7064:
7058:
7057:
7017:
7011:
7010:
7000:
6982:
6958:
6952:
6951:
6949:
6947:
6933:
6927:
6926:
6878:
6872:
6871:
6861:
6829:
6823:
6822:
6811:
6805:
6804:
6802:
6800:
6786:
6780:
6779:
6739:
6733:
6732:
6692:
6686:
6685:
6667:
6657:
6625:
6619:
6618:
6616:
6614:
6600:
6594:
6593:
6591:
6589:
6575:
6569:
6568:
6566:
6564:
6545:
6539:
6538:
6536:
6534:
6525:. Archived from
6515:
6509:
6508:
6506:
6504:
6487:
6481:
6480:
6478:
6446:
6440:
6422:
6416:
6415:
6408:Business Insider
6399:
6390:
6389:
6353:
6342:
6341:
6315:
6309:
6308:
6306:
6304:
6299:
6290:
6277:
6271:
6270:
6266:
6260:
6252:
6246:
6245:
6234:
6228:
6227:
6216:
6210:
6209:
6198:
6192:
6191:
6189:
6187:
6181:
6170:
6164:
6163:
6161:
6159:
6153:
6143:
6137:
6136:
6134:
6095:
6086:
6080:
6079:
6077:
6075:
6066:. Archived from
6056:
6047:
6046:
6044:
6042:
6031:OffshoreWind.net
6023:
6017:
6016:
5997:
5991:
5990:
5974:
5968:
5967:
5961:
5953:
5947:
5946:
5936:
5926:
5917:
5916:
5890:
5879:
5878:
5876:
5874:
5859:
5853:
5852:
5850:
5848:
5828:
5822:
5821:
5819:
5817:
5808:. Archived from
5798:
5792:
5791:
5789:
5787:
5773:
5767:
5756:
5750:
5739:
5733:
5715:
5709:
5708:
5706:
5670:
5661:
5660:
5658:
5656:
5645:
5639:
5638:
5623:
5617:
5616:
5614:
5612:
5593:
5584:
5583:
5573:
5564:
5563:
5529:
5520:
5511:
5510:
5508:
5506:
5497:
5488:
5473:
5460:
5454:
5442:
5436:
5427:
5421:
5420:
5415:. Archived from
5409:
5403:
5402:
5400:
5398:
5382:
5376:
5363:
5357:
5356:
5354:
5352:
5347:on 9 August 2016
5343:. Archived from
5337:
5331:
5318:
5312:
5293:
5287:
5276:
5270:
5259:
5253:
5252:
5242:
5194:
5188:
5187:
5185:
5183:
5169:
5163:
5162:
5160:
5158:
5138:
5132:
5131:
5129:
5127:
5121:
5112:
5101:
5080:
5074:
5060:
5051:
5035:Stiesdal, Henrik
5032:
5026:
5025:
5023:
5021:
5010:
5004:
5003:
5001:
4999:
4988:
4982:
4981:
4979:
4977:
4966:
4960:
4959:
4957:
4955:
4935:
4929:
4928:
4926:
4924:
4909:
4903:
4902:
4900:
4898:
4883:
4877:
4876:
4874:
4872:
4857:
4851:
4847:
4841:
4840:
4838:
4836:
4822:
4816:
4815:
4813:
4811:
4806:. 29 August 2023
4796:
4790:
4789:
4787:
4755:
4749:
4748:
4720:
4707:
4706:
4704:
4702:
4682:
4676:
4675:
4664:
4658:
4657:
4655:
4653:
4642:
4636:
4635:
4633:
4631:
4617:
4611:
4610:
4590:
4584:
4583:
4573:
4567:
4566:
4564:
4562:
4547:
4538:
4515:
4509:
4508:
4492:
4486:
4479:
4473:
4472:
4470:
4468:
4459:. Archived from
4446:
4440:
4439:
4437:
4435:
4426:. Archived from
4420:
4414:
4413:
4408:
4406:
4390:Stiesdal, Henrik
4386:
4380:
4379:
4377:
4375:
4361:
4355:
4354:
4342:
4336:
4320:
4314:
4302:
4296:
4277:
4271:
4258:
4249:
4248:
4237:
4231:
4230:
4218:
4212:
4211:
4201:
4195:
4194:
4184:
4175:
4174:
4164:
4153:
4152:
4150:
4148:
4133:
4124:
4123:
4112:
4106:
4105:
4103:
4101:
4086:
4080:
4079:
4077:
4075:
4060:
4054:
4053:
4051:
4049:
4034:
4028:
4027:
4025:
4023:
4012:
4006:
4005:
4003:
4001:
3986:
3980:
3973:
3967:
3966:
3964:
3962:
3956:
3945:
3939:
3938:
3936:
3934:
3923:
3917:
3911:
3900:
3897:
3891:
3890:
3888:
3886:
3876:
3870:
3869:
3867:
3843:
3837:
3836:
3834:
3828:(October 2010).
3822:
3811:
3810:
3808:
3806:
3800:
3792:
3786:
3785:
3783:
3781:
3766:
3757:
3756:
3749:
3740:
3739:
3737:
3735:
3729:
3718:
3710:
3695:
3694:
3692:
3690:
3676:
3670:
3669:
3667:
3665:
3659:
3651:
3645:
3644:
3642:
3634:
3628:
3627:
3625:
3623:
3608:
3602:
3601:
3599:
3597:
3588:. Archived from
3582:
3576:
3575:
3563:
3554:
3540:
3531:
3530:
3528:
3526:
3511:
3505:
3504:
3502:
3493:
3484:
3483:
3481:
3479:
3463:
3457:
3438:
2667:
2663:
2640:started project
2546:
2545:
2543:
2542:
2541:
2539:
2534:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2520:
2519:
2518:
2515:
2502:
2500:
2499:
2491:Gemini Wind Farm
2471:
2470:
2468:
2467:
2466:
2464:
2459:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2445:
2444:
2443:
2440:
2427:
2425:
2424:
2396:
2395:
2393:
2392:
2391:
2389:
2384:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2368:
2365:
2352:
2350:
2349:
2318:
2310:
2309:
2307:
2306:
2305:
2303:
2298:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2284:
2283:
2282:
2279:
2266:
2264:
2263:
2255:Walney Extension
2235:
2234:
2232:
2231:
2230:
2228:
2223:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2209:
2208:
2207:
2204:
2191:
2189:
2188:
2160:
2159:
2157:
2156:
2155:
2153:
2148:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2134:
2133:
2132:
2129:
2116:
2114:
2113:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2078:
2073:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2059:
2058:
2057:
2054:
2041:
2039:
2038:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2006:
2005:
2003:
1998:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1984:
1983:
1982:
1979:
1966:
1964:
1963:
1930:
1928:
1927:
1901:
1900:
1898:
1897:
1896:
1894:
1889:
1888:
1883:
1882:53.400°N 0.900°E
1878:
1875:
1874:
1873:
1870:
1857:
1855:
1854:
1826:
1825:
1823:
1822:
1821:
1819:
1814:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1800:
1799:
1798:
1795:
1782:
1780:
1779:
1751:
1750:
1748:
1747:
1746:
1744:
1739:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1725:
1724:
1723:
1720:
1707:
1705:
1704:
1673:
1672:
1670:
1669:
1668:
1666:
1661:
1660:
1655:
1650:
1647:
1646:
1645:
1642:
1629:
1627:
1626:
1598:
1597:
1595:
1594:
1593:
1591:
1586:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1572:
1571:
1570:
1567:
1554:
1552:
1551:
1497:
1493:
1466:
1459:
1455:
1452:
1446:
1422:
1421:
1414:
1367:artificial reefs
1055:
1052:
1034:
1027:
1003:be used include
863:Fixed foundation
541:
538:
520:
513:
479:
476:
458:
451:
447:Investment costs
433:air conditioning
329:
325:
192:(2011–2020) and
161:
160:
153:
21:
9260:
9259:
9255:
9254:
9253:
9251:
9250:
9249:
9235:
9234:
9233:
9228:
9173:
9164:
9135:Tip-speed ratio
9130:Net energy gain
9088:Capacity factor
9061:
9000:
8972:
8875:
8861:Community-owned
8842:
8780:
8775:
8745:
8735:
8733:
8726:
8722:
8721:
8717:
8707:
8705:
8698:
8694:
8693:
8689:
8679:
8677:
8676:on 28 June 2022
8673:
8662:
8658:
8657:
8653:
8643:
8641:
8633:
8632:
8628:
8619:
8618:
8614:
8604:
8602:
8595:
8591:
8581:
8579:
8570:
8569:
8565:
8555:
8553:
8544:
8543:
8539:
8529:
8527:
8516:
8512:
8503:Wayback Machine
8494:
8490:
8480:
8478:
8470:
8469:
8465:
8455:
8453:
8443:
8439:
8429:
8427:
8414:
8413:
8409:
8399:
8397:
8388:
8387:
8383:
8368:
8364:
8354:
8352:
8339:
8338:
8334:
8324:
8322:
8313:
8312:
8308:
8298:
8296:
8283:
8282:
8278:
8268:
8266:
8257:
8256:
8252:
8242:
8240:
8233:londonarray.com
8227:
8226:
8222:
8213:Wayback Machine
8203:
8199:
8189:
8187:
8186:on 22 July 2011
8183:
8177:londonarray.com
8172:
8168:
8167:
8163:
8153:
8151:
8142:
8141:
8137:
8127:
8125:
8116:
8115:
8111:
8101:
8099:
8086:
8085:
8081:
8071:
8069:
8061:
8060:
8056:
8046:
8044:
8036:
8035:
8031:
8021:
8019:
8011:
8010:
8006:
7996:
7994:
7981:
7980:
7976:
7966:
7964:
7955:
7954:
7950:
7940:
7938:
7930:
7929:
7925:
7915:
7913:
7904:
7903:
7899:
7889:
7887:
7874:
7873:
7869:
7853:
7852:
7840:
7836:
7820:
7819:
7807:
7803:
7798:. 29 June 2023.
7795:
7791:
7790:
7786:
7749:
7745:
7733:
7727:
7723:
7708:
7704:
7681:
7677:
7661:
7660:
7648:
7644:
7593:
7589:
7544:
7540:
7505:Land Use Policy
7497:
7493:
7440:
7436:
7426:
7424:
7416:
7415:
7411:
7368:
7364:
7329:
7325:
7288:
7284:
7233:
7229:
7219:
7217:
7206:
7202:
7192:
7190:
7182:
7181:
7177:
7167:
7165:
7163:tethys.pnnl.gov
7157:
7156:
7152:
7142:
7140:
7138:tethys.pnnl.gov
7132:
7131:
7127:
7117:
7115:
7107:
7106:
7102:
7065:
7061:
7018:
7014:
6959:
6955:
6945:
6943:
6941:tethys.pnnl.gov
6935:
6934:
6930:
6879:
6875:
6830:
6826:
6813:
6812:
6808:
6798:
6796:
6788:
6787:
6783:
6740:
6736:
6693:
6689:
6626:
6622:
6612:
6610:
6602:
6601:
6597:
6587:
6585:
6577:
6576:
6572:
6562:
6560:
6547:
6546:
6542:
6532:
6530:
6529:on 1 April 2020
6517:
6516:
6512:
6502:
6500:
6488:
6484:
6455:Energy Procedia
6447:
6443:
6432:Wayback Machine
6423:
6419:
6400:
6393:
6354:
6345:
6338:
6316:
6312:
6302:
6300:
6297:
6291:
6280:
6268:
6258:
6254:
6253:
6249:
6236:
6235:
6231:
6218:
6217:
6213:
6200:
6199:
6195:
6185:
6183:
6179:
6171:
6167:
6157:
6155:
6151:
6145:
6144:
6140:
6132:
6093:
6087:
6083:
6073:
6071:
6058:
6057:
6050:
6040:
6038:
6025:
6024:
6020:
5998:
5994:
5975:
5971:
5954:
5950:
5927:
5920:
5905:
5891:
5882:
5872:
5870:
5860:
5856:
5846:
5844:
5829:
5825:
5815:
5813:
5812:on 21 July 2020
5800:
5799:
5795:
5785:
5783:
5775:
5774:
5770:
5757:
5753:
5740:
5736:
5725:Wayback Machine
5716:
5712:
5671:
5664:
5654:
5652:
5651:. 27 March 2017
5647:
5646:
5642:
5633:. 15 May 2019.
5625:
5624:
5620:
5610:
5608:
5595:
5594:
5587:
5574:
5567:
5527:
5521:
5514:
5504:
5502:
5495:
5489:
5476:
5461:
5457:
5443:
5439:
5428:
5424:
5411:
5410:
5406:
5396:
5394:
5383:
5379:
5364:
5360:
5350:
5348:
5339:
5338:
5334:
5319:
5315:
5304:Wayback Machine
5294:
5290:
5277:
5273:
5260:
5256:
5195:
5191:
5181:
5179:
5171:
5170:
5166:
5156:
5154:
5139:
5135:
5125:
5123:
5119:
5113:
5104:
5094:Wayback Machine
5081:
5077:
5061:
5054:
5033:
5029:
5019:
5017:
5012:
5011:
5007:
4997:
4995:
4990:
4989:
4985:
4975:
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4953:
4951:
4936:
4932:
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4911:
4910:
4906:
4896:
4894:
4885:
4884:
4880:
4870:
4868:
4859:
4858:
4854:
4848:
4844:
4834:
4832:
4824:
4823:
4819:
4809:
4807:
4798:
4797:
4793:
4756:
4752:
4721:
4710:
4700:
4698:
4683:
4679:
4666:
4665:
4661:
4651:
4649:
4644:
4643:
4639:
4629:
4627:
4619:
4618:
4614:
4607:
4591:
4587:
4574:
4570:
4560:
4558:
4548:
4541:
4516:
4512:
4493:
4489:
4480:
4476:
4466:
4464:
4447:
4443:
4433:
4431:
4422:
4421:
4417:
4404:
4402:
4387:
4383:
4373:
4371:
4362:
4358:
4343:
4339:
4330:Wayback Machine
4321:
4317:
4303:
4299:
4288:Wayback Machine
4278:
4274:
4259:
4252:
4239:
4238:
4234:
4219:
4215:
4202:
4198:
4185:
4178:
4167:DNV GL (2019).
4165:
4156:
4146:
4144:
4134:
4127:
4114:
4113:
4109:
4099:
4097:
4087:
4083:
4073:
4071:
4061:
4057:
4047:
4045:
4036:
4035:
4031:
4021:
4019:
4014:
4013:
4009:
3999:
3997:
3987:
3983:
3974:
3970:
3960:
3958:
3954:
3946:
3942:
3932:
3930:
3925:
3924:
3920:
3912:
3903:
3898:
3894:
3884:
3882:
3878:
3877:
3873:
3844:
3840:
3832:
3823:
3814:
3804:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3793:
3789:
3779:
3777:
3776:. 24 March 2021
3768:
3767:
3760:
3751:
3750:
3743:
3733:
3731:
3730:on 25 July 2019
3727:
3716:
3712:
3711:
3698:
3688:
3686:
3678:
3677:
3673:
3663:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3652:
3648:
3640:
3636:
3635:
3631:
3621:
3619:
3609:
3605:
3595:
3593:
3584:
3583:
3579:
3564:
3557:
3541:
3534:
3524:
3522:
3513:
3512:
3508:
3500:
3494:
3487:
3477:
3475:
3464:
3460:
3449:Wayback Machine
3439:
3430:
3426:
3394:
2662:
2655:
2616:Dominion Energy
2574:
2537:
2535:
2531:
2529:
2525:
2524:
2521:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2509:
2508:
2497:
2495:
2462:
2460:
2456:
2454:
2450:
2449:
2446:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2434:
2433:
2422:
2420:
2387:
2385:
2381:
2379:
2375:
2374:
2371:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2359:
2358:
2347:
2345:
2329:
2301:
2299:
2295:
2293:
2289:
2288:
2285:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2273:
2272:
2261:
2259:
2226:
2224:
2220:
2218:
2214:
2213:
2210:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2198:
2197:
2186:
2184:
2180:East Anglia ONE
2151:
2149:
2145:
2143:
2139:
2138:
2135:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2122:
2111:
2109:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2068:
2064:
2063:
2060:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2048:
2047:
2036:
2034:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1993:
1989:
1988:
1985:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1973:
1972:
1961:
1959:
1925:
1923:
1920:Jiangsu Qidong
1892:
1890:
1886:
1884:
1880:
1879:
1876:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1864:
1863:
1852:
1850:
1817:
1815:
1811:
1809:
1805:
1804:
1801:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1789:
1788:
1777:
1775:
1742:
1740:
1736:
1734:
1730:
1729:
1726:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1714:
1713:
1702:
1700:
1664:
1662:
1658:
1656:
1652:
1651:
1648:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1636:
1635:
1624:
1622:
1589:
1587:
1583:
1581:
1577:
1576:
1573:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1561:
1560:
1549:
1547:
1532:
1526:
1521:
1512:
1492:
1486:
1480:
1467:
1456:
1450:
1447:
1436:
1423:
1419:
1412:
1391:
1355:
1320:
1307:
1301:
1285:Yttre Stengrund
1280:
1278:Decommissioning
1207:
1191:
1153:heavy-lift ship
1141:
1139:Grid connection
1136:
1124:
1056:
1050:
1047:
1040:needs expansion
1017:
996:
983:horizontal-axis
979:
971:Hywind Scotland
947:
933:
865:
824:
776:
774:Legal framework
740:decision-making
640:
603:
562:
542:
536:
533:
526:needs expansion
511:
509:Operating costs
480:
474:
471:
464:needs expansion
449:
412:
358:
327:
323:
288:
199:
198:
197:
187:
180:
175:
162:
158:
148:
143:
134:capacity factor
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9258:
9248:
9247:
9230:
9229:
9227:
9226:
9221:
9216:
9208:
9196:
9184:
9169:
9166:
9165:
9163:
9162:
9157:
9152:
9147:
9142:
9137:
9132:
9127:
9122:
9117:
9112:
9110:Energy subsidy
9107:
9106:
9105:
9098:Energy storage
9095:
9090:
9085:
9080:
9075:
9069:
9067:
9063:
9062:
9060:
9059:
9054:
9049:
9047:Siemens Gamesa
9044:
9039:
9034:
9029:
9028:
9027:
9016:
9010:
9008:
9002:
9001:
8999:
8998:
8993:
8988:
8982:
8980:
8974:
8973:
8971:
8970:
8969:
8968:
8963:
8953:
8952:
8951:
8946:
8936:
8934:Unconventional
8931:
8926:
8921:
8916:
8911:
8906:
8901:
8899:Crosswind kite
8896:
8891:
8885:
8883:
8877:
8876:
8874:
8873:
8868:
8866:Offshore farms
8863:
8858:
8852:
8850:
8844:
8843:
8841:
8840:
8839:
8838:
8828:
8827:
8826:
8816:
8811:
8806:
8801:
8796:
8790:
8788:
8782:
8781:
8774:
8773:
8766:
8759:
8751:
8744:
8743:
8715:
8687:
8651:
8626:
8612:
8589:
8576:www.pib.nic.in
8563:
8552:on 16 May 2008
8537:
8510:
8488:
8463:
8437:
8420:Deepwater Wind
8407:
8381:
8362:
8345:4coffshore.com
8332:
8306:
8276:
8250:
8220:
8197:
8161:
8135:
8109:
8079:
8054:
8029:
8004:
7974:
7948:
7923:
7897:
7867:
7834:
7815:Renewables Now
7801:
7784:
7743:
7721:
7716:S&P Global
7702:
7675:
7642:
7607:(4): 493–499.
7587:
7558:(1): 157–176.
7538:
7511:(2): 222–232.
7491:
7454:(3): 289–306.
7434:
7409:
7362:
7323:
7282:
7247:(1): 116–123.
7227:
7200:
7175:
7150:
7125:
7100:
7059:
7012:
6953:
6928:
6873:
6824:
6806:
6781:
6768:10.1002/we.324
6754:(2): 203–212.
6734:
6687:
6620:
6595:
6570:
6540:
6523:E.ON energized
6510:
6482:
6441:
6417:
6391:
6343:
6336:
6310:
6278:
6265:. August 2021.
6247:
6242:Renewables Now
6229:
6211:
6193:
6165:
6138:
6104:(4): 183–195.
6081:
6070:on 21 May 2011
6048:
6018:
5992:
5969:
5948:
5918:
5903:
5880:
5854:
5823:
5793:
5768:
5751:
5734:
5729:Bureau Veritas
5710:
5662:
5640:
5618:
5585:
5565:
5512:
5500:United Nations
5474:
5455:
5437:
5433:Energy Matters
5422:
5404:
5393:on 31 May 2012
5377:
5365:Jonkman, J.M.
5358:
5332:
5313:
5295:Quarton, D.C.
5288:
5271:
5254:
5189:
5177:techxplore.com
5164:
5133:
5102:
5075:
5052:
5027:
5005:
4983:
4961:
4930:
4904:
4878:
4867:on 15 May 2016
4852:
4842:
4817:
4791:
4750:
4731:(1): 298–312.
4708:
4677:
4672:New York Times
4659:
4637:
4621:"Press corner"
4612:
4605:
4585:
4568:
4539:
4520:, pp.205-212.
4510:
4487:
4474:
4441:
4415:
4381:
4356:
4337:
4315:
4297:
4279:Nymark, Jens.
4272:
4260:Lindvig, Kaj.
4250:
4232:
4213:
4196:
4176:
4154:
4125:
4107:
4081:
4055:
4029:
4007:
3981:
3968:
3940:
3918:
3901:
3892:
3871:
3838:
3812:
3787:
3758:
3741:
3696:
3671:
3646:
3629:
3603:
3577:
3555:
3532:
3506:
3485:
3472:Internazionale
3458:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3421:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3408:Floating solar
3405:
3400:
3393:
3390:
3387:
3386:
3383:
3380:
3377:
3374:
3371:
3368:
3365:
3362:
3359:
3356:
3355:
3352:
3349:
3346:
3343:
3340:
3337:
3334:
3331:
3328:
3325:
3324:
3321:
3318:
3315:
3312:
3309:
3306:
3303:
3300:
3297:
3293:
3292:
3289:
3286:
3283:
3280:
3277:
3274:
3271:
3268:
3265:
3261:
3260:
3257:
3254:
3251:
3248:
3245:
3242:
3239:
3236:
3233:
3229:
3228:
3225:
3222:
3219:
3216:
3213:
3210:
3207:
3204:
3201:
3197:
3196:
3193:
3190:
3187:
3184:
3181:
3178:
3175:
3172:
3167:
3163:
3162:
3159:
3156:
3153:
3150:
3147:
3144:
3141:
3138:
3135:
3131:
3130:
3127:
3124:
3121:
3118:
3115:
3112:
3109:
3106:
3103:
3099:
3098:
3095:
3092:
3089:
3086:
3083:
3080:
3077:
3074:
3071:
3067:
3066:
3063:
3060:
3057:
3054:
3051:
3048:
3045:
3042:
3037:
3033:
3032:
3029:
3026:
3023:
3020:
3017:
3014:
3011:
3008:
3003:
2999:
2998:
2995:
2992:
2989:
2986:
2983:
2980:
2977:
2974:
2971:
2967:
2966:
2963:
2960:
2957:
2954:
2951:
2948:
2945:
2942:
2939:
2935:
2934:
2931:
2928:
2925:
2922:
2919:
2916:
2913:
2910:
2907:
2903:
2902:
2899:
2896:
2893:
2890:
2887:
2884:
2881:
2878:
2873:
2869:
2868:
2865:
2862:
2859:
2856:
2853:
2850:
2847:
2844:
2839:
2835:
2834:
2831:
2828:
2825:
2822:
2819:
2816:
2813:
2810:
2805:
2801:
2800:
2797:
2794:
2791:
2788:
2785:
2782:
2779:
2776:
2771:
2767:
2766:
2763:
2760:
2757:
2754:
2751:
2748:
2745:
2742:
2740:United Kingdom
2737:
2733:
2732:
2729:
2726:
2723:
2720:
2717:
2714:
2711:
2708:
2703:
2699:
2698:
2695:
2692:
2689:
2686:
2683:
2680:
2677:
2674:
2671:
2661:
2658:
2653:
2612:Virginia Beach
2601:sportfishermen
2573:
2570:
2562:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2553:
2550:
2547:
2506:
2493:
2487:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2431:
2418:
2412:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2403:
2400:
2397:
2356:
2354:United Kingdom
2343:
2337:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2319:
2314:
2311:
2270:
2268:United Kingdom
2257:
2251:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2242:
2239:
2236:
2195:
2193:United Kingdom
2182:
2176:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2167:
2164:
2161:
2120:
2107:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2092:
2089:
2086:
2045:
2032:
2026:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2017:
2014:
2011:
1970:
1957:
1951:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1942:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1921:
1917:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1908:
1905:
1902:
1861:
1859:United Kingdom
1848:
1842:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1833:
1830:
1827:
1786:
1784:United Kingdom
1773:
1767:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1758:
1755:
1752:
1711:
1709:United Kingdom
1698:
1692:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1683:Siemens Gamesa
1680:
1677:
1674:
1633:
1631:United Kingdom
1620:
1614:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1605:
1602:
1599:
1558:
1556:United Kingdom
1545:
1539:
1538:
1535:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1507:
1504:
1501:
1482:Main article:
1479:
1476:
1469:
1468:
1433:of the subject
1431:worldwide view
1426:
1424:
1417:
1411:
1408:
1390:
1387:
1354:
1351:
1319:
1316:
1303:Main article:
1300:
1297:
1279:
1276:
1260:telephoto lens
1249:galvanic anode
1206:
1203:
1190:
1187:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1132:
1123:
1120:
1058:
1057:
1037:
1035:
1016:
1013:
995:
992:
978:
975:
943:Main article:
932:
929:
912:
911:
908:
902:
899:
896:
864:
861:
823:
820:
775:
772:
754:European Union
690:
689:
682:
679:
656:Gunfleet Sands
648:Thames Estuary
639:
636:
602:
599:
588:United Kingdom
561:
560:Cost of energy
558:
544:
543:
523:
521:
510:
507:
482:
481:
461:
459:
448:
445:
411:
408:
374:climate change
357:
354:
287:
284:
231:United Kingdom
181:
177:
176:
165:
163:
156:
151:
150:
149:
147:
144:
142:
139:
118:United Kingdom
106:United Kingdom
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9257:
9246:
9243:
9242:
9240:
9225:
9222:
9220:
9217:
9213:
9209:
9207:
9206:
9197:
9195:
9194:
9185:
9183:
9182:
9177:
9171:
9170:
9167:
9161:
9158:
9156:
9153:
9151:
9148:
9146:
9143:
9141:
9138:
9136:
9133:
9131:
9128:
9126:
9123:
9121:
9118:
9116:
9113:
9111:
9108:
9104:
9101:
9100:
9099:
9096:
9094:
9091:
9089:
9086:
9084:
9081:
9079:
9076:
9074:
9071:
9070:
9068:
9064:
9058:
9055:
9053:
9050:
9048:
9045:
9043:
9040:
9038:
9035:
9033:
9030:
9026:
9022:
9021:
9020:
9017:
9015:
9012:
9011:
9009:
9007:
9006:Manufacturers
9003:
8997:
8994:
8992:
8991:Manufacturers
8989:
8987:
8984:
8983:
8981:
8979:
8975:
8967:
8964:
8962:
8959:
8958:
8957:
8954:
8950:
8947:
8945:
8942:
8941:
8940:
8939:Vertical-axis
8937:
8935:
8932:
8930:
8927:
8925:
8922:
8920:
8919:Pitch bearing
8917:
8915:
8912:
8910:
8907:
8905:
8902:
8900:
8897:
8895:
8892:
8890:
8887:
8886:
8884:
8882:
8881:Wind turbines
8878:
8872:
8871:Onshore farms
8869:
8867:
8864:
8862:
8859:
8857:
8854:
8853:
8851:
8849:
8845:
8837:
8834:
8833:
8832:
8829:
8825:
8822:
8821:
8820:
8817:
8815:
8812:
8810:
8809:Land vehicles
8807:
8805:
8802:
8800:
8797:
8795:
8792:
8791:
8789:
8787:
8783:
8779:
8772:
8767:
8765:
8760:
8758:
8753:
8752:
8749:
8732:
8725:
8719:
8704:
8697:
8691:
8672:
8668:
8661:
8655:
8640:
8636:
8630:
8622:
8616:
8600:
8593:
8577:
8573:
8567:
8551:
8547:
8541:
8525:
8521:
8514:
8507:
8504:
8500:
8497:
8492:
8477:
8473:
8467:
8452:
8448:
8441:
8425:
8421:
8417:
8411:
8396:. 14 May 2015
8395:
8391:
8385:
8377:
8373:
8366:
8350:
8346:
8342:
8336:
8320:
8316:
8310:
8294:
8290:
8286:
8280:
8264:
8260:
8254:
8238:
8234:
8230:
8224:
8217:
8214:
8210:
8207:
8201:
8182:
8178:
8171:
8165:
8149:
8145:
8139:
8124:. 3 July 2020
8123:
8122:Offshore Wind
8119:
8113:
8097:
8093:
8092:Offshore Wind
8089:
8083:
8068:
8064:
8058:
8043:
8039:
8033:
8018:
8014:
8008:
7992:
7988:
7984:
7978:
7962:
7958:
7952:
7937:
7933:
7927:
7911:
7910:Offshore Wind
7907:
7901:
7885:
7881:
7880:Offshore Wind
7877:
7871:
7863:
7857:
7849:
7848:energy cental
7845:
7838:
7830:
7824:
7816:
7812:
7805:
7794:
7788:
7780:
7776:
7771:
7766:
7762:
7758:
7757:European View
7754:
7747:
7739:
7732:
7725:
7717:
7713:
7706:
7698:
7694:
7690:
7686:
7679:
7671:
7665:
7657:
7653:
7646:
7638:
7634:
7630:
7626:
7622:
7618:
7614:
7610:
7606:
7602:
7598:
7591:
7583:
7579:
7575:
7571:
7566:
7561:
7557:
7553:
7549:
7542:
7534:
7530:
7526:
7522:
7518:
7514:
7510:
7506:
7502:
7495:
7487:
7483:
7478:
7473:
7469:
7465:
7461:
7457:
7453:
7449:
7445:
7438:
7423:
7419:
7413:
7405:
7401:
7397:
7393:
7389:
7385:
7382:(1): 93–103.
7381:
7377:
7373:
7366:
7358:
7354:
7350:
7346:
7342:
7338:
7334:
7327:
7319:
7315:
7310:
7305:
7301:
7297:
7293:
7286:
7278:
7274:
7270:
7266:
7262:
7258:
7254:
7250:
7246:
7242:
7241:Marine Policy
7238:
7231:
7216:. PBS and NPR
7215:
7211:
7204:
7189:
7185:
7179:
7164:
7160:
7154:
7139:
7135:
7129:
7114:
7110:
7104:
7095:
7090:
7086:
7082:
7078:
7074:
7070:
7063:
7055:
7051:
7047:
7043:
7039:
7035:
7031:
7027:
7023:
7016:
7008:
7004:
6999:
6994:
6990:
6986:
6981:
6976:
6972:
6968:
6964:
6957:
6942:
6938:
6932:
6924:
6920:
6916:
6912:
6908:
6904:
6900:
6896:
6892:
6888:
6884:
6877:
6869:
6865:
6860:
6855:
6851:
6847:
6844:(3): 034012.
6843:
6839:
6835:
6828:
6820:
6816:
6810:
6795:
6791:
6785:
6777:
6773:
6769:
6765:
6761:
6757:
6753:
6749:
6745:
6738:
6730:
6726:
6722:
6718:
6714:
6710:
6706:
6702:
6701:Marine Policy
6698:
6691:
6683:
6679:
6675:
6671:
6666:
6661:
6656:
6651:
6647:
6643:
6639:
6635:
6631:
6624:
6609:
6605:
6599:
6584:
6580:
6574:
6558:
6554:
6550:
6544:
6528:
6524:
6520:
6514:
6499:
6498:
6493:
6486:
6477:
6472:
6468:
6464:
6460:
6456:
6452:
6445:
6438:
6437:
6433:
6429:
6426:
6421:
6413:
6409:
6405:
6398:
6396:
6387:
6383:
6379:
6375:
6371:
6367:
6363:
6359:
6352:
6350:
6348:
6339:
6337:9781118701638
6333:
6329:
6325:
6321:
6314:
6296:
6289:
6287:
6285:
6283:
6275:
6274:public domain
6264:
6257:
6251:
6243:
6239:
6233:
6225:
6221:
6215:
6207:
6206:Trivium China
6203:
6197:
6178:
6177:
6169:
6150:
6149:
6142:
6131:
6127:
6123:
6119:
6115:
6111:
6107:
6103:
6099:
6092:
6085:
6069:
6065:
6061:
6055:
6053:
6036:
6032:
6028:
6022:
6015:
6011:
6007:
6003:
5996:
5988:
5984:
5980:
5973:
5965:
5962:. Bloomberg.
5960:
5952:
5944:
5940:
5935:
5934:
5925:
5923:
5914:
5910:
5906:
5900:
5896:
5889:
5887:
5885:
5869:
5865:
5858:
5842:
5838:
5834:
5827:
5811:
5807:
5803:
5797:
5782:
5778:
5772:
5765:
5761:
5755:
5748:
5744:
5738:
5731:
5730:
5726:
5722:
5719:
5714:
5705:
5700:
5696:
5692:
5688:
5684:
5680:
5676:
5669:
5667:
5650:
5644:
5636:
5632:
5628:
5622:
5606:
5602:
5598:
5592:
5590:
5581:
5580:
5572:
5570:
5561:
5557:
5553:
5549:
5545:
5541:
5537:
5533:
5532:Energy Policy
5526:
5519:
5517:
5501:
5494:
5487:
5485:
5483:
5481:
5479:
5471:
5470:
5465:
5459:
5452:
5451:
5447:(in Danish).
5446:
5441:
5434:
5431:
5426:
5418:
5414:
5408:
5392:
5388:
5381:
5374:
5373:
5368:
5362:
5346:
5342:
5336:
5329:
5328:
5323:
5317:
5310:
5309:
5308:Garrad Hassan
5305:
5301:
5298:
5292:
5285:
5284:
5280:
5275:
5268:
5267:
5263:
5258:
5250:
5246:
5241:
5236:
5232:
5228:
5224:
5220:
5216:
5212:
5208:
5204:
5200:
5193:
5178:
5174:
5168:
5152:
5148:
5144:
5137:
5118:
5111:
5109:
5107:
5099:
5095:
5091:
5088:
5084:
5079:
5072:
5068:
5064:
5059:
5057:
5049:
5048:
5044:
5040:
5036:
5031:
5016:. August 2018
5015:
5009:
4993:
4987:
4971:
4965:
4949:
4945:
4941:
4934:
4918:
4914:
4908:
4892:
4891:Offshore Wind
4888:
4882:
4866:
4862:
4856:
4846:
4831:
4827:
4821:
4805:
4804:www.irena.org
4801:
4795:
4786:
4781:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4754:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4734:
4730:
4726:
4719:
4717:
4715:
4713:
4696:
4692:
4688:
4681:
4673:
4669:
4663:
4647:
4641:
4626:
4622:
4616:
4608:
4602:
4598:
4597:
4589:
4581:
4580:
4572:
4557:
4553:
4546:
4544:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4524:
4523:OECD iLibrary
4519:
4514:
4506:
4502:
4498:
4491:
4484:
4478:
4462:
4458:
4457:
4452:
4445:
4429:
4425:
4419:
4412:
4401:
4400:
4395:
4391:
4385:
4370:
4367:
4360:
4352:
4348:
4341:
4334:
4331:
4327:
4324:
4319:
4312:
4311:
4307:
4301:
4294:
4293:
4289:
4285:
4282:
4276:
4269:
4268:
4263:
4257:
4255:
4246:
4242:
4236:
4228:
4224:
4217:
4209:
4208:
4200:
4192:
4191:
4183:
4181:
4172:
4171:
4163:
4161:
4159:
4143:
4139:
4132:
4130:
4121:
4120:CleanTechnica
4117:
4111:
4096:
4095:Bloomberg.com
4092:
4085:
4070:
4069:Bloomberg.com
4066:
4059:
4043:
4039:
4033:
4017:
4011:
3996:
3992:
3985:
3979:
3972:
3953:
3952:
3944:
3928:
3922:
3915:
3910:
3908:
3906:
3896:
3881:
3875:
3866:
3861:
3857:
3853:
3849:
3842:
3831:
3827:
3821:
3819:
3817:
3797:
3791:
3775:
3771:
3765:
3763:
3754:
3748:
3746:
3726:
3722:
3715:
3709:
3707:
3705:
3703:
3701:
3685:
3681:
3675:
3656:
3650:
3639:
3633:
3618:
3614:
3607:
3591:
3587:
3581:
3573:
3569:
3562:
3560:
3552:
3549:(EIA) of the
3548:
3544:
3539:
3537:
3520:
3516:
3510:
3499:
3492:
3490:
3473:
3469:
3462:
3455:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3443:
3437:
3435:
3433:
3428:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3395:
3384:
3381:
3378:
3375:
3372:
3369:
3366:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3357:
3353:
3350:
3347:
3344:
3341:
3338:
3335:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3326:
3322:
3319:
3316:
3313:
3310:
3307:
3304:
3301:
3298:
3295:
3294:
3290:
3287:
3284:
3281:
3278:
3275:
3272:
3269:
3266:
3263:
3262:
3258:
3255:
3252:
3249:
3246:
3243:
3240:
3237:
3234:
3231:
3230:
3226:
3223:
3220:
3217:
3214:
3211:
3208:
3205:
3202:
3199:
3198:
3194:
3191:
3188:
3185:
3182:
3179:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3170:United States
3168:
3165:
3164:
3160:
3157:
3154:
3151:
3148:
3145:
3142:
3139:
3136:
3133:
3132:
3128:
3125:
3122:
3119:
3116:
3113:
3110:
3107:
3104:
3101:
3100:
3096:
3093:
3090:
3087:
3084:
3081:
3078:
3075:
3072:
3069:
3068:
3064:
3061:
3058:
3055:
3052:
3049:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3038:
3035:
3034:
3030:
3027:
3024:
3021:
3018:
3015:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3001:
3000:
2996:
2993:
2990:
2987:
2984:
2981:
2978:
2975:
2972:
2969:
2968:
2964:
2961:
2958:
2955:
2952:
2949:
2946:
2943:
2940:
2937:
2936:
2932:
2929:
2926:
2923:
2920:
2917:
2914:
2911:
2908:
2905:
2904:
2900:
2897:
2894:
2891:
2888:
2885:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2871:
2870:
2866:
2863:
2860:
2857:
2854:
2851:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2832:
2829:
2826:
2823:
2820:
2817:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2803:
2802:
2798:
2795:
2792:
2789:
2786:
2783:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2769:
2768:
2764:
2761:
2758:
2755:
2752:
2749:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2735:
2734:
2730:
2727:
2724:
2721:
2718:
2715:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2701:
2700:
2696:
2693:
2690:
2687:
2684:
2681:
2678:
2675:
2672:
2669:
2668:
2657:
2649:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2630:
2628:
2624:
2619:
2617:
2613:
2608:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2592:
2586:
2582:
2581:Middelgrunden
2578:
2569:
2568:
2560:
2557:
2554:
2551:
2548:
2544:
2507:
2505:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2488:
2485:
2482:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2469:
2432:
2430:
2419:
2417:
2416:Kriegers Flak
2414:
2413:
2410:
2407:
2404:
2401:
2398:
2394:
2357:
2355:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2338:
2335:
2332:
2327:
2323:
2320:
2315:
2312:
2308:
2271:
2269:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2252:
2249:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2237:
2233:
2196:
2194:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2177:
2174:
2171:
2168:
2165:
2162:
2158:
2121:
2119:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2099:
2096:
2093:
2090:
2087:
2083:
2046:
2044:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2024:
2021:
2018:
2015:
2012:
2008:
1971:
1969:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1952:
1949:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1922:
1919:
1918:
1915:
1912:
1909:
1906:
1903:
1899:
1887:53.400; 0.900
1862:
1860:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1843:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1831:
1828:
1824:
1787:
1785:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1768:
1765:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1753:
1749:
1712:
1710:
1699:
1697:
1694:
1693:
1690:
1687:
1684:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1671:
1634:
1632:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1603:
1600:
1596:
1559:
1557:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1540:
1536:
1534:
1531:Commissioning
1529:
1524:
1519:
1516:
1511:
1505:
1502:
1499:
1498:
1491:
1485:
1475:
1465:
1462:
1454:
1444:
1440:
1434:
1432:
1425:
1416:
1415:
1407:
1403:
1400:
1395:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1368:
1363:
1359:
1350:
1346:
1343:
1337:
1335:
1330:
1326:
1315:
1312:
1306:
1296:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1275:
1273:
1267:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1252:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1220:
1216:
1211:
1202:
1200:
1196:
1186:
1182:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1166:
1163:
1154:
1150:
1145:
1131:
1128:
1119:
1116:
1111:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1096:
1091:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1054:
1045:
1041:
1038:This section
1036:
1033:
1029:
1028:
1021:
1012:
1010:
1006:
1000:
991:
988:
984:
977:Vertical-axis
974:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
946:
937:
928:
924:
921:
916:
909:
906:
903:
900:
897:
894:
893:
892:
890:
886:
882:
877:
869:
860:
858:
849:
848:Wilhelmshaven
844:
836:
828:
819:
817:
812:
810:
806:
801:
799:
794:
792:
788:
783:
781:
771:
768:
766:
762:
757:
755:
750:
748:
743:
741:
736:
732:
730:
726:
721:
719:
713:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
687:
683:
680:
677:
676:
675:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
652:Kentish Flats
649:
644:
635:
633:
627:
625:
621:
612:
607:
598:
595:
593:
589:
584:
582:
581:Kriegers Flak
578:
575:
571:
570:megawatt hour
566:
557:
553:
549:
540:
531:
527:
524:This section
522:
519:
515:
514:
506:
504:
500:
495:
493:
488:
478:
469:
465:
462:This section
460:
457:
453:
452:
444:
440:
436:
434:
428:
421:
416:
407:
403:
399:
396:
394:
390:
385:
383:
375:
371:
367:
362:
353:
351:
346:
342:
340:
336:
331:
321:
316:
312:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
283:
281:
276:
272:
269:
265:
261:
257:
252:
250:
244:
241:
235:
232:
226:
222:
220:
216:
212:
203:
195:
191:
185:
173:
172:MediaWiki.org
169:
164:
155:
154:
138:
135:
129:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
90:
88:
83:
78:
75:
71:
67:
63:
57:
53:
49:
45:
44:Wind turbines
41:
37:
33:
19:
9203:
9191:
9172:
9120:Hybrid power
8889:Aerodynamics
8813:
8734:. Retrieved
8730:
8718:
8706:. Retrieved
8702:
8690:
8678:. Retrieved
8671:the original
8666:
8654:
8642:. Retrieved
8638:
8629:
8615:
8603:. Retrieved
8592:
8580:. Retrieved
8575:
8566:
8554:. Retrieved
8550:the original
8540:
8528:. Retrieved
8523:
8513:
8505:
8491:
8479:. Retrieved
8475:
8466:
8454:. Retrieved
8450:
8440:
8428:. Retrieved
8424:the original
8419:
8410:
8398:. Retrieved
8394:New Republic
8393:
8384:
8375:
8365:
8353:. Retrieved
8344:
8335:
8323:. Retrieved
8319:the original
8309:
8297:. Retrieved
8293:the original
8288:
8279:
8267:. Retrieved
8263:the original
8253:
8241:. Retrieved
8237:the original
8232:
8223:
8215:
8200:
8188:. Retrieved
8181:the original
8176:
8164:
8152:. Retrieved
8148:the original
8138:
8126:. Retrieved
8121:
8112:
8100:. Retrieved
8091:
8082:
8070:. Retrieved
8066:
8057:
8045:. Retrieved
8041:
8032:
8020:. Retrieved
8016:
8007:
7995:. Retrieved
7986:
7977:
7965:. Retrieved
7960:
7951:
7939:. Retrieved
7935:
7926:
7914:. Retrieved
7909:
7900:
7888:. Retrieved
7884:the original
7879:
7870:
7847:
7837:
7814:
7804:
7787:
7763:(1): 62–70.
7760:
7756:
7746:
7738:www.csis.org
7737:
7724:
7715:
7705:
7689:ResearchGate
7688:
7678:
7655:
7645:
7604:
7600:
7590:
7555:
7551:
7541:
7508:
7504:
7494:
7451:
7447:
7437:
7425:. Retrieved
7422:www.gov.scot
7421:
7412:
7379:
7375:
7365:
7340:
7336:
7326:
7299:
7295:
7285:
7244:
7240:
7230:
7218:. Retrieved
7213:
7203:
7191:. Retrieved
7187:
7178:
7166:. Retrieved
7162:
7153:
7141:. Retrieved
7137:
7128:
7116:. Retrieved
7112:
7103:
7076:
7072:
7062:
7029:
7025:
7015:
6970:
6966:
6956:
6944:. Retrieved
6940:
6931:
6890:
6886:
6876:
6841:
6837:
6827:
6818:
6809:
6797:. Retrieved
6793:
6784:
6751:
6747:
6737:
6704:
6700:
6690:
6665:10553/118975
6637:
6633:
6623:
6611:. Retrieved
6607:
6598:
6586:. Retrieved
6582:
6573:
6561:. Retrieved
6557:the original
6552:
6543:
6531:. Retrieved
6527:the original
6522:
6513:
6501:. Retrieved
6495:
6485:
6458:
6454:
6444:
6434:
6420:
6407:
6361:
6357:
6319:
6313:
6301:. Retrieved
6262:
6250:
6241:
6232:
6223:
6214:
6205:
6196:
6184:. Retrieved
6175:
6168:
6156:. Retrieved
6147:
6141:
6101:
6097:
6084:
6072:. Retrieved
6068:the original
6063:
6039:. Retrieved
6035:the original
6030:
6021:
6013:
6005:
5995:
5982:
5972:
5951:
5938:
5932:
5894:
5873:14 September
5871:. Retrieved
5867:
5857:
5845:. Retrieved
5836:
5826:
5814:. Retrieved
5810:the original
5805:
5796:
5784:. Retrieved
5780:
5771:
5764:OffshoreWind
5763:
5754:
5737:
5727:
5713:
5704:10026.1/4547
5678:
5674:
5653:. Retrieved
5643:
5630:
5621:
5609:. Retrieved
5605:the original
5600:
5578:
5576:IEA (2019).
5535:
5531:
5503:. Retrieved
5499:
5467:
5458:
5448:
5440:
5432:
5425:
5417:the original
5407:
5395:. Retrieved
5391:the original
5380:
5370:
5361:
5349:. Retrieved
5345:the original
5335:
5325:
5316:
5306:
5291:
5281:
5274:
5264:
5257:
5209:(1): 11826.
5206:
5202:
5192:
5180:. Retrieved
5176:
5167:
5155:. Retrieved
5136:
5124:. Retrieved
5098:Tabular Data
5078:
5045:
5030:
5020:29 September
5018:. Retrieved
5008:
4998:29 September
4996:. Retrieved
4986:
4976:29 September
4974:. Retrieved
4964:
4952:. Retrieved
4943:
4933:
4923:17 September
4921:. Retrieved
4907:
4895:. Retrieved
4890:
4881:
4869:. Retrieved
4865:the original
4855:
4845:
4833:. Retrieved
4829:
4820:
4808:. Retrieved
4803:
4794:
4767:
4763:
4753:
4728:
4724:
4699:. Retrieved
4680:
4671:
4668:"Wind Power"
4662:
4650:. Retrieved
4640:
4628:. Retrieved
4624:
4615:
4595:
4588:
4578:
4576:IEA (2019).
4571:
4559:. Retrieved
4555:
4521:
4513:
4501:The Guardian
4500:
4490:
4477:
4465:. Retrieved
4461:the original
4454:
4444:
4432:. Retrieved
4428:the original
4418:
4410:
4403:. Retrieved
4397:
4384:
4372:. Retrieved
4359:
4350:
4340:
4332:
4318:
4308:
4300:
4290:
4275:
4265:
4244:
4235:
4226:
4216:
4206:
4204:IEA (2020).
4199:
4189:
4187:IEA (2019).
4169:
4145:. Retrieved
4141:
4119:
4110:
4098:. Retrieved
4094:
4084:
4072:. Retrieved
4068:
4058:
4046:. Retrieved
4041:
4032:
4020:. Retrieved
4010:
3998:. Retrieved
3994:
3984:
3971:
3959:. Retrieved
3950:
3943:
3931:. Retrieved
3921:
3913:
3895:
3883:. Retrieved
3874:
3858:(2): 91–95.
3855:
3851:
3841:
3803:. Retrieved
3790:
3778:. Retrieved
3773:
3732:. Retrieved
3725:the original
3720:
3687:. Retrieved
3684:www.gwec.net
3683:
3674:
3662:. Retrieved
3649:
3632:
3620:. Retrieved
3616:
3606:
3596:29 September
3594:. Retrieved
3590:the original
3580:
3571:
3523:. Retrieved
3518:
3509:
3476:. Retrieved
3474:(in Italian)
3471:
3461:
3451:
3073:South Korea
2656:-emissions.
2650:
2631:
2620:
2609:
2605:Block Island
2593:
2590:
2567:Location map
2565:
2364:51°38′38.0″N
2341:London Array
2128:51°42′25.2″N
1978:52°42′54.4″N
1846:Triton Knoll
1797:2°41′54.67″W
1794:58°10′1.49″N
1685:SWT-7.0-154
1566:53°54′36.0″N
1472:
1457:
1448:
1428:
1404:
1396:
1392:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1347:
1338:
1321:
1308:
1291:in 2017 and
1281:
1268:
1253:
1243:
1224:
1219:Fehmarn Belt
1192:
1183:
1167:
1158:
1129:
1125:
1112:
1108:
1092:
1090:(concrete).
1080:
1062:Specialized
1061:
1048:
1044:adding to it
1039:
1015:Installation
1001:
997:
980:
958:
950:
948:
925:
917:
913:
885:gravity base
878:
874:
853:
813:
802:
795:
784:
777:
769:
758:
751:
744:
737:
733:
722:
714:
691:
686:geotechnical
673:
664:London Array
628:
616:
596:
592:strike price
585:
567:
563:
554:
550:
547:
534:
530:adding to it
525:
496:
489:
485:
472:
468:adding to it
463:
441:
437:
429:
425:
404:
400:
397:
386:
379:
347:
343:
332:
317:
313:
289:
277:
273:
253:
245:
236:
227:
223:
208:
130:
91:
79:
65:
61:
60:
36:
8708:20 February
8644:23 February
8601:. The Hindu
8355:4 September
8299:12 February
8154:6 September
7997:19 November
7967:20 December
7343:: 172–183.
7302:(4): 1–19.
7208:Read, Zoe.
7079:: 263–273.
6748:Wind Energy
6707:: 172–183.
6461:: 263–275.
6436:DONG Energy
5681:: 141–153.
5538:: 919–929.
5157:27 February
4954:10 November
4897:14 December
4835:12 February
4770:: 758–771.
4701:27 February
4467:8 September
4434:21 December
4405:21 December
4374:19 December
4048:26 February
3805:27 February
3453:BTM Consult
3330:World total
2808:Netherlands
2623:Great Lakes
2530: /
2517:5°57′46.8″E
2504:Netherlands
2455: /
2380: /
2367:1°33′13.0″E
2294: /
2281:3°31′19.2″W
2278:54°2′38.4″N
2219: /
2144: /
2131:2°54′44.6″E
2118:Netherlands
2069: /
2043:Netherlands
1994: /
1968:Netherlands
1885: /
1810: /
1735: /
1657: /
1582: /
1235:reliability
1205:Maintenance
1095:pile driver
1064:jackup rigs
920:tripod pile
791:sovereignty
330:) per MWh.
196:(1998–2010)
168:Phabricator
128:at 2.4 GW.
122:Dogger Bank
108:(22%), and
104:(49%), the
9125:Laddermill
9078:Betz's law
9023:including
8956:Yaw system
8848:Wind farms
8799:By country
8786:Wind power
8778:Wind power
8731:WFO-Global
8703:WFO-Global
8667:WFO-Global
8639:WindEurope
8022:13 January
7963:(in Dutch)
7941:17 October
7916:3 February
6973:: 386713.
6893:: 110994.
6640:: 106862.
6608:Vattenfall
6583:orsted.com
6553:Ingeniøren
6497:Ingeniøren
6364:(4): 899.
5806:MarineBuzz
5611:7 December
5126:13 January
5071:World Bank
5047:Ingeniøren
4830:Energy.gov
4810:9 February
4532:9264251723
4399:Ingeniøren
3525:7 December
3478:1 February
3424:References
2585:Copenhagen
2536: (
2514:54°2′9.6″N
2461: (
2386: (
2300: (
2225: (
2203:52°39′57″N
2150: (
2075: (
2053:51°42′10″N
2000: (
1981:4°15′3.6″E
1891: (
1816: (
1771:Moray East
1741: (
1719:56°35′17″N
1663: (
1588: (
1569:1°33′6.5″E
1500:Wind farm
1488:See also:
1334:Vattenfall
1231:jackup rig
1227:helicopter
1155:in Norway.
1134:Connection
1072:gyroscopes
393:Green Deal
305:Vattenfall
301:Ørsted A/S
240:Baltic Sea
82:wind power
74:wind farms
32:Sea breeze
8526:. Toronto
8481:14 August
7856:cite news
7823:cite news
7779:1781-6858
7664:cite news
7629:0025-326X
7574:2399-6544
7533:0264-8377
7486:153668309
7404:0921-8009
7357:0261-5177
7318:253612058
7277:157817373
7269:0308-597X
7220:15 August
7054:0964-5691
7032:: 40–50.
6989:1537-744X
6923:233549134
6915:1364-0321
6776:109388480
6729:0308-597X
6682:251363554
6674:0195-9255
6322:. Wiley.
6224:Clarksons
6126:114988357
6118:1755-0777
5913:944186047
5560:159175808
5231:2045-2322
5065:. 2019. "
4369:Bloomberg
4333:ROV world
3267:Portugal
2587:, Denmark
2442:13°0′17″E
2439:55°3′46″N
2206:2°17′44″E
1722:1°44′28″W
1644:1°47′28″E
1641:53°53′6″N
1618:Hornsea 1
1543:Hornsea 2
1503:Location
1443:talk page
1295:in 2019.
1199:emissions
969:in 2009.
963:North Sea
850:, Germany
767:in 2012.
747:IEC 61400
620:North Sea
410:Economics
320:Bloomberg
318:In 2012,
262:had 19%,
188:Sources:
96:was 64.3
56:North Sea
9239:Category
9193:Category
9066:Concepts
9032:Goldwind
8996:Software
8949:Darrieus
8944:Savonius
8909:Floating
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