Atatürk's reforms

1521: 3428:) was formed on 31 May 1927, and its network was operated by foreign companies. The TCDD later took over the Chemin de Fer d'Anatolie-Baghdad (Anatolian Railway (CFOA)). On 1 June 1927, it had control over the tracks of the former Anatolian Railway (CFOA) and the Transcaucasus Railway line within Turkish borders. This institution developed an extensive railway network in a very short time. In 1927, the road construction goals were incorporated into development plans. The road network consisted of 13,885 km (8,628 mi) of ruined surface roads, 4,450 km (2,770 mi) of stabilized roads, and 94 bridges. In 1935, a new entity was established under the government called "Sose ve Kopruler Reisligi" which would drive development of new roads after World War II. However, in 1937, the 22,000 km (14,000 mi) of roads in Turkey augmented the railways. 2769: 1813: 2245: 2751: 3324: 3125:(only primary education had been made mandatory at the time) had to join the Millet Mektepleri and this was mandatory. It was also noted that it would be in two stages. Atatürk became the General Chairman of the initial (group I) schools and became the "principal tutor" of 52 schools (teacher training schools) around the country, teaching, course requirements, the money for the provision of classrooms, the use of the media for propaganda purposes, the documents of those schools were successfully established. The active encouragement of people by Atatürk himself, with many trips to the countryside teaching the new alphabet, was successful, which lead to the second stage. 2523: 2507: 2347: 1726:(GDS), and The National Statistical System was changed to a centralized system. In earlier years, statistical sources were relatively simple and data collection was confined to activities related to some of the relevant functions of the government with population censuses every five years, and with agriculture and industry censuses every ten years. Gradually the activities of the GDS widened in accordance with the increasing demand for new statistical data and statistics. In addition to those censuses and surveys, many continuous publications on economic, social and cultural subjects were published by this institute to provide necessary information. 3565:, and it is the basis of the democratic Turkish Republic. Since the establishment of the republic the Turkish military has perceived itself as the guardian of Kemalism, and it has intervened in Turkish politics to that end on several occasions, including the overthrow of civilian governments by coup d'état. Notably, the military handed their newly attained powers back to the civillians each time. While this may seem contrary to democratic ideals, it was argued by military authorities and secularists as necessary in the light of Turkish history, ongoing efforts to maintain secular government, and the fact that the reforms were implemented 3148: 2737: 343: 2723: 3307: 1828:, can be defined an area in social life where individuals come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion influence political action. It is "a discursive space in which individuals and groups congregate to discuss matters of mutual interest and, where possible, to reach a common judgment." Atatürk's Reforms target the structure of the public space. The construction of a secular nation-state required important changes in state organization, though Atatürk's reforms benefited from the elaborate blueprints for a future society prepared by the Ottoman proponents of 2642:

relating to "criminal cases", shaped under Sharia were too limited in serving their purpose adequately. Beginning with the 19th century, the Ottoman Islamic codes and legal provisions were generally impracticable in dealing with the wider concept of social systems. In 1841, a new criminal code was drawn up in the Ottoman Empire. However, when the Empire dissolved, there was still no legislation with regard to family and marital relationships. Polygamy was also banned, and was not to be practiced by law-abiding citizens of Turkey after Atatürk's reforms, in contrast to the former rules of the

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over other religions/nonreligion. Reformers followed the European model (French model) of secularization. In the European model of secularizing; states typically involves granting individual religious freedoms, disestablishing state religions, stopping public funds to be used for a religion, freeing the legal system from religious control, freeing up the education system, tolerating citizens who change religion or abstain from religion, and allowing political leadership to come to power regardless of religious beliefs. In establishing a

1776: 1740: 2016: 3220:, as social and cultural – and Mustafa Kemal, in forcing his people to accept it, was slamming a door on the past as well as opening a door to the future." It was accompanied by a systematic effort to rid the Turkish language of Arabic and Persian loanwords, often replacing them with words from Western languages, especially French. Atatürk told his friend Falih Rıfkı Atay, who was on the government's Language Commission, that by carrying out the reform "we were going to cleanse the Turkish mind from its Arabic roots." 1957: 2687: 3228:

and writing easier to learn and consequently improve the literacy rate, which succeeded eventually. The change motivated by a specific political goal: to break the link with the Ottoman and Islamic past and to orient the new state of Turkey towards the West and away from the traditional Ottoman lands of the Middle East. He commented on one occasion that the symbolic meaning of the reform was for the Turkish nation to "show with its script and mentality that it is on the side of world civilization."

1606:(Diyanet) was an official state institution established in 1924 under article 136, which received the powers of the Shaykh al-Islam. As specified by law, the duties of the Diyanet are “to execute the works concerning the beliefs, worship, and ethics of Islam, enlighten the public about their religion, and administer the sacred worshiping places”. The Diyanet exercised state oversight over religious affairs and ensuring that people and communities did not challenge the Republic's "secular identity". 2541: 1752: 1620: 1764: 1016: 2822:. Turkish education became a state-supervised system, which was designed to create a skill base for the social and economic progress of the country. Unification came with the Law on Unification of National Education, which introduced three regulations. They placed the religious schools owned by private foundations under the scope of the Ministry of Education. By the same regulations, the Ministry of Education was ordered to open a religious faculty at the 1898:

the social arena. However, there was the danger of being perceived as anti-religious. Kemalists defended themselves by stating "Islam viewed all forms of superstition (non-scientific) nonreligious". The ulema's power was established during the Ottoman Empire with the conception that secular institutions were all subordinate to religion; the ulema were emblems of religious piety, and therefore rendering them powerful over state affairs. Kemalists claimed:

132: 27: 3501:(1923), specifically by Article 28. During the Paris Conference of 1925, reformers paid 62% of the Ottoman Empire's pre-1912 debt, and 77% of the Ottoman Empire's post-1912 debt. With the Paris Treaty of 1933, Turkey decreased this amount to its favor and agreed to pay 84.6 million liras out of the remaining total of 161.3 million liras of Ottoman debt. The last payment of the Ottoman debt was made by Turkey on 25 May 1954. 2673: 1264: 5962: 2152: 1444:. It was a simple document consisting of only 23 short articles. The major driving force behind the preparation of the 1921 Constitution was that its sovereignty derived from the nation and not from the Sultan, the absolute monarch of the Ottoman Empire. The 1921 Constitution also served as the legal basis for the Turkish War of Independence during 1919–1923, since it refuted the principles of the 3132:) there was insufficient funding and the drive lasted only three years and 1 ½ million certificates were presented. The total population of Turkey in this period was less than 10 million, which included the mandatory primary education age pupils who were not covered by this certificate. Eventually, the education revolution was successful, as the literacy rate rose from 9% to 33% in just 10 years. 2363: 2378: 1028: 3286: 2794:(schooling) involve institutionalized teaching and learning in relation to a curriculum, which was established according to a predetermined purpose of education. Ottoman schools were a complex educational system differentiated mainly by curricula. The Ottoman educational system had three main educational groups of institutions. The most common institutions were 3510:

agricultural banks, and implemented land reform that removed heavy taxes on peasants of the Ottoman era. He was described as the "Father of Turkish Agriculture." The Turkish economy developed in an exceptional rate with heavy industrial production increased by 150% and GDP capita rose from 800 USD to around 2000 USD by late 1930s, on par with Japan.

3002:, and Celâl Nuri. The issue was raised again in 1923 during the first Economic Congress of the newly founded Turkish Republic, sparking a public debate that was to continue for several years. Some suggested that a better alternative might be to modify the Arabic script to introduce extra characters to better represent Turkish vowels. 3552:, were more in keeping with the attitudes of the country's progressive elite than with a general populace accustomed to centuries of Ottoman stability – an attempt to convince a people so-conditioned of the merits of such far-reaching changes would test the political courage of any government subject to multi-party conditions. 1934:

the civil servants. The guidelines for the proper dressing of students and state employees (public space controlled by state) was passed during his lifetime. After most of the relatively better educated civil servants adopted the hat with their own he gradually moved further. On the 25 November 1925 the parliament passed the

1976: 3191:, during the years 1931–2. Adaptation of technical vocabulary was another step of modernization, which was tried thoroughly. Non-technical Turkish was vernacularized and simplified on the ground that the language of Turkish people should be comprehensible by the people. A good example is the Turkish word "Bilgisayar" ( 2877:

those enrolled in primary schools were girls. This figure was 18.9% for middle schools and 28% for high schools. Acting on these figures, 70 single-sex middle schools were converted to coeducational schools in 1927–28 and new coeducational middle schools were established. This was despite the opposition of

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in Germany had considered 'racially' or politically undesirable. This political decision (accepting German and Austrian scientists) established the nucleus of science and modern institutions in Turkey. The reform aimed to break away the dependency on the transfer of science and technology by foreign

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in 1925 that coeducation should be the norm. Whilst the educational committee had agreed in 1926 to abolish single-sex education in middle schools that were not boarding schools, segregation persisted in middle and high schools, and statistics in the 1927–28 educational year revealed that only 29% of

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Atatürk's reforms on education made education much more accessible: between 1923 and 1938, the number of students attending primary schools increased by 224% from 342,000 to 765,000, the number of students attending middle schools increased by 12.5 times, from around 6,000 to 74,000 and the number of

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With intense struggle, Turkish women achieved voting rights in local elections by the act of 1580 on 3 April 1930. Four years later, through legislation enacted on 5 December 1934, they gained full universal suffrage, earlier than most other countries. The reforms in the Turkish civil code, including

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which introduced the use of Western style hats instead of the fez. Legislation did not explicitly prohibit veils or headscarves and focused instead on banning fezzes and turbans for men. The law had also influence of school text books. Following the issuing of the Hat Law, images in school text books

1884:

Atatürk's Reforms defined a non-civilized person as one who functioned within the boundaries of superstition. The ulema, according to this classification, was not befit for 'civilized' life, as many argued that they were acting according to superstitions developed throughout centuries. On 25 February

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The abolishing of the position of Caliphate and Sheikh ul-Islam was followed by a common, secular authority. Many of the religious communities failed to adjust to the new regime. This was exacerbated by emigration or impoverishment, due to deteriorating economic conditions. Families that hitherto had

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There were two sections of the elite group at the helm of the discussions for the future. These were the "Islamist reformists" and the "Westernists". Many basic goals were common to both groups. Some secular intellectuals, and even certain reform-minded Muslim thinkers, accepted the view that social

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The development of industry was promoted by strategies such as import substitution and the founding of state enterprises and state banks. Economic reforms included the establishment of many state-owned factories throughout the country for the agriculture, machine making and textile industries. Many

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Throughout the mid-1930s through the mid-1940s, attempts were made at land reforms. Ataturk's land reform program redistributed 300,000 hectares to Turkish peasants and opened rural agricultural institutions to educate peasants to become more productive in economic activities. These reforms further

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It was argued by the ruling Kemalist elites who pushed this reform that the abandonment of the Arabic script was not merely a symbolic expression of secularization by breaking the link to Ottoman Islamic texts to which only a minor group of ulema had access; but also Latin script would make reading

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Before the adoption of the new alphabet a pilot program had been established with 3304 class units around Turkey, awarding a total of 64,302 certificates. This program was declared to be unsuccessful and a new organization was proposed which would be used in the drive to introduce the new alphabet.

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in 1924, where, due to the lack of a high school for girls, girls requested enrollment in the high school for boys. Upon this, works on coeducation began and the Minister of Education declared that both sexes would follow the same curriculum. In August 1924, it was decided that coeducation would be

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The reformers imagined that the elimination of the orthodox and Ṣūfī religious establishments, along with traditional religious education, and their replacement with a system in which the original sources were available to all in the vernacular language, would pave the way for a new vision of Islam

1914:

An example was the practice of medicine. Kemalists wanted to get rid of superstition extending to herbal medicine, potion, and religious therapy for mental illness, all of which were practiced by the ulema. They excoriated those who used herbal medicine, potions, and balms, and instituted penalties

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waged a war against superstition by banning the practices of the ulema and promoting the 'civilized' way ("westernization"). The ban on the ulema's social existence came in the form of dress code. The strategic goal was to change the large influence of the ulema over politics by removing them from

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A language commission responsible for adapting the Latin script to meet the phonetic requirements of the Turkish language was established. The resulting Latin script was designed to reflect the actual sounds of spoken Turkish, rather than simply transcribing the old Ottoman script into a new form.

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Atatürk's Reforms aimed to break the traditional role of the women in the society. Women were encouraged to attend universities and obtain professional degrees. Women soon became teachers at coed schools, engineers, and studied medicine and law. Between 1920 and 1938, ten percent of all university

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The reformers assumed that the original sources, now available in Turkish, would render the orthodox religious establishment (the ‘ulamā’) and the Ṣūfī ṭarīqas obsolete, and thus help to privatize religion as well as produce a reformed Islam. In 1925 institutions of religious covenants and dervish

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Official measures were gradually introduced to eliminate the wearing of religious clothing and other overt signs of religious affiliation. Beginning in 1923, a series of laws progressively limited the wearing of selected items of traditional clothing. Mustafa Kemal first made the hat compulsory to

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is the Turkish government agency commissioned with producing official statistics on Turkey, its population, resources, economy, society, and culture. It was founded in 1926 and has its headquarters in Ankara. In 1930, the title of the Department was changed to The General Directorate of Statistics

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Some people thought that the pace of change under Atatürk was too rapid as, in his quest to modernize Turkey, he effectively abolished centuries-old traditions. Nevertheless, the bulk of the population willingly accepted the reforms, even though some were seen as reflecting the views of the urban

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Atatürk was also credited for his transformational change in Turkish agriculture and ecological development. The Kemalist government planned four million trees, modernized the Turkish agricultural mechanism, implemented flood controls, opened schools in rural areas with rural institutions such as

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was established. The bank's creation was a response to the growing need for national establishment and the birth of a banking system which was capable of backing up economic activities, managing funds accumulated as a result of policies providing savings incentives and, where necessary, extending

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and schools administered by private foundations or the Diyanet were connected to the Ministry of National Education. Second, the money allocated to schools and medreses from the budget of the Diyanet was transferred to the education budget. Third, the Ministry of Education had to open a religious

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However, Anadolu Agency acquired an autonomous status after Atatürk reformed the organizational structure (added some of his closest friends) to turn the Anadolu Agency into a western news agency. This new administrative structure declared the "Anadolu Agency Corporation" on 1 March 1925. Anadolu

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In the secular state or country purports to be officially neutral in matters of religion, supporting neither religion nor irreligion and claims to treat all its citizens equally regardless of religion, and claims to avoid preferential treatment for a citizen from a particular religion/nonreligion

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and Kılıçzâde İsmail Hakkı (İsmail Hakkı Kılıçoğlu), who were westernist thinkers, took their inspiration rather from the subsequent marginalization of religion in European societies. To them, a reformed religion had only a temporary role to play as an instrument for the modernization of society,

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The explicitly nationalistic and ideological character of the alphabet reform was illustrated by the booklets issued by the government to teach the population the new script. It included sample phrases aimed at discrediting the Ottoman government and instilling updated "Turkish" values, such as:

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and the education of girls. Coeducation was established as the norm throughout the educational system by 1927. Centuries of sex segregation under Ottoman rule had denied girls equal education, Atatürk thus opposed segregated education as a matter of principle. The matter of coeducation was first

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summarized this period as "While there was a general agreement on the rejection of the last flowering of Ottoman art, no single, all-encompassing style emerged to replace it. The early years of the Republic saw the rise of dozens of new schools of art and the energetic organization of many young

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The clocks, calendars and measures used in the Ottoman Empire were different from those used in the European states. This made social, commercial and official relations difficult and caused considerable confusion. In the last period of the Ottoman Empire, some studies were made to eliminate this

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Central to the reforms was the belief that Turkish society had to modernize, which meant implementing widespread reform affecting not only politics, but the economic, social, educational and legal spheres of Turkish society. The reforms involved a number of fundamental institutional changes that

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Yaşar Nabi, a leading pro-Kemalist journalist, argued in the 1960s that the alphabet reform had been vital in creating a new Western-oriented identity for Turkey. He noted that younger Turks, who had only been taught the Latin script, were at ease in understanding Western culture but were quite

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in Europe modernized Christian law. In the Ottoman Empire, Islamic law and Christian law became drastically different. In 1920, and today, many forms of Islamic law do not contain provisions regulating the sundry relationships of "political institutions" and "commercial transactions". The rules

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In the following years of Atatürk's Reforms women's rights campaigners in Turkey differed from their sisters (and sympathetic brothers) in other countries. Rather than fighting directly for their basic rights and equality, they saw their best chance in the promotion and maintenance of Atatürk's

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of Islam) at the time. Translated Qurans existed in private settings. A major point of Atatürk's Reform was, according to his understanding; "...teaching religion in Turkish to Turkish people who had been practicing Islam without understanding it for centuries" Turkish translations published in

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involved confronting centuries-old traditions. The reform process was characterized by a struggle between progressives and conservatives. The changes were both conceptually radical and culturally significant. In the Ottoman Empire, the people of each millet had traditionally enjoyed a degree of

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Probably the most controversial area of reform was that of religion. The policy of state secularism ("active neutrality") met with opposition at the time and it continues to generate a considerable degree of social and political tension. However, any political movement that attempts to harness

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among the public. These reforms were achieved through introduction of the new customs by decrees, while banning the traditional customs. The view of their social change proposed that if the permanence of secularism was to be assured by removal of persistence of traditional cultural values (the

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has noted that "Atatürk imposed the mandatory Latin alphabet in order to promote the national awareness of the Turks against a wider Muslim identity. It is also imperative to add that he hoped to relate Turkish nationalism to the modern civilization of Western Europe, which embraced the Latin

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With a change made in 1928, international figures were adopted. A law adopted in 1931 changed the old weight and length measurements. Previously used measurement units such as arshin, endaze, okka have been removed. Instead, meters were accepted as length measurements and kilograms as weight

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Beginning with the adoption of the Turkish Civil Code in 1926, a modified Swiss Penal Code, women gained extensive civil rights. This continued with women gaining the right to vote and stand for elections at the municipal and federal levels in 1930 and 1934, respectively. Various other legal

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The Ottoman Empire had a social system based on religious affiliation. Religious insignia extended to every social function. It was common to wear clothing that identified the person with their own particular religious grouping and accompanied headgear which distinguished rank and profession

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were read in front of the public. These Turkish Qurans were fiercely opposed by religious conservatives. This incident impelled many leading Muslim modernists to call upon the Turkish Parliament to sponsor a Quran translation of suitable quality. The Parliament approved the project and the

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The Young Turks and other Ottoman intellectuals asked the question of the position of the empire regarding the West (primarily taken to mean Christian Europe). The West represented intellectual and scientific ascendancy, and provided the blueprint for the ideal society of the future.

3417:. Regie, as part of the Council of the Public Debt, had control over production, storing, and distribution (including export) with an unchallenged price control. Turkish farmers were dependent on Regie for their livelihood. In 1925, this company was taken over by the state and named 3096:

at the initiative of Atatürk, replacing the previously used Perso-Arabic script. The Language Commission proposed a five-year transition period; Atatürk saw this as far too long and reduced it to three months. The change was formalized by the Turkish Republic's law number 1353, the

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unable to engage with Middle Eastern culture. The new script was adopted very rapidly and soon gained widespread acceptance. Even so, the Turkish Arabic script nonetheless continued to be used by older people in private correspondence, notes and diaries until well into the 1960s.

3289: 5434: 2307:, and became the only nation located in the Middle East that had abolished polygamy, which was officially criminalized with the adoption of the Turkish Civil Code in 1926, a milestone in Atatürk's reforms. Penalties for illegal polygamy was set up to be 2 years imprisonment. 3531:

religious sentiment at the expense of Turkish secularism is likely to face the opposition of the armed forces, which has always regarded itself as the principal and most faithful guardian of secularism. Some assert that a historical example is the case of Prime Minister

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against the religious men who claimed they have a say in health and medicine. On 1 September 1925, the first Turkish Medical Congress was assembled, which was only four days after Mustafa Kemal was seen on 27 August at Inebolu wearing a modern hat and one day after the

3208:"The alphabet reform cannot be attributed to ease of reading and writing. That was the motive of Enver Pasha. For us, the big impact and the benefit of alphabet reform was that it eased the way to cultural reform. We inevitably lost our connection with Arabic culture." 1977: 1587:, the internationally binding agreement of the establishment of the Republic, does not specify any nationality or ethnicity. Treaty of Lausanne simply identifies non-Muslims in general and provides the legal framework which gives certain explicit religious rights to 1978: 4785:

Mangold-Will, Sabine (October 2012). "Şükrü M. Hanioğlu, Atatürk. An Intellectual Biography. Princeton/Oxford, Princeton University Press 2011 Hanioğlu Şükrü M. Atatürk. An Intellectual Biography. 2011 Princeton University Press Princeton/Oxford £ 19,95".

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The Turkish name for Atatürk's Reforms literally means "Atatürk's Revolutions", as, strictly speaking, the changes were too profound to be described as mere 'reforms'. It also reflects the belief that those changes, implemented as they were during the

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Additionally, the female labor participation rate of the Kemalist single-party period was as high as 70%. The participation rate continued to decline after the democratization of Turkey due to the backlash of conservative norms in the Turkish society.

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Some social institutions had religious overtones, and held considerable influence over public life. Social change also included centuries old religious social structures that has been deeply rooted within the society, some were established within the

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of 1918 signed by the Ottoman Empire, by which a great majority of the Empire's territory would have to be ceded to the Entente powers that had won the First World War. In October 1923 the constitution was amended to declare Turkey to be a republic.

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The unification of education, along with the closure of the old-style universities, and a large-scale program of science transfer from Europe; education became an integrative system, aimed to alleviate poverty and used female education to establish

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structure. The millet structure allowed a great degree of religious, cultural and ethnic continuity across the society but at the same time permitted the religious ideology to be incorporated into the administrative, economic and political system.

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as its new capital in 1923, as a rejection of the perceived corruption and decadence of cosmopolitan Istanbul and its Ottoman heritage, as well as electing to choose a capital more geographically centered in Turkey. During the disastrous 1912–13

3535:, who was overthrown by the military in 1960. He and two of his Ministers were hanged by the Military Tribunal. However, their charges were not for being anti-secular. Although Menderes did relax some restrictions on religion he also banned the 2927:

The literacy movement aimed adult education for the goal of forming a skill base in the country. Turkish women were taught not only child care, dress-making and household management, but also skills needed to join the economy outside the home.

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Following the conclusion of said debates, the Diyanet released an official mandate on 18 July 1932 announcing the decision to all the mosques across Turkey, and the practice was continued for a period of 18 years. Following the victory of the

2881:, the Undersecretary for Education. Whilst the policy was transition to coeducational high schools based on the success in middle schools from 1928 to 1929 onwards, this policy could only be implemented effectively from 1934 to 1935 onwards. 2332:

Atatürk's regime promoted female role models who were, in his words, "the mothers of the nation." This woman of the republic was 'cultured, educated, and modern'; to promote this image, the Miss Turkey pageants were first organized in 1929.

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vocabulary that incorporated a great deal of Arabic and Persian vocabulary and even grammar. However, it was poorly suited for older, Turkic grammar and vocabulary, which was rich in vowels and poorly represented by the Arabic script, an

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Military training was added to the curriculum of secondary education with the support of Mustafa Kemal who stated "just as the army is a school, so is the school an army". He was also in favor of deploying army sergeants as teachers.

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Turkey adapted the European workweek and weekend as the complementary parts of the week devoted to labor and rest, respectively. In the Ottoman Empire, the workweek was from Sunday to Thursday and the weekend was Friday and Saturday.

5438: 1943:. It banned religion-based clothing, such as the veil and turban, outside of places of worship, and gave the government the power to assign only one person per religion or sect to wear religious clothes outside of places of worship. 2468:

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, in seeking to revise a number of aspects of Turkish culture, used what he saw as the ancient heritage and village life of the country, forcing the removal of perceived Arabic and Persian cultural influences.

1300:. From 1923 to 1938, a series of radical political and social reforms were instituted. They transformed Turkey and ushered in a new era of modernization, including civil and political equality for sectarian minorities and women. 2950:

and the purging of foreign loan words was part of Atatürk's program of modernization. The two important ends were sought, which were the democratization of writing and language, and the 'secularization' of the Turkish language.

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culminated in the reform Law of 1945, 7 years after Ataturk's death. 2.2 million unused land was confiscated by the government in this reform, along with 3.4 government-controlled land, was redistributed to Turkish peasants.

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If henceforward the women do not share in the social life of the nation, we shall never attain to our full development. We shall remain irremediably backward, incapable of treating on equal terms with the civilizations of the

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The adaptation of laws relating to family and marital relationships is an important step attributed to Mustafa Kemal. The reforms also instituted legal equality and full political rights for both sexes in 1934, well before

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The elements of the political system visioned by Atatürk's Reforms developed in stages, but by 1935, when the last part of the Atatürk's Reforms removed the reference to Islam in the Constitution; Turkey became a secular

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The abolishment of Caliphate removed the highest religious-political position. This act left Muslim associations who were institutionalized under the convents and the dervish lodges without higher organizing structure.

3486:. The OPDA became a vast, essentially independent bureaucracy within the Ottoman bureaucracy, run by the creditors. It employed 5,000 officials who collected taxes that were then turned over to the European creditors. 1148:

and modernization of the administration, with a particular focus on the education system. This can be observed by looking at the literacy rate within the Republic of Turkey, which rose from 9% to 33% in only 10 years.

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The clock system used by the contemporary world was accepted instead of the Turkish 'sunset clock'. With the time scale taken from the West, one day was divided into 24 hours and daily life was organized accordingly.

2066:." Ersoy declined the offer and destroyed his work, to avoid the possible public circulation of a transliteration which might be remotely faulty. Only in 1935 did the version read in public find its way to print. 2124:

assigned to the Turkish Grand National Assembly, saying that prayer should be performed in a mosque, not in the parliament. They also removed the "references to religion" from the decorum. The only Friday sermon

3348:, a trading port with international foreign enterprises, was abandoned and resources were channeled to other, less-developed cities, in order to establish a more balanced development throughout the country. 4018:

S. N. Eisenstadt, "The Kemalist Regime and Modernization: Some Comparative and Analytical Remarks," in J. Landau, ed., Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1984, 3–16.

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and head-dresses surmounting Ottoman styles showed the sex, rank, and profession (both civil and military) of the wearer. These styles were accompanied with strict regulation beginning with the reign of

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Not only were all the social institutions of Turkish society reorganized, but the social and political values of the state were replaced as well. This new, secular state ideology was to become known as

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In the first year of the second stage (1928), 20,487 classrooms were opened; 1,075,500 people attended these schools, but only 597,010 received the final certificate. Due to the global economic crisis (

3256:"Sultans did not think of the public, Ghazi commander saved the nation from enemies and slavery. And now, he declared a campaign against ignorance. He armed the nation with the new Turkish alphabet." 1280:(in the sense that it is not one leader's idea of how a perfect society should be, but it is a unifying force of a nation), in that Atatürk united the Turkish Muslim majority from 1919 to 1922 in the 3231:

The idea of absolute monarchy in the textbooks was replaced by the limited ideology known as liberalism. The teachings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Montesquieu based republics were added as content.

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which was avowedly Islamist. Further, the charges at the Military Tribunal did not involve antisecular activities and it can be concluded that Menderes was overall in favour of the secular system.

3288: 3494:) were generally bilateral acts whereby definite arrangements were entered into by each contracting party towards the other, not mere concessions, yet this gradually changed in the 19th century. 2411:

was adopted on 21 June 1934. The law requires all citizens of Turkey to adopt the use of hereditary, fixed, surnames. Much of the population, particularly in the cities as well as Turkey's

5707:"Atatürk, The National Agricultural Leader, Father of Modern Turkish Agriculture and The National Development: A Review From the Perspective of Agricultural Communications and Leadership" 3175:

Another important part of Atatürk's reforms encompassed his emphasis on the Turkish language and history, leading to the establishment of the prescriptivist linguistic institution, the

1718:. One of the Atatürk's major achievement is the establishment of a principal government institution in charge of statistics (economic and financial statistical data) and census data. 3359:

is the title given to tribal chieftains, either supreme chieftains, or to village heads, who were wealthy landlords and owners of major tracts of real estate in the urban centers.

1543:, the Ottoman Caliphate, held by the Ottomans since 1517, was abolished and to mediate the power of religion in the public sphere (including recognized minority religions in the 1469:

autonomy, with their own leadership, collecting their own taxes and living according to their own system of religious/cultural law. The Ottoman Muslims had a strict hierarchy of

1979: 1644:, mere miles from Istanbul, creating a fear that the Ottoman capital would have to be moved to Anatolia; the reform movement wanted to avoid a similar incident with Turkey. 1177:

also invokes the principles of nationalism, defined as the "material and spiritual well-being of the Republic" (position in 1935). The basic nature of the Republic is

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Atatürk himself was personally involved with the commission and proclaimed an "alphabet mobilisation" to publicise the changes. In 1926 the Turkic republics of the

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Besides the political structure; as a part of civic independence, religious education system was replaced by a national education system on 3 March 1924, and The

4537: 2257:"News bulletin: for the first time in Turkish history women will vote and be eligible to the public office in the general election which takes place this week." 1986: 1940: 1239:'s authoritarian regime from 1878–1908 that introduced large reforms in education and the bureaucracy, as well as the Ottoman Empire's experience in prolonged 5738: 3527:

elites at the expense of the generally illiterate inhabitants of the rural countryside, where religious sentiments and customary norms tended to be stronger.

3513:

Ataturk’s regime also passed the 1936 Labor Law, which gave substantial wage increases and improved the working conditions of workers in Turkish enterprises.

3482:(OPDA) was a European-controlled organization that was established in 1881 to collect the payments which the Ottoman Empire owed to European companies in the 1721:

Modern statistical services began with the establishment of The Central Statistical Department in 1926. It was established as a partially centralized system.

2313:

Besides the advancements, men were still officially heads of the household in the law. Women needed the head of the household's permission to travel abroad.

5298:

Regine ERICHSEN, «Scientific Research and Science Policy in Turkey», in Cemoti, n° 25 – Les Ouïgours au vingtième siècle, , mis en ligne le 5 décembre 2003.

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Ozelli, M. T. (January 1974). "The Evolution of the Formal Educational System and its Relation to Economic Growth Policies in the First Turkish Republic".

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Among the fine arts, painting, and especially sculpture, were little practiced in the Ottoman Empire, owing to the Islamic tradition of avoiding idolatry.

2133:

during the election campaign. The reformers said that "to repeat the sermons of a thousand years ago was to preserve backwardness and promote nescience."

1169:) from the people. Turkish sovereignty rests with the Turkish Nation, which delegates its will to an elected unicameral parliament (position in 1935), the 5752:

Colpan, Asli M.; Jones, Geoffrey (June 2011). Vehbi Koç and the Making of Turkey's Largest Business Group (Report). Harvard Business School. Case 811-081.

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The goal of Atatürk's reforms was to maintain the independence of Turkey from the direct rule of external forces (Western countries). The process was not

3406: 198: 193: 6128: 5943: 5044:

Sardar, Marika. “Art and Nationalism in Twentieth-Century Turkey.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000

3101:, passed on 1 November 1928. The law went into effect from 1 January 1929, making the use of the new alphabet compulsory in all public communications. 2873: 2814:

era. The last group included colleges and minority schools in foreign languages that often used more recent teaching models in educating their pupils.

1989:

banned religion-based clothing for men in public. However, the government did not interfere with women's clothing, but some municipalities did ban the

2284:

In 1935, in the general elections Eighteen female MPs joined the parliament, at a time when women in a significant number of other European countries

1583:(social sphere). (This differentiation applies to Islam and Muslims as well. Atatürk's reforms, as of 1935, assume the social sphere is secular.) The 1129:

brought an end to many traditions, and followed a carefully planned program to unravel the complex system that had developed over previous centuries.

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Women were granted the right to vote in Turkey in 1930, but the right to vote was not extended to women in provincial elections in Quebec until 1940.

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The Government has decided to abolish all Masonic lodges in Turkey on the ground that Masonic principles are incompatible with nationalistic policy.

173: 5395: 1676:

Agency Corporation acquired an autonomous status with an unexampled organizational chart not existed even in the western countries in those days.

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was guided by a national vision: they wanted to knit the country together, eliminate foreign control of the economy, and improve communications.

2273:

in 1908. During the early years of the Turkish Republic educated women struggled for political rights. One notable female political activist was

1240: 1058: 1939:

that had shown men with fezzes, were exchanged with images which showed men with hats. Another control on the dress was passed in 1934 with the

6003: 5466: 4426:

Inalcik, Halil. 1973. "Learning, the Medrese, and the Ulemas." In the Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300–1600. New York: Praeger, pp. 171.

1174: 1967: 1520: 1421:

government in Ankara to become the sole governing entity in the nation. The most fundamental reforms allowed the Turkish nation to exercise

3424:

The development of a national rail network was another important step for industrialization. The State Railways of the Republic of Turkey (

2493:

and houses a rich collection of Turkish art from the late 19th century to the present day. There are also galleries for guest exhibitions.

1551:

withdrawn. Shar’iyya wa Awqaf Ministry followed the Office of Caliphate. This office was replaced by the Presidency of Religious Affairs.

373: 4844: 2990:

advocated a reform of the alphabet. At the start of the 20th century, similar proposals were made by several writers associated with the

2919:

faculty for training higher religious experts within the system of higher education, and separate schools for training imams and hatips.

1202: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 2300:

The Turkish Civil Code also allowed equal rights to divorce to both men and women, and gave equal child custody rights to both parents.

1198: 188: 6174: 3549: 1190: 1182: 1110: 606: 91: 5815:

Ali Arslan "The evaluation of parliamentary democracy in turkey and Turkish political elites" HAOL, núm. 6 (invierno, 2005), 131–141.

2219:

Win for us the battle of education and you will do yet more for your country than we have been able to do. It is to you that I appeal

1572: 1402:

by the Ankara Government, but its traditions and cultural symbols remained active among the people (though less so among the elite).

906: 63: 2303:

Polygamy was permitted in the Ottoman Empire under special circumstances, with certain terms and conditions. Atatürk's reforms made

2277:

who founded the first women's party in June 1923, which however was not legalized because the Republic was not officially declared.

168: 1916: 1703: 1699: 5966: 2310:

Under Islamic law, a woman's inheritance was half the share of a man, whereas under the new laws man and women inherited equally.

1672:

convened for the first time. It announced the first legislation passed by the Assembly, which established the Republic of Turkey.

44: 5845: 4297: 4188: 1881:

religious insignia), a considerable degree of cultural receptivity by the public to the further social change could be achieved.

2872:

introduced to primary education, giving boys the right to enroll in girls' high schools and vice versa. Atatürk declared in his

70: 5013: 3445: 2606: 2177: 2102: 1118: 993: 4271: 5797: 5772: 5553: 5533: 5357: 5337: 5246: 5105: 4732: 4563: 4509: 4484: 4151: 3121:

Bey passed the "National Schools Directive" (Directive) 7284 dated 11 November 1928, which stated that every Turkish citizen

2046: 2022: 1801: 901: 2768: 1429:. The Republic of Turkey ("Türkiye Cumhuriyeti") was proclaimed on 29 October 1923, by the Turkish Grand National Assembly. 6189: 4170: 2975:. Some could be expressed using four different Arabic signs; others could not be expressed at all. The introduction of the 1086:) were a series of political, legal, religious, cultural, social, and economic policy changes, designed to convert the new 5973: 5713: 2941: 2196:

A law enacted in 1935 changed the weekend, which now began Friday afternoon (not Thursday afternoon) and ended on Sunday.

1333:(1828). The reform-minded Muslim thinkers concluded from the Lutheran experience that the reform of Islam was imperative. 178: 163: 77: 6204: 3634: 3487: 3473: 3398: 3170: 1051: 537: 490: 4050:

Cleveland, William L & Martin Bunton, A History of the Modern Middle East: 4th Edition, Westview Press: 2009, p. 82.

2548:

The Ottoman Empire was a religious empire in which each religious community enjoyed a large degree of autonomy with the

2443:

calendar officially on 1 January 1926. One calendar prevented the complications of multiple calendars in state affairs.

2281:

those affecting women's suffrage, were "breakthroughs not only within the Islamic world but also in the western world".

5996: 5825: 3591: 3479: 3469: 3414: 1399: 926: 220: 5491: 4245: 3995: 1695: 1437: 1410: 1170: 808: 313: 110: 59: 6179: 6138: 5666: 5031: 4709: 2646:. There were thousands of other articles in the Mecelle which were not used due to their perceived inapplicability. 2244: 768: 4625:"THE ISSUES OF CHANTING THE ADHAN IN LANGUAGES OTHER THAN ARABIC AND RELATED SOCIAL REACTIONS AGAINST IT IN TURKEY" 1812: 1603: 1389: 2157:

The Sufi "orders" —congregations formed around a master— which meet for majalis, in meeting places known as tekke.

1485:

that had authority over the community. The Sheikh ul-Islam represented the law of shariah. This office was in the

366: 342: 4677: 4206: 3323: 2750: 2651: 2285: 1669: 1292:. That fighting spirit became the unifying force which established the identity of a new state, and in 1923, the 1252: 5193: 3569:

when the military occupied 16.9% of the professional job positions (the corresponding figure today is only 3%).

2055: 2582: 2513: 2478: 1044: 297: 48: 5893:

Ergin, Murat. "Cultural encounters in the social sciences and humanities: western émigré scholars in Turkey,"

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Michael Radu, (2003), "Dangerous Neighborhood: Contemporary Issues in Turkey's Foreign Relations", page 125,

3875: 3808: 3071: 2181: 2106: 1722: 1122: 5900:

Hansen, Craig C. "Are We Doing Theory Ethnocentrically? A Comparison of Modernization Theory and Kemalism,"

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in modernizing the Empire and used the dress code of 1826 which developed the symbols (classifications) of

1691: 1453: 1433: 1137: 1133: 1106: 911: 319: 3076: 2995: 783: 4000: 3536: 3254:

The alphabet reform was promoted as redeeming the Turkish people from the neglect of the Ottoman rulers:

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adopted the Latin script, giving a major boost to reformers in Turkey. On 1 November 1928, the new

2987: 2878: 1861: 1374: 359: 5456: 5403: 4450: 3932: 3841: 3452:'s role during its initial years as a central bank was phased out. Later specialized banks such as the 3266: 3180: 3010:

was established. It was a key step in the cultural part of Atatürk's Reforms. The Language Commission (

2757: 2470: 2063: 1529: 1338: 260: 225: 5072: 4943:

Göksel, İdil (November 2013). "Female labor force participation in Turkey: The role of conservatism".

4876:

Eylem Atakav "Women and Turkish Cinema: Gender Politics, Cultural Identity and Representation, page 22

3028: 1567:(as of 1935) as permeating both the government and the religious sphere. Minority religions, like the 84: 6194: 6184: 5234: 3397:

was an important industrial crop, while its cultivation and manufacture were French monopolies under

2574:

which tried to end confusion in the judicial sphere by extending the legal equality to all citizens.

2270: 2264: 1661: 1285: 1248: 5000: 4848: 2522: 2346: 1555:

financially supported religious community institutions such as hospitals and schools stop doing so.

6153: 3151: 3147: 3139:

and congresses for discussing the issues of copyright, public education and scientific publishing.

2963: 2451:

measures. With these changes in length and weight measurements, unity was achieved in the country.

1568: 1426: 1232: 798: 470: 6056: 5145:

Dr. Ayfer Altay "Difficulties Encountered in the Translation of Legal Texts: The Case of Turkey",

3985: 2736: 2552:

structure. Each millet had an internal system of governance based upon its religious law, such as

2482: 1481:

of important cities. The Sheikh ul-Islam issued fatwas, which were written interpretations of the

1098: 708: 146: 3166: 2937: 2722: 2549: 2129:) ever delivered by a Turkish head of state was given by Atatürk; this took place at a mosque in 1548: 1533: 1385: 1317: 916: 728: 650: 325: 275: 245: 240: 37: 6091: 5548:, p. 177. Eds. Nohl, Arnd-Michael; Akkoyunlu-Wigley, Arzu; Wigley, Simon. Waxmann Verlag, 2008. 4979: 3374:. One of these farms later became a public recreational area to serve the capital, known as the 2971:

which by definition only transcribed consonants. It was thus inadequate at representing Turkish

6031: 3796: 3425: 3054: 2955: 2890: 2578: 2460: 1547:) left to the Directorate for Religious Affairs. Under the reforms official recognition of the 1251:

from 1908 to 1913, and various efforts were made to secularize and modernize the empire in the

944: 733: 628: 589: 552: 547: 390: 285: 5626: 5095: 3306: 6071: 6061: 4987: 4923: 3341: 3203: 3066: 2419:

citizens, already had surnames, and all families had names by which they were known locally.

1114: 966: 813: 778: 640: 574: 562: 6116: 3135:

The literacy reform was supported by strengthening the private publishing sector with a new

828: 183: 6012: 5870: 4886:

White, Jenny B. (2003). "State Feminism, Modernization, and the Turkish Republican Woman".

3909: 2638: 2408: 2353: 1794: 1213: 1194: 1145: 1091: 983: 949: 753: 738: 660: 655: 485: 442: 417: 290: 270: 235: 5277:

Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'nde Atatürk Dönemi Eğitim Politikaları (1923–1938) ve Coğrafya Eğitimi

5217:

Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'nde Atatürk Dönemi Eğitim Politikaları (1923–1938) ve Coğrafya Eğitimi

4091: 8: 6066: 4624: 4532:

Marmara Üniversitesi, Türkiyat Araştırmaları Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul 2008

3483: 3448:

was realized. The bank's primary purpose was to have control over the exchange rate, and

2959: 2827: 2786: 1715: 1596: 1465: 1422: 1418: 1132:

The reforms began with the modernization of the constitution, including enacting the new

961: 670: 613: 596: 532: 512: 480: 280: 5739:"Factories established by Atatürk, the founder of Turkey, in first 15 years of Republic" 5325: 2979:

and printing press in the 19th century exposed further weaknesses in the Arabic script.

2708: 2571: 1445: 1296:

was signed, ending the Ottoman Empire and internationally recognizing the newly founded

5607: 5280: 5220: 4903: 4605: 3727: 3638: 3498: 3248:"Taxes are spent for the common properties of the nation. Tax is a debt we need to pay" 2791: 2440: 2368: 2304: 1584: 1544: 1370: 1355: 1293: 973: 818: 743: 635: 623: 502: 4588:

Wilson, M. Brett. "The First Translations of the Quran in Modern Turkey (1924–1938)".

4185: 2481:

was dedicated to fine arts and mainly sculpture. It was designed in 1927 by architect

1326: 1113:

and implemented these reforms, starting in 1923. After Atatürk's death, his successor

763: 748: 6199: 6086: 5793: 5768: 5549: 5529: 5524:

Karpat, Kemal H. "A Language in Search of a Nation: Turkish in the Nation-State", in

5487: 5353: 5333: 5242: 5101: 5054: 4826: 4803: 4728: 4559: 4505: 4480: 4382: 4147: 4037: 3845: 3621: 3270: 3188: 3111: 2407:

Under the Ottoman Empire many people, especially Muslims, did not use surnames. The

2051: 1856: 1524:

Abolition of the Caliphate, The Last Caliph, Le Petit Journal illustré, 16 March 1924

1494: 1486: 1313: 1217: 1032: 1020: 988: 873: 645: 527: 517: 4609: 2834:

students attending high schools increased by almost 17 times, from 1,200 to 21,000.

2297:

initiatives were also put into effect in the years following to encourage equality.

2236:

Reforms, with its espousal of secular values and equality for all, including women.

1922: 1775: 1739: 1477:

holding the highest rank. A Sheikh ul-Islam was chosen by a royal warrant among the

6096: 5599: 5463:Çağdaş Türkiye Araştırmaları Dergisi, Cilt: VIII, Sayı: 18–19, Yıl: 2009, Bahar-Güz 5168: 4975: 4952: 4895: 4795: 4597: 4374: 4275: 3862: 3821: 3763: 3184: 3129: 3089: 3033: 3007: 2851:

In 1915, during the Ottoman period, a separate section for girl students named the

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was still in existence, with its heritage of religious and dynastic authority. The

1351: 1075: 954: 853: 848: 793: 788: 522: 507: 3244:"Atatürk allied himself with the nation and drove the sultans out of the homeland" 1342:

after which it would be cast aside from public life and limited to personal life.

1117:

continued the one-party rule and Kemalist style reforms until the CHP lost to the

868: 5944:"The Myth of 'New Turkey': Kemalism and Erdoganism as Two Sides of the Same Coin" 5470: 4192: 4174: 3566: 3394: 3155: 2999: 2823: 2819: 2714:

Atatürk visiting a math class at the Izmir High School for Boys, 1 February 1931.

2274: 2205: 2114: 2077: 2041: 1869: 1509: 1474: 1334: 1186: 858: 601: 579: 495: 475: 447: 427: 265: 250: 4249: 4167: 3234: 3110:

The name of the new organization which would be used in the literacy drive was "

1619: 5974:

Ministry of National Education and Culture, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus

5459:

Yeni Alfabenin Kabülü Sonrası Mersin’de Açılan Millet Mektepleri ve Çalışmaları

4956: 3532: 3118: 2110: 1935: 1653: 1588: 1406: 1395: 1236: 1228: 863: 843: 833: 723: 703: 584: 422: 255: 5603: 5172: 4899: 4601: 4378: 3401:. The tobacco and cigarette trade was controlled by two French companies, the 2540: 1452:

In April 1924, the constitution was replaced by an entirely new document, the

6168: 6081: 5871:

Atatürk Döneminde Masonluk ve Masonlarla İlişkilere Dair Bazı Arşiv Belgeleri

5670: 4830: 4807: 4674:

William Dalrymple: What goes round... The Guardian, Saturday 5 November 2005

4386: 4362: 3949: 3402: 3388: 3315:(1924) was the first Turkish bank established with solely national resources. 3213: 2686: 2617:

Mehakim-i Şer'iyenin İlgasına ve Mehakim Teşkilatına Ait Ahkamı Muaddil Kanun

2436: 2383: 1956: 1841: 1825: 1821: 1579:

faiths (personal sphere), but this guarantee does not give any rights to any

1540: 1490: 1436:

was the fundamental law of Turkey for a brief period. It was ratified by the

1309: 1206: 1141: 803: 758: 718: 713: 618: 398: 6111: 5888:

Ottoman Ulema, Turkish Republic: Agents of Change and Guardians of Tradition

5309:

The Turkish language reform: a unique case of language planning in the world

5239:

The Making of Modern Turkey: Nation and State in Eastern Anatolia, 1913-1950

4747:

Nüket Kardam "Turkey's Engagement With Global Women's Human Rights" page 88.

4365:(June 1998), "Vernacular Dialogue and the Rhetoricality of Public Opinion", 3370:

was established in 1924. The ministry promoted farming through establishing

2210:

During a meeting in the early days of the new republic, Atatürk proclaimed:

1804:. The Kemalist reforms brought effective social change on women's suffrage. 1325:

progress in Europe had followed the Protestant reformation, as expressed in

6101: 4911: 4799: 3962: 3745: 3449: 3410: 3356: 3085: 2947: 2902: 2173:

open to progress and modernity and usher in a society guided by modernity.

1907: 1711: 1624: 1564: 1209: 1178: 1094: 773: 693: 688: 3453: 3330: 3252:"It is the duty of every Turk to defend the homeland against the enemies." 2802:

using the method of memorization. The second type of institution were the

2570:. The Ottoman Empire tried to modernize the code with the reforms of 1839 2489:, upon the direction of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. It is located close to the 2130: 203: 6122: 6051: 3946: 2991: 2863: 2557: 2387: 1668:. The agency was officially launched on 6 April 1920, 17 days before the 1665: 1244: 1000: 891: 698: 437: 2868: 2654:. A penal code based on that of Italy was passed between 1924 and 1937. 2184:, religious establishments started becoming more active in the country. 1751: 1224: 6148: 6076: 5981: 5611: 4907: 3759: 3371: 2432: 2412: 1903: 1829: 1763: 978: 823: 412: 5132:

Timur, Hıfzı. 1956. "The Place of Islamic Law in Turkish Law Reform",

4068: 2422: 1641: 1312:

in which the head of the state, the Sultan, also held the position of

5526:

Studies on Turkish politics and society: selected articles and essays

4915: 3731: 3617: 2976: 1877: 1865: 1852: 1414: 1201:), and the indivisibility of the Republic and of the Turkish Nation ( 1015: 542: 452: 131: 1966:, who was distinguished by his headgear, could not use it after the 1267:

Map of Turkey in 1927 which was published before the alphabet reform

26: 4823:

Emancipated but unliberated? : reflections on the Turkish case

3990: 3675: 3562: 3345: 3217: 2983: 2972: 2811: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1289: 1102: 921: 838: 557: 305: 230: 4144:

Church and State in Contemporary Europe: The Chimera of Neutrality

4027:

Jacob M. Landau "Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey" page 57.

3712:: Establishment of model farms (e.g.: Orman Çiftliği, present-day 2982:

Use of the Latin script had been proposed before. In 1862, during

2269:

In Ottoman society, women had no political rights, even after the

2151: 2080:

call to prayer. The Arabic adhan was replaced with the following:

1990: 1515: 1144:

to the needs of the new republic. This was followed by a thorough

3699: 3491: 3457: 3340:

The pursuit of state-controlled economic policies by Atatürk and

2915: 2898: 2894: 2795: 2697: 2643: 2628: 2586: 2567: 2564: 2362: 2126: 1927: 1501: 665: 432: 3212:

The alphabet's introduction has been described by the historian

3142: 2672: 2377: 2371:, first female pilot in personalized uniform ordered by Atatürk. 2045:

Istanbul created controversy in 1924. Several renderings of the

1263: 5961: 5385:, Dil Derneği, 2002 (the writing guide of the Turkish language) 3661: 3604: 3159: 2612: 2590: 2553: 2431:

First, a law enacted on 26 December 1925 and banned the use of

2416: 2252: 2248: 2059: 1873: 1848: 1632: 1505: 1297: 1277: 1087: 896: 3504: 3099:

Law on the Adoption and Implementation of the Turkish Alphabet

5069:"Turkish Architecture Museum Database: Arif Hikmet Koyunoğlu" 4346:"TURKISH STATISTICAL INSTITUTE AND THE HISTORY OF STATISTICS" 4329:"TURKISH STATISTICAL INSTITUTE AND THE HISTORY OF STATISTICS" 4312:"TURKISH STATISTICAL INSTITUTE AND THE HISTORY OF STATISTICS" 3418: 2968: 2799: 2073: 2033: 1963: 1482: 1470: 331: 5350:

The politics and poetics of translation in Turkey, 1923–1960

5544:

Cited by Güven, İsmail in "Education and Islam in Turkey".

4067:

Daud, Ismail; Nooraihan, Ali; Fadzli, Adam (January 2015).

2121: 1478: 1459: 5590:

Singer, Morris (July 1983). "Atatürk's Economic Legacy".

5192:. Ministry of National Education (Turkey). Archived from 4970:

Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü (24 May 2018). "Turkey and the West".

3199:= "counter"), which was adapted for the word "Computer". 2846: 2144:

Eliminating religious "associations" from political arena

3497:

Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire were removed by the

3329:

The government-subsidized industrial textile complex of

2889:

One of the cornerstone of educational institutions, the

2577:

The leading legal reforms instituted included a secular

2180:

both taking part and winning for the first time in the

1710:) performed, and financial information collected under 3542: 3409:. The Ottoman Empire gave the tobacco monopoly to the 2962:

for a thousand years. It was well suited to write the

2054:

to compose a Quran translation and an Islamic scholar

2000: 5826:

TURKISH BAN ON FREEMASONS. All Lodges To Be Abolished

3975:: Second Five Year Development Plan (planned economy) 3206:

explained the reason behind adopting a Latin script:

3104: 2859:, the predecessor of the modern Istanbul University. 2597:, and a penal code based on that of Italy (1924–37). 1679: 16:

Radical reforms that created the Turkish nation state

3888:: First Five Year Development Plan (planned economy) 1941:

law relating to the wearing of 'Prohibited Garments'

1558: 4066: 3463: 3387:of these grew into successful enterprises and were 2728:

Atatürk visiting a women's skills program in Adana.

2423:

Measurement (Calendar, time, and the metric system)

51:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 6129:Association for the Support of Contemporary Living 5435:"Tūrk Harflerinin Kabul ve Tatbiki Hakkında Kanun" 4629:Journal of Istanbul University Faculty of Theology 3441:resources which could trigger industrial impetus. 3431: 3154:and 1930s modern Turkish alphabet guide, from the 2942:Atatürk's Reforms § Curriculum secularization 5093: 5055:"Art and Nationalism in Twentieth-Century Turkey" 2742:Atatürk in geography class in a school in Samsun. 2058:to author a Turkish language Quranic commentary ( 1575:are guaranteed protection by the constitution as 1508:gave way to a secular law structure based on the 1284:, and expelled foreign forces occupying what the 6166: 4298:"Anadolu Agency celebrates its 99th anniversary" 3592:Abolition of the office of the Ottoman Sultanate 2187: 1627:, in Istanbul magazine Güleryüz on October 1922. 5669:(in Turkish). BİA Haber Merkezi. Archived from 5653:History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey 4820: 4762:, Tempo Yayıncılık, İstanbul, 1998, p.48,59,250 4649:. Princeton University Press. pp. 141–142. 3521: 3381: 1987:The Law Relating to Prohibited Garments of 1934 1623:"The Sheep of Ankara, shows its hand last." by 1516:Abolition of Caliphate (1924) and Millet System 5585: 5583: 5369: 5367: 5365: 5321: 5319: 5317: 4640: 4638: 4623:Atalay, Hidayet Aydar Mehmet (18 April 2012). 3726:: The International Time and Calendar System ( 2837: 2583:separation of government and religious affairs 5997: 5026: 5024: 5022: 4928:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 ( 4351:. unstats.un.org (United Nations). p. 4. 4334:. unstats.un.org (United Nations). p. 3. 4317:. unstats.un.org (United Nations). p. 2. 4141: 4069:"Modernization of Turkey under Kamal Ataturk" 3298:was a model for modern farming methodologies. 3143:Curriculum secularization and nationalization 2320:In 1930, first female judges were appointed. 1316:. The social system was organized around the 1052: 367: 5904:(0169796X), 1989, Vol. 5 Issue 2, pp 175–187 5184: 5182: 5161:International Journal of Middle East Studies 5087: 4784: 4590:International Journal of Middle East Studies 4198: 4122: 4120: 4104: 4102: 4038:"EDUCATIONAL REFORMS DURING THE ATATURK ERA" 3555: 1394:Until the proclamation of the republic, the 5923:Political Modernization in Japan and Turkey 5811: 5809: 5751: 5624: 5580: 5486:(in Turkish). Bilgi Yayinevi. p. 223. 5481: 5362: 5314: 5100:. Princeton University Press. p. 158. 4687: 4653: 4635: 4528:Basına Göre Şapka ve Kılık Kıyafet İnkılabı 4393: 4142:Madeley, John T. S.; Enyedi, Zsolt (2003). 4062: 4060: 4058: 4056: 3505:Social policy reforms and economic progress 3368:Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock 1949:Signs of religious affiliation and clothing 1885:1925, parliament passed a law stating that 1223:Historically, Atatürk's reforms follow the 6004: 5990: 5452: 5450: 5448: 5294: 5292: 5290: 5019: 5016:, Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism. 4698:. Princeton University Press. p. 150. 4664:. Princeton University Press. p. 149. 4422: 4420: 4404:. Princeton University Press. p. 132. 2810:, which were the reformist schools of the 2136: 2050:Directorate of Religious Affairs enlisted 1824:religious groups exerted their power. The 1512:, which is detailed under their headings. 1140:, and the adaptation of European laws and 1059: 1045: 374: 360: 5427: 5179: 5134:Annales de la Faculté de Droit d'Istanbul 5057:. metmuseum (Metropolitan Museum of Art). 4980:10.23943/princeton/9780691175829.003.0009 4872: 4870: 4868: 4866: 4675: 4504:. Syracuse University Press. p. 45. 4479:. Syracuse University Press. p. 54. 4248:(in Turkish). atam.gov.tr. Archived from 4131:. Princeton University Press. p. 54. 4117: 4113:. Princeton University Press. p. 53. 4099: 4089: 2665:Major achievements in educational reforms 2069:The program also involved implementing a 1816:Atatürk speaking with a civilian in 1931. 111:Learn how and when to remove this message 6011: 5921:Ward, Robert, and Dankwart Rustow, eds. 5806: 5792:. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 504. 5767:. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 503. 5625:DEMİREL, Zerrin; GÜLSEVER, Fatma Zehra. 5567: 5311:, Bilim dergisi 2002 Vol. 3 page 9. 5274: 5214: 5128: 5126: 5124: 4969: 4755: 4753: 4727:. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 343. 4693: 4659: 4644: 4399: 4126: 4108: 4053: 3898:: Regulation of the university education 3391:during the latter part of 20th century. 3146: 2539: 2291: 2243: 2176:Along with the multi-party period, with 2109:, a new government was sworn in, led by 1921: 1811: 1802:state organisation of the Ottoman Empire 1647: 1618: 1609: 1519: 1460:Civic independence (popular sovereignty) 1262: 1231:, that began in 1839 and ended with the 5788:Kinross, Patrick Balfour Baron (1964). 5787: 5763:Kinross, Patrick Balfour Baron (1964). 5762: 5445: 5287: 5263:Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey 5034:. MEB (Education deportment of Turkey). 4723:Kinross, Patrick Balfour Baron (1964). 4722: 4712:. MEB (Education deportment of Turkey). 4417: 4204: 3014:) consisting of the following members: 2867:raised as a result of a controversy in 2798:based on learning Arabic, teaching the 2637:The non-Muslim millets affected by the 2593:with a secular civil code based on the 2485:and built between 1927 and 1930 as the 1832:during the Second Constitutional Era. 1417:departed the country. This allowed the 1303: 6167: 5589: 5158: 5032:"TAKVİM, SAAT VE ÖLÇÜLERDE DEĞİŞİKLİK" 4942: 4863: 4710:"TAKVİM, SAAT VE ÖLÇÜLERDE DEĞİŞİKLİK" 4676:Dalrymple, William (5 November 2005). 4622: 4499: 4474: 4429: 4361: 3446:Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey 2909: 2847:Coeducation and the education of girls 2657: 2607:Legal System in the Republic of Turkey 2327: 2239: 1097:, implemented under the leadership of 5985: 5897:Feb 2009, Vol. 22 Issue 1, pp 105–130 5627:"Land Reform and Practices in Turkey" 5233: 5121: 4885: 4750: 4186:Basic Principles, Aims And Objectives 3748:modeled after the Italian penal code. 2922: 2021:The original 1935 print of the first 1835: 1732:1927 Census (First systematic census) 1331:Histoire de la civilisation en Europe 5930:Islamic Political Identity in Turkey 5846:"Tageseinträge für 14. Oktober 1935" 5664: 5301: 4552: 4448: 3961:: The inclusion of the principle of 3698:: Closure of religious convents and 2008:Translation of religious information 1364: 1123:Turkey's second multi-party election 1105:framework. His political party, the 49:adding citations to reliable sources 20: 5914:Kazancigil, Ali and Ergun Özbudun. 4945:Women's Studies International Forum 4576:A History of the Modern Middle East 3543:Arguments over reform or revolution 3488:Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire 3474:Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire 3399:capitulations of the Ottoman Empire 3260: 3171:Replacement of loanwords in Turkish 2884: 2615:courts were abolished with the law 2528:The Ethnography Museum in the 1930s 2397: 2105:in the country's first multi-party 2001:Religious texts, prayer, references 1847:throughout the Ottoman Empire. The 1807: 1640:, Bulgarian troops had advanced to 1255:'s one party state from 1913–1918. 13: 5916:Ataturk: Founder of a Modern State 5909:Ataturk: An intellectual biography 5880: 5665:Aysu, Abdullah (29 January 2003). 5097:Ataturk: An Intellectual Biography 4696:Ataturk: An Intellectual Biography 4662:Ataturk: An Intellectual Biography 4647:Ataturk: An Intellectual Biography 4587: 4451:"Turkey's Glorious Hat Revolution" 4402:Ataturk: An Intellectual Biography 4243: 4129:Ataturk: An Intellectual Biography 4111:Ataturk: An Intellectual Biography 3921:: Abolition of titles and by-names 3480:Ottoman Public Debt Administration 3470:Ottoman Public Debt Administration 3105:Literacy drive (Millet Mektepleri) 3008:current 29-letter Turkish alphabet 2862:Atatürk was a strong supporter of 1680:Statistical and census information 14: 6216: 6175:History of the Republic of Turkey 5955: 5704: 5457:İbrahim Bozkurt, Birgül Bozkurt, 4195:, Presidency of Religious Affairs 3996:History of the Republic of Turkey 3965:(secularism) in the constitution. 3935:for women to vote and be elected. 3650:: The centralization of education 3603:: Proclamation of the Republic – 2454: 2402: 2199: 2076:, as opposed to the conventional 1788: 1559:Directorate for Religious Affairs 1438:Grand National Assembly of Turkey 1345: 1271: 1227:("reorganization") period of the 1205:)." Thus, it sets out to found a 1171:Grand National Assembly of Turkey 314:Peace at Home, Peace in the World 179:Atatürk International Peace Prize 5960: 5950:. News About Turkey. 7 May 2024. 5790:Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation 5765:Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation 5482:İsmet İnönü (August 2006). "2". 5352:, pp. 53–54. Rodopi, 2008. 5136:. Istanbul: Fakülteler Matbaası. 5094:M. Sükrü Hanioglu (9 May 2011). 4725:Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation 4274:. Anadolu Agency. Archived from 3464:International debt/capitulations 3436:In 1924, the first Turkish bank 3322: 3305: 3284: 3278:Symbols of economic achievements 3202:The second president of Turkey, 2830:) and schools to educate imams. 2767: 2749: 2735: 2721: 2707: 2685: 2671: 2535: 2521: 2505: 2376: 2361: 2345: 2251:political cartoon of a woman in 2150: 2014: 1974: 1955: 1889:was not to be used as a tool in 1774: 1762: 1750: 1738: 1604:Directorate of Religious Affairs 1390:Constitutional history of Turkey 1379: 1165:) that derives its sovereignty ( 1026: 1014: 347: 341: 130: 25: 5902:Journal of Developing Societies 5863: 5838: 5818: 5781: 5756: 5745: 5731: 5698: 5693:"The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922" 5685: 5658: 5645: 5618: 5558: 5538: 5518: 5509: 5500: 5475: 5418: 5388: 5376: 5342: 5268: 5255: 5227: 5208: 5152: 5139: 5061: 5047: 5038: 5007: 4963: 4936: 4879: 4837: 4814: 4778: 4765: 4741: 4716: 4702: 4668: 4616: 4581: 4568: 4518: 4493: 4468: 4449:Genç, Kaya (11 November 2013). 4442: 4408: 4355: 4338: 4321: 4304: 4290: 4264: 4237: 4224: 4179: 4160: 3432:Establishing the banking system 3413:as a limited company under the 2954:Turkish had been written using 2931: 2622: 2600: 2439:calendars. Turkey began to use 2113:, which restored Arabic as the 2088:Tanrı'dan başka yoktur tapacak. 1714:for the purpose of payments on 1670:Turkish Grand National Assembly 1656:was founded in 1920 during the 1253:Committee of Union and Progress 36:needs additional citations for 6139:Atatürkist Thought Association 5895:History of the Human Sciences, 4974:. Princeton University Press. 4845:"Turkish Penal Code, Art. 230" 4205:Lepeska, David (17 May 2015). 4135: 4083: 4044: 4030: 4021: 4012: 3688:: Change of headgear and dress 3351: 2855:was opened as a branch of the 2756:Establishment ceremony of the 2652:several other European nations 2514:State Art and Sculpture Museum 2479:State Art and Sculpture Museum 2169:lodges were declared illegal. 1614: 1400:Ottoman monarchy was abolished 298:State Art and Sculpture Museum 1: 5633:. Yildiz Technical University 5402:. Dil Derneği. Archived from 4771:Necla Arat in Marvine Howe's 4500:Yılmaz, Hale (30 July 2013). 4475:Yılmaz, Hale (30 July 2013). 4006: 3876:International System of Units 3809:Turkish Education Association 3616:: Abolition of the office of 3572: 3216:as "not so much practical as 2188:Religious holiday (Work week) 2182:1950 Turkish general election 2094:Haydin namaza, haydin felaha, 2092:Tanrı'nın elçisidir Muhammed. 2090:Şüphesiz bilirim, bildiririm; 2047:Quran in the Turkish language 2025:language, ordered by Atatürk. 1723:Turkish Statistical Institute 1409:was abolished by the Turkish 5437:(in Turkish). Archived from 5332:, p. 188. I.B.Tauris, 2004. 3859:Turkish Language Association 3522:Arguments over effectiveness 3382:Industry and nationalization 3177:Turkish Language Association 3117:National Education Minister 2776:Turkish Language Association 2581:(laïcité) with the complete 2120:The reformers dismissed the 2086:Şüphesiz bilirim, bildiririm 1489:. Sultan Mehmed VI's cousin 1454:Turkish Constitution of 1924 1434:Turkish Constitution of 1921 7: 6190:History of social movements 5279:(PhD thesis) (in Turkish), 5241:. OUP Oxford. p. 178. 5219:(PhD thesis) (in Turkish), 4455:Los Angeles Review of Books 4092:"The Ottoman Millet System" 4001:Timeline of Turkish history 3979: 3516: 2838:Militarization of education 2758:Turkish History Institution 1902:The state will be ruled by 1868:followed on the example of 1658:Turkish War of Independence 1442:Turkish War of Independence 1282:Turkish War of Independence 1216:based on the principles of 1111:Turkey as a one-party state 10: 6221: 6205:Economic history of Turkey 5190:"Education since republic" 4957:10.1016/j.wsif.2013.04.006 4902:(inactive 15 April 2024). 4246:"Ankara'nın Başkent Oluşu" 4207:"Turkey Casts the Diyanet" 3874:: The System of Measures ( 3842:Turkish Historical Society 3758:: Introduction of the new 3744:: Introduction of the new 3467: 3415:Council of the Public Debt 3267:Economic history of Turkey 3264: 3181:Turkish Historical Society 3164: 2935: 2784: 2626: 2604: 2471:Metropolitan Museum of Art 2458: 2262: 2255:reading a sign that reads: 2203: 1839: 1792: 1683: 1631:The reform movement chose 1530:Abolition of the Caliphate 1527: 1383: 1368: 1349: 1308:The Ottoman Empire was an 226:Abolition of the caliphate 221:Abolition of the sultanate 6144:Republican People's Party 6040: 6019: 5832:, 14 October 1935, p. 5. 5604:10.1080/00263208308700552 5348:Gürçağlar, Şehnaz Tahir. 5173:10.1017/S0020743800032803 4900:10.2979/NWS.2003.15.3.145 4602:10.1017/s0020743809091132 4379:10.1080/03637759809376439 3556:Military and the republic 3123:between the ages of 16–30 3077:Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu 2903:National Socialist regime 2678:Literacy in Turkey, 1924. 2356:, 1935 general elections. 2271:Second Constitutional Era 2265:Women in Turkish politics 2096:Namaz uykudan hayırlıdır. 1563:Atatürk's reforms define 1286:Turkish National Movement 1249:Second Constitutional Era 1107:Republican People's Party 320:Republican People's Party 5937:Turkey: A Modern History 5330:Turkey: a modern history 4694:Hanioglu, Sükrü (2011). 4660:Hanioglu, Sükrü (2011). 4645:Hanioglu, Sükrü (2011). 4400:Hanioglu, Sükrü (2011). 4367:Communication Monographs 4127:Hanioglu, Sükrü (2011). 4109:Hanioglu, Sükrü (2011). 3827: 3577: 3152:Ottoman Turkish alphabet 3018:The Language Commission 2692:Introduction of the new 2544:An Ottoman trial in 1877 1862:Süleyman the Magnificent 1427:representative democracy 1405:On 1 November 1922, the 1258: 1233:First Constitutional Era 1212:(position in 1935) with 139:This article is part of 5528:, p. 457. BRILL, 2004. 5275:Kapluhan, Erol (2011), 5215:Kapluhan, Erol (2011), 4788:Historische Zeitschrift 3795:: Establishment of the 3167:Turkish alphabet reform 3038:İbrahim Grandi Grantay 2938:Turkish alphabet reform 2700:, on 20 September 1928. 2137:Religious organizations 1745:Population distribution 1534:Millet (Ottoman Empire) 1411:Grand National Assembly 1386:Republicanism in Turkey 1243:and rule of law by the 1101:in accordance with the 651:Sustainable development 575:Progressive nationalism 276:Citizen, speak Turkish! 246:Turkish language reform 199:Death and state funeral 194:Attempted assassination 5667:"Tütün, İçki ve Tekel" 5592:Middle Eastern Studies 5515:Toprak, p. 145, fn. 21 5506:Toprak, p. 145, fn. 20 4995:Cite journal requires 4800:10.1524/hzhz.2012.0535 4373:(2): 83–107 Page. 86, 3820:: Adoption of the new 3797:Turkish State Railways 3714:Atatürk Orman Çiftliği 3426:Turkish State Railways 3162: 3092:was introduced by the 3048:Mehmet Emin Erişirgil 2891:University of Istanbul 2545: 2461:Architecture of Turkey 2317:graduates were women. 2260: 2233: 2098: 1930: 1912: 1817: 1628: 1525: 1268: 1079: 945:Economic progressivism 629:Ecological engineering 590:Social justice warrior 553:Philosophy of progress 548:Philosophical progress 286:Turkish History Thesis 6180:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 6057:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 5969:at Wikimedia Commons 5424:Gürçağlar, p. 55 4168:The secular principle 3986:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 3460:(1935) were founded. 3150: 2826:(later to become the 2585:, the replacement of 2572:Gülhane Hatt-i Sharif 2543: 2483:Arif Hikmet Koyunoğlu 2292:Equality of the sexes 2247: 2212: 2082: 1925: 1900: 1815: 1781:Adults (able to work) 1648:Advances in the press 1622: 1610:Public administration 1599:without naming them. 1581:religious communities 1523: 1464:The establishment of 1440:in the middle of the 1375:Atatürk's nationalism 1339:İsmail Fenni Ertuğrul 1288:considered to be the 1266: 1099:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 1033:Philosophy portal 1021:Liberalism portal 967:Libertarian socialism 641:Scientific management 563:Progressive education 148:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 6092:Cavit Orhan Tütengil 6013:Secularism in Turkey 5907:Hanioglu, M. Sukru. 5695:(published in 2000.) 5469:8 April 2012 at the 5373:Zürcher, p. 189 4821:Kandiyoti, Deniz A. 4678:"What goes round..." 4146:. Psychology Press. 4073:Asian Social Science 3785:: The Commercial Law 3775:: The Obligation Law 2994:movement, including 2946:The adoption of the 2901:scientists whom the 2879:Köprülüzade Fuat Bey 2857:İstanbul Darülfünunu 2639:Age of Enlightenment 2286:had no voting rights 2064:Hak Dini Kur'an Dili 2056:Elmalılı Hamdi Yazır 1795:Secularism in Turkey 1662:Yunus Nadi Abalıoğlu 1304:Reformation of Islam 1214:separation of powers 1138:Constitution of 1921 1134:Constitution of 1924 984:Classical radicalism 950:Democratic socialism 819:Roosevelt (Theodore) 814:Roosevelt (Franklin) 661:Techno-progressivism 656:Technological change 486:Economic development 443:New Culture Movement 418:Age of Enlightenment 45:improve this article 6134:Atheism Association 6107:Ahmet Taner Kışlalı 6067:Mahmut Esat Bozkurt 5741:. 23 November 2020. 5546:Education in Turkey 5147:Translation Journal 4760:Türkiye'nin 75 yılı 4414:Mango, Atatürk, 394 3861:for regulating the 3857:: Establishment of 3840:: Establishment of 3807:: Establishment of 3674:: The Weekend Act ( 3633:: Abolition of the 3484:Ottoman public debt 3376:Atatürk Forest Farm 3094:Language Commission 3072:Ruşen Eşref Ünaydın 3019: 2960:Perso-Arabic script 2910:Religious education 2828:Istanbul University 2792:Educational systems 2787:Education in Turkey 2658:Educational reforms 2339:Women's role models 2328:Women's role models 2240:Equal participation 2115:liturgical language 1716:Ottoman public debt 1466:popular sovereignty 1423:popular sovereignty 1419:Turkish nationalist 1241:political pluralism 1195:equality before law 1080:Atatürk İnkılâpları 962:Left-libertarianism 769:Kirchner (Cristina) 614:Scientific progress 597:Social organization 533:Liberation theology 513:Freedom of movement 481:Cultural liberalism 281:Sun Language Theory 174:Cult of personality 60:"Atatürk's reforms" 6117:Necip Hablemitoğlu 5705:Budak, Derya Nil. 5673:on 15 October 2007 5406:on 1 November 2019 5281:Marmara University 5221:Marmara University 4191:2011-12-19 at the 4173:2008-02-22 at the 3762:modeled after the 3728:Gregorian calendar 3639:Treaty of Lausanne 3605:Republic of Turkey 3499:Treaty of Lausanne 3438:Türkiye İş Bankası 3313:Türkiye İş Bankası 3163: 3029:Ragıp Hulûsi Özdem 3017: 2923:Improving literacy 2546: 2491:Ethnography Museum 2487:Türkocağı Building 2261: 2036:in Turkey were in 1931: 1836:Religious insignia 1818: 1629: 1585:Treaty of Lausanne 1545:Treaty of Lausanne 1526: 1371:Politics of Turkey 1356:Sick man of Europe 1298:Republic of Turkey 1294:Treaty of Lausanne 1269: 1157:) and democratic ( 1088:Republic of Turkey 1084:Atatürk Devrimleri 974:Left-wing populism 809:Rodríguez Zapatero 636:Self-determination 624:Sustainable design 503:Empirical evidence 241:Educational reform 184:Atatürk Centennial 6162: 6161: 6027:Atatürk's reforms 5967:Atatürk's reforms 5965:Media related to 5928:Yavuz, M. Hakan. 5799:978-90-70091-28-6 5774:978-90-70091-28-6 5691:Donald Quataert, 5564:Güven, pp. 180–81 5554:978-3-8309-2069-4 5534:978-90-04-13322-8 5400:dildernegi.org.tr 5358:978-90-420-2329-1 5338:978-1-85043-399-6 5326:Zürcher, Erik Jan 5248:978-0-19-164076-6 5107:978-1-4008-3817-2 4912:Project MUSE 4734:978-90-70091-28-6 4564:978-0-7658-0166-1 4511:978-0-8156-3317-4 4486:978-0-8156-3317-4 4300:. Anadolu Agency. 4153:978-0-7146-5394-5 4094:. pp. 71–86. 3945:: Closure of the 3622:Ottoman Caliphate 3407:Narquileh Tobacco 3290: 3271:Economy of Turkey 3195:= "information", 3137:Law on Copyrights 3112:Millet mektepleri 3082: 3081: 3055:Fazıl Ahmet Aykaç 2611:On 8 April 1924, 2591:Islamic canon law 2107:elections in 1950 2052:Mehmet Akif Ersoy 1981: 1926:Atatürk with his 1895:Kemalist ideology 1506:Islamic canon law 1407:Ottoman Sultanate 1365:Political reforms 1218:secular democracy 1072:Atatürk's reforms 1069: 1068: 989:Social liberalism 764:Kirchner (Néstor) 646:Scientific method 607:List of countries 528:Industrialisation 518:Human enhancement 384: 383: 261:Industrialization 156: 155: 121: 120: 113: 95: 6212: 6195:Reform in Turkey 6185:Reform movements 6072:Falih Rıfkı Atay 6006: 5999: 5992: 5983: 5982: 5978: 5964: 5951: 5948:Dr. Ceren Şengül 5875: 5867: 5861: 5860: 5858: 5856: 5842: 5836: 5822: 5816: 5813: 5804: 5803: 5785: 5779: 5778: 5760: 5754: 5753: 5749: 5743: 5742: 5735: 5729: 5728: 5726: 5724: 5719:on 4 August 2021 5718: 5712:. Archived from 5711: 5702: 5696: 5689: 5683: 5682: 5680: 5678: 5662: 5656: 5649: 5643: 5642: 5640: 5638: 5622: 5616: 5615: 5587: 5578: 5571: 5565: 5562: 5556: 5542: 5536: 5522: 5516: 5513: 5507: 5504: 5498: 5497: 5479: 5473: 5454: 5443: 5442: 5441:on 24 June 2009. 5431: 5425: 5422: 5416: 5415: 5413: 5411: 5392: 5386: 5380: 5374: 5371: 5360: 5346: 5340: 5323: 5312: 5305: 5299: 5296: 5285: 5284: 5283:, pp. 232–7 5272: 5266: 5259: 5253: 5252: 5237:(1 March 2012). 5235:Üngör, Ugur Ümit 5231: 5225: 5224: 5223:, pp. 203–5 5212: 5206: 5205: 5203: 5201: 5186: 5177: 5176: 5156: 5150: 5149:volume 6, No. 4. 5143: 5137: 5130: 5119: 5118: 5116: 5114: 5091: 5085: 5084: 5082: 5080: 5071:. Archived from 5065: 5059: 5058: 5051: 5045: 5042: 5036: 5035: 5028: 5017: 5011: 5005: 5004: 4998: 4993: 4991: 4983: 4967: 4961: 4960: 4940: 4934: 4933: 4927: 4919: 4883: 4877: 4874: 4861: 4860: 4858: 4856: 4847:. 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Archived from 4522: 4516: 4515: 4502:Becoming Turkish 4497: 4491: 4490: 4477:Becoming Turkish 4472: 4466: 4465: 4463: 4461: 4446: 4440: 4433: 4427: 4424: 4415: 4412: 4406: 4405: 4397: 4391: 4390: 4359: 4353: 4352: 4350: 4342: 4336: 4335: 4333: 4325: 4319: 4318: 4316: 4308: 4302: 4301: 4294: 4288: 4287: 4285: 4283: 4268: 4262: 4261: 4259: 4257: 4241: 4235: 4228: 4222: 4221: 4219: 4217: 4202: 4196: 4183: 4177: 4164: 4158: 4157: 4139: 4133: 4132: 4124: 4115: 4114: 4106: 4097: 4095: 4087: 4081: 4080: 4064: 4051: 4048: 4042: 4041: 4034: 4028: 4025: 4019: 4016: 3933:political rights 3919:26 November 1934 3863:Turkish language 3844:for research on 3822:Turkish alphabet 3764:Swiss civil code 3696:30 November 1925 3686:25 November 1925 3550:one-party period 3326: 3309: 3292: 3291: 3261:Economic reforms 3185:Turkish language 3183:for research on 3130:Great Depression 3090:Turkish alphabet 3067:Falih Rıfkı Atay 3034:Ahmet Cevat Emre 3020: 3016: 2986:, the statesman 2885:Higher education 2874:Kastamonu speech 2853:İnas Darülfünunu 2771: 2753: 2739: 2725: 2711: 2694:Turkish alphabet 2689: 2675: 2633:Swiss Civil Code 2595:Swiss Civil Code 2525: 2509: 2398:Social structure 2380: 2365: 2352:Eighteen female 2349: 2305:polygamy illegal 2154: 2038:Classical Arabic 2023:Quran in Turkish 2018: 1983: 1982: 1962:A member of the 1959: 1917:Kastamonu speech 1808:Religious reform 1778: 1766: 1754: 1742: 1686:Census in Turkey 1638:First Balkan War 1510:Swiss Civil Code 1493:continued on as 1446:Treaty of Sèvres 1352:Eastern Question 1290:Turkish homeland 1061: 1054: 1047: 1031: 1030: 1029: 1019: 1018: 994:In United States 955:Social democracy 671:Women's suffrage 568:In Latin America 523:Idea of Progress 508:Direct democracy 386: 385: 376: 369: 362: 351: 350: 345: 152: 151: 149: 142: 134: 127: 126: 123: 122: 116: 109: 105: 102: 96: 94: 53: 29: 21: 6220: 6219: 6215: 6214: 6213: 6211: 6210: 6209: 6165: 6164: 6163: 6158: 6154:Nation Alliance 6045: 6043: 6036: 6015: 6010: 5976: 5958: 5942: 5935:Zurcher, Erik. 5883: 5881:Further reading 5878: 5868: 5864: 5854: 5852: 5844: 5843: 5839: 5823: 5819: 5814: 5807: 5800: 5786: 5782: 5775: 5761: 5757: 5750: 5746: 5737: 5736: 5732: 5722: 5720: 5716: 5709: 5703: 5699: 5690: 5686: 5676: 5674: 5663: 5659: 5650: 5646: 5636: 5634: 5623: 5619: 5588: 5581: 5572: 5568: 5563: 5559: 5543: 5539: 5523: 5519: 5514: 5510: 5505: 5501: 5494: 5480: 5476: 5471:Wayback Machine 5455: 5446: 5433: 5432: 5428: 5423: 5419: 5409: 5407: 5394: 5393: 5389: 5381: 5377: 5372: 5363: 5347: 5343: 5324: 5315: 5306: 5302: 5297: 5288: 5273: 5269: 5260: 5256: 5249: 5232: 5228: 5213: 5209: 5199: 5197: 5196:on 20 July 2006 5188: 5187: 5180: 5157: 5153: 5144: 5140: 5131: 5122: 5112: 5110: 5108: 5092: 5088: 5078: 5076: 5075:on 27 July 2011 5067: 5066: 5062: 5053: 5052: 5048: 5043: 5039: 5030: 5029: 5020: 5014:1934 in history 5012: 5008: 4996: 4994: 4985: 4984: 4968: 4964: 4941: 4937: 4921: 4920: 4884: 4880: 4875: 4864: 4854: 4852: 4851:on 10 July 2012 4843: 4842: 4838: 4819: 4815: 4783: 4779: 4770: 4766: 4758: 4751: 4746: 4742: 4735: 4721: 4717: 4708: 4707: 4703: 4692: 4688: 4673: 4669: 4658: 4654: 4643: 4636: 4621: 4617: 4586: 4582: 4573: 4569: 4557: 4553: 4543: 4541: 4540:on 8 March 2017 4524: 4523: 4519: 4512: 4498: 4494: 4487: 4473: 4469: 4459: 4457: 4447: 4443: 4434: 4430: 4425: 4418: 4413: 4409: 4398: 4394: 4360: 4356: 4348: 4344: 4343: 4339: 4331: 4327: 4326: 4322: 4314: 4310: 4309: 4305: 4296: 4295: 4291: 4281: 4279: 4270: 4269: 4265: 4255: 4253: 4244:Şimşir, Bilal. 4242: 4238: 4229: 4225: 4215: 4213: 4211:Foreign Affairs 4203: 4199: 4193:Wayback Machine 4184: 4180: 4175:Wayback Machine 4165: 4161: 4154: 4140: 4136: 4125: 4118: 4107: 4100: 4090:Öztürk, Fatih. 4088: 4084: 4065: 4054: 4049: 4045: 4036: 4035: 4031: 4026: 4022: 4017: 4013: 4009: 3982: 3959:5 February 1937 3943:14 October 1935 3929:5 December 1934 3886:1 December 1933 3830: 3818:1 November 1928 3660:: Abolition of 3601:29 October 1923 3588:1 November 1922 3580: 3575: 3558: 3545: 3524: 3519: 3507: 3476: 3466: 3456:(1932) and the 3434: 3395:Turkish tobacco 3384: 3354: 3338: 3337: 3336: 3335: 3334: 3327: 3318: 3317: 3316: 3310: 3301: 3300: 3299: 3293: 3285: 3280: 3279: 3273: 3263: 3173: 3156:Republic Museum 3145: 3107: 3000:Abdullah Cevdet 2964:Ottoman Turkish 2944: 2934: 2925: 2912: 2887: 2849: 2840: 2820:gender equality 2789: 2783: 2782: 2781: 2780: 2779: 2774:Meeting of the 2772: 2763: 2762: 2761: 2754: 2745: 2744: 2743: 2740: 2731: 2730: 2729: 2726: 2717: 2716: 2715: 2712: 2703: 2702: 2701: 2690: 2681: 2680: 2679: 2676: 2667: 2666: 2660: 2635: 2625: 2609: 2603: 2538: 2533: 2532: 2531: 2530: 2529: 2526: 2518: 2517: 2512:Opening of the 2510: 2501: 2500: 2463: 2457: 2425: 2405: 2400: 2395: 2394: 2393: 2392: 2391: 2381: 2373: 2372: 2366: 2358: 2357: 2350: 2341: 2340: 2330: 2294: 2275:Nezihe Muhittin 2267: 2258: 2256: 2242: 2222: 2208: 2206:Women in Turkey 2202: 2190: 2162: 2161: 2160: 2159: 2158: 2155: 2146: 2145: 2139: 2095: 2093: 2091: 2089: 2087: 2085: 2042:sacred language 2030: 2029: 2028: 2027: 2026: 2019: 2010: 2009: 2003: 1998: 1997: 1996: 1995: 1994: 1984: 1975: 1971: 1970: 1968:Hat Law of 1925 1960: 1951: 1950: 1870:Peter the Great 1844: 1838: 1820:In the Ottoman 1810: 1797: 1791: 1786: 1785: 1784: 1783: 1782: 1779: 1771: 1770: 1767: 1759: 1758: 1755: 1747: 1746: 1743: 1734: 1733: 1688: 1682: 1650: 1617: 1612: 1573:Greek Orthodoxy 1561: 1549:Ottoman millets 1536: 1528:Main articles: 1518: 1475:Sheikh ul-Islam 1462: 1392: 1382: 1377: 1367: 1358: 1348: 1335:Abdullah Cevdet 1327:François Guizot 1306: 1274: 1261: 1187:social equality 1136:to replace the 1065: 1027: 1025: 1013: 1006: 1005: 940: 932: 931: 887: 879: 878: 684: 676: 675: 602:Social progress 580:Reform movement 496:Economic growth 476:Civil liberties 466: 458: 457: 448:Progressive Era 428:Information Age 408: 380: 348: 346: 339: 324: 302: 266:Nation-building 210: 189:Military career 147: 145: 144: 143: 140: 138: 117: 106: 100: 97: 54: 52: 42: 30: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6218: 6208: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6160: 6159: 6157: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6119: 6114: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6084: 6079: 6074: 6069: 6064: 6059: 6054: 6048: 6046: 6041: 6038: 6037: 6035: 6034: 6029: 6023: 6021: 6017: 6016: 6009: 6008: 6001: 5994: 5986: 5980: 5979: 5957: 5956:External links 5954: 5953: 5952: 5940: 5933: 5926: 5919: 5912: 5905: 5898: 5891: 5882: 5879: 5877: 5876: 5874:by Kemal Özcan 5862: 5837: 5830:Malaya Tribune 5817: 5805: 5798: 5780: 5773: 5755: 5744: 5730: 5697: 5684: 5657: 5644: 5617: 5598:(3): 301–311. 5579: 5566: 5557: 5537: 5517: 5508: 5499: 5492: 5474: 5444: 5426: 5417: 5396:"Harf Devrimi" 5387: 5383:Yazım Kılavuzu 5375: 5361: 5341: 5313: 5300: 5286: 5267: 5254: 5247: 5226: 5207: 5178: 5151: 5138: 5120: 5106: 5086: 5060: 5046: 5037: 5018: 5006: 4997:|journal= 4962: 4935: 4894:(3): 145–159. 4878: 4862: 4836: 4813: 4777: 4764: 4749: 4740: 4733: 4715: 4701: 4686: 4667: 4652: 4634: 4615: 4596:(3): 419–435. 4580: 4567: 4551: 4526:"Burcu Özcan, 4517: 4510: 4492: 4485: 4467: 4441: 4428: 4416: 4407: 4392: 4363:Hauser, Gerard 4354: 4337: 4320: 4303: 4289: 4278:on 3 July 2014 4263: 4236: 4223: 4197: 4178: 4166:Jean Baubérot 4159: 4152: 4134: 4116: 4098: 4096:- Cited: p. 72 4082: 4052: 4043: 4029: 4020: 4010: 4008: 4005: 4004: 4003: 3998: 3993: 3988: 3981: 3978: 3977: 3976: 3966: 3952: 3936: 3922: 3912: 3899: 3889: 3879: 3865: 3848: 3829: 3826: 3825: 3824: 3811: 3805:1 January 1928 3799: 3786: 3776: 3766: 3756:4 October 1926 3749: 3735: 3717: 3703: 3689: 3679: 3665: 3651: 3641: 3624: 3607: 3594: 3579: 3576: 3574: 3571: 3557: 3554: 3544: 3541: 3533:Adnan Menderes 3523: 3520: 3518: 3515: 3506: 3503: 3465: 3462: 3433: 3430: 3383: 3380: 3353: 3350: 3328: 3321: 3320: 3319: 3311: 3304: 3303: 3302: 3296:Orman Çiftliği 3294: 3283: 3282: 3281: 3277: 3276: 3275: 3274: 3262: 3259: 3144: 3141: 3119:Mustafa Necati 3106: 3103: 3080: 3079: 3074: 3069: 3064: 3058: 3057: 3052: 3049: 3046: 3040: 3039: 3036: 3031: 3026: 2956:a Turkish form 2933: 2930: 2924: 2921: 2911: 2908: 2886: 2883: 2848: 2845: 2839: 2836: 2773: 2766: 2765: 2764: 2755: 2748: 2747: 2746: 2741: 2734: 2733: 2732: 2727: 2720: 2719: 2718: 2713: 2706: 2705: 2704: 2691: 2684: 2683: 2682: 2677: 2670: 2669: 2668: 2664: 2663: 2662: 2661: 2659: 2656: 2624: 2621: 2602: 2599: 2537: 2534: 2527: 2520: 2519: 2511: 2504: 2503: 2502: 2499:Fine art drive 2498: 2497: 2496: 2495: 2456: 2455:Fine art drive 2453: 2424: 2421: 2404: 2403:Personal names 2401: 2399: 2396: 2382: 2375: 2374: 2367: 2360: 2359: 2351: 2344: 2343: 2342: 2338: 2337: 2336: 2335: 2329: 2326: 2293: 2290: 2241: 2238: 2201: 2200:Women's rights 2198: 2189: 2186: 2156: 2149: 2148: 2147: 2143: 2142: 2141: 2140: 2138: 2135: 2111:Adnan Menderes 2103:Democrat Party 2020: 2013: 2012: 2011: 2007: 2006: 2005: 2004: 2002: 1999: 1985: 1973: 1972: 1961: 1954: 1953: 1952: 1948: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1919:on 30 August. 1837: 1834: 1809: 1806: 1790: 1789:Social reforms 1787: 1780: 1773: 1772: 1768: 1761: 1760: 1756: 1749: 1748: 1744: 1737: 1736: 1735: 1731: 1730: 1729: 1728: 1704:1905–06 census 1700:1881–82 census 1681: 1678: 1660:by Journalist 1654:Anadolu Agency 1649: 1646: 1616: 1613: 1611: 1608: 1560: 1557: 1517: 1514: 1495:Ottoman Caliph 1487:Evkaf Ministry 1461: 1458: 1396:Ottoman Empire 1381: 1378: 1366: 1363: 1347: 1346:Westernization 1344: 1305: 1302: 1273: 1272:National unity 1270: 1260: 1257: 1237:Abdul Hamid II 1229:Ottoman Empire 1146:secularization 1119:Democrat Party 1067: 1066: 1064: 1063: 1056: 1049: 1041: 1038: 1037: 1036: 1035: 1023: 1008: 1007: 1004: 1003: 998: 997: 996: 991: 986: 976: 971: 970: 969: 959: 958: 957: 952: 941: 938: 937: 934: 933: 930: 929: 924: 919: 914: 909: 904: 899: 894: 888: 885: 884: 881: 880: 877: 876: 871: 866: 861: 856: 851: 846: 841: 836: 831: 826: 821: 816: 811: 806: 801: 796: 791: 786: 781: 776: 771: 766: 761: 756: 751: 746: 741: 736: 731: 726: 721: 716: 711: 706: 701: 696: 694:Abbott (Grace) 691: 689:Abbott (Edith) 685: 682: 681: 678: 677: 674: 673: 668: 663: 658: 653: 648: 643: 638: 633: 632: 631: 621: 616: 611: 610: 609: 599: 594: 593: 592: 585:Social justice 582: 577: 572: 571: 570: 560: 555: 550: 545: 540: 538:Linear history 535: 530: 525: 520: 515: 510: 505: 500: 499: 498: 493: 491:Broad measures 483: 478: 473: 467: 464: 463: 460: 459: 456: 455: 450: 445: 440: 435: 430: 425: 423:Industrial Age 420: 415: 409: 406: 405: 402: 401: 395: 394: 382: 381: 379: 378: 371: 364: 356: 353: 352: 340: 338: 337: 336: 335: 326:Historiography 322: 317: 301: 300: 295: 294: 293: 288: 283: 278: 268: 263: 258: 256:Westernization 253: 251:Women's rights 248: 243: 238: 233: 228: 223: 209: 208: 207: 206: 196: 191: 186: 181: 176: 171: 166: 158: 157: 154: 153: 141:a series about 137: 135: 119: 118: 33: 31: 24: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6217: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6173: 6172: 6170: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6124: 6120: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6082:Muammer Aksoy 6080: 6078: 6075: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6049: 6047: 6044:organisations 6039: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6024: 6022: 6018: 6014: 6007: 6002: 6000: 5995: 5993: 5988: 5987: 5984: 5975: 5972: 5971: 5970: 5968: 5963: 5949: 5945: 5941: 5938: 5934: 5931: 5927: 5924: 5920: 5917: 5913: 5910: 5906: 5903: 5899: 5896: 5892: 5889: 5885: 5884: 5873: 5872: 5866: 5851: 5847: 5841: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5821: 5812: 5810: 5801: 5795: 5791: 5784: 5776: 5770: 5766: 5759: 5748: 5740: 5734: 5715: 5708: 5701: 5694: 5688: 5672: 5668: 5661: 5654: 5648: 5632: 5628: 5621: 5613: 5609: 5605: 5601: 5597: 5593: 5586: 5584: 5576: 5570: 5561: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5541: 5535: 5531: 5527: 5521: 5512: 5503: 5495: 5493:975-22-0177-6 5489: 5485: 5478: 5472: 5468: 5465: 5464: 5460: 5453: 5451: 5449: 5440: 5436: 5430: 5421: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5391: 5384: 5379: 5370: 5368: 5366: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5345: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5322: 5320: 5318: 5310: 5304: 5295: 5293: 5291: 5282: 5278: 5271: 5264: 5258: 5250: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5230: 5222: 5218: 5211: 5195: 5191: 5185: 5183: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5155: 5148: 5142: 5135: 5129: 5127: 5125: 5109: 5103: 5099: 5098: 5090: 5074: 5070: 5064: 5056: 5050: 5041: 5033: 5027: 5025: 5023: 5015: 5010: 5002: 4989: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4966: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4939: 4931: 4925: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4882: 4873: 4871: 4869: 4867: 4850: 4846: 4840: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4817: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4781: 4774: 4768: 4761: 4756: 4754: 4744: 4736: 4730: 4726: 4719: 4711: 4705: 4697: 4690: 4682: 4679: 4671: 4663: 4656: 4648: 4641: 4639: 4630: 4626: 4619: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4584: 4577: 4571: 4565: 4561: 4555: 4539: 4535: 4533: 4529: 4521: 4513: 4507: 4503: 4496: 4488: 4482: 4478: 4471: 4456: 4452: 4445: 4438: 4432: 4423: 4421: 4411: 4403: 4396: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4358: 4347: 4341: 4330: 4324: 4313: 4307: 4299: 4293: 4277: 4273: 4267: 4252:on 4 May 2013 4251: 4247: 4240: 4233: 4227: 4212: 4208: 4201: 4194: 4190: 4187: 4182: 4176: 4172: 4169: 4163: 4155: 4149: 4145: 4138: 4130: 4123: 4121: 4112: 4105: 4103: 4093: 4086: 4079:(4): 202–205. 4078: 4074: 4070: 4063: 4061: 4059: 4057: 4047: 4039: 4033: 4024: 4015: 4011: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3983: 3974: 3970: 3967: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3937: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3923: 3920: 3916: 3913: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3900: 3897: 3893: 3890: 3887: 3883: 3880: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3866: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3849: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3832: 3831: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3812: 3810: 3806: 3803: 3800: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3787: 3784: 3780: 3777: 3774: 3770: 3767: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3750: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3736: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3718: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3704: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3690: 3687: 3683: 3680: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3666: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3652: 3649: 3645: 3642: 3640: 3636: 3635:capitulations 3632: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3608: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3595: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3582: 3581: 3570: 3568: 3564: 3553: 3551: 3540: 3538: 3534: 3528: 3514: 3511: 3502: 3500: 3495: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3475: 3471: 3461: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3444:In 1931, the 3442: 3439: 3429: 3427: 3422: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3403:Regie Company 3400: 3396: 3392: 3390: 3379: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3364: 3360: 3358: 3349: 3347: 3343: 3332: 3325: 3314: 3308: 3297: 3272: 3268: 3258: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3239: 3236: 3232: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3219: 3215: 3214:Bernard Lewis 3210: 3209: 3205: 3200: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3172: 3168: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3140: 3138: 3133: 3131: 3126: 3124: 3120: 3115: 3113: 3102: 3100: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3078: 3075: 3073: 3070: 3068: 3065: 3063: 3060: 3059: 3056: 3053: 3050: 3047: 3045: 3042: 3041: 3037: 3035: 3032: 3030: 3027: 3025: 3022: 3021: 3015: 3013: 3009: 3003: 3001: 2997: 2996:Hüseyin Cahit 2993: 2989: 2985: 2980: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2952: 2949: 2943: 2939: 2929: 2920: 2917: 2907: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2882: 2880: 2875: 2870: 2865: 2860: 2858: 2854: 2844: 2835: 2831: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2815: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2788: 2777: 2770: 2759: 2752: 2738: 2724: 2710: 2699: 2695: 2688: 2674: 2655: 2653: 2647: 2645: 2640: 2634: 2630: 2620: 2618: 2614: 2608: 2598: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2575: 2573: 2569: 2566: 2562: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2542: 2536:Legal reforms 2524: 2515: 2508: 2494: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2475: 2472: 2466: 2462: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2429: 2420: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2389: 2386:, first ever 2385: 2384:Feriha Tevfik 2379: 2370: 2369:Sabiha Gökçen 2364: 2355: 2348: 2334: 2325: 2321: 2318: 2314: 2311: 2308: 2306: 2301: 2298: 2289: 2287: 2282: 2278: 2276: 2272: 2266: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2237: 2232: 2230: 2225: 2220: 2216: 2211: 2207: 2197: 2194: 2185: 2183: 2179: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2153: 2134: 2132: 2128: 2123: 2118: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2097: 2081: 2079: 2075: 2072: 2067: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2048: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2024: 2017: 1992: 1988: 1969: 1965: 1958: 1944: 1942: 1937: 1929: 1924: 1920: 1918: 1911: 1909: 1905: 1899: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1882: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1843: 1842:Sumptuary law 1833: 1831: 1827: 1826:public sphere 1823: 1822:public sphere 1814: 1805: 1803: 1796: 1777: 1765: 1753: 1741: 1727: 1724: 1719: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1690:Ottomans had 1687: 1677: 1673: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1645: 1643: 1639: 1634: 1626: 1621: 1607: 1605: 1600: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1556: 1552: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1541:secular state 1535: 1531: 1522: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1498: 1496: 1492: 1491:Abdulmecid II 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1467: 1457: 1455: 1450: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1430: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1403: 1401: 1397: 1391: 1387: 1380:Republicanism 1376: 1372: 1362: 1357: 1353: 1343: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1322: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1310:Islamic state 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Sultan 1757:Widowhood 1597:Armenians 1415:Mehmed VI 1235:in 1876, 1125:in 1950. 892:Argentina 886:By region 874:Yavlinsky 543:Modernity 453:Space Age 204:Mausoleum 6200:Kemalism 5855:16 April 5467:Archived 5410:22 March 5261:Landau, 4855:28 April 4610:73683493 4256:15 March 4189:Archived 4171:Archived 3991:Kemalism 3980:See also 3969:Economic 3882:Economic 3868:Economic 3789:Economic 3720:Economic 3706:Economic 3676:Workweek 3668:Economic 3627:Economic 3563:Kemalism 3517:Analysis 3492:ahdnames 3346:Istanbul 2984:Tanzimat 2973:phonemes 2916:medreses 2899:Austrian 2869:Tekirdağ 2812:Tanzimat 2796:medreses 2760:in 1931. 2558:Catholic 2249:Canadian 1891:politics 1887:religion 1769:Taxation 1692:censuses 1569:Armenian 1425:through 1225:Tanzimât 1175:preamble 1103:Kemalist 869:Yamamoto 829:Sampedro 724:Brandeis 558:Progress 391:a series 389:Part of 306:Kemalism 164:Timeline 5925:(1964). 5612:4282948 5575:Atatürk 5573:Mango, 5079:4 April 4908:4317014 4437:Atatürk 4282:21 July 4232:Atatürk 4230:Mango, 4216:27 July 3963:laïcité 3947:Masonic 3931:: Full 3846:history 3700:dervish 3458:Etibank 3333:, 1935. 3189:history 3062:Writers 2958:of the 2808:sultanî 2778:, 1933. 2698:Kayseri 2644:Mecelle 2629:Mecelle 2587:Islamic 2568:Halakha 2516:in 1927 2390:, 1929. 2071:Turkish 1936:Hat Law 1928:top hat 1857:bonnets 1849:turbans 1642:Çatalca 1565:laïcité 1502:Islamic 1278:utopian 1207:unitary 1179:laïcité 1092:secular 1090:into a 1076:Turkish 939:Related 849:Wallace 844:Trudeau 834:Sanders 774:Krugman 744:Douglas 709:Atatürk 666:Welfare 433:Jet Age 407:History 214:Reforms 85:scholar 5939:(2004) 5932:(2003) 5911:(2011) 5890:(2011) 5796: 5771: 5651:Shaw, 5610: 5552: 5532: 5490: 5356: 5336: 5265:, 191. 5245: 5113:5 June 5104: 4914: 4906: 4829: 4806: 4731: 4608: 4562: 4508: 4483: 4385: 4150: 3950:lodges 3939:Social 3915:Social 3902:Social 3702:lodges 3692:Social 3682:Social 3664:courts 3662:sharia 3160:Ankara 2895:German 2613:sharia 2565:Jewish 2554:Sharia 2550:Millet 2417:Jewish 2253:Quebec 2127:khutba 2078:Arabic 2060:tafsir 2034:Qurans 1874:Russia 1706:, and 1633:Ankara 1595:, and 1593:Greeks 1318:millet 1314:Caliph 1173:. 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Atatürk's reforms

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