Alkali–silica reaction

1233:

when it absorbs water. When the sodium silicate gel forms and swells inside a porous siliceous aggregate, it first expands and occupies the free porosity. When this latter is completely filled, and if the soluble but very viscous gel cannot be easily expelled from the silica network, the hydraulic pressure rises inside the attacked aggregate and leads to its fracture. The hydro-mechanical expansion of the damaged siliceous aggregate surrounded by calcium-rich hardened cement paste is responsible for the development of a network of cracks in concrete. When the sodium silicate expelled from the aggregate encounters grains of portlandite present in the hardened cement paste, an exchange between sodium and calcium cations occurs and hydrated calcium silicate (C-S-H) precipitates with a concomitant release of NaOH. In its turn, the regenerated NaOH can react with the amorphous silica aggregate, leading to an increased production of soluble sodium silicate. When a continuous rim of C-S-H completely envelops the external surface of the attacked siliceous aggregate, it behaves as a

2917:

divided pozzolanic materials rich in silicic acid to the concrete mix to decrease its alkalinity. Beside initially lowering the pH value of the concrete pore water, the main working mechanism of silica fume addition is to consume portlandite (the reservoir of hydroxyde (OH) in the solid phase) and to decrease the porosity of the hardened cement paste by the formation of calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H). However, silica fume has to be very finely dispersed in the concrete mix because agglomerated flakes of compacted silica fume can themselves also induce ASR if the dispersion process is insufficient. This can be the case in laboratory studies made on cement pastes alone in the absence of aggregates. Silica fume is sufficiently dispersed during mixing operations of large batches of fresh concrete by the presence of coarse and fine aggregates.

1245:) represents the main reserve of OH anions in the solid phase as suggested by Davies and Oberholster (1988) and emphasized by Wang and Gillott (1991). As long as portlandite, or the siliceous aggregates, has not become completely exhausted, the ASR reaction will continue. The alkali hydroxides are continuously regenerated by the reaction of the sodium silicate with portlandite and thus represent the transmission belt of the ASR reaction driving it to completeness. It is thus impossible to interrupt the ASR reaction. The only way to avoid ASR in the presence of siliceous aggregates and water is to maintain the concentration of soluble alkali (NaOH and KOH) at the lowest possible level in concrete, so that the catalysis mechanism becomes negligible. 3401: 178: 3335:

the C1260 method also involves the use of a large quantity/inventory of NaOH in the solution in which the mortar bar is immersed. A large pool of OH anions is thus available to diffuse inside the mortar bar to dissolve silica present in aggregates. Consequently, this test is very severe and may exclude valuable aggregates. In case of non-decisive results, the long-term ASTM C1293 test method has to be used for a final screening. The main advantage of the ASTM C1260 test is that it allows to quickly identify extreme cases: very insensitive or very reactive aggregates.

45: 675: 187: 6637: 3358:

82 °C. The expansion of the concrete cores is measured till 14 or 20 days. It is a short duration test for ASR/AAR but much softer than the Oberholster test. It can also be used to measure the expansion of concrete due to delayed ettringite formation (DEF). The mechanical stresses induced by the thermal cycles create micro-cracks in the concrete matrix and so facilitate the accessibility to water of the reactive mineral phases in the treated samples.

200: 258: 735: 5991: 2729:

than the gel exudation velocity (liquid gel expulsion rate through open cracks), in most of the cases, fresh liquid alkali exudates are not frequently encountered at the surface of civil engineering concrete structures. Decompressed concrete cores can sometimes let observe fresh yellow liquid alkali exudations (viscous amber droplets) just after their drilling.

2948:, the evolution of the reaction can be slowed down, and sometimes stopped, due to the lack of water needed to continue fueling the reaction. Indeed, water plays a triple role in the alkali-silica reaction: solvent for the reaction taking place, transport medium for the dissolved species reacting, and finally also reagent consumed by the reaction itself. 1042:) in cement, because of the need to maintain electroneutrality in solids or in solution, one directly measures the contents of cement in Na and K elements and one conservatively considers that their counter ions are the hydroxide ions. As Na and K cations are hydrated species, they also contribute to retain water in alkali-silica reaction products. 1846:. The presence of minerals with high Na and K contents in the raw materials can thus be problematic. The ancient wet manufacturing process of cement, consuming more energy (water evaporation) that the modern dry process, had the advantage to eliminate much of the soluble Na and K salts present in the raw material. 2778:: The effect of ASR on compressive strength can be minor for low expansion levels, to relatively higher degrees at larger expansion. Swamy and Al-Asali (1986) points out that the compressive strength is not a very accurate parameter to study the severity of ASR; however, the test is done because of its simplicity. 3242:

The loss of mechanical properties of heavily neutron-irradiated concrete component such as the biological shield of a reactor at the end of the service life of a nuclear power plant is expected to be due to radiation-induced swelling of aggregates, which leads to volumetric expansion of the concrete.

3207:

forms at the surface of iron oxide ores. This explains why some iron ores are rich in silica and may therefore be sensitive to the alkali-silica reaction. Very low level of reactive silica in heavy aggregates are sufficient to induce ASR. This is why heavy aggregates must be systematically tested for

1237:

barrier and hinders the expulsion of the viscous sodium silicate while allowing the NaOH / KOH to diffuse from the hardened cement paste inside the aggregate. This selective barrier of C-S-H contributes to increase the hydraulic pressure inside the aggregate and aggravates the cracking process. It is

665:

and accelerate the silica dissolution in the alkali-silica reaction do not explicitly appear in this simplified representation of the ultimate reaction with portlandite, because they are continuously regenerated from the cation exchange reaction with portlandite. As a consequence, they disappear from

2728:

appear at the surface of concrete. When the relatively fluid alkali gel continues to exude below the hardened superficial gel layer, it pushes the efflorescences out of the crack surface making them to appear in relief. Because the rates of the gel drying and of the carbonation reactions are faster

2499:

This reaction is accompanied by hydration and swelling of the alkali gel leading to the expansion of the affected aggregates. The pH of the fresh alkali gel is very high and it has often a characteristic amber color. The high pH of young alkali gel exudations often precludes the growth of mosses at

947:

In the pH range 0 – 7, the solubility of silica is constant, but above pH=8, the hydrolysis of siloxane bonds and deprotonation of silanol groups exponentially increase with the pH value. This is why glass easily dissolves at high pH values and does not withstand extremely basic NaOH/KOH solutions.

3334:

ASTM C1260: "Test Method for Potential Reactivity of Aggregates (Mortar-Bar-Test)". It is a rapid test of aggregates: immersion of mortar bars in NaOH 1 M at 80 °C for 14 days used to quickly identify highly reactive aggregates or quasi non-reactive aggregates. Beside an elevated temperature,

3307:

by limiting the contact of underground or meteoritic water infiltrations with the concrete structure (water tight membrane, roofing, sufficient water drainage, ...). This last precaution is always advisable when possible and the only one also sometimes applicable for existing ASR-affected concrete

2916:

A prompt reaction initiated at the early stage of concrete hardening on very fine silica particles will help to suppress a slow and delayed reaction with larger siliceous aggregates on the long term. Following the same principle, the fabrication of low-pH cement also implies the addition of finely

1232:

Without the presence of dissolved NaOH or KOH, responsible for the high pH (~13.5) of the concrete pore water, the amorphous silica of the reactive aggregates would not be dissolved and the reaction would not evolve. Moreover, the soluble sodium or potassium silicate is very hygroscopic and swells

2951:

However, concrete at the center of thick concrete components or structures can never dry because water transport in saturated or unsaturated conditions is always limited by diffusion in the concrete pores (water present under the liquid form, or under the vapor state). The water diffusion time is

3357:

The Duggan method starts with a first immersion of several concrete cores in distilled water at 22 °C for rehydration during 3 days. It is then followed by heating for one day in a dry oven at 82 °C and then with a succession of cycles of one day hydration followed by one day drying at

3052:

may be reached in the concrete of the primary confinement wall around nuclear reactors, particular attention has to be paid to the selection of aggregates and heavy aggregates to avoid alkali-silica reaction promoted by reactive silica impurities and accelerated by the high temperature to which

3338:

ASTM C1293: "Test Method for Concrete Aggregates by Determination of Length Change of Concrete Due to Alkali-Silica Reaction". It is a long-term confirmation test (1 or 2 years) at 38 °C in a water-saturated moist atmosphere (inside a thermostated oven) with concrete prisms containing the

1197:

The combination of the two above mentioned reactions gives a general reaction resembling the pozzolanic reaction, but it is important to keep in mind that this reaction is catalysed by the undesirable presence in cement, or other concrete components, of soluble alkaline hydroxydes (NaOH / KOH)

2716:

ions. Its viscosity increases due to gelation process and its mobility (fluidity) strongly decreases when C-S-H phases start to precipitate after reaction with calcium hydroxide (portlandite). At this moment, the calcified gel hardens, hindering therefore the alkali gel transport in concrete.

2271:

An anion-exchange reaction between chloride ions and the hydroxide anions contained in the lattice of some calcium aluminate hydrates (C-A-H), or related phases (C-A-S-H, AFm, AFt), is suspected to also contribute to the release of hydroxide anions into solution. The principle mechanism is

3372:

concrete prism tests for potential expansivity of cement/aggregate combinations. CSA A23.2-14A is a long-term test in which concrete prisms are stored under saturated moist conditions at a temperature of 38 °C, for a minimum of 365 days. It is the Canadian standard equivalent to ASTM

2753:) and increases the concentration of Ca ions into the cement pore water. Calcium ions then react with the soluble sodium silicate gel to convert it into solid calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H). The C-S-H forms a continuous poorly permeable coating at the external surface of the aggregate. 2940:

There are no curative treatments in general for ASR affected structures. Repair in damaged sections is possible, but the reaction will continue. In some cases, when a sufficient drying of thin components (walls, slabs) of a structure is possible, and is followed by the installation of a

788: 4011:

Fournier, B., Sanchez, L., & Beauchemin, S. (2015). Outils d'investigation de la réactivité alcalis-granulats dans les infrastructures en béton. Rapport Final, Ministère des transports du Québec, Service des matériaux d'infrastructure, Secteur béton de ciment, août (Vol. 2015, p.

2701:

ions released from portlandite dissolution, it remains fluid and can easily exude from broken aggregates or through open cracks in the damage concrete structure. This can lead to visible yellow viscous liquid exudations (amber liquid droplets) at the surface of affected concrete.

2952:

thus proportional to the square of its transport distance. As a consequence, the water saturation degree inside thick concrete structures often remains higher than 80%, a level sufficient to provide enough water to the system and to maintain the alkali-silica reaction on going.

1049:, 1986, 1987, 1989) and the electrical double layer (EDL) play also a fundamental role in the transport of water towards the concentrated liquid alkali gel, explaining their swelling behavior and the deleterious expansion of aggregates responsible of ASR damages in concrete. 181:

Typical crack pattern of the alkali-silica reaction (ASR). The gel exudations through the concrete cracks have a characteristic yellow color and a high pH. The fatty aspect of the exudations imbibing the concrete porosity along the cracks is also a distinctive feature of

4410:

Bérubé, M. A., Smaoui, N., Bissonnette, B., & Fournier, B. (2005). Outil d'évaluation et de gestion des ouvrages d'art affectés de réactions alcalis-silice (RAS). Études et Recherches en Transport, Ministère des Transports du Québec. See the chemical equations on

3202:

while taking its place onto the ferrol group. This mechanism explains the formation of strong inner sphere complexes of silica at the surface of iron oxy-hydroxides and iron oxides. The surface of iron oxides becomes progressively coated with silica and a silica

1849:

As previously described in the two sections dealing respectively with ASR catalysis by alkali hydroxides and soda lime carbonatation, soluble NaOH and KOH are continuously regenerated and released into solution when the soluble alkali silicate reacts with

2784:/ Flexural capacity: Researches show that ASR cracking can significantly reduce the tensile strength of concrete; therefore reducing the flexural capacity of beams. Some research on bridge structures indicate about 85% loss of capacity as a result of ASR. 3339:

aggregates to be characterised mixed with a high-alkali cement specially selected to induce ASR. The concrete prisms are not directly immersed in an alkaline solution, but wrapped with moist tissues and tightly packed inside a water-tight plastic foils.

1862:

to precipitate insoluble calcium silicate. As suggested by Davies and Oberholster (1988), the alkali-silica reaction is self-perpetuating as the alkali hydroxides are continuously regenerated in the system. Therefore, portlandite is the main buffer of

5552:

Drums exhibiting silicagel do not currently meet the requirements for surface storage. A new storage building is a logistical solution to the problem of gel drums. We will gradually examine how the waste can be treated for a safe long-term management

5567:"Kingdom of Belgium. National report – Seventh meeting of the contracting parties to the joint convention on the safety of spent fuel management and on the safety of radioactive waste management. Federal Agency for Nuclear Control (FANC), Belgium" 2909:. These react preferentially with the cement alkalis without formation of an expansive pressure, because siliceous minerals in fine particles convert to alkali silicate and then to calcium silicate without formation of semipermeable reaction rims. 2384:

The maturation process of the fluid alkali silicagel found in exudations into less soluble solid products found in gel pastes or in efflorescences is described hereafter. Four distinct steps are considered in this progressive transformation.

4281:Ševčík, Radek; Mácová, Petra; Sotiriadis, Konstantinos; Pérez-Estébanez, Marta; Viani, Alberto; Šašek, Petr (2016). "Micro-Raman spectroscopy investigation of the carbonation reaction in a lime paste produced with a traditional technology". 2874:. The use of limestone as aggregate is not a guarantee against ASR in itself. In Canada, the Spratt siliceous limestone is also particularly well known in studies dealing with ASR and is commonly used as the Canadian ASR reference aggregate. 2300:

As a simple, but robust, conclusion, the presence of soluble Na and K salts can also cause, by precipitation of poorly soluble calcium salt (with portlandite, CH) or anion exchange reactions (with phases related to C-A-H), the release of

314:

To attempt to simplify and to stylize a very complex set of various reactions, the whole ASR reaction, after its complete evolution (ageing process) in the presence of sufficient Ca cations available in solution, could be compared to the

1921:, all related to the presence of soluble Na and K salts in the pore water of hardened cement paste (HCP). The first category contains soluble Na and K salts whose corresponding anions can precipitate an insoluble calcium salts, e.g., 1033:

O in cement. Therefore, it is the hydroxide, or the oxide, component of the salt which is the only relevant chemical species for silica dissolution, not the alkali metal in itself. However, to determine the alkali equivalent content

5662:

4400:

Fournier, B., & Bérubé, M. A. (2000). Alkali-aggregate reaction in concrete: a review of basic concepts and engineering implications. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 27(2), 167-191. See the chemical equations on

2741:

The very basic solution (NaOH / KOH) attacks the siliceous aggregates (silicic acid dissolution at high pH), converting the poorly crystallised or amorphous silica to a soluble but very viscous alkali silicate gel (N-S-H,

5253:

Duggan C.R. and Scott J.F. (1989a). Establishment of new acceptance rejection limits for proposed test method for detection of potentially deleterious expansion of concrete, presented to ASTM Subcommittee C09.02.02, sept

1802:(portlandite) when its solubility increases when high pH value starts to drop. Beside these two main sources, ions exchange reactions and precipitation of poorly soluble calcium salts can also contribute to release 2241:), and soluble alkali chlorides cannot produce soluble alkali hydroxide by interacting with calcium hydroxide. So, does it exist another route to still produce hydroxide anions in the hardened cement paste (HCP)? 168:

of a particular structure. The expansion of concrete through reaction between cement and aggregates was first studied by Thomas E. Stanton in California during the 1930s with his founding publication in 1940.

5280: 5276: 3045:, density = 5.3). The reason is their high density favorable to gamma attenuation. Both types of aggregates need to be checked for ASR as they may contain reactive silica impurities under a form or another. 1554:, by replacing a carbonate by a metasilicate anion). This gives the following set of reactions also commonly encountered in the literature to schematically depict the continuous regeneration of NaOH in ASR: 2866:) may be cemented by amorphous or poorly crystalline silica and can be very sensitive to the ASR reaction, as also observed with some Tournaisian siliceous limestones exploited in quarries in the area of 5234:

Scott, J.F., Duggan, C.R., (1986). Potential new test for alkali aggregate reactivity, Roe. 7th Intl. Conf. on Alkali Aggregate Reactions, Ottawa Canada, ed. P.E. Grattan-Bellew, Noyes publ., N.J., USA,

3412:

presenting the typical crack pattern of the alkali-silica reaction (ASR). Note the typical fatty aspect of the yellow silicagel exudations imbibing the concrete surface along the two sides of the cracks.

3354:

The Oberholster method on which the ASTM C1260 test is based. It is a severe short duration test with immersion of the mortar prism or concrete core in a solution of NaOH 1 M at 80 °C for 14 days.

2756:

The penetrated alkaline solution (NaOH / KOH) converts the remaining siliceous minerals into bulky soluble alkali silicate gel. The resulting expansive pressure increases in the core of the aggregate.

3215:

Another reason of concern for the possible accelerated development of ASR in the concrete of nuclear structures is the progressive amorphization of the silica contained in aggregates exposed to high

2268:. C-S-H phases are less soluble (~ 10 M) than portlandite (CH) (~ 2.2 10 M at 25 °C) and therefore are expected to play a negligible role for the calcium ions release. 1874:

in the solid phase. As long as the stock of hydroxides in the solid phase is not exhausted, the alkali-silica reaction can continue to proceed until the complete disparition of one of the reagents (

5845: 5244:

Duggan C.R., Scott J.F. (1987). Proposed new test for alkali-aggregate reactivity, Canadian National Railways, Technical Research Report, Montreal, Canada, April 13, 1987, revised Oct. 31,1989.

5653:

Fournier, B., & Bérubé, M. A. (2000). Alkali-aggregate reaction in concrete: a review of basic concepts and engineering implications. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 27(2), 167-191.

948:

Therefore, NaOH/KOH is released during cement hydration attacks and dissolves the tridimensional network of silica present in the aggregates. Amorphous or poorly crystallized silica, such as

5030:

Jordan, Norbert; Marmier, Nicolas; Lomenech, Claire; Giffaut, Eric; Ehrhardt, Jean-Jacques (2007). "Sorption of silicates on goethite, hematite, and magnetite: Experiments and modelling".

5448:, web site of ONDRAF/NIRAS announcing in September 2013 the discovery on the interim storage site of Belgoprocess at Dessel of 10 000 LILW drums affected or potentially affected by ASR. 1706:

If NaOH is clearly deficient in the system under consideration (soda lime or alkali-silica reaction), it is formally possible to write the same reactions sets by simply replacing the CO

626:

really existing in dilute solution is preferred here. However, the main advantage of the now deprecated, but still often used, industrial notation referring to the metasilicate anion (

3251:

The only way to prevent, or to limit, the risk of ASR is to avoid one or several of the three elements in the critical triangle aggregate reactivity – cement alkali content – water:

5644:

Rogers, C., Grattan-Bellew, P. E., Hooton, R. D., Ryell, J., & Thomas, M. D. (2000). Alkali-aggregate reactions in Ontario. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 27(2), 246-260.

4472:

Swamy, R. N., & Al-Asali, M. M. (1986). Influence of alkali-silica reaction on the engineering properties of concrete. ASTM International. See p. 85, point 2 of the conclusions.

2745:

The consumption of NaOH / KOH by the dissolution reaction of amorphous silica decreases the pH of the pore water of the hardened cement paste. This allows the dissolution of Ca(OH)

355:). For simplification, after a complete exchange of the alkali cations with the calcium ions released by portlandite, the alkali-silica reaction in its ultimate stage leading to 5687:

Limestone Industries of Ontario, Volume 2 Ontario Geological Survey. Engineering and Terrain Geology Section Ontario, Ministry of Natural Resources, 1989 – Limestone – 196 pages

3552:: evaporator concentrates and spent ion-exchange resins (SIER) exuding out of the concrete immobilization matrix very large quantities of liquid sodium silicagel (mainly N-S-H). 3342:

ASTM C1567: "Standard Test Method for Determining the Potential Alkali-Silica Reactivity of Combinations of Cementitious Materials and Aggregate (Accelerated Mortar-Bar Method)"

319:

which would be catalysed by the undesirable presence of excessive concentrations of alkali hydroxides (NaOH and KOH) in the concrete. It is a mineral acid-base reaction between

5333:

LCPC/IFSTTAR (1997) Alcali-réaction du béton. Essai d'expansion résiduelle sur béton durci. Projet de méthode d'essai LCP 44. Février 1997. 15 pp. MethodeDEssai-LCPC-ME44.pdf.

5081:

Rosseel, Thomas M.; Maruyama, Ippei; Le Pape, Yann; Kontani, Osamu; Giorla, Alain B.; Remec, Igor; Wall, James J.; Sircar, Madhumita; Andrade, Carmen; Ordonez, Manuel (2016).

5696:

Nixon, J. P., & Sims, I. (Eds.). (2016). RILEM recommendation of the prevention of damage by alkali-aggregate reactions in new concrete structures. Dordrecht: Springer.

5180:

NBN B 15-001:2018. Concrete – Specification, performance, production and conformity – National supplement for Belgium to NBN EN 206:2013+A1:2016. Publication date: 07/2018.

4878:

Fedele, L.; Todesca, R.; Boni, M. (2003). "Barite-silica mineralization at the inter-Ordovician unconformity in southwestern Sardinia (Italy): a fluid inclusion study".

4087: 5323:

A23.1-14/A23.2-14 Concrete materials and methods of concrete construction / Test methods and standard practices for concrete. Published by CSA Group in 2014, 690 pages.

3561:

Alkali-aggregate reactions (AAR), both alkali-silica (ASR) and alkali-carbonate (ACR, involving dolomite) reactions, were identified in Canada since the years 1950's.

5518:"NIRAS magazine June 2016: Conditioned radioactive waste affected by ASR in Belgium — Nieuw hoogtechnologisch opslaggebouw voor vaten met gelvorming, pp. 20-21" 3955:"Techbrief: Selecting candidate structures for lithium treatment: What to provide the petrographer along with concrete specimens, FHWA-HRT-06-069 – Pavements – FHWA" 1072:) at very high pH. It can be represented as follows using the classical geochemical notation for representing silica by the fully hydrated dissolved silica (Si(OH) 4952:. 2nd Conference on Technological Innovations in Nuclear Civil Engineering TINCE 2014, Paris, 1st to 4th September 2014. Vol. 2014. Paris. pp. 234–242. 2365: 3346:

Other concrete prism methods have also been internationally developed to detect potential alkali-reactivity of aggregates or sometimes hardened concrete cores,

3497:) during the years 1960 – 1970 when most of the motorways were constructed in Belgium. ASR damages started to be recognised only in the 1980s. The Tournaisian 2312:

anions into solution. Therefore, the presence of any salts of Na and K in cement pore water is undesirable and the measurements of Na and K elements is a good

5908: 5766: 5322: 4929:

Jóźwiak-Niedźwiedzka, Daria; Brandt, Andrzej; Gibas, Karolina; Denis, Piotr (2014). "The alkali-aggregate reaction hazard in the case of barite concretes".

2705:

When pH slowly drops due to the progress of the silica dissolution reaction, the solubility of calcium hydroxide increases, and the alkali gel reacts with

2924:, a variety of methods have been applied to field structures suffering from ASR-affected expansion and cracking. Some methods, such as the application of 5618:

Courtois, Nicolas; Cau-Dit-Coumes, Céline; Gaveau, Philippe; Poulesquen, Arnaud; Haas, Jeremy; Ben Hadj Hassine, Seifallah; Bulteel, David (2022-05-31).

4124: 5263:

Duggan C.R. and Scott J.F. (1989b). New test for deleterious expansion in concrete, 8th Intl. Conf. on Alkali-Aggregate Reaction Kyoto, Japan, 403408.

4637:

Monnin, Y.; Dégrugilliers P.; Bulteel D.; Garcia-Diaz E. (2006). "Petrography study of two siliceous limestones submitted to alkali-silica reaction".

5674: 5624:. 16th ICAAR 2022 – 16th International Conference on Alkali Aggregate Reaction in Concrete. 31 May – 02 June 2022. Lisboa, LNEC, Portugal. p. 10 2599:

Amorphous non-stoechiometric calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H, the non-stoechiometry being denoted here by the use of dashes) can recrystallize into

3670:

in East Germany were refurbished with concrete that turned out to have been defective and affected by ASR, necessitating expensive replacement work.

1790:

anions can be directly present in the HCP pore water or be slowly released from the solid phase (main buffer, or solid stock) by the dissolution of

6575: 1546:

The soda lime carbonatation reaction can be directly translated into the ancient industrial notation of silicate (referring to the never observed

3304:/m of concrete for a CEM I cement (OPC)). Example of standard for concrete in Belgium: NBN EN 206 and its national supplement NBN B 15-001; 1485:

process because the reaction in aqueous solution occurs much faster than in the dry solid phase. The moist NaOH impregnates the surface and the

3279:< 0.60% of the cement mass, according to EN 197-1 European standard for cement, or by limiting the total alkali content in concrete ( 2928:, have shown significant promise, especially when applied to elements such as small columns and highway barriers. The topical application of 837:

These equilibria can be shifted towards the right side of the reaction leading to silica dissolution by increasing the concentration of the

52:

on a US motorway. Note the typical fatty aspect of the silicagel exudations imbibing the concrete surface along the two sides of the cracks.

5597:

Study of alkali-silica reaction occurring in cemented waste packages based on simplified model and concrete medium approaches. cea-03667888

3604:(2000) and also recommended by RILEM (International Union of Laboratories and Experts in Construction Materials, Systems, and Structures). 2205:

As calcium chloride is a soluble salt, the reaction cannot occur and the chemical equilibrium regresses to the left side of the reaction.

217: 2759:

The accumulated pressure cracks the aggregate and the surrounding cement paste when the pressure exceeds the tolerance of the aggregate.

1001:

of the basic solutions. For the sake of electroneutrality, (OH) anions need to be accompanied by positively charged cations, Na or K in

6596: 5706: 5594:

Courtois, Nicolas; Cau-Dit-Coumes, Céline; Poulesquen, Arnaud; Haas, Jeremy; Ben Hadj Hassine, Seifallah; Bulteel, David (2022-05-04).

5334: 4602:

Funk, Hanspeter (1975). "The origin of authigenic quartz in the Helvetic Siliceous Limestone (Helvetischer Kieselkalk), Switzerland".

638:), which also does not exist in aqueous solution, is its greater simplicity and its direct similitude in notation with the carbonate ( 6313: 6023: 5535: 4514:"The effect of alkali-silica reaction on the fatigue behaviour of plain concrete tested in compression, indirect tension and flexure" 5279:

See mainly Chapter 7: Rapid test method for secondary ettringite formation. pp. 81-95 of the PDF file (pp. 69-83 of the hard copy).

4026: 5995: 5403: 3565:

Many hydraulic dams are affected by ASR in Canada because of the wide use of reactive aggregates. Indeed, reactive frost-sensitive

5796: 5749: 5600:. NUWCEM 2022 – International Symposium on Cement-Based Materials for Nuclear Wastes – 2022, May 4–6. Avignon (France). p. 9 4963:

Carlson, L.; Schwertmann, U. (1981). "Natural ferrihydrites in surface deposits from Finland and their association with silica".

5504:"STORA website: Conditioned radioactive waste affected by ASR in Belgium — Nieuw opslaggebouw voor gelvaten klaar in 2019" 5293: 4725:

Jóźwiak-Niedźwiedzka, Daria; Gibas, Karolina; Brandt, Andrzej M.; Glinicki, Michał A.; Dąbrowski, Mariusz; Denis, Piotr (2015).

3538:

in Brussels with liquid exudations of amber alkali gel evidenced on concrete cores by SPW experts (Public Services of Wallonia).

6464: 4672:

Ramlochan, Terrence; Michael Thomas; Karen A. Gruber (2000). "The effect of metakaolin on alkali-silica reaction in concrete".

4127:(1997). "The alkali–silica reaction: Part I. Use of the double-layer theory to explain the behavior of reaction-product gels". 3932: 17: 4106: 2794:(UPV) is very similar to tensile capacity. The modulus of elasticity is shown to be more sensitive to ASR than pulse velocity. 5973: 5952: 5621:

Quantification of the extent of alkali-silica reaction occurring in cemented waste packages based on simplified model systems

5399: 5124:"Radiation effects in concrete for nuclear power plants – Part I: Quantification of radiation exposure and radiation effects" 4789: 4493: 4385: 4089:

State-of-the art report: Key parameters influencing the alkali aggregate reaction. SBF52 A06018 — Unrestricted Report. 134 pp

5883: 5517: 3255:

by selecting non-reactive aggregates after testing them according to an appropriate standard test method (see next section);

6138: 5430:"ASR first recognised in Belgium civil engineering structures—Service Public Wallon: Direction de l'expertise des ouvrages" 3782: 1761: 95:

This deleterious chemical reaction causes the expansion of the altered aggregate by the formation of a soluble and viscous

6555: 5926:

Report DSO-2014-03: Seminoe dam – Assessment of concrete by quantitative methods – The petrographic damage rating index.

5162:

EN 197-1 European Standard. Cement – Part 1: Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements.

3613: 4205:

Wang, H.; Gillott, J. E. (1991-07-01). "Mechanism of alkali-silica reaction and the significance of calcium hydroxide".

1025:. When speaking of alkalis, one systematically refers to NaOH and KOH basic hydroxides, or their corresponding oxides Na 37:"Alkali-silica" redirects here. For an industrial chemical reagent made from alkali metal absorbed into silica gel, see 5458: 3652: 3954: 3114:), strongly sorbs onto hydrous ferric oxides (HFO) and ferric oxides hydrated surface (>Fe–OH) by ligand exchange: 6691: 4100: 2955:

Massive structures such as dams pose particular problems: they cannot be easily replaced, and the swelling can block

301: 239: 5459:"MONA website: Conditioned radioactive waste affected by ASR in Belgium — Gelvaten niet geschikt voor berging" 5360: 5171:

NBN EN 206:2013+A1:2016 Concrete – Specification, performance, production and conformity. Publication date: 11/2016.

2208:

So, a question arises: can NaCl or KCl from deicing salts still possibly play a role in the alkali-silica reaction?

283: 6323: 5774: 5490:"STORA website: Conditioned radioactive waste affected by ASR in Belgium — Nieuw opslaggebouw voor gelvaten" 2963:

operations. Cutting slots across the structure can relieve some pressure, and help restore geometry and function.

4324:

Adriani, J.; Byrd, M. L. (1941). "A study of carbon dioxide absorption appliances for anesthesia: The canister".

3735: 854:

of OH onto a silicon atom, while another O–Si group is leaving to preserve the tetravalent character of Si atom:

3470:'s old Southern Stand, demolished in 1990 and replaced with the Great Southern Stand which was completed in 1992 1057:

The ASR reaction significantly differs from the pozzolanic reaction by the fact that it is catalysed by soluble

164:

ASR can lead to serious cracking in concrete, resulting in critical structural problems that can even force the

6053: 5346: 5277:

The effect of secondary ettringite formation on the durability of concrete: A literature analysis (No. RD108T).

3450: 2921: 2791: 2421:

formation (here, explicitly written in the ancient industrial metasilicate notation (based on the non-existing

2369: 268: 221: 4727:"Mineral composition of heavy aggregates for nuclear shielding concrete in relation to alkali-silica reaction" 3321:) has developed different standardized test methods for screening aggregates for their susceptibility to ASR: 3235:

when their crystal structure is submitted to intense alpha-particles internal bombardment and becomes amorph (

2971:

Two types of heavy aggregates are commonly used for nuclear shielding concrete in order to efficiently absorb

6681: 6529: 6096: 6016: 3857: 3820: 3542: 3325:

ASTM C227: "Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Cement-Aggregate Combinations (Mortar-Bar Method)"

2106: 1529: 3486:

Many bridges and civil engineering works of motorways because the improper use of highly reactive siliceous

1489:

of calcium hydroxide grains with a high specific surface area. Soda lime is commonly used in closed-circuit

3854:: distress in asphalt pavement characterized by interconnecting or interlaced cracking in the asphalt layer 2737:

The mechanism of ASR causing the deterioration of concrete can thus be described in four steps as follows:

971:, is much more soluble and sensitive to alkaline attack by OH anions than well crystallized silica such as 5361:"Manly Daily | News Local Newspaper | Daily Telegraph | Manly Daily | Daily Telegraph" 3708: 3068:, exhibit a strong affinity for dissolved silica present in water and may constitute an ultimate sink for 6686: 6676: 6661: 6570: 6545: 6459: 6426: 3610:

Interchange Robert Bourassa – Charest (Québec city: interchange autoroutes 740 – 440) demolished in 2010.

3428: 5503: 4344: 3328:

ASTM C289: "Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali-Silica Reactivity of Aggregates (Chemical Method)"

275: 6524: 6048: 5925: 5476:"STORA website: Conditioned radioactive waste affected by ASR in Belgium — Gelvaten problematiek" 4513: 3981:

Concrete cancer: Characterization of Alkali Silica Reaction early stage products by electron microscopy

3620: 3549: 3405: 3376:

LCPC/IFSTTAR (1997) LPC-44. Alkali reaction in concrete. Residual expansion tests on hardened concrete.

4950:

Influence of barite composition on potential alkali aggregate reaction in radiation-shielding concrete

4558: 3208:

ASR before nuclear applications such as radiation shielding or immobilization of strongly irradiating

6560: 6502: 6421: 6361: 6176: 6091: 5566: 3815: 3188: 1722:, the principle of catalysis remaining the same, even if the number of intermediate species differs. 851: 31: 5846:"UK: Eight contractors prepare bids for £22m Royal Devon and Exeter Hospital redevelopment contract" 5335:

https://www.ifsttar.fr/fileadmin/user_upload/editions/lcpc/MethodeDEssai/MethodeDEssai-LCPC-ME44.pdf

4768:"Potential for alkali–silica reaction in radiation shielding concrete containing special aggregates" 4448: 3400: 532:, is a hypothetic molecule which has never been observed, even in extreme diluted solutions because 177: 153:

gel swells and increases in volume when absorbing water: it exerts an expansive pressure inside the

6009: 4767: 3467: 3422: 2543: 2245: 1147: 1126: 397: 356: 141: 116: 4774:. 5th International Conference on the Durability of Concrete Structures. Purdue University Press. 2840:. Certain volcanic rocks are particularly susceptible to ASR because they contain volcanic glass ( 6333: 5009:

Interactions of silica with iron oxides: Effects on oxide transformations and sorption properties

3786: 3521: 2772:

Expansion: The swelling nature of ASR gel increases the chance of expansion in concrete elements.

279: 210: 6078: 1842:

oxides produced by the pyrolysis of the raw materials at high temperature (1450 °C) in the

6431: 6308: 6232: 6123: 6118: 5294:"Proposed universal accelerated test for alkali-aggregate reaction: the concrete microbar test" 3841: 3460: 3456: 2317: 716:

with water molecules explains the affinity of silica for water and makes colloidal silica very

89: 5942: 6514: 6257: 5007: 4483: 4071:

Stanton, T.E. (1940). "Expansion of concrete through reaction between cement and aggregate".

3663:

caused ASR and the ties had to be replaced earlier than planned, lasting well into the 1990s.

2787: 2600: 728: 49: 44: 5963: 5865: 5710: 5675:"HRW-Hydro Review Worldwide: Dealing with alkali-aggregate reaction in hydraulic structures" 5489: 3573:

are commonly extracted in Canada. Another reason is also the presence of reactive silica in

2244:

Beside portlandite, other hydrated solid phases are present in HCP. The main phases are the

1150:(C-S-H phases) and regenerate NaOH, thus continuing the initial silica dissolution reaction: 6550: 6451: 6446: 6406: 6318: 6181: 5192:"An accelerated method for testing the potential alkali reactivity of siliceous aggregates" 5039: 4972: 4887: 4824: 4707: 4611: 4290: 3802: 3585: 2932:

compounds, have shown little or no promise in reducing ASR-induced expansion and cracking.

2775: 2611:

4. Carbonation of the C-S-H leading to precipitation of calcium carbonate and amorphous SiO

4240:

Samari, Mohammad; Ridha, Firas; Manovic, Vasilije; Macchi, Arturo; Anthony, E. J. (2019).

3494: 499:, is also often used to depict the alkali-silica reaction. However, the metasilicic acid, 428:

O represents hydrous or amorphous silica for the sake of simplicity in aqueous chemistry.

8: 6497: 6416: 6186: 6128: 5909:"A new Royals stadium will be expensive. Fixing a crumbling Kauffman Stadium will be too" 5376: 4708:"Publication Details for Alkali-Aggregate Reactivity (AAR) Facts Book - Pavements - FHWA" 4346:

Anesthesiology Core Review: Part One Basic Exam. Chapter 17: Absorption of Carbon Dioxide

4022: 3874: 3729: 3638: 3473: 2889:

at the early stage of the cement setting. Pozzolanic materials to add to the mix may be,

2886: 2505: 2165:

However, not all Na or K soluble salts can precipitate insoluble calcium salts, such as,

1899: 1695: 1069: 1006: 847: 324: 316: 38: 5191: 5043: 4976: 4891: 4828: 4772:

Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on the Durability of Concrete Structures

4615: 4294: 4158: 6706: 6701: 6666: 6411: 6328: 5731: 4911: 4855: 4812: 4623: 4047: 3851: 3719: 3704: 3318: 2945: 2797: 2607:. The C-S-H formed at this stage can be considered an evolved calcium silicate hydrate. 2542:

3. Cation exchange with calcium hydroxide (portlandite) and precipitation of amorphous

2373: 2313: 4813:"Alkali-silica reactivity of high density aggregates for radiation shielding concrete" 4811:

Jóźwiak-Niedźwiedzka, Daria; Glinicki, Michał; Gibas, Karolina; Baran, Tomasz (2018).

4685: 4574: 3166:

In this ligand exchange reaction, a silicate anion (also often more simply written as

3083:

This explains how microcrystalline silica can progressively accumulate in the mineral

1238:

the expansion of the aggregates which damages concrete in the alkali-silica reaction.

6696: 6640: 6396: 6391: 6366: 6348: 6262: 6242: 6063: 5969: 5948: 5850: 5429: 5211: 5207: 5145: 5104: 5063: 5055: 4988: 4984: 4915: 4903: 4860: 4842: 4785: 4748: 4689: 4654: 4578: 4533: 4489: 4381: 4306: 4263: 4222: 4218: 4178: 4174: 4136: 4096: 3924: 3897:: the mechanism of ASR catalysed by NaOH is analogous to the trapping mechanism of CO 3514: 3446: 3209: 2845: 2768:

The cracking caused by ASR can have several negative impacts on concrete, including:

2532: 1470: 1462: 1139: 949: 612: 597: 328: 6519: 5619: 5595: 5140: 5123: 4650: 4434: 48:

Characteristic crack pattern associated with the alkali–silica reaction affecting a

6492: 6401: 6267: 6227: 6106: 6068: 5305: 5203: 5135: 5094: 5047: 4980: 4895: 4850: 4832: 4775: 4738: 4681: 4646: 4619: 4570: 4525: 4430: 4373: 4298: 4253: 4214: 4170: 3985: 3889: 3836: 3772: 3746: 3680: 3525: 3510: 2801: 2781: 2422: 2098: 2042: 1547: 1501: 1002: 980: 976: 654: 605: 581: 496: 5083:"Review of the current state of knowledge on the effects of radiation on concrete" 6671: 6436: 6287: 6191: 6101: 5822: 5407: 4743: 4726: 3869: 3762: 3600:) are widely used for ASR studies in Canada and worldwide as described by Rogers 3531: 3502: 3439: 3220: 3216: 2030: 1757: 1753: 154: 149:, or N-S-H (sodium silicate hydrate), depending on the adopted convention). This 100: 73: 5538:[Action plan for the safe management of drums with silicagel | ONDRAF]. 4948:

Jówiak-Niedźwiedzka, D.; Brandt, Andrzej; Gibas, Karolina; Denis, Piotr (2014).

6509: 6441: 6282: 6201: 6171: 6166: 6058: 5291: 5051: 4529: 3535: 3506: 3236: 2807: 2721: 1234: 1022: 674: 593: 6158: 4899: 4636: 4557:

Ahmed, Tarig; Burley, Eldon; Rigden, Stephen; Abu-Tair, Abid I. (2003-03-01).

4258: 4241: 3258:

by using a low-alkali (LA) cement: with a maximum alkali content expressed in

2856:) the level of silica depends on its purity. Some siliceous limestones (a.o., 1550:) simply by substituting a C atom by a Si atom in the mass balance equations ( 6655: 6482: 6381: 6371: 6277: 5215: 5149: 5108: 5059: 4992: 4907: 4846: 4752: 4693: 4658: 4582: 4537: 4310: 4267: 4226: 4182: 4140: 3989: 3879: 3831: 3750: 2942: 2725: 2230:

cations in themselves cannot attack silica (the culprit is their counter ion

1478: 1292: 1262: 1097: 713: 4421:

Ichikawa, T.; Miura, M. (2007). "Modified model of alkali-silica reaction".

994: 6386: 6272: 6247: 6040: 5067: 4864: 3979: 3659:

in the 1970s to replace previous wooden ties. However, the gravel from the

3656: 3065: 3061: 2882: 1274: 1270: 1077: 1018: 340: 6196: 4780: 4766:

Jóźwiak-Niedźwiedzka, Daria; Glinicki, Michał A.; Gibas, Glinicki (2016).

4559:"The effect of alkali reactivity on the mechanical properties of concrete" 3191:

onto a >Fe–OH ferrol surface group of HFO and ejects a hydroxide anion

2810:: ASR enhances the shear capacity of reinforced concrete with and without 2539:) when the pH starts to slightly drop may influence the gelation process. 6487: 6206: 6143: 5884:"Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) to take a slice out of Chickamauga Dam" 5750:"The Millennium Stadium is suffering from concrete cancer, we can reveal" 5536:"Plan d'actions pour la gestion sûre des fûts présentant du gel | ONDRAF" 5475: 3792: 3487: 3331:

ASTM C295: "Guide for Petrographic Examination of Aggregate for Concrete"

2898: 2863: 2750: 2536: 2265: 1843: 1769: 1517: 1474: 1254: 1198:

responsible for the dissolution of the silica (silicic acid) at high pH:

1143: 897: 804: 717: 601: 332: 5099: 5082: 4370:

STP205-EB Cement and Concrete (West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International

4326:

Anesthesiology: The Journal of the American Society of Anesthesiologists

3846: 2446:) to also illustrate the frequent use of this later in the literature): 1261:(alkalinity buffer present in the solid phase) can be compared with the 1248: 186: 6591: 6376: 6356: 6148: 4837: 4724: 3828:: Secondary calcium carbonate deposit growing under man-made structures 3825: 3660: 3581: 2992: 2906: 2878: 2858: 2811: 2261: 2257: 2253: 1494: 1490: 1466: 998: 952: 724: 224: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 165: 150: 68:, is a deleterious internal swelling reaction that occurs over time in 5617: 5309: 4810: 4671: 4449:"Structural Effects of ASR on Concrete Structures | FPrimeC Solutions" 4377: 1816:

Alkali hydroxides, NaOH and KOH, arise from the direct dissolution of

161:

and loss of strength of the concrete, finally leading to its failure.

6622: 4302: 4280: 3894: 3766: 3577: 3574: 3498: 3490: 3369: 3365:(2003) as a universal accelerated test for alkali-aggregate reaction. 2996: 2972: 2849: 2357: 2102: 2038: 1536: 1482: 1266: 1061: 1014: 987: 838: 662: 572:

consumes two water molecules and continues one step further to form H

448: 77: 5593: 5292:

Grattan-Bellew, P.E.; G. Cybanski; B. Fournier; L. Mitchell (2003).

4928: 2504:

2. Maturation of the alkali gel: polymerisation and gelation by the

286:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. 199: 6606: 6601: 6237: 6032: 4947: 4242:"Direct capture of carbon dioxide from air via lime-based sorbents" 3886:

hydrolysis/dissolution and Si–OH deprotonation reactions at high pH

3863: 3776: 3698: 3667: 3021: 2956: 2894: 2841: 2604: 2513: 2331:

in pore solution. This is why the total alkali equivalent content (

1540: 1525: 1486: 691: 679: 611:

This is why the more correct geochemical notation referring to the

158: 69: 3312: 2966: 6565: 6133: 5576:. IAEA Joint Convention. See pp. 15–20. Vienna: IAEA. p. 144 4765: 3929:

Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR) Development and Deployment Program

3796: 3739: 3723: 3712: 3593: 3435: 3232: 3228: 2960: 2929: 2902: 2871: 2867: 2517: 2509: 1765: 901: 800: 792: 734: 695: 683: 436: 30:

For less common types of alkali-driven concrete degradation, see

2912:

Limit the external alkalis that come in contact with the system.

787: 690:

The surface of solid silica in contact with water is covered by

6292: 6252: 6086: 5990: 4368:

Verbeck, G. (1958). "Carbonation of hydrated Portland Cement".

3624: 3589: 3570: 3409: 3224: 3204: 3084: 3057: 2976: 2925: 2353: 2034: 1725: 1513: 1058: 1010: 972: 968: 712:

The presence of these oxygen-bearing groups very prone to form

658: 440: 85: 3925:"Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR) – Concrete – Pavements – FHWA" 3569:

is very often found in glacio-fluvial environments from which

3445:

King St Bridge, demolished and replaced in 2011 (crossing the

2877:

Add very fine siliceous materials to neutralize the excessive

2790:/UPV: The effect of ASR on elastic properties of concrete and 2520:(sol) into a biphasic aqueous polymeric network of silicagel. 6211: 6113: 5080: 4086:

Wigum, B.J.; Pedersen, L.T.; Grelk, B.; Lindgard, J. (2006).

3566: 1296: 1138:

The so-produced soluble alkali silicagel can then react with

990: 964: 960: 956: 841: 5029: 2823:

ASR can be mitigated in new concrete by several approaches:

1253:

The alkali-silica reaction mechanism catalysed by a soluble

1088:), while in an older industrial notation the non-existing (H 1052: 666:

the global mass balance equation of the catalyzed reaction.

6001: 3684: 1285: 1065: 320: 4152: 4150: 4085: 3382:

RILEM AAR-4 concrete prism method (storage at 60 °C).

3379:

RILEM AAR-3 concrete prism method (storage at 38 °C).

3361:

The concrete microbar test was proposed by Grattan-Bellew

4556: 4512:

Ahmed, T. M. A.; Burley, E.; Rigden, S. R. (1999-12-01).

4095:. Norway, Trondheim: SINTEF Building and Infrastructure. 3223:

and is known to create amorphous halo's in minerals like

3056:

In some hydrothermal deposits, baryte is associated with

1741:

One can distinguish several sources of hydroxide anions (

1307: 983:

are also more sensitive to alkaline (high pH) solutions.

96: 5445: 4239: 3683:

in Hamilton, New Zealand. Repaired in 1991 at a cost of

3391:

Norwegian concrete prism method (storage at 38 °C).

2724:, it undergoes a rapid carbonation, and white or yellow 5965:

Alkali-aggregate reaction in concrete roads and bridges

4159:"Alkali-silica reaction products and their development" 4147: 3385:

RILEM AAR-4 alternative method (storage at 60 °C).

2109:

as emphasized by Fournier and Bérubé (2000) and Bérubé

1650:(regeneration of NaOH after reaction with portlandite) 359:(C-S-H) could be schematically represented as follows: 4246:

Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change

3607:

Many bridges and civil engineering works of motorways.

3596:. The Spratt's limestone aggregates (from the company 2732: 2272:

schematically illustrated hereafter for C-A-H phases:

986:

The species responsible for silica dissolution is the

190:

The alkali-silica reaction as a chemical cycle process

5944:

Alkali-aggregate reaction in concrete: A world review

5534:

Minon, Jean-Paul; Van Laer, Wim (26 September 2014).

4122: 1249:

Analogy with the soda lime and concrete carbonatation

560:

which consumes only one water molecule and stops at H

3404:

Surface of a concrete pillar of the building of the

3388:

German concrete test method (storage at 40 °C).

2830:. Many standards impose limits on the "Equivalent Na 2252:" in cement paste), calcium sulfo-aluminate phases ( 1752:) in hardened cement paste (HCP) from the family of 2352:) of cement can simply rely on the measurements of 1096:, hemihydrated silica, is considered in analogy to 698:groups (≡Si–OH) sensitive to an alkaline attack by 5389:Jane Whitford Guardian Messenger December 14, 2011 5281:Available in open access on the site of Cement.org 4962: 2844:) and should not be used as aggregate. The use of 2838:Limit the reactive silica content of the aggregate 2379: 844:(OH), i.e., by increasing the pH of the solution. 731:reactions as schematically represented hereafter: 661:to refer to their strongly basic character) which 653:One will also note that the NaOH and KOH species ( 5380:, "Pat bridge load fears", 8 August 2007, page 9. 5189: 4877: 4511: 4156: 975:. Strained (deformed) quartz or chert exposed to 6653: 6576:International Federation for Structural Concrete 5183: 3866:, a product of slag hydration and ASR gel ageing 3641:in Brittany, built in 1951 and replaced in 2011. 3317:The American Society for Testing and Materials ( 1409:(regeneration of NaOH after reaction with lime) 686:groups along with surface bound water molecules. 4481: 4007: 4005: 3501:may contain up to 25–30 wt. % of reactive 3313:Methods for testing potential alkali reactivity 3064:while oxy-hydroxides of Fe(III), in particular 2967:Heavy aggregates for nuclear shielding concrete 669: 5647: 5640: 5638: 5121: 4343:Freeman, Brian S.; Berger, Jeffrey S. (2014). 3548:Poorly conditioned radioactive waste from the 1481:phenomenon), and this greatly facilitates the 6017: 5611: 5587: 5533: 5316: 4941: 4922: 4507: 4505: 4420: 4394: 4342: 4157:Davies, G.; Oberholster, R. E. (1988-07-01). 3060:mineralization and can also contain reactive 2720:When the C-S-H gel is exposed to atmospheric 5656: 5257: 5247: 5122:Field, K.G.; Remec, I.; Pape, Y. Le (2015). 5074: 4956: 4804: 4759: 4361: 4336: 4317: 4200: 4198: 4002: 3395: 2991:, density = 4.3 – 4.5) and various types of 2828:Limit the alkali metal content of the cement 2763: 1291:) is simply replaced in the reaction by the 993:(OH). The high pH conditions are said to be 474:An ancient industrial notation referring to 5635: 5271: 5269: 5238: 5228: 5023: 4999: 4871: 4718: 4404: 4323: 4274: 4233: 4204: 4116: 3984:(PhD thesis). Lausanne, EPFL. p. 171. 3971: 3742:. Demolished and replaced in the mid-1990s. 2546:(C-S-H) accompanied by NaOH regeneration: 1910:There exist also other indirect sources of 1516:) also contributes to the carbonatation of 678:Anhydrous and hydrated silica surface with 6024: 6010: 5732:"Keybridge House, London - Building #1458" 5690: 5527: 5115: 4550: 4502: 4475: 4079: 3528:on the canal Hensies – Pommeroeul – Condé. 3368:CSA A23.1-14A and CSA A23.2-14A: Canadian 5940: 5797:"Merafield Bridge in Plympton demolished" 5709:. Hamilton City Libraries. Archived from 5139: 5098: 4854: 4836: 4779: 4742: 4466: 4257: 4195: 4048:"Merafield Bridge in Plympton demolished" 3952: 3246: 3102:), and its corresponding silicate anion ( 2848:aggregates can avoid this. In principle, 2101:with portlandite, also important for the 1465:, the strong bases, NaOH or KOH, readily 1053:Catalysis of ASR by dissolved NaOH or KOH 608:around the central atom of the molecule. 302:Learn how and when to remove this message 240:Learn how and when to remove this message 5941:Sims, Ian; Poole, Alan B. (2017-08-01). 5742: 5681: 5558: 5404:Royal Australian Institute of Architects 5266: 5032:Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 3977: 3399: 3048:As elevated temperature in the range of 2500:the surface of concrete crack infilling. 1528:although the rate of propagation of the 1257:as NaOH or KOH in the presence of Ca(OH) 786: 738:Siloxane bond between two silicon atoms. 733: 673: 185: 176: 43: 5347:"Adelaide Festival Plaza redevelopment" 5190:Oberholster, R. E.; Davies, G. (1986). 5174: 5156: 5087:Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology 4367: 4070: 1606:quickly dissolved by hygroscopic NaOH) 556:Indeed, contrary to the hydration of CO 14: 6654: 5843: 5327: 5165: 5005: 4123:Prezzi, Monica; Monteiro, Paulo J.M.; 1532:is there essentially limited by the CO 553:is unstable and continues to hydrate. 6005: 5866:"The Royal Devon and Exeter Hospital" 5012:. Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. (AECL) 3697:Keybridge House, South Lambeth Road, 3541:External containment building of the 2935: 6139:Ground granulated blast-furnace slag 5961: 5564: 4601: 4023:"Alkali–silica reaction in concrete" 3922: 3783:Seabrook Station Nuclear Power Plant 2920:As part of a study conducted by the 251: 222:adding citations to reliable sources 193: 6556:Institution of Structural Engineers 5699: 4563:Construction and Building Materials 4029:from the original on 10 August 2007 3978:Albinski, Solène Anne-Lise (2022). 3805:in Los Angeles. Demolished in 2016. 2733:Mechanism of concrete deterioration 2320:) for the maximal concentration of 1905: 1461:In the presence of water or simply 447:. Strictly speaking, silica is the 27:Chemical reaction damaging concrete 24: 5934: 5767:"A38 Merafield Bridge replacement" 5672: 4624:10.1111/j.1365-3091.1975.tb00296.x 3935:from the original on 8 August 2010 1764:, or with cementitious additions, 25: 6718: 5983: 4485:Alkalies in concrete: a symposium 3732:, Birmingham. Demolished in 2005 3691: 2804:and the fatigue life of concrete. 1775: 1500:The same catalytic effect of the 435:has traditionally been used as a 6636: 6635: 5989: 5773:. 27 August 2014. Archived from 3756: 3598:"Spratt Sand and Gravel Limited" 3588:) from the Spratt's quarry near 3219:. This process is also known as 1694:(global reaction resembling the 1539:within the concrete matrix less 256: 198: 5919: 5901: 5876: 5858: 5844:Warner, Brian (26 March 1992). 5837: 5815: 5789: 5759: 5724: 5666: 5510: 5496: 5482: 5468: 5451: 5439: 5422: 5406:. 5 August 2005. Archived from 5392: 5383: 5367: 5353: 5339: 5285: 5141:10.1016/j.nucengdes.2014.10.003 4965:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 4700: 4665: 4651:10.1016/j.cemconres.2006.03.025 4630: 4595: 4441: 4435:10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.06.008 4414: 3736:Royal Devon and Exeter Hospital 2380:Alkali gel evolution and ageing 756: ↔ ≡Si–OH + HO–Si≡ 209:needs additional citations for 6054:Roman architectural revolution 5298:Cement Concrete and Aggregates 5128:Nuclear Engineering and Design 4064: 4040: 4015: 3953:Faridazar, Fred (2009-02-10). 3946: 3916: 3726:. Demolished manually in 2016. 3674: 3614:Gentilly 2 nuclear power plant 3451:Glenelg North, South Australia 2922:Federal Highway Administration 869: → ≡Si–OH + O–Si≡ 13: 1: 5574:jc-rapport-be-2020-public.pdf 4686:10.1016/S0008-8846(99)00261-6 4575:10.1016/S0950-0618(02)00009-0 4518:Magazine of Concrete Research 4482:Vance H. Dodson, ed. (1986). 4283:Journal of Raman Spectroscopy 3909: 3858:Energetically modified cement 3707:North Stand (part of the old 3543:Tihange 2 nuclear power plant 3495:lower carboniferous Dinantian 2818: 2531:divalent cations released by 1045:Osmotic processes (Chatterji 92:, given sufficient moisture. 6031: 5400:"1939 - Manly Surf Pavilion" 5208:10.1016/0008-8846(86)90134-1 5196:Cement and Concrete Research 4985:10.1016/0016-7037(81)90250-7 4744:10.1016/j.proeng.2015.06.132 4674:Cement and Concrete Research 4639:Cement and Concrete Research 4423:Cement and Concrete Research 4357:– via Access Medicine. 4219:10.1016/0008-8846(91)90115-X 4207:Cement and Concrete Research 4175:10.1016/0008-8846(88)90055-5 4163:Cement and Concrete Research 3425:car park, demolished in 2017 3416: 2286:+ (C-A-H)–OH → (C-A-H)–Cl + 2169:, NaCl-based deicing salts: 850:of siloxane bonds occurs by 670:Silica dissolution mechanism 451:of orthosilicic acid, Si(OH) 420:, which is equivalent to SiO 172: 72:between the highly alkaline 7: 6571:Portland Cement Association 6546:American Concrete Institute 3809: 2690:) has not yet reacted with 2669:As long as the alkali gel ( 2508:. Condensation of silicate 1660: 1654: 1616: 1610: 1567: 1561: 1558: 1419: 1413: 1375: 1369: 1326: 1320: 1317: 1146:) to precipitate insoluble 997:and one also speaks of the 811:≡Si–OH ↔ ≡Si– 723:Siloxane bonds may undergo 657:, also often simply called 282:the claims made and adding 10: 6723: 6049:Ancient Roman architecture 5947:. CRC Press. p. 246. 5052:10.1016/j.jcis.2007.03.053 4530:10.1680/macr.1999.51.6.375 3666:After reunification, many 3645: 3621:National Gallery of Canada 3480: 3406:National Gallery of Canada 2376:measurements techniques). 2041:) precipitation releasing 2029:Hereafter, an example for 1365:trapping by soluble NaOH) 64:), also commonly known as 36: 29: 6631: 6615: 6584: 6561:Indian Concrete Institute 6538: 6475: 6347: 6301: 6220: 6157: 6077: 6039: 5748:Laura Kemp (8 July 2007) 4900:10.1007/s00710-002-0200-9 4259:10.1007/s11027-019-9845-0 3821:Alkali–aggregate reaction 3816:Alkali-carbonate reaction 3631: 3556: 3429:Centennial Hall, Adelaide 3396:Known affected structures 3189:nucleophilic substitution 2792:ultrasound pulse velocity 2764:Structural effects of ASR 2544:calcium silicate hydrates 2246:calcium silicate hydrates 2107:alkali–carbonate reaction 1148:calcium silicate hydrates 1009:solutions, respectively. 852:nucleophilic substitution 32:Alkali-aggregate reaction 6692:Mechanical failure modes 4880:Mineralogy and Petrology 4025:. Understanding Cement. 3990:10.5075/EPFL-THESIS-8638 3550:Doel nuclear power plant 3517:in the marine sediments. 3423:Adelaide Festival Centre 1737:in hardened cement paste 803:groups can also undergo 791:Chemical structure of a 408:Here, the silicic acid H 357:calcium silicate hydrate 5996:Alkali silica reactions 5673:Du, Chongjiang (2010). 4349:. McGraw-Hill Education 4073:Engineering News-Record 3787:Seabrook, New Hampshire 2800:: ASR reduces the load 76:paste and the reactive 6339:Alkali–silica reaction 6097:Energetically modified 5736:www.skyscrapernews.com 4488:. ASTM International. 3842:Construction aggregate 3461:Manly, New South Wales 3413: 3283:, less than 3 kg 3247:Prevention of the risk 2615:stylized as follows: 796: 739: 694:bonds (≡Si–O–Si≡) and 687: 568:, the hydration of SiO 191: 183: 58:alkali–silica reaction 53: 18:Alkali Silica Reaction 5823:"Pebble Mill Studios" 5446:http://www.ondraf.be/ 4781:10.5703/1288284316137 4129:ACI Materials Journal 3905:impregnated with NaOH 3505:originating from the 3403: 3053:concrete is exposed. 3020:, density = 5.2) and 2834:O" content of cement. 2814:(Ahmed et al., 2000). 2788:Modulus of elasticity 979:cycles in Canada and 790: 737: 677: 584:behaviour between SiO 189: 180: 88:found in many common 50:concrete step barrier 47: 6682:Concrete degradation 6324:Environmental impact 6182:Reversing drum mixer 5998:at Wikimedia Commons 5888:www.chattanoogan.com 4931:Cement, Wapno, Beton 4731:Procedia Engineering 4112:on October 28, 2020. 3803:Sixth Street Viaduct 3586:Bobcaygeon Formation 3434:Dee Why ocean pool, 2776:Compressive strength 2603:similar to these of 2097:or, the reaction of 919: → ≡Si– 580:. The difference in 218:improve this article 5771:www.highways.gov.uk 5565:FANC (2020-10-01). 5410:on 4 September 2006 5377:Adelaide Advertiser 5275:Day, R. L. (1992). 5100:10.3151/jact.14.368 5044:2007JCIS..312..224J 5006:Taylor, P. (1995). 4977:1981GeCoA..45..421C 4892:2003MinPe..77..197F 4829:2018Mate...11.2284J 4616:1975Sedim..22..299F 4295:2016JRSp...47.1452S 3923:FHWA (2010-06-22). 3875:Pozzolanic reaction 3730:Pebble Mill Studios 3653:Deutsche Reichsbahn 3580:like the siliceous 3474:Westpoint Blacktown 3457:Manly Surf Pavilion 2887:pozzolanic reaction 2812:shear reinforcement 1900:pozzolanic reaction 1696:Pozzolanic reaction 1504:(function of the Na 1241:Portlandite (Ca(OH) 1017:both belong to the 848:Alkaline hydrolysis 799:On the other hand, 317:pozzolanic reaction 157:aggregate, causing 84:, non-crystalline) 39:M-SG reducing agent 6687:Fracture mechanics 6677:Chemical reactions 6662:Building materials 6427:Self-consolidating 6119:Water–cement ratio 5968:. Thomas Telford. 5915:. 9 November 2023. 5707:"Fairfield Bridge" 4838:10.3390/ma11112284 3852:Crocodile cracking 3745:Steve Bull Stand, 3718:Merafield Bridge, 3705:Millennium Stadium 3701:, London, England. 3414: 3319:ASTM International 3090:Dissolved silica ( 2936:Curative treatment 2518:colloidal solution 1898:) involved in the 1491:diving rebreathers 1453:(global reaction) 967:) or rolled river 797: 740: 688: 267:possibly contains 192: 184: 54: 6649: 6648: 6641:Category:Concrete 6422:Roller-compacting 6243:Climbing formwork 6092:Calcium aluminate 6064:Roman engineering 5994:Media related to 5975:978-0-7277-2069-6 5962:West, G. (1996). 5954:978-1-317-48442-4 5890:. 9 November 2020 5872:. 7 January 2014. 5851:Construction News 5310:10.1520/CCA10445J 4791:978-1-62671-065-8 4495:978-0-8031-0498-3 4453:FPrimeC Solutions 4387:978-0-8031-5667-8 4378:10.1520/STP39460S 4289:(12): 1452–1457. 4125:Sposito, Garrison 3515:calcium carbonate 3511:siliceous sponges 3447:Patawalonga River 3210:radioactive waste 2846:calcium carbonate 2533:calcium hydroxide 2496:(young N-S-H gel) 1702: 1701: 1520:by atmospheric CO 1502:alkali hydroxides 1457: 1456: 1140:calcium hydroxide 950:cryptocrystalline 883: → = 807:/deprotonation: 772: ↔ = 655:alkali hydroxides 613:orthosilicic acid 598:Gibbs free energy 431:Indeed, the term 329:calcium hydroxide 312: 311: 304: 269:original research 250: 249: 242: 16:(Redirected from 6714: 6639: 6638: 6551:Concrete Society 6362:Fiber-reinforced 6177:Volumetric mixer 6069:Roman technology 6026: 6019: 6012: 6003: 6002: 5993: 5979: 5958: 5928: 5923: 5917: 5916: 5905: 5899: 5898: 5896: 5895: 5880: 5874: 5873: 5862: 5856: 5855: 5841: 5835: 5834: 5832: 5830: 5819: 5813: 5812: 5810: 5808: 5793: 5787: 5786: 5784: 5782: 5763: 5757: 5746: 5740: 5739: 5728: 5722: 5721: 5719: 5718: 5703: 5697: 5694: 5688: 5685: 5679: 5678: 5670: 5664: 5660: 5654: 5651: 5645: 5642: 5633: 5632: 5630: 5629: 5615: 5609: 5608: 5606: 5605: 5591: 5585: 5584: 5582: 5581: 5571: 5562: 5556: 5555: 5549: 5547: 5531: 5525: 5524: 5522: 5514: 5508: 5507: 5500: 5494: 5493: 5486: 5480: 5479: 5472: 5466: 5465: 5463: 5455: 5449: 5443: 5437: 5436: 5434: 5426: 5420: 5419: 5417: 5415: 5396: 5390: 5387: 5381: 5371: 5365: 5364: 5357: 5351: 5350: 5343: 5337: 5331: 5325: 5320: 5314: 5313: 5289: 5283: 5273: 5264: 5261: 5255: 5251: 5245: 5242: 5236: 5232: 5226: 5225: 5223: 5222: 5187: 5181: 5178: 5172: 5169: 5163: 5160: 5154: 5153: 5143: 5119: 5113: 5112: 5102: 5078: 5072: 5071: 5027: 5021: 5020: 5018: 5017: 5003: 4997: 4996: 4960: 4954: 4953: 4945: 4939: 4938: 4926: 4920: 4919: 4886:(3–4): 197–213. 4875: 4869: 4868: 4858: 4840: 4808: 4802: 4801: 4799: 4798: 4783: 4763: 4757: 4756: 4746: 4722: 4716: 4715: 4704: 4698: 4697: 4669: 4663: 4662: 4645:(8): 1460–1466. 4634: 4628: 4627: 4599: 4593: 4592: 4590: 4589: 4554: 4548: 4547: 4545: 4544: 4509: 4500: 4499: 4479: 4473: 4470: 4464: 4463: 4461: 4460: 4445: 4439: 4438: 4429:(9): 1291–1297. 4418: 4412: 4408: 4402: 4398: 4392: 4391: 4365: 4359: 4358: 4356: 4354: 4340: 4334: 4333: 4321: 4315: 4314: 4303:10.1002/jrs.4929 4278: 4272: 4271: 4261: 4237: 4231: 4230: 4202: 4193: 4192: 4190: 4189: 4154: 4145: 4144: 4120: 4114: 4113: 4111: 4105:. Archived from 4094: 4083: 4077: 4076: 4068: 4062: 4061: 4059: 4058: 4044: 4038: 4037: 4035: 4034: 4019: 4013: 4009: 4000: 3999: 3997: 3996: 3975: 3969: 3968: 3966: 3965: 3950: 3944: 3943: 3941: 3940: 3920: 3890:Siliceous sponge 3847:Cracking pattern 3837:Colloidal silica 3773:Kauffman Stadium 3747:Molineux Stadium 3709:National Stadium 3681:Fairfield Bridge 3619:Building of the 3532:Tour & Taxis 3303: 3302: 3301: 3293: 3292: 3278: 3277: 3276: 3268: 3267: 3201: 3200: 3199: 3186: 3185: 3184: 3176: 3175: 3162: 3161: 3160: 3151: 3150: 3149: 3140: 3139: → 3136: 3135: 3134: 3127: 3126: 3113: 3112: 3111: 3101: 3100: 3099: 3087:of iron oxides. 3079: 3078: 3077: 3051: 3044: 3043: 3042: 3034: 3033: 3019: 3018: 3017: 3009: 3008: 2990: 2989: 2988: 2885:by a controlled 2802:bearing capacity 2782:Tensile strength 2715: 2714: 2713: 2700: 2699: 2698: 2689: 2688: 2687: 2679: 2678: 2665: 2664: 2663: 2653: 2652: 2651: 2641: 2640: 2639: 2629: 2628: 2627: 2593: 2592: 2591: 2581: 2580: 2579: 2569: 2568: 2567: 2559: 2558: 2530: 2529: 2528: 2495: 2493: 2492: 2482: 2481: 2480: 2472: 2471: 2461: 2460: 2459: 2445: 2444: 2443: 2435: 2434: 2423:metasilicic acid 2420: 2419: 2418: 2410: 2409: 2400:dissolution and 2399: 2398: 2397: 2351: 2350: 2349: 2341: 2340: 2330: 2329: 2328: 2311: 2310: 2309: 2296: 2295: 2294: 2285: 2284: 2283: 2240: 2239: 2238: 2229: 2228: 2227: 2218: 2217: 2216: 2200: 2199: 2198: 2188: 2187: 2186: 2176: 2160: 2159: 2158: 2148: 2147: 2146: 2136: 2135: 2134: 2126: 2125: 2099:sodium carbonate 2092: 2091: 2090: 2080: 2079: 2078: 2068: 2067: 2066: 2058: 2057: 2043:sodium hydroxide 2025: 2024: 2023: 2015: 2014: 2006: 2005: 1995: 1994: 1993: 1983: 1982: 1981: 1973: 1972: 1962: 1961: 1960: 1952: 1951: 1941: 1940: 1939: 1931: 1930: 1920: 1919: 1918: 1906:Indirect sources 1897: 1896: 1895: 1885: 1884: 1883: 1873: 1872: 1871: 1861: 1860: 1859: 1841: 1839: 1838: 1828: 1826: 1825: 1812: 1811: 1810: 1801: 1800: 1799: 1789: 1788: 1787: 1751: 1750: 1749: 1736: 1735: 1734: 1726:Main sources of 1559: 1548:metasilicic acid 1463:ambient moisture 1318: 1228: 1192: 1173: 1133: 981:Nordic countries 942: 940: 939: 929: 928: 927: 918: 917: 916: 893: 892: 891: 882: 881: 880: 868: 867: 866: 832: 831: 830: 821: 820: 819: 783: 782: 781: 771: 769: 768: 755: 753: 752: 708: 707: 706: 649: 648: 647: 637: 636: 635: 625: 624: 623: 606:steric hindrance 592:is explained by 552: 551: 550: 542: 541: 531: 530: 529: 519: 518: 517: 509: 508: 497:metasilicic acid 494: 493: 492: 484: 483: 404: 331:, also known as 307: 300: 296: 293: 287: 284:inline citations 260: 259: 252: 245: 238: 234: 231: 225: 202: 194: 148: 140: 123: 115: 21: 6722: 6721: 6717: 6716: 6715: 6713: 6712: 6711: 6652: 6651: 6650: 6645: 6627: 6611: 6580: 6534: 6471: 6343: 6297: 6216: 6192:Flow table test 6153: 6073: 6035: 6030: 5986: 5976: 5955: 5937: 5935:Further reading 5932: 5931: 5924: 5920: 5907: 5906: 5902: 5893: 5891: 5882: 5881: 5877: 5870:Exeter Memories 5864: 5863: 5859: 5842: 5838: 5828: 5826: 5821: 5820: 5816: 5806: 5804: 5795: 5794: 5790: 5780: 5778: 5765: 5764: 5760: 5754:Wales on Sunday 5747: 5743: 5730: 5729: 5725: 5716: 5714: 5705: 5704: 5700: 5695: 5691: 5686: 5682: 5671: 5667: 5661: 5657: 5652: 5648: 5643: 5636: 5627: 5625: 5616: 5612: 5603: 5601: 5592: 5588: 5579: 5577: 5569: 5563: 5559: 5545: 5543: 5532: 5528: 5520: 5516: 5515: 5511: 5502: 5501: 5497: 5488: 5487: 5483: 5474: 5473: 5469: 5461: 5457: 5456: 5452: 5444: 5440: 5432: 5428: 5427: 5423: 5413: 5411: 5398: 5397: 5393: 5388: 5384: 5372: 5368: 5359: 5358: 5354: 5345: 5344: 5340: 5332: 5328: 5321: 5317: 5290: 5286: 5274: 5267: 5262: 5258: 5252: 5248: 5243: 5239: 5233: 5229: 5220: 5218: 5188: 5184: 5179: 5175: 5170: 5166: 5161: 5157: 5120: 5116: 5079: 5075: 5028: 5024: 5015: 5013: 5004: 5000: 4961: 4957: 4946: 4942: 4927: 4923: 4876: 4872: 4809: 4805: 4796: 4794: 4792: 4764: 4760: 4723: 4719: 4706: 4705: 4701: 4670: 4666: 4635: 4631: 4600: 4596: 4587: 4585: 4555: 4551: 4542: 4540: 4510: 4503: 4496: 4480: 4476: 4471: 4467: 4458: 4456: 4447: 4446: 4442: 4419: 4415: 4409: 4405: 4399: 4395: 4388: 4366: 4362: 4352: 4350: 4341: 4337: 4322: 4318: 4279: 4275: 4238: 4234: 4203: 4196: 4187: 4185: 4155: 4148: 4121: 4117: 4109: 4103: 4092: 4084: 4080: 4069: 4065: 4056: 4054: 4046: 4045: 4041: 4032: 4030: 4021: 4020: 4016: 4010: 4003: 3994: 3992: 3976: 3972: 3963: 3961: 3959:FHWA-HRT-06-069 3951: 3947: 3938: 3936: 3921: 3917: 3912: 3904: 3900: 3885: 3882:: see solid SiO 3870:Hydrated silica 3812: 3763:Chickamauga Dam 3759: 3694: 3677: 3648: 3634: 3559: 3513:deposited with 3503:biogenic silica 3483: 3440:New South Wales 3419: 3398: 3315: 3300: 3297: 3296: 3295: 3291: 3288: 3287: 3286: 3284: 3275: 3272: 3271: 3270: 3266: 3263: 3262: 3261: 3259: 3249: 3221:metamictization 3217:neutron fluence 3198: 3196: 3195: 3194: 3192: 3183: 3180: 3179: 3178: 3174: 3171: 3170: 3169: 3167: 3159: 3157: 3156: 3155: 3153: 3148: 3145: 3144: 3143: 3141: 3138: 3133: 3131: 3130: 3129: 3125: 3122: 3121: 3120: 3118: 3110: 3107: 3106: 3105: 3103: 3098: 3095: 3094: 3093: 3091: 3076: 3073: 3072: 3071: 3069: 3049: 3041: 3038: 3037: 3036: 3032: 3029: 3028: 3027: 3025: 3016: 3013: 3012: 3011: 3007: 3004: 3003: 3002: 3000: 2987: 2984: 2983: 2982: 2980: 2969: 2938: 2881:of cement with 2855: 2833: 2821: 2766: 2748: 2735: 2712: 2710: 2709: 2708: 2706: 2697: 2695: 2694: 2693: 2691: 2686: 2683: 2682: 2681: 2677: 2674: 2673: 2672: 2670: 2662: 2659: 2658: 2657: 2655: 2650: 2647: 2646: 2645: 2643: 2638: 2635: 2634: 2633: 2631: 2626: 2623: 2622: 2621: 2619: 2614: 2590: 2587: 2586: 2585: 2583: 2578: 2575: 2574: 2573: 2571: 2566: 2563: 2562: 2561: 2557: 2554: 2553: 2552: 2550: 2527: 2525: 2524: 2523: 2521: 2516:dispersed in a 2506:sol–gel process 2491: 2488: 2487: 2486: 2484: 2479: 2476: 2475: 2474: 2470: 2467: 2466: 2465: 2463: 2458: 2455: 2454: 2453: 2451: 2442: 2439: 2438: 2437: 2433: 2430: 2429: 2428: 2426: 2417: 2414: 2413: 2412: 2408: 2405: 2404: 2403: 2401: 2396: 2393: 2392: 2391: 2389: 2382: 2348: 2345: 2344: 2343: 2339: 2336: 2335: 2334: 2332: 2327: 2325: 2324: 2323: 2321: 2308: 2306: 2305: 2304: 2302: 2293: 2291: 2290: 2289: 2287: 2282: 2280: 2279: 2278: 2276: 2237: 2235: 2234: 2233: 2231: 2226: 2224: 2223: 2222: 2220: 2215: 2213: 2212: 2211: 2209: 2197: 2194: 2193: 2192: 2190: 2185: 2182: 2181: 2180: 2178: 2174: 2157: 2154: 2153: 2152: 2150: 2145: 2142: 2141: 2140: 2138: 2133: 2130: 2129: 2128: 2124: 2121: 2120: 2119: 2117: 2089: 2086: 2085: 2084: 2082: 2077: 2074: 2073: 2072: 2070: 2065: 2062: 2061: 2060: 2056: 2053: 2052: 2051: 2049: 2031:calcium sulfate 2022: 2019: 2018: 2017: 2013: 2010: 2009: 2008: 2004: 2001: 2000: 1999: 1997: 1992: 1989: 1988: 1987: 1985: 1980: 1977: 1976: 1975: 1971: 1968: 1967: 1966: 1964: 1959: 1956: 1955: 1954: 1950: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1943: 1938: 1935: 1934: 1933: 1929: 1926: 1925: 1924: 1922: 1917: 1915: 1914: 1913: 1911: 1908: 1894: 1891: 1890: 1889: 1887: 1882: 1879: 1878: 1877: 1875: 1870: 1868: 1867: 1866: 1864: 1858: 1855: 1854: 1853: 1851: 1837: 1834: 1833: 1832: 1830: 1824: 1821: 1820: 1819: 1817: 1813:into solution. 1809: 1807: 1806: 1805: 1803: 1798: 1795: 1794: 1793: 1791: 1786: 1784: 1783: 1782: 1780: 1778: 1754:Portland cement 1748: 1746: 1745: 1744: 1742: 1739: 1733: 1731: 1730: 1729: 1727: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1687: 1683: 1668: 1664: 1643: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1605: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1571: 1535: 1523: 1511: 1507: 1471:hydration water 1446: 1442: 1427: 1423: 1402: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1364: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1330: 1311: 1304: 1300: 1289: 1282: 1278: 1260: 1251: 1244: 1226: 1222: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1190: 1186: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1171: 1167: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1130: 1124: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1075: 1055: 1041: 1037: 1032: 1028: 938: 935: 934: 933: 931: 926: 924: 923: 922: 920: 915: 913: 912: 911: 909: 890: 888: 887: 886: 884: 879: 877: 876: 875: 873: 865: 863: 862: 861: 859: 829: 827: 826: 825: 823: 818: 816: 815: 814: 812: 780: 777: 776: 775: 773: 767: 764: 763: 762: 760: 751: 748: 747: 746: 744: 705: 703: 702: 701: 699: 672: 646: 643: 642: 641: 639: 634: 631: 630: 629: 627: 622: 619: 618: 617: 615: 591: 587: 579: 575: 571: 567: 563: 559: 549: 546: 545: 544: 540: 537: 536: 535: 533: 528: 525: 524: 523: 521: 516: 513: 512: 511: 507: 504: 503: 502: 500: 491: 488: 487: 486: 482: 479: 478: 477: 475: 470: 466: 462: 454: 446: 427: 423: 419: 415: 411: 401: 395: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 366: 354: 350: 346: 338: 308: 297: 291: 288: 273: 261: 257: 246: 235: 229: 226: 215: 203: 175: 145: 138: 136: 135: 131: 127: 124:, also noted Na 120: 113: 111: 110: 106: 101:sodium silicate 66:concrete cancer 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6720: 6710: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6669: 6664: 6647: 6646: 6644: 6643: 6632: 6629: 6628: 6626: 6625: 6619: 6617: 6613: 6612: 6610: 6609: 6604: 6599: 6594: 6588: 6586: 6582: 6581: 6579: 6578: 6573: 6568: 6563: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6542: 6540: 6536: 6535: 6533: 6532: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6510:Concrete block 6507: 6506: 6505: 6500: 6498:voided biaxial 6495: 6490: 6479: 6477: 6473: 6472: 6470: 6469: 6468: 6467: 6462: 6454: 6449: 6444: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6404: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6353: 6351: 6345: 6344: 6342: 6341: 6336: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6305: 6303: 6299: 6298: 6296: 6295: 6290: 6285: 6280: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6235: 6230: 6224: 6222: 6218: 6217: 6215: 6214: 6209: 6204: 6202:Concrete cover 6199: 6194: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6172:Concrete mixer 6169: 6163: 6161: 6155: 6154: 6152: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6121: 6116: 6111: 6110: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6083: 6081: 6075: 6074: 6072: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6059:Roman concrete 6056: 6051: 6045: 6043: 6037: 6036: 6029: 6028: 6021: 6014: 6006: 6000: 5999: 5985: 5984:External links 5982: 5981: 5980: 5974: 5959: 5953: 5936: 5933: 5930: 5929: 5918: 5900: 5875: 5857: 5836: 5814: 5788: 5777:on 21 May 2016 5758: 5741: 5723: 5698: 5689: 5680: 5665: 5655: 5646: 5634: 5610: 5586: 5557: 5526: 5509: 5495: 5481: 5467: 5450: 5438: 5421: 5391: 5382: 5366: 5352: 5338: 5326: 5315: 5284: 5265: 5256: 5246: 5237: 5227: 5202:(2): 181–189. 5182: 5173: 5164: 5155: 5114: 5093:(7): 368–383. 5073: 5038:(2): 224–229. 5022: 4998: 4971:(3): 421–429. 4955: 4940: 4921: 4870: 4803: 4790: 4758: 4717: 4699: 4680:(3): 339–344. 4664: 4629: 4610:(2): 299–306. 4594: 4569:(2): 123–144. 4549: 4524:(6): 375–390. 4501: 4494: 4474: 4465: 4440: 4413: 4403: 4393: 4386: 4360: 4335: 4316: 4273: 4232: 4213:(4): 647–654. 4194: 4169:(4): 621–635. 4146: 4115: 4101: 4078: 4063: 4039: 4014: 4001: 3970: 3945: 3914: 3913: 3911: 3908: 3907: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3892: 3887: 3883: 3877: 3872: 3867: 3861: 3855: 3849: 3844: 3839: 3834: 3829: 3823: 3818: 3811: 3808: 3807: 3806: 3800: 3790: 3780: 3770: 3758: 3755: 3754: 3753: 3743: 3733: 3727: 3716: 3702: 3693: 3692:United Kingdom 3690: 3689: 3688: 3676: 3673: 3672: 3671: 3664: 3655:used numerous 3647: 3644: 3643: 3642: 3639:Térénez bridge 3633: 3630: 3629: 3628: 3617: 3611: 3608: 3605: 3558: 3555: 3554: 3553: 3546: 3539: 3529: 3518: 3482: 3479: 3478: 3477: 3471: 3464: 3454: 3443: 3432: 3426: 3418: 3415: 3397: 3394: 3393: 3392: 3389: 3386: 3383: 3380: 3377: 3374: 3366: 3359: 3355: 3344: 3343: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3329: 3326: 3314: 3311: 3310: 3309: 3305: 3298: 3289: 3273: 3264: 3256: 3248: 3245: 3237:metamict state 3197: 3187:) is making a 3181: 3172: 3164: 3163: 3158: 3146: 3142:>Fe–OSi(OH) 3132: 3123: 3108: 3096: 3074: 3039: 3030: 3014: 3005: 2985: 2968: 2965: 2937: 2934: 2914: 2913: 2910: 2875: 2853: 2835: 2831: 2820: 2817: 2816: 2815: 2808:Shear strength 2805: 2795: 2785: 2779: 2773: 2765: 2762: 2761: 2760: 2757: 2754: 2746: 2743: 2734: 2731: 2726:efflorescences 2722:carbon dioxide 2711: 2696: 2684: 2675: 2667: 2666: 2660: 2648: 2636: 2624: 2612: 2609: 2608: 2596: 2595: 2588: 2576: 2564: 2555: 2526: 2502: 2501: 2497: 2489: 2477: 2468: 2456: 2440: 2431: 2415: 2406: 2394: 2381: 2378: 2346: 2337: 2326: 2307: 2298: 2297: 2292: 2281: 2248:(C-S-H) (the " 2236: 2225: 2214: 2203: 2202: 2195: 2183: 2163: 2162: 2155: 2143: 2131: 2122: 2095: 2094: 2087: 2075: 2063: 2054: 2020: 2011: 2002: 1990: 1978: 1969: 1957: 1948: 1936: 1927: 1916: 1907: 1904: 1892: 1880: 1869: 1856: 1835: 1822: 1808: 1796: 1785: 1777: 1776:Direct sources 1774: 1747: 1738: 1732: 1724: 1719: 1718:anions by HSiO 1715: 1711: 1707: 1704: 1703: 1700: 1699: 1692: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1678: 1675: 1672: 1669: 1666: 1662: 1659: 1656: 1652: 1651: 1648: 1645: 1641: 1638: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1615: 1612: 1608: 1607: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1582: 1579: 1576: 1573: 1572:+ 2 NaOH 1569: 1566: 1563: 1533: 1530:reaction front 1521: 1509: 1505: 1459: 1458: 1455: 1454: 1451: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1437: 1434: 1431: 1428: 1425: 1421: 1418: 1415: 1411: 1410: 1407: 1404: 1400: 1397: 1394: 1391: 1388: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1374: 1371: 1367: 1366: 1362: 1359: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1341: 1338: 1335: 1332: 1331:+ 2 NaOH 1328: 1325: 1322: 1309: 1302: 1298: 1287: 1280: 1276: 1258: 1250: 1247: 1242: 1235:semi-permeable 1230: 1229: 1224: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1195: 1194: 1188: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1169: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1151: 1135: 1134: 1128: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1073: 1054: 1051: 1039: 1035: 1030: 1026: 1023:Periodic Table 1021:column in the 945: 944: 936: 925: 914: 895: 894: 889: 878: 870: 864: 835: 834: 828: 817: 785: 784: 778: 765: 757: 749: 714:hydrogen bonds 704: 671: 668: 644: 632: 620: 589: 585: 577: 573: 569: 565: 561: 557: 547: 538: 526: 514: 505: 489: 480: 472: 471: 468: 464: 460: 452: 444: 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 406: 405: 399: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 352: 348: 344: 336: 310: 309: 264: 262: 255: 248: 247: 206: 204: 197: 174: 171: 143: 133: 129: 125: 118: 108: 104: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6719: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6659: 6657: 6642: 6634: 6633: 6630: 6624: 6621: 6620: 6618: 6614: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6590: 6589: 6587: 6583: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6562: 6559: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6549: 6547: 6544: 6543: 6541: 6539:Organizations 6537: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6504: 6503:slab on grade 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6485: 6484: 6481: 6480: 6478: 6474: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6457: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6432:Self-leveling 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6354: 6352: 6350: 6346: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6306: 6304: 6300: 6294: 6291: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6281: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6233:Cast-in-place 6231: 6229: 6226: 6225: 6223: 6219: 6213: 6210: 6208: 6205: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6164: 6162: 6160: 6156: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6129:Reinforcement 6127: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6089: 6088: 6085: 6084: 6082: 6080: 6076: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6046: 6044: 6042: 6038: 6034: 6027: 6022: 6020: 6015: 6013: 6008: 6007: 6004: 5997: 5992: 5988: 5987: 5977: 5971: 5967: 5966: 5960: 5956: 5950: 5946: 5945: 5939: 5938: 5927: 5922: 5914: 5910: 5904: 5889: 5885: 5879: 5871: 5867: 5861: 5853: 5852: 5847: 5840: 5825:. BUFVC. BUFC 5824: 5818: 5803:. 16 May 2016 5802: 5798: 5792: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5762: 5755: 5751: 5745: 5737: 5733: 5727: 5713:on 2010-05-20 5712: 5708: 5702: 5693: 5684: 5676: 5669: 5659: 5650: 5641: 5639: 5623: 5622: 5614: 5599: 5598: 5590: 5575: 5568: 5561: 5554: 5541: 5537: 5530: 5523:. 2016-06-01. 5519: 5513: 5506:. 2016-09-29. 5505: 5499: 5492:. 2014-09-26. 5491: 5485: 5477: 5471: 5464:. 2014-03-01. 5460: 5454: 5447: 5442: 5435:. 2010-09-15. 5431: 5425: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5395: 5386: 5379: 5378: 5370: 5362: 5356: 5348: 5342: 5336: 5330: 5324: 5319: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5288: 5282: 5278: 5272: 5270: 5260: 5250: 5241: 5231: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5205: 5201: 5197: 5193: 5186: 5177: 5168: 5159: 5151: 5147: 5142: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5118: 5110: 5106: 5101: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5077: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5026: 5011: 5010: 5002: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4959: 4951: 4944: 4936: 4932: 4925: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4874: 4866: 4862: 4857: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4807: 4793: 4787: 4782: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4762: 4754: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4721: 4713: 4709: 4703: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4668: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4633: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4604:Sedimentology 4598: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4553: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4508: 4506: 4497: 4491: 4487: 4486: 4478: 4469: 4454: 4450: 4444: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4417: 4411:pp. 3-4. 4407: 4397: 4389: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4364: 4348: 4347: 4339: 4332:(4): 450–455. 4331: 4327: 4320: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4277: 4269: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4236: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4201: 4199: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4153: 4151: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4119: 4108: 4104: 4102:82-14-04078-7 4098: 4091: 4090: 4082: 4074: 4067: 4053: 4049: 4043: 4028: 4024: 4018: 4008: 4006: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3982: 3974: 3960: 3956: 3949: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3919: 3915: 3896: 3893: 3891: 3888: 3881: 3878: 3876: 3873: 3871: 3868: 3865: 3862: 3859: 3856: 3853: 3850: 3848: 3845: 3843: 3840: 3838: 3835: 3833: 3832:Carbonatation 3830: 3827: 3824: 3822: 3819: 3817: 3814: 3813: 3804: 3801: 3798: 3794: 3791: 3788: 3784: 3781: 3778: 3774: 3771: 3768: 3764: 3761: 3760: 3757:United States 3752: 3751:Wolverhampton 3748: 3744: 3741: 3737: 3734: 3731: 3728: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3703: 3700: 3696: 3695: 3686: 3682: 3679: 3678: 3669: 3665: 3662: 3658: 3657:concrete ties 3654: 3650: 3649: 3640: 3636: 3635: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3615: 3612: 3609: 3606: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3563: 3562: 3551: 3547: 3544: 3540: 3537: 3533: 3530: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3489: 3485: 3484: 3475: 3472: 3469: 3465: 3462: 3458: 3455: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3430: 3427: 3424: 3421: 3420: 3411: 3407: 3402: 3390: 3387: 3384: 3381: 3378: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3353: 3352: 3351: 3349: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3330: 3327: 3324: 3323: 3322: 3320: 3306: 3282: 3257: 3254: 3253: 3252: 3244: 3240: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3213: 3211: 3206: 3190: 3117: 3116: 3115: 3088: 3086: 3081: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3054: 3046: 3023: 2998: 2994: 2978: 2974: 2964: 2962: 2958: 2953: 2949: 2947: 2944: 2933: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2918: 2911: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2860: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2836: 2829: 2826: 2825: 2824: 2813: 2809: 2806: 2803: 2799: 2796: 2793: 2789: 2786: 2783: 2780: 2777: 2774: 2771: 2770: 2769: 2758: 2755: 2752: 2744: 2740: 2739: 2738: 2730: 2727: 2723: 2718: 2703: 2618: 2617: 2616: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2597: 2549: 2548: 2547: 2545: 2540: 2538: 2534: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2498: 2449: 2448: 2447: 2424: 2386: 2377: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2319: 2315: 2275: 2274: 2273: 2269: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2242: 2206: 2172: 2171: 2170: 2168: 2116: 2115: 2114: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2048: 2047: 2046: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2027: 1903: 1901: 1847: 1845: 1814: 1773: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1723: 1710:anions by HCO 1697: 1693: 1691: 1690: 1679: 1676: 1673: 1670: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1647: 1646: 1639: 1636: 1633: 1630: 1613: 1609: 1601: 1598: 1583: 1581: 1580: 1577: 1574: 1564: 1560: 1557: 1556: 1555: 1553: 1549: 1544: 1542: 1538: 1531: 1527: 1519: 1515: 1503: 1498: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1479:deliquescence 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1452: 1450: 1449: 1438: 1435: 1432: 1429: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1406: 1405: 1398: 1395: 1392: 1389: 1372: 1368: 1360: 1357: 1342: 1340: 1339: 1336: 1333: 1323: 1319: 1316: 1315: 1314: 1312: 1305: 1294: 1293:carbonic acid 1290: 1283: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1263:carbonatation 1256: 1246: 1239: 1236: 1201: 1200: 1199: 1154: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1136: 1132: 1103: 1102: 1101: 1099: 1098:carbonic acid 1079: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1060: 1050: 1048: 1043: 1024: 1020: 1019:alkali metals 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 989: 984: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 951: 907: 906: 905: 903: 899: 898:Deprotonation 871: 857: 856: 855: 853: 849: 845: 843: 840: 810: 809: 808: 806: 802: 794: 789: 758: 742: 741: 736: 732: 730: 726: 721: 719: 715: 710: 697: 693: 685: 681: 676: 667: 664: 660: 656: 651: 614: 609: 607: 603: 599: 595: 594:thermodynamic 583: 554: 498: 458: 457: 456: 450: 442: 438: 434: 429: 403: 362: 361: 360: 358: 342: 334: 330: 326: 322: 318: 306: 303: 295: 285: 281: 277: 271: 270: 265:This section 263: 254: 253: 244: 241: 233: 223: 219: 213: 212: 207:This section 205: 201: 196: 195: 188: 179: 170: 167: 162: 160: 156: 152: 147: 122: 102: 98: 93: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 51: 46: 40: 33: 19: 6515:Step barrier 6476:Applications 6387:Nanoconcrete 6338: 6273:Power trowel 6258:Power screed 6248:Slip forming 6221:Construction 5964: 5943: 5921: 5913:www.kcur.org 5912: 5903: 5892:. Retrieved 5887: 5878: 5869: 5860: 5849: 5839: 5827:. Retrieved 5817: 5805:. Retrieved 5800: 5791: 5779:. Retrieved 5775:the original 5770: 5761: 5753: 5744: 5735: 5726: 5715:. Retrieved 5711:the original 5701: 5692: 5683: 5668: 5658: 5649: 5626:. Retrieved 5620: 5613: 5602:. Retrieved 5596: 5589: 5578:. Retrieved 5573: 5560: 5551: 5544:. Retrieved 5539: 5529: 5512: 5498: 5484: 5470: 5453: 5441: 5424: 5412:. Retrieved 5408:the original 5394: 5385: 5374: 5373:Anna Vlach, 5369: 5355: 5341: 5329: 5318: 5304:(2): 29–34. 5301: 5297: 5287: 5259: 5249: 5240: 5230: 5219:. Retrieved 5199: 5195: 5185: 5176: 5167: 5158: 5131: 5127: 5117: 5090: 5086: 5076: 5035: 5031: 5025: 5014:. Retrieved 5008: 5001: 4968: 4964: 4958: 4949: 4943: 4934: 4930: 4924: 4883: 4879: 4873: 4823:(11): 2284. 4820: 4816: 4806: 4795:. Retrieved 4771: 4761: 4734: 4730: 4720: 4711: 4702: 4677: 4673: 4667: 4642: 4638: 4632: 4607: 4603: 4597: 4586:. Retrieved 4566: 4562: 4552: 4541:. Retrieved 4521: 4517: 4484: 4477: 4468: 4457:. Retrieved 4455:. 2016-10-28 4452: 4443: 4426: 4422: 4416: 4406: 4401:p. 168. 4396: 4369: 4363: 4351:. Retrieved 4345: 4338: 4329: 4325: 4319: 4286: 4282: 4276: 4249: 4245: 4235: 4210: 4206: 4186:. Retrieved 4166: 4162: 4135:(1): 10–17. 4132: 4128: 4118: 4107:the original 4088: 4081: 4072: 4066: 4055:. Retrieved 4051: 4042: 4031:. Retrieved 4017: 3993:. Retrieved 3980: 3973: 3962:. Retrieved 3958: 3948: 3937:. Retrieved 3928: 3918: 3687:1.1 million. 3651:East German 3601: 3597: 3560: 3463:(1939–1981). 3370:CSA standard 3362: 3347: 3345: 3316: 3280: 3250: 3241: 3214: 3165: 3137:+ >Fe–OH 3089: 3082: 3066:ferrihydrite 3062:cristobalite 3055: 3047: 2970: 2954: 2950: 2939: 2919: 2915: 2890: 2883:silicic acid 2857: 2837: 2827: 2822: 2767: 2736: 2719: 2704: 2668: 2610: 2541: 2503: 2387: 2383: 2361: 2299: 2270: 2249: 2243: 2207: 2204: 2166: 2164: 2110: 2096: 2028: 1909: 1848: 1815: 1779: 1740: 1705: 1551: 1545: 1499: 1477:substances, 1460: 1271:silicic acid 1252: 1240: 1231: 1196: 1104:2 Na(OH) + H 1078:silicic acid 1056: 1046: 1044: 985: 946: 896: 858:≡Si–O–Si≡ + 846: 836: 798: 743:≡Si–O–Si≡ + 729:condensation 722: 711: 689: 652: 610: 555: 473: 433:silicic acid 432: 430: 407: 341:silicic acid 335:, or (Ca(OH) 313: 298: 289: 266: 236: 227: 216:Please help 211:verification 208: 163: 94: 81: 65: 61: 57: 55: 6493:hollow-core 6452:Waste light 6447:Translucent 6407:Prestressed 6334:Segregation 6319:Degradation 6207:Cover meter 6144:Silica fume 6079:Composition 5542:(in French) 5134:: 126–143. 4737:: 162–169. 4075:(SP-249-1). 3793:Seminoe Dam 3675:New Zealand 3602:et al. 3584:limestone ( 3536:access ramp 3520:Pommeroeul 3488:Tournaisian 3431:(1936–2007) 3308:structures. 2993:iron oxides 2899:silica fume 2864:Switzerland 2751:portlandite 2537:portlandite 2266:hydrogarnet 1844:cement kiln 1714:and the SiO 1518:portlandite 1512:content of 1475:hygroscopic 1265:process of 1255:strong base 1144:portlandite 977:freeze-thaw 959:present in 805:protonation 718:hydrophilic 602:bond energy 416:, or Si(OH) 351:, or Si(OH) 333:portlandite 151:hygroscopic 6656:Categories 6592:Eurocode 2 6530:Structures 6417:Reinforced 6377:Lunarcrete 6357:AstroCrete 6314:Durability 6309:Properties 6187:Slump test 6159:Production 6149:Metakaolin 5894:2020-11-10 5717:2009-10-23 5628:2023-04-20 5604:2023-04-20 5580:2023-04-20 5221:2020-10-25 5016:2021-06-16 4937:: 234–242. 4797:2021-06-14 4588:2023-03-25 4543:2023-03-25 4459:2017-01-11 4188:2020-10-31 4057:2016-05-16 4033:2007-08-11 3995:2023-09-05 3964:2010-07-28 3939:2010-07-28 3910:References 3826:Calthemite 3661:Baltic Sea 3582:Ordovician 3578:limestones 3050:50 – 80 °C 2973:gamma-rays 2943:watertight 2907:metakaolin 2879:alkalinity 2859:Kieselkalk 2819:Mitigation 2262:ettringite 1495:anesthesia 1062:hydroxides 999:alkalinity 953:chalcedony 725:hydrolysis 650:) system. 467:O ⇌ Si(OH) 276:improve it 166:demolition 90:aggregates 6707:Silicates 6702:Pavements 6667:Catalysis 6623:Hempcrete 6585:Standards 6412:Ready-mix 6329:Recycling 6124:Aggregate 6107:Rosendale 5807:14 August 5553:solution. 5540:ondraf.be 5216:0008-8846 5150:0029-5493 5109:1346-8014 5060:0021-9797 4993:0016-7037 4916:129874363 4908:0930-0708 4847:1996-1944 4817:Materials 4753:1877-7058 4694:0008-8846 4659:0008-8846 4583:0950-0618 4538:0024-9831 4372:: 17–36. 4311:0377-0486 4268:1381-2386 4252:: 25–41. 4227:0008-8846 4183:0008-8846 4141:0889-325X 3901:by Ca(OH) 3895:Soda lime 3767:Tennessee 3668:Autobahns 3575:Paleozoic 3499:limestone 3491:limestone 3417:Australia 2997:magnetite 2995:, mainly 2959:gates or 2862:found in 2850:limestone 2514:oligomers 2450:2 NaOH + 2318:indicator 2103:catalysis 2039:anhydrite 1655:sum (1+2) 1537:diffusion 1497:systems. 1483:catalysis 1469:in their 1414:sum (1+2) 1267:soda lime 988:hydroxide 908:≡Si–OH + 904:groups: 839:hydroxide 600:) and by 596:reasons ( 582:hydration 449:anhydride 292:July 2022 280:verifying 230:July 2022 173:Chemistry 155:siliceous 78:amorphous 6697:Patterns 6616:See also 6607:EN 10080 6602:EN 206-1 6597:EN 197-1 6456:Aerated 6397:Polished 6392:Pervious 6367:Filigree 6263:Finisher 6238:Formwork 6102:Portland 6033:Concrete 5829:27 March 5801:BBC News 5546:20 April 5235:319-323. 5068:17467724 4865:30445670 4353:22 April 4052:BBC News 4027:Archived 3933:Archived 3880:Silicate 3864:Gyrolite 3810:See also 3777:Missouri 3715:, Wales. 3699:Vauxhall 3507:spicules 3476:car park 3227:rich in 3022:hematite 2957:spillway 2946:membrane 2895:pozzolan 2842:obsidian 2605:gyrolite 2601:rosettes 2594:+ 2 NaOH 2510:monomers 2201:+ 2 NaOH 2161:+ 2 NaOH 2113:(2005): 2093:+ 2 NaOH 2026:, ... . 1665:+ Ca(OH) 1644:+ 2 NaOH 1625:+ Ca(OH) 1526:concrete 1487:porosity 1467:dissolve 1424:+ Ca(OH) 1403:+ 2 NaOH 1384:+ Ca(OH) 1193:+ 2 NaOH 1174:+ Ca(OH) 995:alkaline 872:=Si=O + 759:=Si=O + 692:siloxane 680:siloxane 663:catalyze 375:→ Ca + H 159:spalling 70:concrete 6566:Nanocem 6525:Columns 6402:Polymer 6302:Science 6268:Grinder 6228:Precast 6134:Fly ash 6041:History 5663:Québec. 5414:13 June 5040:Bibcode 4973:Bibcode 4888:Bibcode 4856:6265780 4825:Bibcode 4712:dot.gov 4612:Bibcode 4291:Bibcode 3797:Wyoming 3740:Wonford 3724:England 3713:Cardiff 3646:Germany 3637:Former 3594:Ontario 3571:gravels 3526:Hainaut 3481:Belgium 3436:Dee Why 3233:thorium 3229:uranium 3104:SiO(OH) 2961:turbine 2930:lithium 2926:silanes 2903:fly ash 2872:Belgium 2868:Tournai 2798:Fatigue 2742:K-S-H). 2366:ICP-AES 2105:of the 1986:NaB(OH) 1760:, with 1493:and in 1029:O and K 969:gravels 902:silanol 885:SiO(OH) 801:silanol 793:silanol 774:Si(–OH) 696:silanol 684:silanol 522:SiO(OH) 463:↓ + 2 H 437:synonym 387:O → CaH 339:), and 274:Please 6672:Cement 6488:waffle 6437:Sulfur 6293:Tremie 6288:Sealer 6253:Screed 6197:Curing 6087:Cement 5972: 5951: 5781:16 May 5214: 5148: 5107: 5066: 5058: 4991: 4914: 4906: 4863: 4853: 4845: 4788: 4751: 4692: 4657: 4581: 4536: 4492: 4384: 4309: 4266: 4225: 4181: 4139: 4099: 3632:France 3625:Ottawa 3590:Ottawa 3557:Canada 3410:Ottawa 3373:C1293. 3363:et al. 3225:zircon 3205:gangue 3092:Si(OH) 3085:gangue 3058:silica 2977:baryte 2572:Ca(OH) 2264:) and 2179:Ca(OH) 2139:Ca(OH) 2111:et al. 2071:Ca(OH) 2035:gypsum 1876:Ca(OH) 1852:Ca(OH) 1792:Ca(OH) 1756:(pure 1677: 1671: 1658: 1637: 1631: 1614: 1599: 1575: 1565: 1541:porous 1514:cement 1436: 1430: 1417: 1396: 1390: 1373: 1358: 1334: 1324: 1269:. The 1202:Ca(OH) 1059:alkali 1047:et al. 973:quartz 961:flints 795:group. 709:ions. 659:alkali 616:Si(OH) 588:and CO 441:silica 363:Ca(OH) 86:silica 74:cement 6520:Roads 6442:Tabby 6349:Types 6283:Float 6212:Rebar 6167:Plant 6114:Water 5570:(PDF) 5521:(PDF) 5462:(PDF) 5433:(PDF) 5254:1989. 4912:S2CID 4110:(PDF) 4093:(PDF) 4012:293). 3860:(EMC) 3567:chert 2905:, or 2852:(CaCO 2620:CaSiO 2584:CaSiO 2364:, by 2314:proxy 1680:CaSiO 1640:CaSiO 1223:· 2 H 1214:→ CaH 1187:· 2 H 1178:→ CaH 1168:· 2 H 991:anion 965:chalk 957:chert 842:anion 520:, or 443:, SiO 424:· 2 H 383:+ 2 H 6483:Slab 6465:RAAC 6382:Mass 6372:Foam 6278:Pump 5970:ISBN 5949:ISBN 5831:2018 5809:2017 5783:2016 5548:2023 5416:2022 5375:The 5212:ISSN 5146:ISSN 5105:ISSN 5064:PMID 5056:ISSN 4989:ISSN 4904:ISSN 4861:PMID 4843:ISSN 4786:ISBN 4749:ISSN 4690:ISSN 4655:ISSN 4579:ISSN 4534:ISSN 4490:ISBN 4382:ISBN 4355:2020 4307:ISSN 4264:ISSN 4223:ISSN 4179:ISSN 4137:ISSN 4097:ISBN 3685:NZ$ 3534:car 3522:lock 3466:The 3348:e.g. 3281:e.g. 3231:and 3119:(HO) 2981:BaSO 2891:e.g. 2644:CaCO 2362:e.g. 2356:and 2256:and 2250:glue 2219:and 2191:CaCl 2175:NaCl 2167:e.g. 2151:CaCO 2083:CaSO 1829:and 1602:(SiO 1552:i.e. 1439:CaCO 1399:CaCO 1125:· 2 1112:→ Na 1066:NaOH 1013:and 1003:NaOH 963:(in 727:and 682:and 439:for 396:· 2 321:NaOH 182:ASR. 82:i.e. 56:The 6460:AAC 5306:doi 5204:doi 5136:doi 5132:282 5095:doi 5048:doi 5036:312 4981:doi 4896:doi 4851:PMC 4833:doi 4776:doi 4739:doi 4735:108 4682:doi 4647:doi 4620:doi 4571:doi 4526:doi 4431:doi 4374:doi 4299:doi 4254:doi 4215:doi 4171:doi 3986:doi 3795:in 3785:in 3775:in 3765:in 3720:A38 3711:), 3623:at 3592:in 3524:in 3509:of 3468:MCG 3408:at 3239:). 3177:SiO 3128:SiO 3070:SiO 2870:in 2680:SiO 2656:SiO 2560:SiO 2512:or 2473:SiO 2452:SiO 2436:SiO 2411:SiO 2390:SiO 2388:1. 2374:XRF 2370:AAS 2258:AFt 2254:AFm 1888:SiO 1886:or 1772:). 1768:or 1762:BFS 1758:OPC 1684:+ H 1661:SiO 1621:SiO 1611:(2) 1592:+ H 1588:SiO 1568:SiO 1562:(1) 1524:in 1443:+ H 1370:(2) 1361:(CO 1351:+ H 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Alkali–silica reaction

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