1107:(CFT) regime, a platform for international cooperation and plays a vital role in safeguarding concerned sectors from illicit proceeds. The SIC's tasks include receiving and analyzing suspicious transaction reports (STRs), conducting financial investigations, lifting banking secrecy, freezing accounts and/or transactions and forwarding them to concerned judicial authorities. With respect to terrorism and the financing of terrorism, the SIC is also empowered to prevent the use of movable or immovable assets. In addition to sharing ML/TF intelligence with counterparts and coordinating with foreign/local competent authorities on requests of assistance (ROAs), the SIC also proposes AML/CFT regulations and issues new regulations and recommendations to concerned parties. AML/CFT supervision via compliance examinations at banks and other reporting entities to ensure proper implementation of prevailing regulations is also among its tasks. The SIC is managed by the Governor Mr. Riad Salamé and assisted by the president of the Banking Control Commission, a professional appointed by the Council of Ministers and the judge appointed to the Higher Banking Commission.
828:
1088:
functioning of financial intermediation institutions which manage investment funds and collective investment schemes for the public. The CMA board is entrusted by Law 161/2011 to set the code of conduct for stock exchange institutions and their employees, as well as financial service providers and their employees. The CMA board has the power to regulate governance-related issues, such as the obligations of financial instrument issuers to publish and disclose to the public price-sensitive information. In the same context, the CMA board has the power to license the establishment and functioning of financial intermediation institutions, approve securitization activities, ratify (or cancel previous ratification of) the decisions taken by the administration of each stock exchange concerning the registration of securities and financial instruments; and approve the regulations set by the administrations of stock exchanges concerning the transactions undertaken on such stock exchanges.
944:
864:
980:
900:
1030:
970:
733:
405:
665:
the
Governor is appointed by decree sanctioned by the Council of Ministers, for a renewable six-year term. After the consultation with the governor and upon the proposal of the Minister of Finance, the vice governors are appointed by decree sanctioned by the Council of Ministers for a renewable five-year term. They assist the Governor in managing the bank, carrying out functions specified by the Governor. In addition, they assume their duties as members of the Central Council.
791:
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890:
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717:
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275:
1282:
142:
25:
775:
818:
1231:
international market rates in return. According to the audit, the central bank disguised losses equal to $ 76 billion through the engineering. Salameh said the bank's central council had found financial engineering to be the "best response to a deteriorating balance of payment" and that he had not "intervened" in decision-making on engineering. BDL has said the operations are legal.
1019:
311:. It was established on August 1, 1963, and became fully operational on April 1, 1964. In 2023, Wassim Mansouri stepped up as interim governor of the Banque du Liban after Lebanon failed to name a successor to Riad Salameh, whose term finished in July 2023. Salameh, who was chairman for 30 years, has been accused of corruption, money laundering and running the largest
322:. Other responsibilities include maintaining monetary stability, regulation of money transfers, and maintaining the soundness of the banking sector. Banking is a very important part of Lebanon's economy with over 100 different banks, which makes the role of BdL particularly important. It currently owns 99.37% of the shares of Lebanon's national carrier,
1166:
Leap
Ventures - is a growth stage Venture Capital firm in the Middle East and North Africa, based out of Beirut and Dubai. Leap Ventures looks to make investments in innovation & technology startups from the MENA region that have reached the series B stage: startups that have established a market
1150:
The outcomes of the circular have however fallen short of the expectations. Many
Lebanon's observers pointed that the initiative lacked transparency: There has been no clear indication of the number of start-up funded, jobs created and money spent. The initiative was unable to overcome a major hurdle
1083:
The management of the
Capital Markets Authority (CMA) is entrusted to a board formed of seven members and chaired by the Governor of Banque du Liban, the central bank of Lebanon. The board is composed of three full-time executive board members who are experts in capital markets, banking and financial
640:
The Banque du Liban was established by the Code of Money and Credit promulgated on 1 August 1963, by decree no. 13513. It started to operate effectively on 1 April 1964. BDL is a legal public entity enjoying financial and administrative autonomy. It is not subject to the administrative and management
664:
The
Governor is the legal representative of the Banque du Liban and has extensive authority over the management of the bank. He is entrusted with the enforcement of the Code of Money and Credit and the implementation of the Central Council's resolutions. Upon the proposal of the Minister of Finance,
1154:
Circular No. 331 encourages commercial banks to invest in start-ups. The BDL will guarantee up to 75% of the value of these commercial bank investments in the capital of start-ups that meet the determined criteria. Here are some of the start-ups that are innovative
Lebanese companies working in the
1186:
According to the circular, the total participation of any bank in start-ups may not exceed 3% of the bank's capital, provided the participation of any bank in a single start-up does not exceed 10% of the aforementioned 3%. Thus, commercial banks must invest in at least 10 start-ups if they want to
1056:
The
Central Council sets the monetary and credit policies of the Bank, including money supply, and discount and lending rates. It discusses and decides, among other things, on issues concerning the banking and financial sectors, the establishment of clearinghouses, the issuing of currency and loan
998:
after Riad
Salameh failed to show up to court for questioning, while is whereabouts were unknown after a raid in his office and 2 homes, as part of an investigation for alleged misconduct and corruption. This sparked controversy with another security agency that was accused of protecting him from
1174:
My ME - is a socially-responsible, personal travel planning service that helps guests design and implement trips to the Middle East and the
Eastern Mediterranean based on their own travel dates, travel preferences, and personal style. My Middle East - prepares personalized travel plans to Egypt,
627:
Concerning commercial operations, the
Issuing Department was to provide the Banque de Syrie with banknotes only in exchange of foreign currencies or foreign securities, which constituted, together with the credits granted by the Treasury in Paris, the coverage of the currency in circulation. The
1178:
Kashida - is the first registered company in the world to transform the Arabic letterform into evocative, functional 3D design pieces. They offer contemporary home décor accents, furniture, corporate gifts and event souvenirs to create a more personalized living/work space for our B2B and B2C
1087:
The CMA Board has extensive powers that aim to enhance investor protection and promote investment in the financial markets. It has the power to establish general regulations concerning the establishment and management of stock exchanges, as well as regulations concerning the establishment and
590:, the French franc had maintained its status thanks to advances from the British and American treasuries. However, in 1919, the French franc registered a drop because of the British government's decision to stop these advances, thus breaking the alliance between the franc, sterling and the
1230:
Among other things, the audit report details BDL's practice of financial engineering, which, starting in 2015, it used to allow local banks to attract dollar deposits from abroad and then have the lenders deposit the dollars at BDL. The local lenders were given interest rates higher than
1170:
Presella - an event management technology startup with the primary focus on a paperless e-ticketing platform for the MENA region. The platform is supported by a Last minute ticket mobile application and an in-event door management application. APPS Currently in closed Beta in Dubai &
1084:
affairs, and three part-time members representing ministries and other authorities directly involved in the work of the CMA: The Director General of the Ministry of Finance, the Director General of the Ministry of Economy and Trade and the Chairman of the Banking Control Commission.
1159:
MEVP - is a Middle East-focused venture capital firm that invests in the early and growth stages of innovative companies run by talented entrepreneurs Walid Hanna and Walid Mansour primarily, but not exclusively, in the Middle East Region with a focus on the GCC and Levant
598:'s decision to suspend its regulating role of the associated change rates. In order to replace the Egyptian pound, the French government decided, by Decree N° 129 issued by the High Commissioner on March 13, 1920, to endow Syria with a national currency.
1057:
requests by public sector entities. The Council decides also on the rules and procedures that govern the staff and operations of the Bank, and on its annual budget and accounts. The members of the Central Council are:
609:, was granted the concession of issuing the Syrian–Lebanese currency, which became legal tender on May 1, 1920. Banknotes issued by this bank were reimbursable to the bearer or at sight by checks drawn on
1163:
Berytech - a Lebanese tech focused business development center, has recently announced a $ 50 million investment fund, the Berytech Fund II. Berytech incubator is led by chairman Maroun Chammas.
1846:
1143:
Aug. 22, 2013, Central Bank of Lebanon issued the new investment policy called "Circular No. 331". This aim to support Lebanon's knowledge economy by providing support to the thriving
2123:
1761:
1167:
presence and are seeking to dramatically accelerate their global market penetration and commercialization. Leap Ventures is led by founding partners Henri Asselly and Hala Fadel.
579:, and Commander-in-Chief of the Levant Army". Consequently, the use of the Egyptian currency, suitable for the British Treasury, became inappropriate. To obtain Egyptian pounds,
1867:
1147:
ecosystem. With this audacious move, Lebanon's Central Bank hopes to increase the country's GDP, decrease unemployment and position Lebanon as the tech hub of the Middle East.
1091:
Moreover, the CMA Board is mandated by law to issue consultations and opinion on draft laws and decrees related to the work and development of the capital markets in Lebanon.
823:
1699:
1992:
624:. It was responsible for putting in circulation and withdrawing banknotes. Issuances were made either on behalf of the Treasury in Paris or on behalf of the Bank itself.
2319:
1573:
1182:
Egnyt Technology incubator managed by Samir Chreim. Egnyt recently opened 2,500-sqft business incubator in Beirut that is meant for enterprises focusing on technology.
827:
2021:
315:
in history; he was additionally labeled "the world’s worst central banker". He is currently under sanctions by Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States.
2314:
433:
2433:
1099:
The Special Investigation Commission (SIC) is a multi-function financial intelligence unit (FIU) with judicial status. It is the centerpiece of Lebanon's
1493:
567:
governments on September 15, 1919, a new occupying authority started to rule Lebanon. French troops replaced the British, under the command of General
1649:
1394:
1944:
1816:
1004:
943:
863:
654:
1968:
1783:
2108:
1673:
556:, the Egyptian currency having been, since October 30, 1916, closely linked to sterling and entirely covered by securities issued in sterling.
1623:
2367:
1838:
761:
548:
In order to normalize economic life in the occupied territories and cover the expenses of the allied forces, British authorities imposed the
2377:
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1598:
1479:
521:
2093:
1421:
1896:
979:
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1446:
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1875:
1115:
The Higher Banking Commission was established at Banque du Liban in 1967, pursuant to Article 10 of Law No 28/67. It is composed of:
1520:
2334:
1707:
537:
domination of Lebanon, which lasted for more than four centuries, was brought to an end on October 6, 1918, with the entry of the
2418:
2179:
2000:
1380:
2372:
2357:
2207:
89:
2408:
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61:
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imposed sanctions on Salameh and a handful of his close relatives and associates due to corruption allegations. Meanwhile,
1128:
A high-ranking judge, with a ten-year experience at least, approved by the Higher Judicial Council and appointed by decree;
1104:
2029:
2413:
2202:
68:
2329:
108:
1309:
1219:
In 2023, it was reported that the forensic audit—which had been a key demand of the international community and the
1728:
514:
42:
75:
2233:
46:
1074:
The Director General of the Ministry of Economy and Trade, ex officio but strictly as a member of the council.
1068:
57:
2423:
2238:
1808:
1541:
658:
439:
2428:
2304:
2172:
1220:
915:
653:
The Banque du Liban is managed by the Governor, who is assisted by four vice governors as well as by the
629:
621:
602:
507:
1270:
notices for Salameh in May 2023; however, Lebanon does not hand over its citizens to foreign countries.
444:
2398:
2212:
1329:
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1151:
of the Lebanese economy: banks' extremely risk-averse and conservative attitude towards investment.
605:("Bank of Syria and of Lebanon"), which had been created for that purpose by the French-controlled
595:
1258:
were investigating Salameh and several close associates over alleged financial crimes, including
1204:
568:
35:
327:
2403:
2165:
632:'s Issuing Department would later form the basis for the establishment of the Banque du Liban.
475:
419:
2094:"Forensic audit into Lebanon's central bank reveals misconduct and 'illegitimate' commissions"
1674:"Lebanese Central Bank pushes start-up investments - Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East"
2352:
2284:
2279:
1920:
1345:
1212:
of the Banque du Liban (BDL), as it was accused of money laundering, corruption and links to
1100:
749:
429:
82:
1131:
A member of the Banking Control Commission, nominated by the Association of Banks in Lebanon
2294:
1194:
UK Lebanon Tech Hub is a startup initiative between Banque du Liban and the UK government.
591:
480:
323:
601:
On September 1, 1920, the representative of France proclaimed Great Lebanon. In 1920, the
8:
2228:
1512:
1227:
and $ 111 million in "illegitimate commissions". The audit covered the 2015–2020 period.
1209:
1191:
571:, who was appointed on October 12, 1919, as "High-Commissioner of the French Republic in
495:
1324:
1259:
1000:
485:
470:
454:
396:
1454:
620:
As a consequence, an independent, currency-issuing department was established at the
449:
2309:
1319:
1263:
1024:
939:
859:
374:
300:
195:
2264:
2259:
1144:
919:
490:
331:
292:
279:
185:
1542:"Will Michel Aoun replace the governor of the central bank? | Makram Rabah"
318:
One of the main responsibilities of the bank is issuing Lebanon's currency, the
2274:
1784:"What Is The Impact of Banque du Liban's Circular 331 on the Lebanese Economy?"
1334:
1287:
1239:
999:
trail. Later in March 21, Salameh along with his brother Raja were charged for
722:
564:
542:
534:
319:
216:
975:
895:
2392:
2269:
2243:
2051:
1945:"$ 71 million Leap Ventures fund officially launched at ArabNet 2015 - Zawya"
1458:
1235:
806:
Also served 6th president of Lebanon the same year as the end of his tenure.
757:
642:
583:, being the sole occupying power, had to offer increasing amounts of francs.
378:
2124:"Riad Salameh, former head of Lebanon's central bank, hit with US sanctions"
1574:"Lebanon security forces raid central bank chief's home to execute subpoena"
1029:
2188:
1339:
1301:
1224:
780:
732:
614:
606:
312:
304:
933:
889:
853:
716:
404:
1395:"France opens probe into personal wealth of Lebanon's central bank chief"
969:
790:
753:
587:
278:
French language inscription "Banque du Liban" on the headquarters of the
2109:"Audit criticises 'misconduct' at Lebanon central bank, urges oversight"
274:
1255:
1208:
reported that the United States and other Western countries demanded a
995:
141:
1122:
A vice-governor selected by the Central Council of the Banque du Liban
1897:"MEVP's IMPACT Fund announces $ 12.5M investment in 5 Lebanese tech…"
1729:"What the Central Bank of Lebanon's new investment policy means for…"
1213:
335:
237:
1969:"Presella first to benefit from BDL's circular gets 300k investment"
1650:"Lebanon security forces sent to raid home of central bank governor"
1624:"Lebanon charges central bank governor Riad Salameh and his brother"
1494:"La MEA dévoile les nouveaux équipements de son centre de formation"
24:
1480:"US, UK and Canada sanction Lebanon's former central bank governor"
1267:
549:
366:
354:
221:
1599:"Lebanon's Central Bank Chief Vanishes as Corruption Probe Mounts"
1366:
1175:
Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, and Croatia (and soon other destinations).
382:
1422:"Lebanon central bank governor summoned for questioning by judge"
1251:
1134:
The chairman of the National Deposit Guarantee Institution (NDGI)
657:. By convention, the Governor of the Banque du Liban is always a
576:
362:
358:
308:
206:
156:
2157:
1155:
knowledge economy sector and have contributed to creating jobs.
1247:
1243:
774:
580:
560:
545:
Treasury, with a forced exchange rate, suffered the same fate.
538:
346:
339:
152:
2106:
2070:"Lebanon's Central Bank Fuels Corruption, Extremism Concerns"
817:
610:
572:
553:
370:
1223:—revealed years of misconduct by the bank's former governor
541:
Marine Division into Beirut. The paper money issued by the
350:
334:, making it the only central bank worldwide to rule over a
2320:
International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes
2150:
2052:"From bombs to bytes: How Beirut's tech scene is thriving"
1993:"Lebanon's top 20 entrepreneurs 2013 - Executive Magazine"
1018:
259:
1187:
benefit from all the facilities provided to them by BDL.
1839:"Financing startups in Lebanon: the shortcomings of 331"
1754:"Financing startups: the shortcomings of Circular 331 -"
1700:"BDL Circular 331: Injecting $ 400 Million into Lebanon"
1313:
1094:
958:
Also Served as Defense minister between 1965 and 1966
878:
Also Served as Defense minister between 1965 and 1966
2315:
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
1868:"Let the investment games begin - Executive Magazine"
559:
In accordance with the convention signed between the
1277:
645:. Its capital is totally appropriated by the State.
1071:, ex officio but strictly as member of the council.
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
326:. The BdL is also the dominant shareholder of the
1806:
1381:"Lebanon: Interim Central Bank Governor Steps up"
1367:"The Organisation and Structure of Central Banks"
1138:
994:In February 2022, a subpoena was issued by Judge
2390:
2107:Maya Gebeily and Laila Bassam (11 August 2023).
1369:. Technische Universität Darmstadt. p. 233.
1119:The Governor of the Banque du Liban, as Chairman
1110:
1809:"Circular 331: where has Lebanon's money gone?"
1513:"Abracada...broke - Lebanon's banking on magic"
1125:The Director General of the Ministry of Finance
1556:"Governors past and present - Banque du Liban"
1342:, First Vice-Governor, 1993–1998 and 1998–2003
2368:Central banks and currencies of the Caribbean
2173:
515:
2378:Central banks and currencies of the Americas
2363:Central banks and currencies of Asia-Pacific
2091:
1266:of $ 330 million. France and Germany issued
1197:
125:
2434:Financial regulatory authorities of Lebanon
1807:Rimington-Pounder, Sophie (27 April 2016).
1364:
1078:
1007:but also failed to attend for questioning.
2180:
2166:
2022:"SCAS Inc. To Launch Technology Incubator"
1447:"The world's worst central banker retires"
1028:
1017:
978:
968:
942:
932:
898:
888:
862:
852:
826:
816:
789:
773:
731:
715:
676:List of governors of the Banque du Liban:
522:
508:
140:
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
2335:Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
2087:
2085:
2083:
1510:
760:as a result of the death of his father,
273:
2049:
2391:
2373:Central banks and currencies of Europe
2358:Central banks and currencies of Africa
2208:Basel Committee on Banking Supervision
1921:"Berytech Fund II Launches with $ 50M"
1358:
1051:
2325:International Development Association
2161:
2080:
1836:
1751:
1697:
641:rules and controls applicable to the
1781:
1647:
1105:combating the financing of terrorism
1095:The Special Investigation Commission
635:
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
2121:
296:
126:
13:
2203:Bank for International Settlements
1419:
14:
2445:
2330:International Finance Corporation
2187:
2142:
648:
1511:Berthier, Rosalie (2 May 2017).
1294:
1280:
403:
23:
2115:
2100:
2092:Bassem Mroue (11 August 2023).
2062:
2043:
2014:
1985:
1961:
1937:
1913:
1889:
1860:
1849:from the original on 2021-11-22
1830:
1819:from the original on 2016-04-28
1800:
1775:
1764:from the original on 2018-12-27
1745:
1721:
1691:
1666:
1641:
1616:
1591:
1566:
1548:
1523:from the original on 2020-07-05
34:needs additional citations for
2419:1963 establishments in Lebanon
2234:Contractionary monetary policy
1534:
1504:
1486:
1472:
1439:
1413:
1387:
1373:
1139:Investment policy for startups
328:Intra Investment Company (IIC)
1:
2050:Munford, Monty (2017-01-20).
1837:Babin, Justine (2018-12-28).
1752:Babin, Justine (2018-12-21).
1351:
1111:The Higher Banking Commission
914:Politically aligned with the
388:
2409:Governors of Banque du Liban
2239:Expansionary monetary policy
1999:. 2013-12-13. Archived from
1874:. 2014-03-03. Archived from
1648:Rose, Sunniva (2022-06-21).
1067:The Director General of the
991:30 years, 54 days
955:2 years, 142 days
918:and was later an MP for the
875:6 years, 131 days
803:8 years, 352 days
745:3 years, 292 days
671:
330:, which in turn owns 53% of
7:
2305:International Monetary Fund
1782:Tibi, Marwan (2017-09-25).
1273:
1221:International Monetary Fund
916:Progressive Socialist Party
839:2 years, 96 days
630:Banque de Syrie et du Liban
613:, at the rate of FF 20 for
345:Besides the main branch in
10:
2450:
1061:The Governor, as chairman.
1042:1 year, 60 days
594:, and also because of the
303:: Bank of Lebanon) is the
2414:Banks established in 1963
2345:
2293:
2252:
2221:
2213:Financial Stability Board
2195:
1198:Allegations of misconduct
911:6 years, 1 day
748:Was first elected to the
254:
246:
236:
228:
212:
203:Central bank of
202:
191:
180:
162:
148:
139:
1234:On August 10, 2023, the
1079:Capital Market Authority
1064:The four vice governors.
622:Banque de Syrie et Liban
603:Banque de Syrie et Liban
596:United States Government
552:of the National Bank of
2074:The Wall Street Journal
2026:Yahoo Singapore Finance
1310:Banque Libano-Française
1205:The Wall Street Journal
16:Central bank of Lebanon
1330:List of Lebanese banks
283:
2353:List of central banks
2285:Sovereign wealth fund
2280:Open market operation
1346:List of central banks
1101:anti-money laundering
430:Beirut Stock Exchange
349:, it has branches in
277:
1698:Megaphone, Startup.
1365:Jan Weidner (2017).
756:held in May 1945 in
324:Middle East Airlines
247:Interest on reserves
43:improve this article
2424:Business in Lebanon
2229:Capital requirement
2096:. Associated Press.
2076:. 30 November 2020.
1192:startup accelerator
1069:Ministry of Finance
1052:The Central Council
750:Lebanese parliament
168: (61 years ago)
166:August 1, 1963
136:
2429:Economy of Lebanon
1997:Executive Magazine
1872:Executive Magazine
1758:Commerce du Levant
1605:. 16 February 2022
1578:Al Arabiya English
1517:www.synaps.network
1325:Economy of Lebanon
1260:illicit enrichment
1202:In November 2020,
1001:illicit enrichment
869:September 6, 1978
836:September 6, 1978
824:Joseph Oughourlian
659:Maronite Christian
397:Economy of Lebanon
284:
121:
2386:
2385:
1704:Startup Megaphone
1426:www.aljazeera.com
1383:. 31 August 2023.
1049:
1048:
949:January 16, 1991
908:January 16, 1991
905:January 15, 1985
872:January 15, 1985
786:
728:
692:
636:Role and function
532:
531:
272:
271:
135:
119:
118:
111:
93:
58:"Banque du Liban"
2441:
2399:Banks of Lebanon
2310:World Bank Group
2182:
2175:
2168:
2159:
2158:
2154:
2153:
2151:Official website
2136:
2135:
2133:
2131:
2122:Stephan, Laure.
2119:
2113:
2112:
2104:
2098:
2097:
2089:
2078:
2077:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2047:
2041:
2040:
2038:
2037:
2028:. Archived from
2018:
2012:
2011:
2009:
2008:
1989:
1983:
1982:
1980:
1979:
1965:
1959:
1958:
1956:
1955:
1941:
1935:
1934:
1932:
1931:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1908:
1907:
1893:
1887:
1886:
1884:
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1864:
1858:
1857:
1855:
1854:
1834:
1828:
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1825:
1824:
1804:
1798:
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1795:
1794:
1779:
1773:
1772:
1770:
1769:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1740:
1739:
1725:
1719:
1718:
1716:
1715:
1706:. Archived from
1695:
1689:
1688:
1686:
1685:
1670:
1664:
1663:
1661:
1660:
1645:
1639:
1638:
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1610:
1595:
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1546:
1545:
1538:
1532:
1531:
1529:
1528:
1508:
1502:
1501:
1498:L'Orient Le Jour
1490:
1484:
1483:
1476:
1470:
1469:
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54:Find sources:
48:
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38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
2128:. Retrieved
2117:
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2034:. Retrieved
2030:the original
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2016:
2005:. Retrieved
2001:the original
1996:
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1976:. Retrieved
1972:
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1952:. Retrieved
1948:
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1928:. Retrieved
1924:
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1904:. Retrieved
1900:
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1880:. Retrieved
1876:the original
1871:
1862:
1851:. Retrieved
1842:
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1821:. Retrieved
1812:
1802:
1791:. Retrieved
1788:Beirut Today
1787:
1777:
1766:. Retrieved
1757:
1747:
1736:. Retrieved
1732:
1723:
1712:. Retrieved
1708:the original
1703:
1693:
1682:. Retrieved
1680:. 2014-09-09
1677:
1668:
1657:. Retrieved
1654:The National
1653:
1643:
1632:. Retrieved
1630:. 2022-03-21
1628:The National
1627:
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1607:. Retrieved
1602:
1593:
1582:. Retrieved
1580:. 2022-06-22
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1403:. Retrieved
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1003:by
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45:by
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2082:^
2072:.
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