935:). Their view is that since some of these families have not yet been reconstructed and others still require improvement, it is impossible to apply the strict comparative method to even older and larger groups. However, they consider this only a technical rather than a theoretical problem, and reject the idea that linguistic relationships further back in time than 10,000 years before the present cannot be reconstructed, since the "main objects of research in this case are not modern languages, but reconstructed proto-languages which turn out to be more similar to one another than their modern day descendants". They believe that good reconstructions of superfamilies such as Eurasiatic will eventually help in investigating still deeper linguistic relationships. While such 'ultra-deep' relationships can currently be discussed only on a speculative level, they maintain that the numerous morphemic similarities between language families of Eurasia, many of which Sergei Starostin compiled into a special database that he later supplemented by his own findings, are unlikely to be due to chance, making it possible to formulate a Borean super-superfamily hypothesis.
2665:
2657:
858:
177:
36:
963:, these remain too scarce to establish a firm connection. They comment that while preliminary data indicates possible connections between Borean and some superfamilies from Africa, the Americas, and the Indo-Pacific region further research is needed to determine whether these additional superfamilies are related to Borean or unidentified branches of it. Gell-Mann
798:(not included in Borean) (Fleming et al. are not sure if it is or not more closely related to Borean, that is, if Borean and Austric have an Austric-Borean common ancestor or if Austric is not closer to Borean than to other major language super-phyla)
1923:"The basic hypothesis is that Afrasian is related to the following groups of languages before it is related to any others." in Harold Fleming (2002) "Afrasian and Its Closest Relatives: the Borean Hypothesis", Global Perspectives on Human Language.
1932:"The Nostratic hypothesis is explicitly rejected here because it is not a valid taxon, Afrasian being coordinate to the rest and group c being aberrant in its relationship to the others." in name="Greenberg conference">
1901:"It is clear that the Borean hypothesis involves a super-phylum some of whose sub-taxa are themselves super-phyla. The term phyletic chain is introduced as a better label," in name="Greenberg conference">
958:
are related to Borean remains to be investigated, that the situation with the native languages of the
Americas remains unresolved, and that while there are some lexical similarities between Borean and the
2049:
Alicia
Sanchez-Mazas (ed.), Past human migrations in East Asia: matching archaeology, linguistics and genetics, volume 5 of Routledge studies in the early history of Asia, Taylor & Francis, 2008,
893:
macrofamilies. Starostin tentatively dates the Borean proto-language to the Upper
Paleolithic, approximately 16 thousand years ago. Starostin's model of Borean would thus include most languages of
1285:
A computational phylogenetic analysis by JĂ€ger (2015) did not support the Borean macrophylum in its entirety, but provided the following phylogeny of language families in
Eurasia:
1717:
descended from an older common ancestor language with Proto-Nostratic and did not descend directly from it; that is, Sumerian was closer to
Nostratic but not a member of it.
493:
The phylogenetic composition of Borean (noncommital about higher linkages within the whole) according to
Fleming, Bengtson, Zegura, Harrod, and Keita (2013) is as follows:
2255:
2629:
434:, and several other language families and isolates. Fleming calls Borean a "phyletic chain" rather than a super-phylum. He notes that his model of Borean is similar to
1983:
1885:
382:
1971:
1873:
370:
2228:
2086:
1975:
1877:
970:
Sergei
Starostin died prematurely in 2005 and his hypothesis remains in a preliminary form, with much of the material he collected available online.
374:
2248:
2600:
942:
cannot be included within it but that more distant connections on an even deeper level might be possible, that how the
African superfamilies
1939:
1908:
1837:
2668:
2639:
2241:
2079:
938:
They have also suggested possible links between 'Borean' and other families. In their view comparisons with 'Borean' data suggest that
2634:
519:(strongly different languages between themselves and aberrant in its relationship to the other Borean phyla and language families)
243:, and means "northern". This reflects the fact that the group is held to include most language families that are native to the
2054:
275:
in
Fleming (1991) and later publications. In Fleming's model, Borean includes ten different groups: Afrasian (his term for
2692:
224:
2186:
2176:
2001:
80:
2575:
358:
taxon among Borean languages, and that the language kinship between its branches is possibly more complex than a
2417:
1145:
1141:
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355:
142:
960:
1627:
1206:
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1095:
711:
706:
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1332:
2002:"Sino-Austronesian vs. Sino-Caucasian, Sino-Bodic vs. Sino-Tibetan, and Tibeto-Burman as Default Theory"
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2523:
2513:
1234:
1089:
985:
898:
612:
240:
2687:
2422:
2387:
2299:
1194:
1115:
951:
943:
919:
maintain that the comparative method has provided strong evidence for some linguistic superfamilies (
701:
280:
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1260:
1220:
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1987:
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1135:
1083:
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17:
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947:
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755:
336:
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Starostin's site includes a tree diagram with a hypothesized branching chronology for Borean,
2508:
2412:
2407:
2402:
1127:
955:
928:
506:
458:
from 50 thousand to 45 thousand years ago, and observes that it is primarily associated with
276:
62:
886:
439:
419:
363:
2392:
2366:
2309:
2113:
1770:
1738:
1726:
1430:
1015:
991:
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874:
582:
552:
300:
232:
1161:
350:
In 2002, Fleming argued that there were not a two large super-phyla distinction between a
58:
8:
2543:
2382:
1476:
1317:
1302:
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981:
815:
740:
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567:
351:
332:
284:
244:
137:
2117:
1019:
369:
However, in 2013, Fleming had changed his view about this issue in a joint article with
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2503:
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2279:
2136:
2101:
1780:
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1529:
1514:
1049:
1043:
1031:
897:, as well as the Afroasiatic languages of North Africa and the Horn of Africa, and the
649:
642:
637:
399:
as language phyla within Borean is a hypothesis that is well grounded and convincing.
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2558:
2548:
2478:
2427:
2377:
2233:
2182:
2141:
2050:
1967:
1869:
1714:
1706:
1369:
1230:
1103:
1075:
1025:
1011:
967:
note that their proposed model of Borean differs significantly from that of
Fleming.
939:
932:
916:
795:
785:
770:
654:
607:
591:
522:
443:
344:
340:
288:
267:(1987), who proposed such a "mega-super-phylum" for the languages of Eurasia, termed
264:
248:
228:
153:
147:
1838:"Harold Fleming (2002) "Afrasian and Its Closest Relatives: the Borean Hypothesis",
2553:
2533:
2493:
2483:
2458:
2397:
2344:
2329:
2294:
2289:
2131:
2121:
2068:
1979:
1934:
Harold Fleming (2002) "Afrasian and Its Closest Relatives: the Borean Hypothesis",
1903:
Harold Fleming (2002) "Afrasian and Its Closest Relatives: the Borean Hypothesis",
1881:
1754:
1605:
1553:
1167:
1109:
1069:
1037:
1007:
995:
908:
866:
811:
632:
627:
602:
527:
403:
378:
316:
312:
304:
292:
252:
203:
that encompasses almost all language families worldwide except those native to the
46:
1986:â "The Early Dispersions of Homo Sapiens sapiens and proto-Human from Africa." in
1888:â "The Early Dispersions of Homo Sapiens sapiens and proto-Human from Africa." in
788:(outlined by Joseph Greenberg) (a valid taxon with large contrasts among sub-taxa)
438:'s Vasco-Dene proposal, although he also sees similarities between Vasco-Dene and
385:â "The Early Dispersions of Homo Sapiens sapiens and proto-Human from Africa." in
2488:
2463:
2319:
2214:
H. C. Fleming, 'Proto-Gongan Consonant Phonemes: Stage One', in Mukarovsky (ed.)
1943:
1912:
1214:
1173:
718:
691:
687:
659:
537:
455:
431:
324:
216:
122:
50:
2538:
2334:
1761:
that both versions of the Borean hypothesis are "controversial and tentative".
1590:
1055:
819:
663:
532:
467:
463:
435:
396:
2072:
2681:
2473:
2448:
1702:
1384:
1061:
973:
The phylogenetic composition of Borean according to Starostin is as follows:
842:
837:
695:
669:
320:
2126:
2518:
2339:
2145:
2034:
2012:
1149:
423:
2528:
2314:
912:
878:
200:
1804:
1742:
1730:
1240:
1188:
827:
801:
735:
415:
407:
328:
319:, and several other language families), Macro-Caucasian (a proposal of
1734:
1710:
902:
857:
427:
411:
392:
359:
296:
176:
163:
1805:"«Evolution of Human Languages»: current state of affairs (03.2014)"
831:
479:
410:, and is oriented towards the concept of "valid taxon". He rejects
204:
115:
442:. He sees Borean as closely associated with the appearance of the
2205:
H. C. Fleming, 'A New Taxonomic Hypothesis: Borean or Boralean',
2163:
A Comprehensive Introduction to Nostratic Comparative Linguistics
894:
890:
483:
220:
212:
111:
451:
447:
208:
1144:(speculative, Nikolayev 1991; expanded by Bengtson 1997), cf.
219:. Its supporters propose that the various languages spoken in
475:
471:
459:
2630:
Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences
2157:
2155:
487:
391:, issue XVIII, p. 143â188, 2013, where he argues that
2039:
Journal of Language Relationship·ĐĐŸĐżŃĐŸŃŃ ŃĐ·ŃĐșĐŸĐČĐŸĐłĐŸ ŃĐŸĐŽŃŃĐČĐ°
227:, and ultimately descend from languages spoken during the
2080:"Description of database of suggested Borean etymologies"
2152:
2011:. Kathmandu: Linguistic Society of Nepal. Archived from
1958:
is still controversial, being classified as a branch of
2263:
1832:
1830:
1828:
869:(2002), Borean is divided into two groups, Nostratic (
402:
Fleming writes that his work on Borean is inspired by
2035:
Distant Language Relationship:The Current Perspective
1865:
1863:
2087:"Online query of database of long-range etymologies"
55:
and explaining the responses to the fringe theories.
1825:
470:physical appearance, the exceptions being southern
2102:"Statistical support for linguistic macrofamilies"
1860:
1737:and that the differences are due to the fact that
1713:but from a sister language of it. In other words,
1709:did not descend from a daughter language of Proto-
1197:(widely rejected; Nikolayev & Starostin 1994)
295:, and some other extinct languages of the ancient
2029:
2027:
2025:
181:Borean macro-family according to Sergei Starostin
2679:
2601:Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages
2106:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
414:, a proposed macrofamily somewhat broader than
247:. Two distinct models of Borean exist: that of
199:) is a hypothetical (i.e. proposed) linguistic
2022:
2249:
1179:Sino-Caucasian (speculative, Starostin 2006)
2640:Russian State University for the Humanities
2174:
2009:Contemporary Issues in Nepalese Linguistics
1748:
861:Borean language tree according to Starostin
2256:
2242:
2093:
2135:
2125:
81:Learn how and when to remove this message
2635:Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics
856:
2178:Languages of the World: An Introduction
1759:Languages of the World: An Introduction
1733:than to other language families within
14:
2680:
2077:, a database of proposed etymologies,
2237:
2175:Pereltsvaig, Asya (9 February 2012).
2099:
1999:
1936:Global Perspectives on Human Language
1905:Global Perspectives on Human Language
1840:Global Perspectives on Human Language
1783:-Theories of how languages are formed
1086:(phylogenetic unity widely rejected)
1799:
1797:
852:
29:
24:
2229:The dictionary of reconstructions
2199:
1692:
1243:(speculative, Paul Benedict 1942)
422:, a proposal that would encompass
258:
25:
2709:
2222:
1794:
901:and the Na-Dene languages of the
2664:
2663:
2655:
2576:Journal of Language Relationship
2078:
2033:Murray Gell-Mann et al. (2009) "
1892:, issue XVIII, pp. 143â188, 2013
175:
34:
2168:
2060:
2043:
1990:, issue XVIII, p. 143â188, 2013
1280:
885:, the latter consisting of the
231:in the millennia following the
2181:. Cambridge University Press.
1993:
1948:
1926:
1917:
1895:
1138:(speculative, Starostin 2005)
927:), but not so far for others (
13:
1:
1787:
1720:
2625:Evolution of Human Languages
418:, and withholds judgment on
223:and adjacent regions have a
61:or discuss the issue on the
7:
1962:by some and as a branch of
1764:
1697:
10:
2714:
2693:Proposed language families
2085:
2000:Driem, George van (2006).
1269:(widely recognized family)
1263:(widely recognized family)
1255:(widely recognized family)
1249:(widely recognized family)
1223:(widely recognized family)
1209:(widely recognized family)
1203:(widely recognized family)
1185:(widely recognized family)
1164:(widely recognized family)
1158:(widely recognized family)
1130:(widely recognized family)
1124:(widely recognized family)
1118:(widely recognized family)
1098:(widely recognized family)
1092:(widely recognized family)
1072:(widely recognized family)
1052:(widely recognized family)
1046:(widely recognized family)
1040:(widely recognized family)
1034:(widely recognized family)
1028:(widely recognized family)
1004:(widely recognized family)
961:TransâNew Guinea languages
498:"Borean" (Phyletic Chain)
2653:
2617:
2592:
2567:
2441:
2358:
2300:Linguistic reconstruction
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1300:
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672:(?) (tentative inclusion)
225:genealogical relationship
174:
162:
131:
123:Linguistic classification
121:
105:
100:
95:
2618:Institutions and schools
2499:Vladislav Illich-Svitych
2161:BOMHARD, Allan. (2018).
1749:Status of the hypothesis
127:Proposed language family
27:Proposed language family
2608:The Languages of Africa
2305:Internal reconstruction
2285:Etymological dictionary
2266:comparative linguistics
2127:10.1073/pnas.1500331112
2100:JĂ€ger, Gerhard (2015).
1988:Mother Tongue (journal)
1966:by others." (p.165) in
1890:Mother Tongue (journal)
1776:List of proto-languages
1745:at a very early date.
1741:became separated from
862:
507:Afrasian (Afroasiatic)
263:The concept is due to
239:is based on the Greek
53:to the mainstream view
2509:Alexis Manaster Ramer
2073:"Borean tree diagram"
860:
287:, a group comprising
2350:LeipzigâJakarta list
2310:Linguistic universal
2057:, obituary, p. xxvi.
1771:Proto-Human language
1725:Bomhard argues that
1016:Gustaf John Ramstedt
233:Last Glacial Maximum
2544:Vitaly Shevoroshkin
2118:2015PNAS..11212752J
2112:(41): 12752â12757.
1984:Shomarka O.Y. Keita
1942:9 June 2007 at the
1911:9 June 2007 at the
1886:Shomarka O.Y. Keita
1628:Chukotko-Kamchatkan
1207:Northwest Caucasian
1201:Northeast Caucasian
1096:Chukotko-Kamchatkan
712:Northwest Caucasian
707:Northeast Caucasian
618:Chukotko-Kamchatkan
383:Shomarka O.Y. Keita
245:northern hemisphere
2661:Linguistics portal
2645:Santa Fe Institute
2504:Frederik Kortlandt
2469:Aharon Dolgopolsky
2325:Origin of language
2280:Comparative method
1781:Origin of language
1217:(language isolate)
1191:(language isolate)
1176:(language isolate)
1170:(language isolate)
1112:(language isolate)
1106:(language isolate)
1078:(language isolate)
1064:(language isolate)
1058:(language isolate)
1010:(widely rejected;
863:
468:Northern Mongoloid
406:'s exploration of
51:appropriate weight
2698:Upper Paleolithic
2675:
2674:
2559:Alfredo Trombetti
2549:Georgiy Starostin
2479:Harold C. Fleming
2359:Language families
2055:978-0-415-39923-4
1972:Stephen L. Zegura
1968:Harold C. Fleming
1874:Stephen L. Zegura
1870:Harold C. Fleming
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1688:
1680:
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1671:
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1661:
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1652:
1540:
1539:
1487:
1486:
1441:
1440:
1395:
1394:
1333:Nakh-Daghestanian
1012:Roy Andrew Miller
917:Georgiy Starostin
853:Starostin's model
444:Upper Paleolithic
371:Stephen L. Zegura
265:Harold C. Fleming
249:Harold C. Fleming
229:Upper Paleolithic
186:
185:
91:
90:
83:
49:, without giving
16:(Redirected from
2705:
2688:Borean languages
2667:
2666:
2659:
2554:Sergei Starostin
2534:Martine Robbeets
2494:Murray Gell-Mann
2484:Joseph Greenberg
2459:Allan R. Bomhard
2345:Dolgopolsky list
2330:Paleolinguistics
2295:Lexicostatistics
2290:Glottochronology
2258:
2251:
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2235:
2234:
2218:(1987), 141â159.
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2159:
2150:
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2139:
2129:
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2069:Sergei Starostin
2064:
2058:
2047:
2041:
2031:
2020:
2019:
2018:on 26 July 2011.
2017:
2006:
1997:
1991:
1980:John D. Bengtson
1952:
1946:
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1924:
1921:
1915:
1899:
1893:
1882:John D. Bengtson
1867:
1858:
1857:
1855:
1853:
1844:. Archived from
1834:
1823:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1809:
1801:
1755:Asya Pereltsvaig
1621:
1620:
1569:
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1508:
1507:
1501:
1500:
1455:
1454:
1409:
1408:
1348:
1347:
1296:
1295:
1289:
1288:
1020:Matthias Castrén
996:Joseph Greenberg
909:Murray Gell-Mann
873:, consisting of
867:Sergei Starostin
865:As envisaged by
404:Joseph Greenberg
379:John D. Bengtson
305:Joseph Greenberg
253:Sergei Starostin
179:
93:
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86:
79:
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66:
38:
37:
30:
21:
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2704:
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2702:
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2677:
2676:
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2649:
2613:
2588:
2563:
2524:Holger Pedersen
2514:Sergei Nikolaev
2489:Eugene Helimski
2464:Svetlana Burlak
2437:
2423:North Caucasian
2388:Elamo-Dravidian
2354:
2320:Mass comparison
2268:
2262:
2225:
2202:
2200:Further reading
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2196:
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2015:
2004:
1998:
1994:
1976:James B. Harrod
1953:
1949:
1944:Wayback Machine
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1918:
1913:Wayback Machine
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1878:James B. Harrod
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1812:ehl.santafe.edu
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1693:Other languages
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1442:
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1283:
1278:
1235:Wilhelm Schmidt
1195:North Caucasian
986:Holger Pedersen
952:Central Sudanic
855:
850:
702:North Caucasian
692:Vasco-Caucasian
478:, southwestern
462:populations of
456:western Eurasia
375:James B. Harrod
303:(a proposal of
261:
259:Fleming's model
217:Andaman Islands
182:
107:
87:
76:
70:
67:
59:help improve it
56:
47:fringe theories
39:
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2539:Merritt Ruhlen
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2418:DenĂ©âCaucasian
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2335:Proto-language
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2223:External links
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2059:
2042:
2021:
1992:
1947:
1925:
1916:
1894:
1859:
1848:on 9 June 2007
1824:
1792:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1785:
1784:
1778:
1773:
1766:
1763:
1750:
1747:
1722:
1719:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1687:
1686:
1683:
1682:
1678:
1677:
1674:
1673:
1669:
1668:
1665:
1664:
1660:
1659:
1656:
1655:
1651:
1650:
1647:
1646:
1639:
1636:
1635:
1632:
1631:
1624:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1610:
1609:
1602:
1599:
1598:
1595:
1594:
1587:
1584:
1583:
1580:
1579:
1572:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1561:
1558:
1557:
1550:
1547:
1546:
1543:
1542:
1538:
1537:
1534:
1533:
1526:
1523:
1522:
1519:
1518:
1511:
1506:
1504:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1493:
1490:
1489:
1485:
1484:
1481:
1480:
1473:
1470:
1469:
1466:
1465:
1458:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1438:
1435:
1434:
1427:
1424:
1423:
1420:
1419:
1412:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1393:
1392:
1389:
1388:
1381:
1378:
1377:
1374:
1373:
1366:
1363:
1362:
1359:
1358:
1351:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1340:
1337:
1336:
1329:
1326:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1314:
1311:
1310:
1307:
1306:
1299:
1294:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1276:
1275:
1274:
1273:
1272:
1271:
1270:
1264:
1258:
1257:
1256:
1250:
1233:(speculative,
1228:
1227:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1221:Hurro-Urartian
1218:
1212:
1211:
1210:
1204:
1192:
1186:
1177:
1171:
1165:
1159:
1146:DenĂ©âYeniseian
1142:DenĂ©âCaucasian
1133:
1132:
1131:
1125:
1119:
1113:
1107:
1101:
1100:
1099:
1093:
1081:
1080:
1079:
1073:
1067:
1066:
1065:
1059:
1053:
1047:
1041:
1035:
1029:
1005:
994:(speculative,
984:(speculative,
975:
921:Dené-Caucasian
887:DenĂ©âCaucasian
854:
851:
849:
848:
847:
846:
840:
835:
825:
824:
823:
809:
793:
792:
791:
790:
789:
775:
774:
773:
760:
759:
758:
745:
744:
743:
738:
725:
724:
723:
722:
721:
716:
715:
714:
709:
694:) (based on a
688:Vasco-Caucasic
677:
676:
675:
674:
673:
667:
657:
652:
647:
646:
645:
640:
635:
625:
615:
610:
605:
600:
595:
572:
571:
570:
557:
556:
555:
542:
541:
540:
535:
533:Hurro-Urartian
530:
525:
511:
510:
509:
495:
440:DenĂ©âCaucasian
436:Morris Swadesh
420:DenĂ©âCaucasian
397:Dene-Caucasian
364:DenĂ©âCaucasian
356:DenĂ©âCaucasian
323:that includes
307:that includes
260:
257:
184:
183:
180:
172:
171:
166:
160:
159:
158:
157:
151:
145:
143:DenĂ©âCaucasian
140:
133:
129:
128:
125:
119:
118:
109:
103:
102:
101:(hypothetical)
98:
97:
89:
88:
42:
40:
33:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2710:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2685:
2683:
2670:
2662:
2658:
2652:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2622:
2620:
2616:
2610:
2609:
2605:
2603:
2602:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2591:
2585:
2584:
2583:Mother Tongue
2580:
2578:
2577:
2573:
2572:
2570:
2566:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2474:Vladimir Dybo
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2454:VĂĄclav BlaĆŸek
2452:
2450:
2449:John Bengtson
2447:
2446:
2444:
2440:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2368:
2364:
2363:
2361:
2357:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2277:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2259:
2254:
2252:
2247:
2245:
2240:
2239:
2236:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2217:
2213:
2210:
2209:
2208:Mother Tongue
2204:
2203:
2190:
2188:9781107002784
2184:
2180:
2179:
2171:
2164:
2158:
2156:
2147:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2096:
2088:
2081:
2074:
2070:
2063:
2056:
2052:
2046:
2040:
2036:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2014:
2010:
2003:
1996:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1951:
1945:
1941:
1938:
1937:
1929:
1920:
1914:
1910:
1907:
1906:
1898:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1866:
1864:
1847:
1843:
1841:
1833:
1831:
1829:
1813:
1806:
1800:
1798:
1793:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1768:
1762:
1760:
1756:
1746:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1729:is closer to
1728:
1718:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1703:Allan Bomhard
1685:
1684:
1676:
1675:
1667:
1666:
1658:
1657:
1649:
1648:
1645:
1644:
1643:Indo-European
1638:
1637:
1634:
1633:
1630:
1629:
1623:
1622:
1616:
1615:
1612:
1611:
1608:
1607:
1601:
1600:
1597:
1596:
1593:
1592:
1586:
1585:
1582:
1581:
1578:
1577:
1571:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1560:
1559:
1556:
1555:
1549:
1548:
1545:
1544:
1536:
1535:
1532:
1531:
1525:
1524:
1521:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1503:
1502:
1496:
1495:
1492:
1491:
1483:
1482:
1479:
1478:
1472:
1471:
1468:
1467:
1464:
1463:
1457:
1456:
1450:
1449:
1446:
1445:
1437:
1436:
1433:
1432:
1426:
1425:
1422:
1421:
1418:
1417:
1411:
1410:
1404:
1403:
1400:
1399:
1391:
1390:
1387:
1386:
1380:
1379:
1376:
1375:
1372:
1371:
1365:
1364:
1361:
1360:
1357:
1356:
1355:Austroasiatic
1350:
1349:
1343:
1342:
1339:
1338:
1335:
1334:
1328:
1327:
1324:
1323:
1320:
1319:
1313:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1305:
1304:
1298:
1297:
1291:
1290:
1286:
1268:
1267:Austroasiatic
1265:
1262:
1259:
1254:
1251:
1248:
1245:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1229:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1208:
1205:
1202:
1199:
1198:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1172:
1169:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1157:
1154:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1140:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1097:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1087:
1085:
1084:Paleosiberian
1082:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1023:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1006:
1003:
1002:Indo-European
1000:
999:
997:
993:
990:
989:
987:
983:
980:
979:
977:
976:
974:
971:
968:
966:
962:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
936:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
859:
844:
841:
839:
838:Austroasiatic
836:
833:
829:
826:
821:
817:
813:
810:
808:
805:
804:
803:
800:
799:
797:
794:
787:
784:
783:
782:
779:
776:
772:
769:
768:
767:
764:
761:
757:
754:
753:
752:
749:
746:
742:
739:
737:
734:
733:
732:
729:
726:
720:
717:
713:
710:
708:
705:
704:
703:
700:
699:
697:
696:John Bengtson
693:
689:
686:
685:
684:
681:
678:
671:
668:
665:
661:
658:
656:
653:
651:
648:
644:
641:
639:
636:
634:
631:
630:
629:
626:
623:
619:
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
604:
601:
599:
598:Indo-European
596:
593:
589:
586:
585:
584:
581:
580:
579:
576:
573:
569:
566:
565:
564:
561:
558:
554:
551:
550:
549:
546:
543:
539:
536:
534:
531:
529:
526:
524:
521:
520:
518:
515:
512:
508:
505:
504:
503:
500:
499:
497:
496:
494:
491:
489:
488:Chad Republic
485:
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
400:
398:
394:
390:
389:
388:Mother Tongue
384:
380:
376:
372:
367:
366:super-phyla.
365:
361:
357:
353:
348:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
321:John Bengtson
318:
314:
310:
309:Indo-European
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
256:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
178:
173:
170:
167:
165:
161:
155:
152:
149:
146:
144:
141:
139:
136:
135:
134:
130:
126:
124:
120:
117:
113:
110:
104:
99:
94:
85:
82:
74:
64:
60:
54:
52:
48:
43:This article
41:
32:
31:
19:
2606:
2599:
2581:
2574:
2519:Sorin Paliga
2433:Indo-Pacific
2372:
2365:
2340:Swadesh list
2215:
2206:
2177:
2170:
2162:
2109:
2105:
2095:
2062:
2045:
2038:
2013:the original
2008:
1995:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1950:
1935:
1928:
1919:
1904:
1897:
1850:. Retrieved
1846:the original
1839:
1815:. Retrieved
1811:
1758:
1752:
1724:
1705:argues that
1701:
1641:
1626:
1604:
1589:
1574:
1552:
1528:
1513:
1475:
1462:Austronesian
1460:
1429:
1416:Sino-Tibetan
1414:
1383:
1368:
1353:
1331:
1316:
1301:
1284:
1281:JĂ€ger (2015)
1247:Austronesian
1183:Sino-Tibetan
1150:Edward Vajda
1090:EskimoâAleut
972:
969:
964:
948:East Sudanic
937:
907:
899:EskimoâAleut
882:
870:
864:
807:Austronesian
780:
777:
765:
762:
756:Sino-Tibetan
750:
747:
730:
727:
682:
679:
613:EskimoâAleut
577:
574:
562:
559:
547:
544:
516:
513:
501:
492:
424:Sino-Tibetan
401:
386:
368:
349:
337:Sino-Tibetan
272:
268:
262:
251:and that of
236:
196:
192:
188:
187:
168:
132:Subdivisions
116:the Americas
114:, sometimes
108:distribution
77:
68:
45:may present
44:
2529:Ilia Peiros
2413:Sino-Uralic
2408:Indo-Uralic
2403:Ural-Altaic
2367:Proto-human
2315:Macrofamily
2264:Long-range
2216:FS Reinisch
1128:Afroasiatic
956:Kordofanian
944:NigerâCongo
929:Afroasiatic
913:Ilia Peiros
879:Afroasiatic
590:(including
482:, northern
474:, southern
277:Afroasiatic
235:. The name
201:macrofamily
156:(Starostin)
71:August 2024
2682:Categories
2393:Eurasiatic
2211:14 (1991).
1960:Eurasiatic
1788:References
1757:states in
1743:Eurasiatic
1739:Kartvelian
1731:Eurasiatic
1727:Kartvelian
1721:Kartvelian
1431:Hmong-Mien
1261:HmongâMien
1241:Austro-Tai
1189:Burushaski
1116:Kartvelian
992:Eurasiatic
925:Eurasiatic
875:Eurasiatic
871:sensu lato
828:Hmong-Mien
802:Austro-Tai
736:Burushaski
698:proposal)
583:Eurasiatic
553:Kartvelian
486:, and the
416:Eurasiatic
408:Eurasiatic
329:Burushaski
301:Eurasiatic
281:Kartvelian
215:, and the
106:Geographic
2442:Linguists
2383:Nostratic
1753:Linguist
1735:Nostratic
1711:Nostratic
1477:Tai-Kadai
1318:Dravidian
1303:Yeniseian
1253:TaiâKadai
1156:Yeniseian
1136:DeneâDaic
1122:Dravidian
982:Nostratic
978:"Borean"
903:New World
883:DeneâDaic
816:Tai-Kadai
741:Yeniseian
622:Chukotian
588:Tyrsenian
568:Dravidian
464:Caucasoid
428:Yeniseian
412:Nostratic
393:Nostratic
362:versus a
360:Nostratic
352:Nostratic
333:Yeniseian
297:Near East
285:Dravidian
164:Glottolog
150:(Fleming)
138:Nostratic
63:talk page
2669:Category
2568:Journals
2273:Concepts
2146:26403857
1940:Archived
1909:Archived
1817:3 August
1765:See also
1715:Sumerian
1707:Sumerian
1698:Sumerian
1576:Yukaghir
1530:Mongolic
1515:Tungusic
1104:Sumerian
1076:Yukaghir
1050:Mongolic
1044:Tungusic
1032:Koreanic
832:Miao-Yao
650:Koreanic
643:Tungusic
638:Mongolic
608:Yukaghir
592:Etruscan
523:Sumerian
480:Ethiopia
293:Elamitic
289:Sumerian
205:Americas
197:Boralean
2428:Austric
2378:Amerind
2137:4611657
2114:Bibcode
1964:Austric
1370:Japonic
1231:Austric
1168:Iberian
1162:Na-Dené
1110:Elamite
1026:Japonic
940:Khoisan
933:Austric
895:Eurasia
891:Austric
812:Kra-Dai
796:Austric
786:Amerind
771:Na-Dene
655:Japonic
538:Hattian
528:Elamite
484:Nigeria
446:in the
345:Amerind
341:Na-Dene
221:Eurasia
213:Oceania
154:Austric
148:Amerind
112:Eurasia
57:Please
18:Bornean
2398:Altaic
2373:Borean
2185:
2165:, p. 7
2144:
2134:
2053:
1852:2 July
1606:Uralic
1554:Turkic
1237:1906)
1215:Hattic
1174:Basque
1152:2008)
1070:Uralic
1038:Turkic
1022:1844)
1018:1952,
1014:1971,
1008:Altaic
998:2000)
988:1903)
965:et al.
915:, and
881:) and
719:Basque
660:Gilyak
633:Turkic
628:Altaic
603:Uralic
454:, and
452:Europe
448:Levant
432:Basque
354:and a
343:, and
325:Basque
317:Altaic
313:Uralic
273:Boreal
269:Borean
241:ÎČÎżÏÎαÏ
237:Borean
209:Africa
193:Boreal
191:(also
189:Borean
96:Borean
2593:Books
2016:(PDF)
2005:(PDF)
1808:(PDF)
1591:Nivkh
1056:Nivkh
664:Nivkh
476:China
472:India
460:human
2183:ISBN
2142:PMID
2051:ISBN
1982:and
1956:Ainu
1884:and
1854:2006
1819:2023
1385:Ainu
1062:Ainu
954:and
931:and
923:and
889:and
877:and
843:Ainu
820:Daic
781:(10)
670:Ainu
466:and
395:and
381:and
327:and
169:None
2132:PMC
2122:doi
2110:112
2037:",
845:(?)
766:(9)
751:(8)
731:(7)
683:(6)
578:(5)
563:(4)
548:(3)
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