4581:"Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency."
3528:"Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency."
1732:
3857:"The agriculturist selects his corn, letting grow as much as he requires, and tearing out the remainder. The forester leaves those branches which he perceives to be excellent, whilst he cuts away all others. The bees kill those of their kind who only eat, but do not work in their beehive. Nature proceeds in a similar way; however, it does not distinguish for its action is under all circumstances one and the same. It allows the leaves and fruit of the trees to perish, thus preventing them from realising that result which they are intended to produce in the economy of nature. It removes them so as to make room for others."
4095:
transformed into the essence adjacent to them, either above or below them. This is the case with the simple material elements; it is the case with palms and vines, (which constitute) the last stage of plants, in their relation to snails and shellfish, (which constitute) the (lowest) stage of animals. It is also the case with monkeys, creatures combining in themselves cleverness and perception, in their relation to man, the being who has the ability to think and to reflect. The preparedness (for transformation) that exists on either side, at each stage of the worlds, is meant when (we speak about) their connection.
3909:"Look at the world of animals and birds. They have all that is necessary for defense, protection and daily life, including strengths, courage and appropriate tools Some of these organs are real weapons, For example, horns-spear, teeth and claws-knife and needle, feet and hoofs-cudgel. The thorns and needles of some animals are similar to arrows. Animals that have no other means of defense (as the gazelle and fox) protect themselves with the help of flight and cunning. Some of them, for example, bees, ants and some bird species, have united in communities in order to protect themselves and help each other."
1461:, who only follow the teachings of Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi. Like all Islamic Peripatetics, Ibn Rushd admits the hypothesis of the intelligence of the spheres and the hypothesis of universal emanation, through which motion is communicated from place to place to all parts of the universe as far as the supreme world—hypotheses which, in the mind of the Arabic philosophers, did away with the dualism involved in Aristotle's doctrine of pure energy and eternal matter. His ideas on the separation of philosophy and religion, further developed by the
11941:
1530:
1112:
808:
667:
24:
1347:, the set of properties that make matter into a living human body. This seems to imply that the human soul cannot exist apart from the body. Indeed, Aristotle writes, "It is clear that the soul, or at least some parts of it (if it is divisible), cannot be separated from the body. And thus, those have the right idea who think that the soul does not exist without the body." In Aristotelianism, at least one psychological force, the
5086:. The term means "way" or "path"; it is the legal framework within which public and some private aspects of life are regulated for those living in a legal system based on Islamic principles of jurisprudence. Fiqh is the term for Islamic jurisprudence, made up of the rulings of Islamic jurists. A component of Islamic studies, Fiqh expounds the methodology by which Islamic law is derived from primary and secondary sources.
1427:
Mutakallamin for seeking to support religion by philosophy. He says, "I consider him to have attained the highest degree of perfection who is convinced of religious truths without having scrutinized them and reasoned over them" ("Kuzari", v.). Then he reduced the chief propositions of the
Mutakallamin, to prove the unity of God, to ten in number, describing them at length, and concluding in these terms: "Does the
1655:
3290:." He further criticized Aristotle's idea that every unique soul requires the existence of a unique source, in this case the heart. Ibn al-Nafis concluded that "the soul is related primarily neither to the spirit nor to any organ, but rather to the entire matter whose temperament is prepared to receive that soul" and he defined the soul as nothing other than "what a human indicates by saying ‘
11928:
2019:
3497:, is nothing else than the property of its being which has been established in it. So that is called true gold which has properly the being of gold and attains to the established determinations of the nature of gold. Now, each thing has properly being in some nature because it stands under the complete form proper to that nature, whereby being and species in that nature is."
1407:(The Incoherence of the Philosophers), not only produced, by reaction, a current favorable to philosophy, but induced the philosophers themselves to profit by his criticism. They thereafter made their theories clearer and their logic closer. The influence of this reaction brought forth the two greatest philosophers that the Islamic Peripatetic school ever produced, namely,
2600:. Because of territorial disputes with the Arabic grammarians, Islamic philosophers were very interested in working out the relationship between logic and language, and they devoted much discussion to the question of the subject matter and aims of logic in relation to reasoning and speech. In the area of formal logical analysis, they elaborated upon the theory of
1480:(Avicenna), and other Persian and Muslim philosophers hurried, so to speak, over subjects that trenched on religious dogmas, Ibn Rushd delighted in dwelling upon them with full particularity and stress. Thus he says, "Not only is matter eternal, but form is potentially inherent in matter; otherwise, it were a creation
2468:"Bring forward all the arguments you wish and say whatever you please and speak your mind freely. Now that you are safe and free to say whatever you please appoint some arbitrator who will impartially judge between us and lean only towards the truth and be free from the empery of passion, and that arbitrator shall be
1600:, "The Book of Beliefs and Opinions". In this work Saadia treats the questions that interested the Mutakallamin, such as the creation of matter, the unity of God, the divine attributes, the soul, etc. Saadia criticizes other philosophers severely. For Saadia there was no problem as to creation: God created the world
3595:(1126-1198 AD) explicitly rejected the thought of al-Ghazali and turned to an extensive evaluation of the thought of Aristotle. Averroes commented in detail on most of the works of Aristotle and his commentaries did much to guide the interpretation of Aristotle in later Jewish and Christian scholastic thought.
1509:
It should be mentioned that this depiction of intellectual tradition in
Islamic Lands is mainly dependent upon what West could understand (or was willing to understand) from this long era. In contrast, there are some historians and philosophers who do not agree with this account and describe this era
1634:
i. 74), and employs the following one of their premises to justify his position: "Only a substance can be the substratum of an accident" (that is, of a non-essential property of things). Saadia argues: "If the soul be an accident only, it can itself have no such accidents as wisdom, joy, love", etc.
4491:
schooling as the period of specialization, when pupils should begin to acquire manual skills, regardless of their social status. He writes that children after the age of 14 should be given a choice to choose and specialize in subjects they have an interest in, whether it was reading, manual skills,
3582:
atomism, atoms are the only perpetual, material things in existence, and all else in the world is "accidental" meaning something that lasts for only an instant. Nothing accidental can be the cause of anything else, except perception, as it exists for a moment. Contingent events are not subject to
2612:
as formulated in
Aristotle's Categories, De interpretatione and Prior Analytics. In the spirit of Aristotle, they believed that all rational argument can be reduced to a syllogism, and they regarded syllogistic theory as the focal point of logic. Even poetics was considered as a syllogistic art in
1354:
Wherefore the
Mutakallamin had, before anything else, to establish a system of philosophy to demonstrate the creation of matter, and they adopted to that end the theory of atoms as enunciated by Democritus. They taught that atoms possess neither quantity nor extension. Originally atoms were created
1351:, can exist apart from the body. However, according to many interpretations, the active intellect is a superhuman entity emanating from God and enlightening the human mind, not a part of any individual human soul. Thus, Aristotle's theories seem to deny the immortality of the individual human soul.
562:
The translation of Arabic works from this period into Hebrew and Latin in the Middle Ages had a significant impact upon Jewish philosophy as well as almost all philosophical disciplines in the medieval Latin
Western world. The works of al-Fārābī, Avicenna, and Averroes were particularly influential
4365:. In "tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience, Alhacen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things."
1426:
found an imitator in the person of Judah ha-Levi. This poet also took upon himself to free his religion from what he saw as the shackles of speculative philosophy, and to this end wrote the "Kuzari", in which he sought to discredit all schools of philosophy alike. He passes severe censure upon the
3013:
and an ontological argument. "It is ontological insofar as ‘necessary existence’ in intellect is the first basis for arguing for a
Necessary Existent". The proof is also "cosmological insofar as most of it is taken up with arguing that contingent existents cannot stand alone and must end up in a
3197:
Usually
Muslims call God (Allah) "Wajib al-Wujud". It can be said; In general, the difference between the "Islamic view" and other views is not in the principle of "realism", but in the image it presents of the real world based on it. In "Islamic philosophy", while admitting material existence,
4094:
We explained there that the whole of existence in (all) its simple and composite worlds is arranged in a natural order of ascent and descent, so that everything constitutes an uninterrupted continuum. The essences at the end of each particular stage of the worlds are by nature prepared to be
1362:
commenced His work at a certain definite time by His "will", and for a certain definite object, it must be admitted that He was imperfect before accomplishing His will, or before attaining His object. In order to obviate this difficulty, the
Motekallamin extended their theory of the atoms to
1635:
Saadia was thus in every way a supporter of the Kalam; and if at times he deviated from its doctrines, it was owing to his religious views; just as the Jewish and Muslim
Peripatetics stopped short in their respective Aristotelianism whenever there was danger of wounding orthodox religion.
4693:'s scientific method where "general and universal questions came first and led to experimental work", al-Biruni developed scientific methods where "universals came out of practical, experimental work" and "theories are formulated after discoveries." During his debate with Avicenna on
4018:. It has male and female genders. It does not wither if all its branches are chopped but it dies when the head is cut off. The date-palm is therefore considered the highest among the trees and resembles the lowest among animals. Then is born the lowest of animals. It evolves into an
3921:
and other distant corners of the world. They are close to animals by their habits, deeds and behavior. The human has features that distinguish him from other creatures, but he has other features that unite him with the animal world, vegetable kingdom or even with the inanimate
4100:
Plants do not have the same fineness and power that animals have. Therefore, the sages rarely turned to them. Animals are the last and final stage of the three permutations. Minerals turn into plants, and plants into animals, but animals cannot turn into anything finer than
5470:. The political conceptions of Islam such as kudrah, sultan, ummah, cemaa -and even the "core" terms of the Qur'an, i.e. ibada, din, rab and ilah- is taken as the basis of an analysis. Hence, not only the ideas of the Muslim political philosophers but also many other
2472:, whereby God makes us responsible for our own rewards and punishments. Herein I have dealt justly with you and have given you full security and am ready to accept whatever decision Reason may give for me or against me. For "There is no compulsion in religion" (Quran
4593:
to his
Islamic faith. He believed that human beings are inherently flawed and that only God is perfect. He reasoned that to discover the truth about nature, it is necessary to eliminate human opinion and error, and allow the universe to speak for itself. In
4833:
manuals, state that a visiting physician must always make duplicate notes of a patient's condition on every visit. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of the physician were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would
1704:
Al-Farabi had great influence on science and philosophy for several centuries, and was widely considered second only to Aristotle in knowledge (alluded to by his title of "the Second Teacher") in his time. His work, aimed at synthesis of philosophy and
1510:
in a completely different way. Their main point of dispute is on the influence of different philosophers on Islamic Philosophy, especially the comparative importance of eastern intellectuals such as Ibn Sina and of western thinkers such as Ibn Rushd.
4713:, such as "errors caused by the use of small instruments and errors made by human observers." He argued that if instruments produce random errors because of their imperfections or idiosyncratic qualities, then multiple observations must be taken,
463:, "Muslim maritime, agricultural, and technological innovations, as well as much East Asian technology via the Muslim world, made their way to western Europe in one of the largest technology transfers in world history." This period starts with
1502:—joined in translating the Arabic philosophical works into Hebrew and commenting upon them. The works of Ibn Rushd especially became the subject of their study, due in great measure to Maimonides, who, in a letter addressed to his pupil
1371:
is constituted of atoms and vacuum, Time, likewise, is constituted of small indivisible moments. The creation of the world once established, it was an easy matter for them to demonstrate the existence of a Creator, and that God is unique,
2803:(980–1037) developed his own system of logic known as "Avicennian logic" as an alternative to Aristotelian logic. By the 12th century, Avicennian logic had replaced Aristotelian logic as the dominant system of logic in the Islamic world.
1355:
by God, and are created now as occasion seems to require. Bodies come into existence or die, through the aggregation or the sunderance of these atoms. But this theory did not remove the objections of philosophy to a creation of matter.
3438:
developed further arguments, with most falling into two broad categories: assertions of the "impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite" and of the "impossibility of completing an actual infinite by successive addition".
1392:
of pure philosophy and the decline of the Kalam, which later, being attacked by both the philosophers and the orthodox, perished for lack of champions. This supreme exaltation of philosophy may be attributed, in great measure, to
3210:
as a defense of "the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines on the missions of Prophets, the religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transitoriness of the world." The book presents rational arguments for bodily
1487:" (Munk, "Mélanges", p. 444). According to this theory, therefore, the existence of this world is not only a possibility, as Ibn Sina declared—in order to make concessions to the orthodox— but also a necessity.
986:
because his answers were contrary to then-orthodox Islamic tradition and became leader of a new school, and systematized the radical opinions of preceding sects, particularly those of the Qadarites. This new school was called
4272:) stated that the place of something is the two-dimensional boundary of the containing body that is at rest and is in contact with what it contains. Ibn al-Haytham disagreed with this definition and demonstrated that place (
3073:). However, this aspect of ontology is not the most central to the distinction that Avicenna established between essence and existence. One cannot therefore make the claim that Avicenna was the proponent of the concept of
5200:
as a defense of "the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines on the missions of Prophets, the religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transitoriness of the world." He presents rational arguments for bodily
5760:
4512:. He wrote that this was a transitional stage and that there needs to be flexibility regarding the age in which pupils graduate, as the student's emotional development and chosen subjects need to be taken into account.
1610:
attests; and he contests the theory of the Mutakallamin in reference to atoms, which theory, he declares, is just as contrary to reason and religion as the theory of the philosophers professing the eternity of matter.
3583:
natural physical causes, but are the direct result of God's constant intervention, without which nothing could happen. Thus nature is completely dependent on God, which meshes with other Asharite Islamic ideas on
3566:
philosophies are found very early in Islamic philosophy, and represent a synthesis of the Greek and Indian ideas. Islamic speculative theology in general approached issues in physics from an atomistic framework.
4787:"The quality of the drug must correspond to the strength of the disease. For example, there are some drugs whose heat is less than the coldness of certain diseases, so that they would have no effect on them."
2572:
and other Muslim logicians who often criticized and corrected Aristotelian logic and introduced their own forms of logic, also played a central role in the subsequent development of European logic during the
4704:
Al-Biruni's scientific method was similar to the modern scientific method in many ways, particularly his emphasis on repeated experimentation. Biruni was concerned with how to conceptualize and prevent both
1011:
of man emanates from his reason; humans could acquire knowledge before, as well as after, Revelation, by the sole light of reason. This fact makes knowledge obligatory upon all men, at all times, and in all
612:
presents a coherent vision of the creator, the cosmos and man. The main issues of Muslim theological dispute prove to be hidden under the wording of the qurʾānic message, which is closely tied to Muḥammad's
520:, a method or methodological approach to legal reasoning, interpretation, and argument based on independent inquiry and analogical deduction; within science and the philosophy of science, the development of
4981:
of the dead, the fulfillment of a divine plan for creation, and the immortality of the human soul (though Jews do not necessarily view the soul as eternal); the righteous are rewarded with the pleasures of
3590:
Other traditions in Islam rejected the atomism of the Asharites and expounded on many Greek texts, especially those of Aristotle. An active school of philosophers in Spain, including the noted commentator
2810:(980–1037), who produced independent treatises on logic rather than commentaries. He criticized the logical school of Baghdad for their devotion to Aristotle at the time. He investigated the theory of
2210:
All living beings roaming the earth and winged birds soaring in the sky are communities like yourselves.1 We have left nothing out of the Record.2 Then to their Lord they will be gathered all together.
1490:
Driven from the Islamic schools, Islamic philosophy found a refuge with the Jews, to whom belongs the honor of having transmitted it to the Christian world. A series of eminent men—such as the
2935:(1155–1191), who developed the idea of "decisive necessity", an important innovation in the history of logical philosophical speculation. Another systematic refutation of Greek logic was written by
2185:
Allah's Messenger said, "There is none amongst the Muslims who plants a tree or sows seeds, and then a bird, or a person or an animal eats from it, but is regarded as a charitable gift for him."
4872:. He argued that the "human intellect at birth is rather like a tabula rasa, a pure potentiality that is actualized through education and comes to know" and that knowledge is attained through "
3897:
that can gain the new features faster are more variable. As a result, they gain advantages over other creatures. The bodies are changing as a result of the internal and external interactions."
6209:"Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period – Between Cordoba and Nīsābūr: The Emergence and Consolidation of Ashʿarism (Fourth–Fifth/Tenth–Eleventh Century)"
5181:
in a cave and living in seclusion on a desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone on the desert island for most of the story in
4838:
the practising physician's notes to decide whether his/her performance have met the required standards of medical care. If their reviews were negative, the practicing physician could face a
2476:) and I have only invited you to accept our faith willingly and of your own accord and have pointed out the hideousness of your present belief. Peace be with you and the blessings of God!"
743:(his daily utterances and discourses), during which philosophy was defined by Muslims as consisting in acceptance or rejection of his message. Together the sira and hadith constitute the
6939:
3198:"non-material" and abstract existence is also proven, and the existence of the Supreme Being or this title is defined as the essence of existence, which is the axis of the whole world.
8514:
Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 42 & 60,
4308:) is the largest in magnitude (volumetric) with respect to other geometric solids that have equal surface areas. For instance, a sphere that has an equal surface area to that of a
5752:
3629:
Do the disbelievers not realize that the heavens and earth were ˹once˺ one mass then We split them apart? And We created from water every living thing. Will they not then believe?
8488:
Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (died 1288)", p. 95-101,
7414:
Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 209-210,
3704:(Algazel). They used two logical arguments against an infinite past, the first being the "argument from the impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite", which states:
3811:
to develop new characteristics to ensure survival, thus transforming into new species. Animals that survive to breed can pass on their successful characteristics to offspring."
6668:
Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), p. 80-81, "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)",
5446:, the words and practices of Muhammad. However, in the Western thought, it is generally known that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam:
3783:. He speculated on the influence of the environment on animals, considered the effects of the environment on the likelihood of an animal to survive, and first described the
1967:
by the 12th century. Avicenna had become a central authority on philosophy by then, and several scholars in the 12th century commented on his strong influence at the time:
7745:
1059:. Ashʿarītes still taught the use of reason in understanding the Quran, but denied the possibility to deduce moral truths by reasoning. This position was opposed by the
4784:"The drug must be tested with two contrary types of diseases, because sometimes a drug cures one disease by Its essential qualities and another by its accidental ones."
4312:, would be larger in (volumetric) magnitude than the cylinder; hence, the sphere occupies a larger place than that occupied by the cylinder; unlike what is entailed by
3271:
of the soul is a consequence of its nature, and not a purpose for it to fulfill. In his theory of "The Ten Intellects", he viewed the human soul as the tenth and final
2901:
school in the 12th century slowly suffocated original work on logic in much of the Islamic world, though logic continued to be studied in some Islamic regions such as
6878:
2552:. The works of Hellenistic-influenced Islamic philosophers were crucial in the reception of Aristotelian logic in medieval Europe, along with the commentaries on the
4558:, where he employs only minimal hypotheses regarding the properties that characterize astronomical motions, as he attempts to eliminate from his planetary model the
3515:(Alhacen) reasoned that to discover the truth about nature, it is necessary to eliminate human opinion and error, and allow the universe to speak for itself. In his
1331:
of the world. To assert that God's knowledge extends only to the general laws of the universe, and not to individual and accidental things, is tantamount to denying
2734:
refers to analogical reasoning in a real sense and categorical syllogism in a metaphorical sense. Other Islamic scholars at the time, however, argued that the term
4300:. Ibn al-Haytham's mathematization of place rested on several geometric demonstrations, including his study on the sphere and other solids, which showed that the
1971:"People nowadays that truth is whatever says, that it is inconceivable for him to err, and that whoever contradicts him in anything he says cannot be rational."
4766:(11th century), which was the first book dealing with experimental medicine. It laid out the following rules and principles for testing the effectiveness of new
4626:
have faith in Prophets, may the blessing of God be upon them. But it is not the way that mathematicians have faith in specialists in the demonstrative sciences."
3757:"God has placed the Sun at the center of the Universe just as the capital of a country is placed in its middle and the ruler's palace at the center of the city."
8797:
3684:, presented the first such argument against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite past. His reasoning was adopted by many, most notably; Muslim philosopher,
3181:
More careful approaches are needed in terms of thinking about philosophers (and theologians) in Islam in terms of phenomenological methods of investigation in
3732:
Both arguments were adopted by later Christian philosophers and theologians, and the second argument in particular became more famous after it was adopted by
536:, as well as early formulations of empiricist epistemologies; commentaries and developments in Aristotelian logic, as well as innovations in non-Aristotelian
8229:
471:(Ibn Rushd) at the end of 12th century. The death of Averroes effectively marks the end of a particular discipline of Islamic philosophy usually called the
1327:
Aristotle attempted to demonstrate the unity of God; but from the view which he maintained, that matter was eternal, it followed that God could not be the
883:. Kalām in Islamic practice relates to the discipline of seeking theological knowledge through debate and argument. A scholar of kalām is referred to as a
7811:
7094:
9045:
2750:(Alkindus) (805–873), who produced a summary on earlier logic up to his time. The first writings on logic with non-Aristotelian elements was produced by
1422:
Since no idea and no literary or philosophical movement ever germinated on Persian or Arabian soil without leaving its impress on the Jews, the Persian
1265:
with other ideas introduced through Islam. They were considered by many as highly unorthodox and a few even described them as non-Islamic philosophers.
8654:
Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists",
6444:
3784:
416:
7859:
8761:
Dominique Urvoy, "The Rationality of Everyday Life: The Andalusian Tradition? (Aropos of Hayy's First Experiences)", in Lawrence I. Conrad (1996),
7148:
289:
1435:'s eyes, for it is no less given to details and criticism; Neoplatonism alone suited him somewhat, owing to its appeal to his poetic temperament.
563:
in the fields of natural philosophy, psychology, metaphysics, logic, and ethics, directly and indirectly influencing the work of thinkers such as
4796:"The experimentation must be done with the human body, for testing a drug on a lion or a horse might not prove anything about its effect on man."
3369:
3286:, whereas Ibn al-Nafis on the other hand rejected this idea and instead argued that the soul "is related to the entirety and not to one or a few
7932:
5582:
2355:. He regarded physicians as "guardians of souls and bodies", and wrote twenty chapters on various topics related to medical ethics, including:
1004:
Man is a free agent. It is on account of these two principles that the Mu'tazilities designate themselves the "Partisans of Justice and Unity".
8570:
8190:
5217:
claim of Avicenna and Ibn Tufail that bodily resurrection cannot be proven through reason, a view that was earlier criticized by al-Ghazali.
8525:
8499:
7961:
7425:
7153:
6952:
6679:
9018:
5044:
to explain the events that would occur according to Islamic eschatology. He presented his rational and scientific arguments in the form of
4577:
He held that the criticism of existing theories — which dominated this book — holds a special place in the growth of scientific knowledge:
4332:), although his effort was admirable from a philosophical standpoint, it was unconvincing from the scientific and mathematical viewpoints.
1453:. Averroes' philosophy was considered controversial in Muslim circles. The theories of Ibn Rushd do not differ fundamentally from those of
7994:
Nader El-Bizri (2007), "In Defence of the Sovereignty of Philosophy: al-Baghdadi's Critique of Ibn al-Haytham's Geometrisation of Place",
7557:
5881:
3387:
terms when he stated: "I can abstract from the supposition of all external things, but not from the supposition of my own consciousness."
1090:, the early schools of Islamic theology and theological beliefs among classical Muslim philosophers are characterized by "a rich color of
9882:
6073:
1903:
309:
7910:"Ikhwan as-Safa and their Rasa'il: A Critical Review of a Century and a Half of Research", by A. L. Tibawi, as published in volume 2 of
6897:
6577:
6007:
5706:(1989). The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Books I–II–III: On Direct Vision. London: The Warburg Institute, University of London. pp. 25–29.
10725:
6183:
2617:
Important developments made by Muslim logicians included the development of "Avicennian logic" as a replacement of Aristotelian logic.
1934:
1431:
give us more information concerning God and His attributes than the prophet did?" (Ib. iii. and iv.) Aristotelianism finds no favor in
88:
6498:"Persecution and the Art of Commentary: Rabbi Moses Narboni's Analysis of al-Ġazālī's Maqāṣid al Falāsifah (Aims of the Philosophers)"
4606:
and not to any other authorities, in the following comparison between the Islamic prophetic tradition and the demonstrative sciences:
1048:) rather than co-eternal with God, which would develop into one of the most contentious questions in the history of Islamic theology.
11003:
9524:
6404:"This intellect is separate, unaffected, and unmixed In separation, it is just what it is, and this alone is immortal and eternal" (
4818:
1551:
1519:
1133:
825:
688:
296:
60:
41:
5620:
5248:, and became an influential best-seller throughout Western Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. These translations later inspired
4793:"The effect of the drug must be seen to occur constantly or in many cases, for if this did not happen, it was an accidental effect."
2128:
Perhaps due to resource scarcity in most Islamic nations, there was an emphasis on limited (and some claim also sustainable) use of
9156:
1483:
945:, which until then had been accepted in faith on the authority of divine revelation. One of the first debates was that between the
7304:
3009:, which utilizes intuition and reason alone. Avicenna's proof of God's existence is unique in that it can be classified as both a
997:, which means "to separate oneself" or "to dissent") that lasted from the 8th to 10th centuries. Its principal dogmas were three:
9081:
9076:
7072:
5305:
4923:
3558:
3259:, developed their own theories on the soul. They both made a distinction between the soul and the spirit, and in particular, the
1423:
1394:
329:
284:
7743:
7591:
67:
8207:
8007:
El-Bizri (2007) and handouts of El-Bizri's lectures at the Dept. of History and Philosophy of Science, University of Cambridge
5525:, "an institution which prevents injustice other than such as it commits itself", the best in the history of political theory.
4316:'s definition of place: that this sphere and that cylinder occupy places that are equal in magnitude. Ibn al-Haytham rejected
3966:
3745:
304:
11640:
9151:
9128:
8977:
8169:
7121:
6519:
6467:
6236:
6125:
3426:
presented a detailed argument against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite past. Muslim and Arab Jewish philosophers like
1731:
409:
275:
8414:
7875:
7672:
3718:
The second argument, the "argument from the impossibility of completing an actual infinite by successive addition", states:
9234:
8165:
6875:
6546:
6267:"Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period – Ḥanafī Theological Tradition and Māturīdism"
5791:
4756:, and a precise guide for practical experimentation in the process of discovering and proving the effectiveness of medical
3672:
and theologians developed the concept of the universe having a finite past with a beginning. This view was inspired by the
2581:
2000:
1203:, all of whose fundamental principles were considered as criticized by the Mutakallamin. Another trend, represented by the
9484:
4171:
from the observer's point of view. Much of his thought on phenomenology was not further developed until the 20th century.
586:
Early Islamic philosophy can be divided into clear sets of influences, branches, schools, and fields, as described below.
74:
8360:
7035:
6024:"Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period – Scripturalist and Traditionalist Theology"
5283:, and the thoughts expressed in the novel can be found in "different variations and to different degrees in the books of
5144:
3140:
1819:
1403:
3348:. His "Floating Man" thought experiment tells its readers to imagine themselves suspended in the air, isolated from all
10209:
9458:
9392:
7271:
2054:
11266:
4022:. This is not the statement of Darwin. This is what Ibn Maskawayh states and this is precisely what is written in the
1401:(1140) among the Jews. It can be argued that the attacks directed against the philosophers by Al-Ghazali in his work,
11966:
11291:
8957:
8938:
8912:
8874:
8849:
8824:
8795:
8774:
8749:
8728:
8703:
8679:
8642:
8605:
8549:
8456:
8388:
8319:
8108:
8080:
7676:
7625:
7533:
7460:
7224:
7017:
6925:
6827:
6802:
6777:
6728:
6302:
6059:
5993:
5934:
5711:
1577:
1159:
847:
714:
266:
107:
56:
7336:
For recent studies that engage in this line of research with care and thoughtful deliberation, see: Nader El-Bizri,
6699:
5213:
and material from the hadith corpus to prove his case. Later Islamic scholars viewed this work as a response to the
4643:
2889:(Algazel) (1058–1111) had an important influence on the use of logic in theology, making use of Avicennian logic in
2778:. He is also credited for categorizing logic into two separate groups, the first being "idea" and the second being "
1559:
1141:
696:
11823:
9011:
6100:
5909:
4167:, linking the domains of science and religion, led to a philosophy of existence based on the direct observation of
596:
402:
169:
8434:
On the Sources of Islamic Law and Practices, The Journal of law and religion Souaiaia yr:2005 vol:20 iss:1 pg:123
8271:
Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)",
5008:
elaborating on the themes and details. Islamic apocalyptic literature describing the Armageddon is often known as
4876:
familiarity with objects in this world from which one abstracts universal concepts" which is developed through a "
4670:, he declares that "to execute our project, it has not been possible to follow the geometric method" and develops
11853:
9875:
9239:
8239:
6339:
Teísmos: Aportações Filosóficas do Leste e Oeste / Theisms: Philosophical Contributions from the East to the West
4618:'s words in everything he says, without relying on a demonstration or calling on a proof, but by pure imitation (
4403:
entitled "The Role of the Teacher in the Training and Upbringing of Children", as a guide to teachers working at
2302:
2137:
2070:. While he had very little influence in the Islamic world, which was then dominated by Avicennian philosophy and
918:), began to be investigated beyond the scope of Muhammad's beliefs. This period is characterized by emergence of
245:
178:
11461:
4113:, discussed and developed these ideas. Translated into Latin, these works began to appear in the West after the
3065:(or those particularly influenced by Thomist scholarship) argued that Avicenna was the first to view existence (
2852:
in philosophy, he used a different approach in medicine. Ibn Sina contributed inventively to the development of
2702:
refers to analogical reasoning, inductive reasoning or categorical syllogism. Some Islamic scholars argued that
1445:, closed the first great philosophical era of the Muslims. He was a defender of Aristotelian philosophy against
11879:
11039:
8351:
7808:
7091:
6648:
4501:
3935:
2823:
1927:
1665:
Al-Farabi (Alfarabi) was a founder of his own school of Islamic philosophy but which was later overshadowed by
1614:
To prove the unity of God, Saadia uses the demonstrations of the Mutakallamin. Only the attributes of essence (
1555:
1137:
829:
692:
626:
255:
230:
45:
9565:
7767:
Jan Z. Wilczynski (December 1959), "On the Presumed Darwinism of Alberuni Eight Hundred Years before Darwin",
3260:
751:("backing") to determine the likely truth of the report of any given saying of Muhammad. Key figures are Imam
10453:
10038:
9791:
9781:
9736:
9372:
7856:
4190:
4042:. The one higher to angels is indeed none but God. Everything begins from Him and everything returns to Him."
2418:
2343:
standards of Muslim physicians was first laid down in the 9th century by Ishaq bin Ali Rahawi, who wrote the
2250:
250:
164:
8026:
Smith, A. Mark (2005), "The Alhacenian Account Of Spatial Perception And Its Epistemological Implications",
7899:
The Emergence of Islam: Lectures on the Development of Islamic World-view, Intellectual Tradition and Polity
11858:
11763:
11411:
10128:
6975:
Makdisi, George (April–June 1989), "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West",
5374:
4884:; observations lead to prepositional statements, which when compounded lead to further abstract concepts."
4505:
4180:
3341:
2727:
6574:
4674:
as a scientific method in the field. He was also responsible for introducing the experimental method into
3395:
While ancient Greek philosophers believed that the universe had an infinite past with no beginning, early
547:; and developments in research practice and methodology, including, within medicine, the first documented
11971:
11662:
11376:
10005:
9344:
9136:
9118:
9071:
9050:
9004:
6866:
4014:. The evolution of vegetation culminates with a tree which bears the qualities of an animal. This is the
3604:
2698:, there was a logical debate among Islamic philosophers, logicians and theologians over whether the term
2513:
1828:
1697:
theology is also more than just metaphysics as rhetoric. In his attempt to think through the nature of a
1021:
152:
8010:
3235:
argument on spiritual resurrection (as opposed to bodily resurrection), which was earlier criticized by
2526:
placed importance on formulating standards of argument, which gave rise to a novel approach to logic in
11529:
11198:
10504:
10280:
9868:
9636:
9417:
8448:
8311:
8130:
8035:
6839:
L. Gari (2002), "Arabic Treatises on Environmental Pollution up to the End of the Thirteenth Century",
5499:
5401:
philosophy was "political" as it had real implications for governance. This view was challenged by the
5354:
4144:
3163:
3159:
2928:
2160:
2090:
642:
498:
261:
9914:
7044:
81:
11735:
9947:
9937:
9841:
9651:
7953:
7924:
5579:
5539:
5366:
4293:
4069:
by the 19th century. These works likely had an influence on 19th-century evolutionists, and possibly
3618:
3547:
2278:
1920:
1895:
1079:
and independently from divine revelation. He shared this conviction with his teacher and predecessor
392:
1055:
developed as a response to the Muʿtazila, founded by the 10th-century Muslim scholar and theologian
11838:
11401:
10651:
10491:
10488:
10214:
10048:
10033:
9831:
8519:
8493:
7820:
7419:
7062:
6938:
Ahmad, I. A. (June 3, 2002), "The Rise and Fall of Islamic Science: The Calendar as a Case Study",
6673:
5326:
4630:
Ibn al-Haytham described his search for truth and knowledge as a way of leading him closer to God:
4354:
3779:(c. 776–869) was the first of the Muslim biologists and philosophers to develop an early theory of
3473:"The truth of a thing is the property of the being of each thing which has been established in it."
3155:
3039:
2932:
2827:
2755:
2605:
2172:
1837:
1540:
1122:
677:
124:
8567:
5847:
Al-Shafi'i, al-Risala, Bulaq, 1321; ed. Sheikh Ahmad Muhammad Shakir, Cairo, 1940 (ed. Shakir), 55
5153:
4573:"Truth is sought for itself the truths, are immersed in uncertainties not immune from error..."
3523:"Truth is sought for itself the truths, are immersed in uncertainties not immune from error..."
11416:
11357:
11310:
11168:
11131:
10499:
10414:
10404:
10328:
10194:
10166:
9468:
9377:
9300:
6894:
6286:
6220:
6043:
5977:
4701:, referring to Avicenna as a philosopher and considering himself to be a mathematical scientist.
4683:
4634:"I constantly sought knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that for gaining access to the
4349:(1021). His experimental proof of the intromission model of vision led to changes in the way the
4066:
3533:"I constantly sought knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that for gaining access to the
2815:
2086:, for which Ibn Rushd is considered as the founding father of secular thought in Western Europe.
1631:
1544:
1126:
1080:
1056:
818:
681:
646:
34:
8523:
8497:
7480:
Craig, William Lane (June 1979), "Whitrow and Popper on the Impossibility of an Infinite Past",
7423:
7143:
6677:
5958:"Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period – Origins of Kalām"
5002:). A significant fraction (one third, in fact) of the Quran deals with these beliefs, with many
11549:
11481:
10561:
10399:
9977:
9952:
9942:
9801:
9751:
9746:
9712:
9580:
9407:
9397:
9229:
7549:
6948:
5873:
5409:
view and were supported by secular aristocracy who sought freedom of action independent of the
5259:
4814:
4718:
3333:
3175:
2819:
2763:
2640:. Other important developments in early Islamic philosophy include the development of a strict
2626:
2535:
2426:
1878:
1852:
1064:
506:
6266:
6208:
6023:
5517:
is considered one of the greatest political theorists. The British philosopher-anthropologist
1689:", and "at the level of philosophy, Alfarabi unites theory and practice in the sphere of the
485:
and North Africa, though it persisted for much longer in the Eastern countries, in particular
11786:
11725:
11705:
11539:
11451:
11431:
11421:
11054:
10903:
10536:
10468:
10376:
10343:
10171:
10151:
9957:
9836:
9585:
9504:
8967:
8633:
8407:, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (
8235:
8215:
7642:
6294:
6095:
6051:
5985:
5957:
5904:
5334:
5322:
5276:
4762:
4745:
4671:
4638:
and closeness to God, there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge."
4590:
4547:
4152:
3537:
and closeness to God, there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge."
3092:), which is without description or definition, and particularly without quiddity or essence (
3010:
3006:
2988:
2975:
2298:
2230:
1809:
1778:
650:
8619:
Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature
7729:
Mehmet Bayrakdar (Third Quarter, 1983). "Al-Jahiz And the Rise of Biological Evolutionism",
6445:"Why Is Philosophy Bad for the Soul? Commentary on Al-Ġazālī's Critique of the Philosophers"
6228:
6145:
2448:
Another reason the Islamic world flourished during the Middle Ages was an early emphasis on
11803:
11758:
11720:
11667:
11596:
11352:
11148:
11059:
10882:
10852:
10593:
10121:
9967:
9962:
9816:
9692:
9626:
9575:
9570:
9499:
9489:
8696:
The Vital Roots of European Enlightenment: Ibn Tufayl's Influence on Modern Western Thought
6819:
6794:
6769:
6746:
Irwin, Jones (Autumn 2002), "Averroes' Reason: A Medieval Tale of Christianity and Islam",
5423:
5390:
5280:
4714:
4455:
until they reach the age of 14. During which time, he wrote that they should be taught the
4010:). It is a stone which has in it branches like those of a tree. After mineral life evolves
3862:
3850:
3677:
3420:
3356:
contact with even their own bodies. He argues that, in this scenario, one would still have
3084:) when thought of in terms of necessity would ontologically translate into a notion of the
2992:
2912:
2838:
2490:
2481:
2457:
1428:
451:, and the achievements of this period had a crucial influence in the development of modern
334:
7244:
For recent discussions of this question see: Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna and Essentialism",
5341:, another acquaintance of Pococke, to write his own philosophical novel set on an island,
4324:(13th century) tried to defend the Aristotelian conception of place in a treatise titled:
447:) and lasting until the 6th century AH (late 12th century CE). The period is known as the
8:
11944:
11899:
11889:
11848:
11796:
11781:
11710:
11690:
11672:
11504:
11471:
11332:
11319:
11126:
10923:
10834:
10789:
10695:
10581:
10394:
10242:
9776:
9707:
9687:
9646:
9123:
9088:
8100:
8072:
7894:
7629:
7392:
6497:
6326:
5600:
5438:
Islamic political philosophy, was, indeed, rooted in the very sources of Islam, i.e. the
5245:
5122:
4936:
4826:
4497:
4484:
4460:
4309:
4264:
4204:
3669:
3396:
3365:
3001:
2964:
2952:
2920:
2853:
2849:
2669:
2641:
2637:
2149:
1771:
1678:
1335:. One other part of Aristotle's theory shocked the faith of the Mutakallamin — the
1087:
1041:
930:
was discouraged due to a lack of participants. During this period, traditions similar to
780:
552:
512:
Intellectual innovations, achievements, and advancements of this period included, within
339:
186:
10656:
7378:
5690:
3505:
emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion and emphsized the process of
439:
is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the
11894:
11863:
11843:
11791:
11773:
11748:
11743:
11695:
11682:
11649:
11544:
11446:
11381:
11337:
11281:
11121:
10950:
10844:
10752:
10556:
10435:
10426:
10389:
10384:
10290:
10285:
10262:
10181:
9995:
9922:
9786:
9641:
9402:
9174:
9027:
8047:
7786:
7292:
7172:
Steve A. Johnson (1984), "Ibn Sina's Fourth Ontological Argument for God's Existence",
6992:
6473:
6459:
6362:
5659:
5580:
History of Europe - Middle Ages - Reform and renewal - Christianity, Judaism, and Islam
5556:
5551:
5534:
5428:
5362:
5272:
4974:
4757:
4694:
4508:, or any other subject or profession they would be interested in pursuing for a future
4468:
4374:
4216:
4186:
4148:
4118:
3961:
3740:
3357:
3317:
3136:
2695:
2588:"For the Islamic philosophers, logic included not only the study of formal patterns of
2501:
2485:
2294:
1964:
1868:
1204:
1184:
872:
630:
473:
448:
431:
347:
147:
7189:
Morewedge, P. (1970), "Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Malcolm and the Ontological Argument",
7069:
5826:
5601:"The Golden and Dark Ages of Islamic Jurisprudence: Analyzing the Orientalist Thought"
4635:
4280:) between the inner surfaces of the containing body. He showed that place was akin to
4219:(8th–15th centuries) as well as modern times (20th–21st centuries), and is related to
3534:
11932:
11833:
11828:
11813:
11753:
11715:
11700:
11657:
11228:
11188:
11106:
11034:
11017:
10995:
10623:
10598:
10409:
10229:
9972:
9702:
9621:
9545:
8973:
8953:
8934:
8918:
8908:
8870:
8845:
8820:
8770:
8745:
8724:
8699:
8675:
8638:
8601:
8545:
8452:
8384:
8315:
8104:
8076:
8051:
7790:
7621:
7588:
7529:
7456:
7117:
7013:
6921:
6823:
6798:
6773:
6724:
6515:
6477:
6463:
6354:
6308:
6298:
6242:
6232:
6175:
6121:
6117:
6065:
6055:
5999:
5989:
5930:
5926:
5830:
5724:
Toomer, G. J. (1 December 1964). "Ibn al-Haythams Weg zur Physik. Matthias Schramm".
5707:
5686:
5663:
5642:
El-Bizri, Nader (September 2005). "A philosophical perspective on Alhazen's optics".
5612:
5350:
5269:
5126:
5045:
4892:
4790:"The time of action must be observed, so that essence and accident are not confused."
4603:
4586:
4532:
4452:
4408:
4350:
4243:(Alhazen; died c. 1041) presented a thorough mathematical critique and refutation of
4200:
3866:
3846:
3820:
3788:
3689:
3400:
3361:
2865:
2861:
2649:
2449:
2390:
2145:
1908:
1883:
1873:
1759:
1740:
1682:
1623:
1219:
1212:
899:
732:
576:
235:
8204:
3380:
2306:
1304:, were also important philosophers, though the latter did not identify himself as a
11884:
11818:
11808:
11509:
11456:
11406:
11386:
11347:
11342:
11183:
11111:
10829:
10740:
10631:
10603:
10588:
10551:
10257:
10237:
10204:
10109:
10071:
9826:
9796:
9771:
9756:
9616:
9382:
9217:
8866:
8841:
8766:
8720:
8597:
8380:
8039:
7778:
7600:
7489:
7228:
7198:
6984:
6627:
6505:
6455:
6346:
6290:
6270:
6224:
6212:
6165:
6113:
6109:
6047:
6027:
5981:
5961:
5922:
5918:
5822:
5733:
5651:
5130:
4830:
4706:
4555:
4493:
4412:
4388:
4336:
4320:'s philosophical concept of place on mathematical grounds. Later, the philosopher
3841:
ideas related to evolution, which has led several scholars to compare his ideas to
3800:
3661:
3373:
3329:
3248:
3128:
2984:
2924:
2779:
2531:
2238:
2226:
2191:
2156:
1626:. Here Saadia controverts the Mutakallamin, who considered the soul an "accident" '
1596:
1503:
1348:
1344:
1017:
876:
752:
618:
440:
354:
142:
8159:
6350:
4905:"from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society" on a
1276:, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy. The philosophers
625:
recognize that some instances of theological thought were already developed among
11590:
11559:
11524:
11489:
11367:
11218:
11116:
11074:
10985:
10973:
10958:
10933:
10908:
10678:
10546:
10541:
10458:
10443:
10116:
10000:
9811:
9806:
9761:
9222:
9207:
9202:
8863:
The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England
8838:
The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England
8817:
Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England
8801:
8742:
Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England
8717:
The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England
8672:
Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England
8594:
The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England
8574:
8542:
Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England
8529:
8503:
8418:
8411:
8377:
The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England
8355:
8211:
8155:
8014:
7869:
7863:
7815:
7749:
7680:
7595:
7429:
7365:"نکات تشابه و اختلاف «رئالیسم غربی» و «رئالیسم اسلامی» در چیست؟ - گنجینه پاسخ ها"
7364:
7351:"نکات تشابه و اختلاف «رئالیسم غربی» و «رئالیسم اسلامی» در چیست؟ - گنجینه پاسخ ها"
7098:
7076:
7039:
6901:
6882:
6683:
6550:
5586:
5561:
5546:
5254:
5233:
5190:
5174:
5053:
5041:
4897:
4722:
4521:
4464:
4435:
school in some detail, describing the curricula for two stages of education in a
4160:
4051:
3943:
3824:
3681:
3423:
3287:
3132:
3027:
2902:
2622:
2456:) in the following letter to one of the religious opponents he was attempting to
2314:
2290:
2129:
2075:
2004:
1976:
1952:
1336:
1269:
1258:
931:
927:
907:
864:
779:. This work, which was not completed until the 10th century, began shortly after
622:
544:
533:
525:
502:
486:
378:
132:
10730:
8188:
Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", in Roshdi Rashed, ed.,
7350:
6543:
5783:
4569:, Ibn al-Haytham commented on the difficulty of attaining scientific knowledge:
4419:, and he gave a number of reasons for why this is the case, citing the value of
3998:
which assumed the shape of water in due time. The next stage of development was
2714:
does not refer to inductive reasoning, but refers to categorical syllogism in a
641:), which reoccurs in Islamic theology regarding the metaphysical debates on the
604:
displays a wide range of theological topics related to the religious thought of
11499:
11494:
11362:
11327:
11259:
11233:
11069:
10918:
10857:
10770:
10613:
10509:
10252:
9932:
9741:
9717:
9697:
9677:
9212:
9093:
7769:
7139:
5518:
5483:
5414:
5393:
emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion, and the process of
5378:
5370:
5237:
5225:
4956:
4914:
4749:
4543:
4472:
4345:
4240:
4140:
4130:
4106:
4070:
4003:
3975:
3889:
variability was an important factor for biological evolution of living things:
3725:"The temporal series of past events has been completed by successive addition."
3512:
3482:
3321:
3097:
2831:
2738:
refers to both analogical reasoning and categorical syllogism in a real sense.
2630:
2592:
and their validity but also elements of the philosophy of language and even of
2496:
2352:
2318:
2274:
2270:
2246:
2141:
2118:
2094:
2012:
1301:
1025:
989:
983:
605:
564:
537:
490:
361:
10940:
10715:
8290:
David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine",
8043:
7032:
6510:
5655:
3676:
shared by the three Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The
3645:
We built the universe with ˹great˺ might, and We are certainly expanding ˹it˺.
3349:
11960:
11554:
11466:
11396:
11138:
10928:
10862:
10819:
10688:
10313:
10099:
10081:
9631:
9555:
9529:
9463:
8993:. First published in Great Britain in 1949 by Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.
8987:
8922:
7448:
6581:
6358:
6282:
6179:
6039:
5973:
5616:
5296:
5284:
4960:
4906:
4726:
4710:
4663:
4212:
3953:
3750:
3733:
3673:
3264:
3131:
in "holding that existence is an accident of accidents" and also anticipated
2936:
2430:
2286:
2254:
2177:
1988:
1889:
1847:
1698:
1432:
1398:
1234:
1068:
979:
373:
7493:
7259:
7202:
11585:
11575:
11534:
11514:
11286:
11249:
11208:
11094:
11044:
10705:
10683:
10661:
10608:
10576:
10448:
10308:
10219:
10015:
9821:
9766:
9590:
9519:
9275:
9260:
9098:
8579:
7754:
7444:
6597:
5834:
5338:
5292:
5249:
5229:
5202:
5118:
5093:, which means understanding details and inferences drawn by scholars, from
5029:
5010:
4978:
4865:
4679:
4340:
4321:
4228:
3947:
3772:
3650:
3610:
3412:
3325:
3256:
3212:
3105:
3074:
2947:), where he argued against the usefulness, though not the validity, of the
2593:
2539:
2453:
2282:
1956:
1814:
1694:
1262:
1208:
1176:
1063:; according to its founder, the 10th-century Muslim scholar and theologian
1052:
1037:
776:
756:
478:
240:
191:
9453:
8763:
The World of Ibn Tufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Ḥayy Ibn Yaqẓān
7232:
7112:
Street, Tony (2005), "Logic", in Peter Adamson; Richard C. Taylor (eds.),
6170:
4475:, and manual skills (which could refer to a variety of practical skills).
3617:(610–632) which some modern writers have interpreted as foreshadowing the
3146:
The idea of "essence precedes existence" is a concept which dates back to
1465:
school of philosophy, were later influential in the development of modern
11580:
11519:
11391:
11371:
11276:
11213:
11173:
11153:
11079:
11049:
10710:
10646:
10338:
10323:
10199:
10189:
10138:
10104:
10043:
9682:
9606:
9412:
8691:
7584:
6983:(2), Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 109, No. 2: 175–182,
6695:
6631:
5703:
5514:
5506:
and Shia in the 7th and 8th centuries had a genuine political character.
5503:
5467:
5358:
5330:
5318:
5300:
5214:
5206:
5178:
5162:
5037:
4964:
4952:
4942:
4902:
4869:
4806:
4698:
4420:
4114:
4077:
4026:. The Muslim thinkers state that ape then evolved into a lower kind of a
3931:
3829:
3693:
3465:
3448:
3431:
3404:
3291:
3268:
3232:
3216:
3171:
3051:
2834:
2633:
2601:
2597:
2574:
2523:
2410:
2215:
2202:
Several such statements concerning the environment are also found in the
2168:
2079:
2008:
1591:
1377:
1373:
1328:
1289:
1076:
1033:
1028:
in the mid-8th century CE. Muʿtazilite theologians emphasized the use of
764:
760:
580:
568:
548:
540:
460:
320:
8348:
7713:
Conway Zirkle (1941). Natural Selection before the "Origin of Species",
6644:
6366:
5258:, which also featured a desert island narrative and was regarded as the
4105:
Numerous other Islamic scholars and scientists, including the polymaths
3653:
3637:
2694:, before the Arabic translations of Aristotle's works. Later during the
2473:
2285:. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as
926:. As the Sunnah became published and accepted, philosophy separate from
11426:
11254:
11203:
11193:
11064:
10968:
10913:
10720:
10700:
10566:
10333:
10247:
10076:
10023:
9987:
9891:
9611:
9514:
9433:
9348:
9192:
8787:
6164:: Société d'histoire et d'Épistémologie des Sciences du Langage: 9–19.
5522:
5495:
5479:
5459:
5406:
5402:
5314:
5288:
5139:
5114:
5097:
that refers to principles that lie behind the fiqh. Scholars hope that
4918:
4888:
4856:
4771:
4651:
4539:
4428:
4424:
4224:
4220:
4164:
4156:
4136:
4110:
4086:
4054:
4011:
3902:
3701:
3575:
3435:
3303:
3236:
3151:
2927:(1806–1873). Systematic refutations of Greek logic were written by the
2898:
2894:
2886:
2882:
2811:
2789:
2723:
2569:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2429:
show that medieval Islamic thought was open to the humanistic ideas of
2406:
2384:
2334:
2310:
2218:
2083:
2071:
2063:
1996:
1992:
1804:
1722:
1666:
1499:
1491:
1466:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1408:
1389:
1285:
1277:
1231:
1223:
1060:
1040:
are accessible through rational thought and inquiry, and affirmed that
967:
832: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
772:
572:
521:
494:
482:
452:
444:
8234:, From Medieval to Modern in the Islamic World, Sawyer Seminar at the
6996:
4697:, al-Biruni made the first real distinction between a scientist and a
3728:".•. The temporal series of past events cannot be an actual infinite."
1991:. This was particularly the case in Paris, where Avicennism was later
11441:
11436:
11296:
11223:
11158:
11029:
10963:
10775:
10765:
10760:
10735:
10531:
10091:
10053:
9672:
9560:
9494:
9438:
9387:
9255:
9197:
9187:
8996:
8231:
The Interplay of Science and Theology in the Fourteenth-century Kalam
6094:
Adang, Camilla (2001). "Belief and Unbelief: choice or destiny?". In
5487:
5451:
5439:
5410:
5210:
4881:
4877:
4873:
4753:
4675:
4559:
4456:
4317:
4313:
4285:
4244:
4027:
4015:
3979:
3842:
3780:
3634:
3614:
3584:
3384:
3279:
3272:
3220:
3186:
3055:
3035:
2948:
2916:
2775:
2751:
2673:
2609:
2589:
2561:
2543:
2414:
2360:
2262:
2258:
2234:
2203:
2106:
2049:
2043:
2026:
1980:
1842:
1686:
1674:
1658:
1649:
1602:
1473:
1462:
1412:
1297:
1246:
1238:
1192:
1008:
955:
950:
946:
942:
880:
768:
736:
10666:
8122:
Roshdi Rashed (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham",
7393:"به چه دلیل واجب الوجود باید واجد همه کمالات باشد؟ - گنجینه پاسخ ها"
7379:"ازلی و ابدی بودن خداوند را از طریق عقل ثابت کنید؟ - گنجینه پاسخ ها"
5502:
are considered proofs of political thought. The clashes between the
4717:, and on this basis, arrive at a "common-sense single value for the
4646:
also introduced an early scientific method in nearly every field of
4399:
in the West), in one of his books, wrote a chapter dealing with the
4147:. He articulated a relationship between the physical and observable
3974:) developed theories on evolution that possibly had an influence on
3324:
and the substantiality of the soul. He referred to the living human
1987:
distinction, along with the debates and censure that they raised in
1529:
1111:
807:
666:
23:
11271:
11178:
11143:
11101:
11089:
10877:
10671:
10571:
10514:
10318:
10272:
10156:
9509:
9448:
9443:
9367:
9265:
7782:
6988:
5737:
5463:
5455:
5447:
5432:
5023:
4994:
4861:
4741:
4737:
4690:
4667:
4392:
4384:
3894:
3886:
3808:
3776:
3685:
3665:
3622:
3592:
3579:
3571:
3452:
3427:
3313:
3309:
3252:
3228:
3224:
3182:
3167:
3147:
3047:
2980:
2871:
2857:
2845:
2807:
2800:
2792:, who wrote the most elaborate commentaries on Aristotelian logic.
2785:
2747:
2719:
2707:
2618:
2565:
2557:
2266:
2242:
2098:
2039:
2022:
1948:
1785:
1748:
1710:
1690:
1477:
1438:
1416:
1332:
1254:
1250:
1200:
1196:
1188:
960:
728:
634:
609:
529:
468:
464:
7057:
I. M. Bochenski (1961), "On the history of the history of logic",
6312:
6246:
6069:
6003:
5478:
posed political ideas and theories. For example, the ideas of the
3574:
school of philosophy, most notably in the work of the philosopher
3267:. Some of Avicenna's views on the soul included the idea that the
2860:. In his medical writings, Avicenna was the first to describe the
2195:
1669:. Al-Farabi's school of philosophy "breaks with the philosophy of
1590:
The oldest Jewish religio-philosophical work preserved is that of
1001:
God is an absolute unity, and no attribute can be ascribed to Him.
934:
began to evolve, but philosophy remained subordinate to religion.
10898:
10872:
10867:
10809:
10804:
10636:
10524:
10519:
10478:
10300:
10146:
10028:
9290:
9270:
9141:
9060:
8399:
8397:
7505:
Osman Amin (2007), "Influence of Muslim Philosophy on the West",
5394:
5185:, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in
4999:
4947:
4868:
is his theory of knowledge, in which he developed the concept of
4839:
4647:
4615:
4391:), a maktab was often attached to a mosque. In the 11th century,
4362:
4168:
4035:
3999:
3870:
3838:
3563:
3506:
3408:
3100:' when accounting for being qua existence in terms of necessity (
3031:
2771:
2715:
2665:
2653:
2548:
2380:
2367:
2340:
2102:
1984:
1495:
1383:
1293:
938:
919:
517:
456:
8403:
Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher",
6696:"Avicenna (Ibn Sina) | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"
6555:
Everything you wanted to know about Islam but were afraid to ask
6443:
Wilczyński, Karol (2020), Bokus, Barbara; Kosowska, Ewa (eds.),
3722:"An actual infinite cannot be completed by successive addition."
3519:, Ibn al-Haytham further wrote the following comments on truth:
3185:(or onto-theology), or by way of comparisons that are made with
2018:
614:
11163:
11084:
10814:
10473:
10463:
10161:
10063:
9320:
9161:
6278:
6105:
6035:
5969:
5914:
5443:
5275:. It became "one of the most important books that heralded the
5069:
5004:
4989:
4984:
4969:
4835:
4778:"The drug must be free from any extraneous accidental quality."
4619:
4611:
4509:
4379:
4358:
4301:
4208:
3995:
3991:
3987:
3878:
3834:
3711:"An infinite temporal regress of events is an actual infinite."
3399:
and theologians developed the concept of the universe having a
3345:
2906:
2759:
2681:
2656:, which could be generally applied to many types of questions.
2469:
2461:
2422:
2322:
2164:
2097:, can also be found in the works of Averroes, as a reaction to
1979:, particularly his doctrines on the nature of the soul and his
1706:
1654:
1622:). The soul is a substance more delicate even than that of the
1242:
1173:
1095:
1029:
915:
903:
744:
740:
477:, and philosophical activity declined significantly in Western
209:
199:
8903:
Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith (2005),
8394:
5874:"Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West"
5605:
QALAM International Journal of Islamic and Humanities Research
4666:
of experimental scientists", while in the introduction to his
4423:
and emulation among pupils as well as the usefulness of group
4407:
schools. He wrote that children can learn better if taught in
4006:
developed in course of time. Their highest form being mirjan (
10979:
10641:
9927:
9860:
9325:
9315:
9310:
9280:
6859:, 3 vols, J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and London.
6618:, Applications of Political Theory By Christopher A. Colmo",
6342:
6161:
5813:
Spier, Ray (2002). "The history of the peer-review process".
5491:
5475:
5418:
5417:
political treatise known to medieval Muslims at the time was
5149:
4822:
4623:
4599:
4416:
4281:
4039:
4031:
4007:
3918:
3913:
Tusi then explains how humans evolved from advanced animals:
3882:
3874:
3804:
3753:
view of the universe is expressed in a section on cosmology:
3697:
3416:
3353:
3283:
3263:
doctrine on the nature of the soul was influential among the
3124:
3043:
3023:
2890:
2879:
2841:
such as "at all times", "at most times", and "at some time".
2767:
2746:
The first original Arabic writings on logic were produced by
2690:
2685:
2645:
2527:
2519:
2144:
were expressions of strong social obligations to stay within
2133:
1960:
1670:
1607:
1368:
1315:
1273:
1268:
From Spain Arabic philosophic literature was translated into
1227:
1226:
Muslims or non-Muslims, played a role in transmitting Greek,
1179:
and his successor, Greek philosophy was introduced among the
1091:
1083:(8th century CE), whereas al-Ashʿarī never held such a view.
1067:, human reason is supposed to acknowledge the existence of a
971:
895:
797:
748:
601:
556:
8331:
Ray Spier (2002), "The history of the peer-review process",
8308:
The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West
3485:
wrote a commentary on Avicenna's definition of truth in his
3017:
2688:(Islamic theology) from the 7th century with the process of
2048:
Averroes (Ibn Rushd) is most famous for his commentaries on
1618:) can be ascribed to God, but not the attributes of action (
1339:
theory of the soul. According to Aristotelianism, the human
9656:
9550:
9305:
9295:
9285:
9108:
8905:
Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia
8008:
6502:
Maimonides Review of Philosophy and Religion Volume 1, 2022
5510:
5471:
5105:
are in harmony in any given case, but they cannot be sure.
5065:
4767:
4536:
4195:
3982:, but has at one time been criticized as overenthusiastic.
3337:
3227:. Later Islamic scholars viewed this work as a response to
3189:'s thought and his critique of the history of metaphysics.
2923:, foreshadowing the system of inductive logic developed by
2806:
The first criticisms of Aristotelian logic were written by
2677:
2373:
1364:
1340:
1180:
975:
923:
911:
513:
493:
where several schools of philosophy continued to flourish:
221:
5677:
Haq, Syed Nomanul (22 December 2009). "Science in Islam".
4030:
man. He then became a superior human being. Man becomes a
3714:".•. An infinite temporal regress of events cannot exist."
2862:
methods of agreement, difference and concomitant variation
10824:
8408:
7644:
Arabic and Islamic Natural Philosophy and Natural Science
7618:
Global History of Philosophy: The Period of Scholasticism
7338:
The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger
7066:
6872:
5599:
Mustapha, Ariyanti; Nazri, Mohammed Arif (January 2022).
5083:
4019:
2969:
2754:(Alfarabi) (873–950), who discussed the topics of future
2613:
some fashion by most of the major Islamic Aristotelians."
1359:
1281:
1187:
began to find able representatives among them; such were
4901:, in which he depicted the development of the mind of a
4781:"It must be used on a simple, not a composite, disease."
4774:, which still form the basis of modern clinical trials:
4678:, the first to conduct elaborate experiments related to
3994:
for development. Matter, therefore, adopted the form of
3791:. Al-Jahiz's ideas on the struggle for existence in the
2082:. Averroism eventually led to the development of modern
1506:, spoke in the highest terms of Ibn Rushd's commentary.
1207:, used Aristotelian language to expound a fundamentally
551:
process and within jurisprudence and theology, a strict
7215:
Mayer, Toby (2001), "Ibn Sina's 'Burhan Al-Siddiqin'",
7070:
Ancient Islamic (Arabic and Persian) Logic and Ontology
6329:(2016). "Islamic Philosophy between Theism and Deism".
3570:
The most successful form of Islamic atomism was in the
3308:
While he was imprisoned in the castle of Fardajan near
8194:, Vol. 2, pp. 614-642 , Routledge, London and New York
7998:(Cambridge University Press), Vol. 17, Issue 1: 57–80.
6345:: Aletheia - Associação Científica e Cultural: 65–83.
6158:Éléments d'Histoire de la tradition linguistique arabe
4383:, which dates back to at least the 10th century. Like
4080:
further developed the evolutionary ideas found in the
3946:
from its birth to its death, describing the phases of
3819:, entitled "On Vasudeva and the Wars of the Bharata,"
3463:
Avicenna elaborated on his definition of truth in his
2530:, but this approach was later displaced by ideas from
7260:"La distinción entre esencia y existencia en Avicena"
6904:, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
4891:
further developed the concept of tabula rasa in his
3736:
in his thesis of the first antimony concerning time.
3459:"What corresponds in the mind to what is outside it."
1963:, Avicennism eventually became the leading school of
1701:, Alfarabi discovers the limits of human knowledge".
1419:), both of whom undertook the defense of philosophy.
871:, literally the study of "speech" or "words") is the
8445:
Classical Arabic Philosophy: An Anthology of Sources
7901:, p. 143-144. Islamic Research Institute, Islamabad.
7850:
7526:
Nature and Creature: Thomas Aquinas's Way of Thought
6420:, ed. John Marenbon (London: Routledge, 2003), p. 54
5032:
dealt with Islamic eschatology in some depth in his
4554:, Ibn al-Haytham also describes an early version of
3005:. This was the first attempt at using the method of
2659:
970:, a new movement arose in the theological school of
7981:Dr Valérie Gonzalez, "Universality and Modernity",
7589:
Ibn al-Haytham: Brief life of an Arab mathematician
7227:, Oxford Journals, Oxford University Press: 18–39,
6496:Holzman, Gitit (2022-06-10), Strauss, Ze'ev (ed.),
4084:. The following statements from his 1377 work, the
3046:beyond the accidental. This was first described by
48:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
8969:Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, An
8902:
8259:
7340:(Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000)
6814:S. Nomanul Haq, "Islam", in Dale Jamieson (2001),
6789:S. Nomanul Haq, "Islam", in Dale Jamieson (2001),
6764:S. Nomanul Haq, "Islam", in Dale Jamieson (2001),
4353:of space was understood, contrary to the previous
3493:"The truth of each thing, as Avicenna says in his
3379:This argument was later refined and simplified by
3108:' in terms of thinking about being qua existence (
2452:, as summarized by al-Hashimi (a cousin of Caliph
2175:were compiled in the "Book of Agriculture" of the
1951:'s (Ibn Sina's) successful reconciliation between
1222:a number of thinkers and scientists, some of them
982:(AD 700–748), who was expelled from the school of
7766:
7715:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
7544:
7542:
7482:The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science
6941:Faith and Reason: Convergence and Complementarity
5950:
5948:
5946:
5850:
5040:the Islamic view of eschatology using reason and
4447:Ibn Sina wrote that children should be sent to a
3799:"Animals engage in a struggle for existence; for
11958:
9343:
7809:A 13th-Century Darwin? Tusi's Views on Evolution
7149:The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
7116:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 247–265,
7061:, p. 4-10. Translated by I. Thomas, Notre Dame,
5903:Nagel, T. (2006). "Theology and the Qurʾān". In
4038:. He evolves into a higher stage and becomes an
3403:with a beginning. This view was inspired by the
3223:and material from the hadith corpus as forms of
8182:
8095:M. S. Asimov, Clifford Edmund Bosworth (1999),
8067:M. S. Asimov, Clifford Edmund Bosworth (1999),
5309:(1690) by Locke, who was a student of Pococke.
5148:, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a fictional
4562:hypotheses that cannot be observed from Earth.
4546:(Alhacen) was an important contribution to the
3849:. This is due to Biruni describing the idea of
2074:theology, Averroism became very influential in
1820:Al-Ghazali's criticism of Avicennian philosophy
8811:
8809:
8562:
8560:
8558:
7539:
7293:"Ibn Sina on necessary and possible existence"
6260:
6258:
6256:
6202:
6200:
6146:"La théologie musulmane et l'étude du langage"
6139:
6137:
5943:
5240:translations were also published at the time.
5228:the Younger. The first English translation by
4909:. The Latin translation of his work, entitled
4740:(Ibn Sina) is considered the father of modern
3069:) as an accident that happens to the essence (
2864:which are critical to inductive logic and the
2152:as an obligation of khalifa or "stewardship".
1384:Main protagonists of Falsafa and their critics
9876:
9012:
8928:
8191:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
7844:
7028:
7026:
6319:
5598:
4967:relates to one of the six articles of faith (
3336:by which God communicates truth to the human
3042:and the accidental, essence endures within a
1928:
1086:According to the Afghan-American philosopher
410:
8586:
8094:
8066:
7803:
7801:
7799:
7647:. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2022.
7114:The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy
5209:of the human soul, using both demonstrative
5076:
4650:he studied. For example, in his treatise on
4276:) is the imagined (three-dimensional) void (
3219:of the human soul, using both demonstrative
3139:." He also provided early arguments for "a '
2878:, in which he stressed on the importance of
937:Independent minds exploiting the methods of
8806:
8664:
8555:
8371:
8369:
8286:
8284:
8227:
6647:. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
6575:The debate on Islam and secularism in Egypt
6452:Truth and Falsehood in Science and the Arts
6253:
6197:
6134:
5635:
5244:went on to have a significant influence on
4585:Ibn al-Haytham attributed his experimental
3364:is not logically dependent on any physical
3112:) in terms of contingency qua possibility (
2788:(1126–98) was the last major logician from
2421:. A wide range of Islamic writings on love
2417:in their search for knowledge, meaning and
2123:
1904:Avicenna Cultural and Scientific Foundation
1558:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1513:
1140:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
941:sought to investigate the doctrines of the
695:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
9883:
9869:
9019:
9005:
8470:The Theologus Autodidactus of Ibn at-Nafis
7888:
7520:
7518:
7023:
6912:
6910:
6538:
6536:
6442:
4368:
4326:Fi al-Radd ‘ala Ibn al-Haytham fi al-makan
3833:"had to take place." He explains it using
3368:, and that the soul should not be seen in
3096:). Consequently, Avicenna's ontology is '
2396:The removal of corruption among physicians
2225:The earliest known treatises dealing with
1935:
1921:
417:
403:
8950:Suhrawardi and the School of Illumination
8462:
8158:(1998), "Science in Islamic philosophy",
8150:
8148:
8062:
8060:
7796:
7550:"Who was Ibn al-Haytham - Ibn Al-Haytham"
7439:
7437:
7257:
7188:
7182:
7087:
7085:
6616:Breaking with Athens: Alfarabi as Founder
6569:
6567:
6509:
6169:
6021:
5896:
5861:. Oxford University Press. pp. 37–8.
5189:, developing into the first example of a
4992:), while the unrighteous are punished in
4917:the Younger in 1671, had an influence on
3950:and the production of flowers and fruit.
3901:Tusi discusses how organisms are able to
3827:as to why the struggles described in the
3502:
3360:. He thus concludes that the idea of the
3282:'s idea of the soul originating from the
3143:being' as cause of all other existents."
3038:. Whereas existence is the domain of the
3022:Islamic philosophy, imbued as it is with
3018:Distinction between essence and existence
2856:, which he used to pioneer the idea of a
1578:Learn how and when to remove this message
1230:, and other pre-Islamic knowledge to the
1160:Learn how and when to remove this message
848:Learn how and when to remove this message
715:Learn how and when to remove this message
108:Learn how and when to remove this message
8544:, pp. 220-221, Oxford University Press,
8474:Journal of the American Oriental Society
8366:
8281:
7830:
7670:
7612:
7610:
7580:
7578:
7576:
7574:
7475:
7473:
7471:
7469:
7134:
7132:
7010:Ibn Taymiyya Against the Greek Logicians
6977:Journal of the American Oriental Society
6741:
6739:
6737:
6383:(London: Routledge, 1993), p. 24, 26, 28
6325:
5641:
5435:view of Islam had in general triumphed.
5345:. Other European scholars influenced by
4732:
4515:
3668:had an infinite past with no beginning,
2893:. Despite the logical sophistication of
2710:(994–1064) disagreed with, arguing that
2625:was responsible for the introduction of
2017:
1693:he liberates practice from theory". His
1653:
524:research methods emphasizing controlled
8991:. Chapter XIII: "The Arab Philosophers"
8966:Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1 January 1993).
8929:Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi (1996).
8744:, p. 221-222, Oxford University Press,
7661:, CD-ROM Edition, v. 1.1, Leiden: Brill
7515:
7166:
6974:
6907:
6895:Islamic Science, the Scholar and Ethics
6857:History of the Moorish Empire in Europe
6816:A Companion to Environmental Philosophy
6791:A Companion to Environmental Philosophy
6766:A Companion to Environmental Philosophy
6721:Averroes: His Life, Works and Influence
6533:
6495:
6275:The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology
6264:
6217:The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology
6032:The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology
5966:The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology
5955:
5859:The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence
5856:
5750:
5521:considered Ibn Khaldun's definition of
5384:
5306:An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
5125:. Ibn Tufail wrote the first fictional
5108:
4924:An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
4610:"From the statements made by the noble
4451:school from the age of 6 and be taught
4163:. His theories regarding knowledge and
3559:Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam
2830:, and developed an original theory on "
2648:or "backing", and the development of a
2181:, which included the following saying:
1397:(1005–1111) among the Persians, and to
11959:
9026:
8972:. State University of New York Press.
8947:
8648:
8221:
8197:
8154:
8145:
8057:
7651:
7434:
7324:
7111:
7082:
6888:
6713:
6613:
6564:
6295:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.023
6206:
6143:
6052:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.025
5986:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.001
5781:
5723:
5299:." The novel inspired the concept of "
4805:The first documented description of a
4478:
4377:, an elementary school was known as a
4330:A refutation of Ibn al-Haytham's place
4082:Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity
4048:Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity
3967:Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity
3746:Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity
3297:
2970:Cosmological and ontological arguments
2405:Many medieval Muslim thinkers pursued
1172:From the 9th century onward, owing to
1022:systematic schools of Islamic theology
11622:
10364:
9902:
9864:
9342:
9000:
8989:How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs
8025:
7607:
7571:
7479:
7466:
7290:
7214:
7138:
7129:
6937:
6745:
6734:
6626:(3), Oxford University Press: 397–8,
6229:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.45
6093:
5902:
5871:
5841:
5812:
4174:
4143:(Alhacen) is considered a pioneer of
3934:(828–896), considered the founder of
3541:
3166:" was thus developed in the works of
3123:Some argue that Avicenna anticipated
2741:
2706:refers to inductive reasoning, which
2500:," and "the humanist attitude toward
2132:, i.e. producing land. Traditions of
1520:Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)
8965:
8794:, p. 5, Editions de la Méditerranée.
8437:
8166:Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
7701:
7673:"The Qur'an, Knowledge, and Science"
7264:Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía
4829:process. His work, as well as later
4598:, Ibn al-Haytham further wrote that
4526:
4442:
4427:and debates. Ibn Sina described the
2718:sense and analogical reasoning in a
2582:Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2155:Muhammad is considered a pioneer of
1661:(Alfarabi), the founder of Farabism.
1556:adding citations to reliable sources
1523:
1358:For, indeed, if it be supposed that
1138:adding citations to reliable sources
1105:
830:adding citations to reliable sources
801:
693:adding citations to reliable sources
660:
46:adding citations to reliable sources
17:
8819:, p. 222, Oxford University Press,
8674:, p. 218, Oxford University Press,
8516:Electronic Theses and Dissertations
8490:Electronic Theses and Dissertations
8361:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
7867:
7416:Electronic Theses and Dissertations
7248:, Vol. 54 (June 2001), pp. 753-778.
6920:, p. 155, Oxford University Press,
6670:Electronic Theses and Dissertations
6433:(Indianapolis: Hackett, 1995) p. 51
5878:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
5788:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
5757:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
5676:
5268:also had a "profound influence" on
5224:was published in 1671, prepared by
5145:The Incoherence of the Philosophers
5077:
5059:
4193:, which refers to the study of the
3885:. Tusi then goes on to explain how
2837:" syllogism. Its premises included
2795:
2351:), the first treatist dedicated to
2068:The Incoherence of the Philosophers
1999:and theory of knowledge influenced
1975:Avicennism was also influential in
1036:, positing that the injunctions of
868:
13:
8621:, Al-Rashid House for Publication.
8472:by Max Meyerhof, Joseph Schacht",
7258:Alejandro, Herrera Ibáñez (1990),
7012:, p. 48. Oxford University Press,
6645:"Avicenna/Ibn Sina (ca. 980-1137)"
6460:10.31338/uw.9788323542209.pp.46-61
5884:from the original on 21 March 2019
5670:
5623:from the original on 10 March 2023
4624:experts in the prophetic tradition
4614:, it is clear that he believes in
4531:The pioneering development of the
4234:
3917:"Such humans live in the Western
3807:. Environmental factors influence
3708:"An actual infinite cannot exist."
3242:
3026:, distinguishes more clearly than
2915:(b. 1149) criticised Aristotle's "
2726:(1058–1111) (and in modern times,
2055:The Incoherence of the Incoherence
14:
11983:
7677:University of Southern California
7225:Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies
5794:from the original on 10 July 2022
4921:'s formulation of tabula rasa in
3795:have been summarized as follows:
3192:
2660:Logic in Islamic law and theology
2650:scientific method of open inquiry
2328:
2093:", a key foundational concept of
1094:with a slight disposition toward
467:in the 9th century and ends with
11940:
11939:
11926:
8880:
8855:
8830:
8780:
8755:
8734:
8709:
8685:
8624:
8611:
8534:
8508:
8482:
8428:
8349:Avicenna/Ibn Sina (ca. 980-1037)
8341:
8325:
8300:
8265:
8260:Glick, Livesey & Wallis 2005
7836:
6573:Fauzi M. Najjar (Spring, 1996).
6150:Histoire. Épistémologie. Langage
6118:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00025
5927:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00203
5763:from the original on 21 May 2019
5751:Adamson, Peter (February 2020).
5196:Ibn al-Nafis described his book
5082:) refers to the body of Islamic
4288:'s notion of place as space qua
4124:
4050:were available from 1812, while
3853:and then applying it to nature:
3316:wrote his famous "Floating Man"
3086:Necessary-Existent-due-to-Itself
3054:, who was himself influenced by
2774:, and non-Aristotelian forms of
2542:philosophers, who highly valued
2303:environmental impact assessments
1730:
1709:, paved the way for the work of
1528:
1441:(Averroës), the contemporary of
1110:
1051:In the 9th–10th century CE, the
1007:All knowledge necessary for the
806:
665:
22:
8252:
8172:from the original on 2018-05-26
8136:
8116:
8088:
8019:
8001:
7988:
7975:
7964:from the original on 2010-11-27
7946:
7935:from the original on 2011-09-21
7917:
7904:
7878:from the original on 2017-12-21
7807:Farid Alakbarov (Summer 2001).
7760:
7752:, Islam's evolutionary legacy,
7736:
7723:
7707:
7694:
7664:
7635:
7560:from the original on 2018-01-29
7499:
7408:
7399:
7385:
7371:
7357:
7343:
7330:
7317:
7307:from the original on 2008-02-26
7284:
7274:from the original on 2010-01-16
7251:
7238:
7208:
7156:from the original on 2009-06-01
7104:
7051:
7002:
6968:
6931:
6849:
6833:
6808:
6783:
6758:
6702:from the original on 2022-10-06
6688:
6662:
6651:from the original on 2009-04-06
6637:
6607:
6591:
6489:
6436:
6423:
6411:
6398:
6386:
6373:
6331:Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia
6186:from the original on 2021-11-30
6087:
6076:from the original on 2022-11-18
6010:from the original on 2022-11-18
5865:
5052:may be considered the earliest
4850:
4845:
4760:, in his medical encyclopedia,
3986:" state that God first created
3201:
959:, who maintained the belief in
817:needs additional citations for
33:needs additional citations for
9890:
8656:Journal of Religion and Health
8617:Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980),
8124:Arabic Sciences and Philosophy
8028:Arabic Sciences and Philosophy
7996:Arabic Sciences and Philosophy
7657:L. Gardet (2001), "djuz’", in
7291:Fadlo, Hourani George (1972),
7144:"The Spirit of Muslim Culture"
7110:See pp. 253–254 of
7033:History of logic: Arabic logic
5806:
5775:
5744:
5717:
5697:
5644:Arabic Sciences and Philosophy
5592:
5573:
5405:philosophers, who held a more
5157:as a response to Ibn Tufail's
4930:
4864:'s most influential theory in
4800:
4335:Ibn al-Haytham also discussed
4090:, express evolutionary ideas:
4063:The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa
3972:The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa
3803:, to avoid being eaten and to
3332:, which he believed to be the
2958:
1245:. Three speculative thinkers,
1:
11623:
9792:Gholamhossein Ebrahimi Dinani
9782:Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas
9373:Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari
8896:
8423:Encyclopedia of Islamic World
8412:Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher
8205:Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni
8097:The Age of Achievement: Vol 4
8069:The Age of Achievement: Vol 4
7453:History of Islamic Philosophy
7092:Science and Muslim Scientists
6614:Netton, Ian Richard (2008), "
6602:History of Islamic Philosophy
6022:Abrahamov, Binyamin (2016) .
5827:10.1016/S0167-7799(02)01985-6
5782:Druart, Therese-Anne (2020).
5313:also developed the themes of
5089:Mainstream Islam distinguish
4191:Islamic psychological thought
3696:(Saadia ben Joseph); and the
3489:and explained it as follows:
3455:(Ibn Sina) defined truth as:
3278:Avicenna generally supported
2945:Refutation of Greek Logicians
2518:In early Islamic philosophy,
1716:
1237:. They contributed to making
11412:Ordinary language philosophy
9903:
9459:Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi
7874:, Franz Rosenthal (trans.),
6586:Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ)
6144:Peters, J. R. T. M. (1980).
5956:Treiger, Alexander (2016) .
5872:Hasse, Dag Nikolaus (2020).
4682:phenomena, and a pioneer of
4181:Psychology in medieval Islam
4046:English translations of the
3761:
3598:
3503:Islamic political philosophy
3372:, but as a primary given, a
2728:Abu Muhammad Asem al-Maqdisi
2033:
2025:(Ibn Rushd), the founder of
437:classical Islamic philosophy
7:
11462:Contemporary utilitarianism
11377:Internalism and externalism
8948:Razavi, Mehdi Amin (1997),
8637:, p. 202, Rowman Altamira,
8228:Dallal, Ahmad (2001–2002),
6867:University of Chicago Press
6863:The Mind of the Middle Ages
6454:, Warsaw University Press,
6351:10.17990/RPF/2016_72_1_0065
6101:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān
5910:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān
5528:
5482:in the very early years of
5232:was published in 1708, and
5161:. Both of these novels had
4977:, Islam teaches the bodily
4973:) of Islam. Like the other
4961:final judgement of humanity
4842:from a maltreated patient.
4752:, the experimental use and
4257:Treatise/Discourse on Place
4239:The Arab polymath al-Hasan
4065:were also available at the
3605:Astronomy in medieval Islam
2995:, which he proposed in the
2941:Ar-Radd 'ala al-Mantiqiyyin
2848:(980–1037) often relied on
2514:Logic in Islamic philosophy
2400:
1995:in 1210. Nevertheless, his
1643:
1367:, and claimed that just as
786:
656:
597:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān
10:
11988:
10726:Svatantrika and Prasangika
10365:
9737:Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei
9637:Qadi Mir Husayn al-Maybudi
9551:Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi
8931:Ency Hist Arab Science V 3
8790:and Léon Gauthier (1981),
8786:Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik
8449:Hackett Publishing Company
8312:Cambridge University Press
8131:Cambridge University Press
8036:Cambridge University Press
7985:, December 2002, p. 50-53.
7983:The Ismaili United Kingdom
7217:Journal of Islamic Studies
6916:Lenn Evan Goodman (2003),
6620:Journal of Islamic Studies
5397:to find truth - in effect
5337:. The novel also inspired
5113:The Islamic philosophers,
5063:
4934:
4854:
4825:, who describes the first
4744:, for his introduction of
4519:
4215:, particularly during the
4178:
4128:
4024:Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa
3775:scientist and philosopher
3602:
3556:
3552:
3545:
3301:
3164:existence precedes essence
3160:Illuminationist philosophy
2973:
2962:
2919:" and developed a form of
2885:as a source of knowledge.
2722:sense. On the other hand,
2522:played an important role.
2511:
2332:
2161:environmental preservation
2116:
2091:existence precedes essence
2037:
2011:influenced the thought of
1720:
1685:, a move that anticipates
1647:
1638:
1517:
1101:
966:At the 2nd century of the
795:
643:attributes of God in Islam
589:
499:Illuminationist philosophy
57:"Early Islamic philosophy"
11920:
11872:
11772:
11734:
11681:
11648:
11639:
11635:
11618:
11568:
11480:
11318:
11309:
11242:
11025:
11016:
10994:
10949:
10891:
10843:
10797:
10788:
10751:
10622:
10487:
10434:
10425:
10375:
10371:
10360:
10299:
10271:
10228:
10180:
10137:
10090:
10062:
10014:
9986:
9948:Philosophy of mathematics
9938:Philosophy of information
9913:
9909:
9898:
9726:
9665:
9599:
9538:
9485:Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī
9477:
9426:
9360:
9356:
9338:
9248:
9173:
9038:
9034:
8417:February 6, 2008, at the
8405:Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis
8044:10.1017/S0957423905000184
7845:Morelon & Rashed 1996
7246:The Review of Metaphysics
7059:A history of formal logic
6865:, Third edition revised,
6723:. Oneworld Publications.
6511:10.1163/9789004506626_003
6504:, BRILL, pp. 49–78,
6265:Rudolph, Ulrich (2016) .
5857:Schacht, Joseph (1959) .
5656:10.1017/S0957423905000172
5540:Modern Islamic philosophy
4355:emission theory of vision
4322:'Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi
4002:life. Different kinds of
3739:In the 10th century, the
3619:expansion of the universe
3548:Physics in medieval Islam
3090:wajib al-wujud bi-dhatihi
2680:(Islamic jurisprudence),
2279:Isaac Israeli ben Solomon
2206:, such as the following:
2112:
2058:in which he defended the
2052:'s works and for writing
1388:The 12th century saw the
1316:Some differences between
1077:based on rational thought
474:Peripatetic Arabic School
393:Islamization of knowledge
276:Science in medieval times
11967:Early Islamic philosophy
8520:University of Notre Dame
8494:University of Notre Dame
8347:Sajjad H. Rizvi (2006),
7958:www.muslimphilosophy.com
7929:www.muslimphilosophy.com
7897:and Afzal Iqbal (1993),
7866:to Chapter 6, Part 5 in
7821:Azerbaijan International
7604:, October–December 2003.
7420:University of Notre Dame
7063:Indiana University Press
6674:University of Notre Dame
6542:Abdel Wahab El Messeri.
5567:
5347:Philosophus Autodidactus
5327:condition of possibility
5311:Philosophus Autodidactus
5266:Philosophus Autodidactus
5242:Philosophus Autodidactus
5222:Philosophus Autodidactus
5183:Philosophus Autodidactus
5167:Philosophus Autodidactus
5159:Philosophus Autodidactus
5136:Philosophus Autodidactus
4911:Philosophus Autodidactus
4809:process is found in the
4689:Unlike his contemporary
4552:The Model of the Motions
4278:al-khala' al-mutakhayyal
4247:'s conception of place (
4189:was studied in medieval
4117:and may have influenced
3927:Transmutation of species
3825:naturalistic explanation
3442:
3162:. The opposite idea of "
3156:Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi
3080:, given that existence (
2933:Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi
2652:to disprove claims, the
2507:
2488:, including the "art of
2363:must avoid and beware of
2239:Arabic medical treatises
2173:environmental philosophy
2124:Environmental philosophy
1514:Judeo-Islamic philosophy
791:
633:, such as the belief in
608:and through its prophet
11417:Postanalytic philosophy
11358:Experimental philosophy
9469:Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani
9418:Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani
9378:Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri
8792:Risalat Hayy ibn Yaqzan
8333:Trends in Biotechnology
7524:Jan A. Aertsen (1988),
7203:10.5840/monist197054212
7045:Encyclopædia Britannica
7008:Wael B. Hallaq (1993),
6841:Environment and History
6287:Oxford University Press
6221:Oxford University Press
6219:. Oxford and New York:
6044:Oxford University Press
5978:Oxford University Press
5880:. Stanford University.
5815:Trends in Biotechnology
5790:. Stanford University.
5759:. Stanford University.
5343:The Aspiring Naturalist
5220:A Latin translation of
5179:spontaneously generated
5121:, were pioneers of the
4811:Ethics of the Physician
4684:experimental psychology
4660:Book of Precious Stones
4567:Aporias against Ptolemy
4492:literature, preaching,
4483:Ibn Sina refers to the
4369:Philosophy of education
4067:University of Cambridge
3905:to their environments:
3837:processes that include
3660:In contrast to ancient
3587:, or the lack thereof.
3517:Aporias against Ptolemy
3390:
3206:Ibn al-Nafis wrote the
3030:the difference between
2939:(1263–1328), the
2766:, the relation between
2305:of certain localities.
2078:, especially among the
1632:Guide for the Perplexed
1057:Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī
11550:Social constructionism
10562:Hellenistic philosophy
9978:Theoretical philosophy
9953:Philosophy of religion
9943:Philosophy of language
9802:Mohammed Abed al-Jabri
9752:Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr
9713:Shah Waliullah Dehlawi
9581:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
9408:Abu Sulayman Sijistani
9230:Transcendent theosophy
8986:De Lacy O'Leary, D.D.
8888:Plough, Sword and Book
8861:G. A. Russell (1994),
8836:G. A. Russell (1994),
8715:G. A. Russell (1994),
8592:G. A. Russell (1994),
8468:Muhsin Mahdi (1974), "
8375:G. A. Russell (1994),
8203:Dr. A. Zahoor (1997),
7839:Botany and agriculture
7659:Encyclopaedia of Islam
6949:Al-Akhawayn University
6327:Hussaini, Sayed Hassan
6096:McAuliffe, Jane Dammen
5905:McAuliffe, Jane Dammen
5281:European Enlightenment
5260:first novel in English
5198:Theologus Autodidactus
5187:Theologus Autodidactus
5171:Theologus Autodidactus
5154:Theologus Autodidactus
5050:Theologus Autodidactus
5034:Theologus Autodidactus
4945:is concerned with the
4815:Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi
4715:analyzed qualitatively
4640:
4628:
4583:
4575:
4411:instead of individual
4375:medieval Islamic world
4253:Risala/Qawl fi’l-makan
4103:
4097:
4044:
3924:
3911:
3899:
3859:
3813:
3785:struggle for existence
3767:Struggle for existence
3759:
3664:who believed that the
3658:
3642:
3621:and possibly even the
3539:
3530:
3525:
3499:
3475:
3461:
3340:and imparts order and
3208:Theologus Autodidactus
3176:transcendent theosophy
2929:Illuminationist school
2627:hypothetical syllogism
2615:
2536:Hellenistic philosophy
2486:medieval Islamic world
2478:
2427:philosophical theology
2349:Conduct of a Physician
2223:
2200:
2030:
1973:
1879:Bu-Ali Sina University
1853:Ali ibn Yusuf al-Ilaqi
1662:
1065:Abū Manṣūr al-Māturīdī
1020:, one of the earliest
906:, as well as science (
898:, questions about the
875:discipline of seeking
507:Transcendent theosophy
11933:Philosophy portal
11452:Scientific skepticism
11432:Reformed epistemology
9958:Philosophy of science
9586:Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi
8933:. London: Routledge.
8815:G. J. Toomer (1996),
8740:G. J. Toomer (1996),
8670:G. J. Toomer (1996),
8634:Encyclopedia of Islam
8630:Cyril Glasse (2001),
8568:Desert island scripts
8540:G. J. Toomer (1996),
8306:Toby E. Huff (2003),
8236:University of Chicago
8216:Hasanuddin University
8142:Rashed (2007), p. 11.
7912:The Islamic Quarterly
7731:The Islamic Quarterly
7494:10.1093/bjps/30.2.165
7455:, p. 315, Routledge,
7405:Fancy, p. 42 & 60
6719:Majid Fakhry (2001).
6544:Episode 21: Ibn Rushd
6207:Thiele, Jan (2016) .
6171:10.3406/hel.1980.1049
5355:Melchisédech Thévenot
5323:nature versus nurture
5277:Scientific Revolution
4887:In the 12th century,
4855:Further information:
4763:The Canon of Medicine
4746:experimental medicine
4733:Experimental medicine
4672:comparative sociology
4632:
4608:
4602:should only apply to
4591:scientific skepticism
4579:
4571:
4548:philosophy of science
4516:Philosophy of science
4098:
4092:
4076:In the 14th century,
3990:and invested it with
3984:
3978:and his inception of
3915:
3907:
3891:
3861:In the 13th century,
3855:
3815:In Chapter 47 of his
3797:
3755:
3678:Christian philosopher
3670:medieval philosophers
3643:
3627:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3491:
3471:
3457:
3421:Christian philosopher
3397:medieval philosophers
3320:to demonstrate human
3302:Further information:
3120:: contingent being).
3014:Necessary Existent."
3011:cosmological argument
2989:Proof of the Truthful
2976:Proof of the Truthful
2874:(994–1064) wrote the
2586:
2538:with the rise of the
2484:has its roots in the
2466:
2299:municipal solid waste
2231:environmental science
2208:
2183:
2159:for his teachings on
2021:
1969:
1838:Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani
1779:The Canon of Medicine
1657:
1088:Sayed Hassan Hussaini
1042:the Quran was created
873:Islamic philosophical
747:and are validated by
516:, the development of
11353:Critical rationalism
11060:Edo neo-Confucianism
10904:Acintya bheda abheda
10883:Renaissance humanism
10594:School of the Sextii
9968:Practical philosophy
9963:Political philosophy
9817:Reza Davari Ardakani
9693:Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji
9627:Sadr ad-Din Dashtaki
9576:Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
9490:Afdal al-Din Kashani
6958:on February 27, 2008
6855:S. P. Scott (1904),
6820:Blackwell Publishing
6795:Blackwell Publishing
6770:Blackwell Publishing
6559:Philosophia Islamica
6431:Aristotle in Outline
6289:. pp. 285–290.
6223:. pp. 225–241.
6046:. pp. 264–279.
5427:. By the end of the
5391:political philosophy
5385:Political philosophy
5109:Philosophical novels
4721:sought", whether an
4644:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
4343:implications in his
3863:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
3851:artificial selection
3823:attempted to give a
3352:, which includes no
2993:ontological argument
2913:Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
2762:and relation of the
2666:analogical reasoning
2482:Renaissance humanism
2148:and to preserve the
1552:improve this section
1292:(born in modern-day
1201:Ibn Rushd (Averroës)
1134:improve this section
1081:Abū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān
1024:to develop were the
826:improve this article
689:improve this section
204:(Islamic monotheism)
170:Early social changes
165:Early historiography
42:improve this article
10924:Nimbarka Sampradaya
10835:Korean Confucianism
10582:Academic Skepticism
9777:Seyyed Hossein Nasr
9698:Mujaddid Alf-i-Sani
9688:Mohsen Fayz Kashani
9647:Sayyid Haydar Amuli
9157:Medieval psychology
9129:Natural philosophy
8698:, Lexington Books,
8566:Martin Wainwright,
8101:Motilal Banarsidass
8073:Motilal Banarsidass
7914:in 1955; pgs. 28-46
7895:Muhammad Hamidullah
7630:Motilal Banarsidass
7507:Monthly Renaissance
7297:Philosophical Forum
7233:10.1093/jis/12.1.18
6861:F. B. Artz (1980),
6418:Medieval Philosophy
6020: •
5954: •
5679:Islam & Science
5246:European literature
5138:) as a response to
5123:philosophical novel
4975:Abrahamic religions
4937:Islamic eschatology
4827:medical peer review
4662:), he is "the most
4485:secondary education
4479:Secondary education
4461:Islamic metaphysics
4387:(which referred to
3328:, particularly the
3298:Thought experiments
3137:nonexistent objects
3002:The Book of Healing
2965:Islamic metaphysics
2953:inductive reasoning
2850:deductive reasoning
2676:were introduced in
2670:inductive reasoning
2642:science of citation
2494:, called in Latin,
2480:Certain aspects of
2313:also had the first
2281:, Ibn al-Quff, and
2150:natural environment
2001:William of Auvergne
1772:The Book of Healing
1449:theologians led by
1404:Tahafut al-Falasifa
1251:Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
1241:known in Christian
1197:Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
879:principles through
781:The Farewell Sermon
735:generated both the
627:polytheistic Pagans
617:". However, modern
553:science of citation
503:Mystical philosophy
443:(early 9th century
11972:Islamic Golden Age
11545:Post-structuralism
11447:Scientific realism
11402:Quinean naturalism
11382:Logical positivism
11338:Analytical Marxism
10557:Peripatetic school
10469:Chinese naturalism
9996:Aesthetic response
9923:Applied philosophy
9787:Abdolkarim Soroush
9632:Aziz Mahmud Hudayi
9546:Hajji Bektash Wali
9082:medieval astronomy
9028:Islamic philosophy
8800:2021-03-03 at the
8573:2008-07-24 at the
8528:2015-04-04 at the
8502:2015-04-04 at the
8354:2009-04-06 at the
8210:2008-06-26 at the
8161:Islamic Philosophy
8013:2019-04-29 at the
7862:2010-11-27 at the
7814:2019-05-26 at the
7748:2019-12-02 at the
7620:, Pt. II, p. 465.
7594:2007-09-27 at the
7428:2015-04-04 at the
7097:2007-10-20 at the
7075:2007-10-30 at the
7038:2007-10-12 at the
6900:2007-09-22 at the
6885:, 1001 Inventions)
6881:2008-02-29 at the
6682:2015-04-04 at the
6632:10.1093/jis/etn047
6549:2019-03-30 at the
6429:Timothy Robinson,
6395:413a4-5; 414a19-20
5980:. pp. 27–43.
5585:2015-05-03 at the
5557:Peripatetic school
5552:Islamic Golden Age
5535:Islamic philosophy
5498:on the concept of
5429:Islamic Golden Age
5363:Christiaan Huygens
5335:Molyneux's Problem
5273:Western philosophy
4695:natural philosophy
4596:The Winding Motion
4502:trade and commerce
4217:Islamic Golden Age
4187:philosophy of mind
4175:Philosophy of mind
4119:Western philosophy
3962:Brethren of Purity
3741:Brethren of Purity
3690:Jewish philosopher
3662:Greek philosophers
3651:Surah Adh-Dhariyat
3609:There are several
3542:Natural philosophy
3358:self-consciousness
3318:thought experiment
3150:and his school of
2897:, the rise of the
2742:Aristotelian logic
2696:Islamic Golden Age
2684:(Islamic law) and
2502:classical language
2295:soil contamination
2031:
1965:Islamic philosophy
1869:Avicenna Mausoleum
1810:On God's existence
1663:
1205:Brethren of Purity
1185:Peripatetic school
631:pre-Islamic Arabia
461:Renaissance Europe
449:Islamic Golden Age
432:Islamic philosophy
11954:
11953:
11916:
11915:
11912:
11911:
11908:
11907:
11614:
11613:
11610:
11609:
11606:
11605:
11333:Analytic feminism
11305:
11304:
11267:Kierkegaardianism
11229:Transcendentalism
11189:Neo-scholasticism
11035:Classical Realism
11012:
11011:
10784:
10783:
10599:Neopythagoreanism
10356:
10355:
10352:
10351:
9973:Social philosophy
9858:
9857:
9854:
9853:
9850:
9849:
9703:Rajab Ali Tabrizi
9642:Mahmud Shabistari
9622:Jalaladdin Davani
9571:Nasir al-Din Tusi
9393:Abu Hatim al-Razi
9334:
9333:
8979:978-1-4384-1419-5
8338:(8), p. 357-358 .
8262:, pp. 89–90)
8103:, pp. 34–5,
8075:, pp. 33–4,
7616:C. Plott (2000),
7528:, p. 152. Brill,
7123:978-0-521-52069-0
6846:(4), pp. 475-488.
6521:978-90-04-50661-9
6469:978-83-235-4220-9
6271:Schmidtke, Sabine
6238:978-0-19-969670-3
6213:Schmidtke, Sabine
6127:978-90-04-14743-0
6028:Schmidtke, Sabine
5962:Schmidtke, Sabine
5509:The 14th-century
5351:Gottfried Leibniz
4707:systematic errors
4642:His contemporary
4604:prophets of Islam
4587:scientific method
4533:scientific method
4527:Scientific method
4453:primary education
4443:Primary education
4351:visual perception
4059:al-Fawz al-Asghar
3958:al-Fawz al-Asghar
3865:explains how the
3847:natural selection
3821:Abu Rayhan Biruni
3789:natural selection
3787:, a precursor to
3698:Muslim theologian
3578:(1058–1111). In
2991:", was the first
2983:'s proof for the
2951:and in favour of
2866:scientific method
2580:According to the
2450:freedom of speech
2301:mishandling, and
2146:carrying capacity
1989:scholastic Europe
1945:
1944:
1909:Scholars Pavilion
1884:Avicenne Hospital
1874:Avicenna (crater)
1624:celestial spheres
1620:sifat-al-fi'aliya
1588:
1587:
1580:
1296:), the father of
1220:Abbasid caliphate
1170:
1169:
1162:
858:
857:
850:
739:(revelation) and
725:
724:
717:
594:According to the
577:William of Ockham
479:Islamic countries
427:
426:
179:Modern philosophy
118:
117:
110:
92:
11979:
11943:
11942:
11931:
11930:
11929:
11646:
11645:
11637:
11636:
11620:
11619:
11510:Frankfurt School
11457:Transactionalism
11407:Normative ethics
11387:Legal positivism
11363:Falsificationism
11348:Consequentialism
11343:Communitarianism
11316:
11315:
11184:New Confucianism
11023:
11022:
10830:Neo-Confucianism
10795:
10794:
10604:Second Sophistic
10589:Middle Platonism
10432:
10431:
10373:
10372:
10362:
10361:
10205:Epiphenomenalism
10072:Consequentialism
10006:Institutionalism
9911:
9910:
9900:
9899:
9885:
9878:
9871:
9862:
9861:
9832:Hasanzadeh Amoli
9827:Mostafa Malekian
9797:Taha Abdurrahman
9772:Ismail al-Faruqi
9730:
9652:Dawūd al-Qayṣarī
9383:Abu Bakr al-Razi
9358:
9357:
9340:
9339:
9165:
9152:Medieval science
9147:
9132:
9114:
9104:
9067:
9056:
9036:
9035:
9021:
9014:
9007:
8998:
8997:
8983:
8962:
8944:
8925:
8891:
8886:Ernest Gellner,
8884:
8878:
8867:Brill Publishers
8859:
8853:
8842:Brill Publishers
8834:
8828:
8813:
8804:
8784:
8778:
8767:Brill Publishers
8759:
8753:
8738:
8732:
8721:Brill Publishers
8713:
8707:
8689:
8683:
8668:
8662:
8652:
8646:
8628:
8622:
8615:
8609:
8598:Brill Publishers
8590:
8584:
8583:, 22 March 2003.
8564:
8553:
8538:
8532:
8512:
8506:
8486:
8480:
8479:(2), p. 232-234.
8466:
8460:
8441:
8435:
8432:
8426:
8401:
8392:
8381:Brill Publishers
8373:
8364:
8345:
8339:
8329:
8323:
8304:
8298:
8288:
8279:
8269:
8263:
8256:
8250:
8249:
8248:
8247:
8238:, archived from
8225:
8219:
8201:
8195:
8186:
8180:
8179:
8178:
8177:
8156:Sardar, Ziauddin
8152:
8143:
8140:
8134:
8120:
8114:
8113:
8092:
8086:
8085:
8064:
8055:
8054:
8023:
8017:
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7999:
7992:
7986:
7979:
7973:
7972:
7970:
7969:
7950:
7944:
7943:
7941:
7940:
7921:
7915:
7908:
7902:
7892:
7886:
7885:
7884:
7883:
7854:
7848:
7842:
7834:
7828:
7805:
7794:
7793:
7764:
7758:
7740:
7734:
7727:
7721:
7711:
7705:
7698:
7692:
7691:
7689:
7688:
7679:. Archived from
7668:
7662:
7655:
7649:
7648:
7639:
7633:
7614:
7605:
7601:Harvard Magazine
7582:
7569:
7568:
7566:
7565:
7546:
7537:
7522:
7513:
7503:
7497:
7496:
7477:
7464:
7441:
7432:
7412:
7406:
7403:
7397:
7396:
7389:
7383:
7382:
7375:
7369:
7368:
7361:
7355:
7354:
7347:
7341:
7334:
7328:
7321:
7315:
7314:
7313:
7312:
7288:
7282:
7281:
7280:
7279:
7255:
7249:
7242:
7236:
7235:
7212:
7206:
7205:
7186:
7180:
7174:The Muslim World
7170:
7164:
7163:
7162:
7161:
7136:
7127:
7126:
7108:
7102:
7089:
7080:
7055:
7049:
7030:
7021:
7006:
7000:
6999:
6972:
6966:
6965:
6964:
6963:
6957:
6951:, archived from
6946:
6935:
6929:
6918:Islamic Humanism
6914:
6905:
6892:
6886:
6853:
6847:
6837:
6831:
6818:, pp. 111-129 ,
6812:
6806:
6793:, pp. 111-129 ,
6787:
6781:
6762:
6756:
6755:
6743:
6732:
6717:
6711:
6710:
6708:
6707:
6692:
6686:
6666:
6660:
6659:
6657:
6656:
6641:
6635:
6634:
6611:
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6595:
6589:
6571:
6562:
6540:
6531:
6530:
6529:
6528:
6513:
6493:
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6486:
6485:
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6370:
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6316:
6262:
6251:
6250:
6204:
6195:
6194:
6192:
6191:
6173:
6141:
6132:
6131:
6110:Brill Publishers
6091:
6085:
6084:
6082:
6081:
6018:
6016:
6015:
5952:
5941:
5940:
5919:Brill Publishers
5900:
5894:
5893:
5891:
5889:
5869:
5863:
5862:
5854:
5848:
5845:
5839:
5838:
5810:
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5772:
5770:
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5742:
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5668:
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5630:
5628:
5596:
5590:
5577:
5466:(Averroes), and
5131:Hayy ibn Yaqdhan
5080:
5079:
5060:Legal philosophy
4953:end of the world
4754:testing of drugs
4656:Kitab al-Jamahir
4389:higher education
4337:space perception
4284:, foreshadowing
4161:mental functions
3688:(Alkindus); the
3656:
3640:
3330:active intellect
3249:Muslim physician
3129:Bertrand Russell
3104:), while it is '
3024:Islamic theology
2987:, known as the "
2985:existence of God
2925:John Stuart Mill
2796:Avicennian logic
2672:and categorical
2532:Greek philosophy
2376:by the physician
2315:waste containers
2227:environmentalism
2221:
2198:
2192:Sahih al-Bukhari
2157:environmentalism
2089:The concept of "
1937:
1930:
1923:
1753:
1734:
1727:
1726:
1583:
1576:
1572:
1569:
1563:
1532:
1524:
1504:Joseph ben Judah
1349:active intellect
1345:substantial form
1343:is simply man's
1278:Moses Maimonides
1165:
1158:
1154:
1151:
1145:
1114:
1106:
1034:rational thought
1018:history of Islam
870:
853:
846:
842:
839:
833:
810:
802:
753:Ahmad ibn Hanbal
720:
713:
709:
706:
700:
669:
661:
621:and scholars of
528:, observational
441:Islamic calendar
419:
412:
405:
364:
357:
355:Classical Arabic
213:
205:
120:
119:
113:
106:
102:
99:
93:
91:
50:
26:
18:
11987:
11986:
11982:
11981:
11980:
11978:
11977:
11976:
11957:
11956:
11955:
11950:
11927:
11925:
11904:
11868:
11768:
11730:
11677:
11631:
11630:
11602:
11591:Russian cosmism
11564:
11560:Western Marxism
11525:New Historicism
11490:Critical theory
11476:
11472:Wittgensteinian
11368:Foundationalism
11301:
11238:
11219:Social contract
11075:Foundationalism
11008:
10990:
10974:Illuminationism
10959:Aristotelianism
10945:
10934:Vishishtadvaita
10887:
10839:
10780:
10747:
10618:
10547:Megarian school
10542:Eretrian school
10483:
10444:Agriculturalism
10421:
10367:
10348:
10295:
10267:
10224:
10176:
10133:
10117:Incompatibilism
10086:
10058:
10010:
9982:
9905:
9894:
9889:
9859:
9846:
9812:Fouad Zakariyya
9807:Mohammed Arkoun
9762:Frithjof Schuon
9728:
9722:
9708:Qazi Sa’id Qumi
9661:
9595:
9534:
9473:
9422:
9352:
9330:
9244:
9203:Illuminationism
9169:
9163:
9145:
9130:
9113:(jurisprudence)
9112:
9102:
9065:
9054:
9030:
9025:
8980:
8960:
8941:
8915:
8899:
8894:
8885:
8881:
8860:
8856:
8835:
8831:
8814:
8807:
8802:Wayback Machine
8785:
8781:
8760:
8756:
8739:
8735:
8719:, pp. 224-239,
8714:
8710:
8690:
8686:
8669:
8665:
8653:
8649:
8629:
8625:
8616:
8612:
8591:
8587:
8575:Wayback Machine
8565:
8556:
8539:
8535:
8530:Wayback Machine
8513:
8509:
8504:Wayback Machine
8487:
8483:
8467:
8463:
8442:
8438:
8433:
8429:
8419:Wayback Machine
8402:
8395:
8379:, pp. 224-262,
8374:
8367:
8356:Wayback Machine
8346:
8342:
8330:
8326:
8305:
8301:
8289:
8282:
8270:
8266:
8257:
8253:
8245:
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8226:
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8212:Wayback Machine
8202:
8198:
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8121:
8117:
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8093:
8089:
8083:
8065:
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8024:
8020:
8015:Wayback Machine
8006:
8002:
7993:
7989:
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7976:
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7938:
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7923:
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7909:
7905:
7893:
7889:
7881:
7879:
7864:Wayback Machine
7855:
7851:
7835:
7831:
7816:Wayback Machine
7806:
7797:
7777:(4): 459–466 ,
7765:
7761:
7750:Wayback Machine
7741:
7737:
7728:
7724:
7720:(1), p. 71-123.
7712:
7708:
7699:
7695:
7686:
7684:
7669:
7665:
7656:
7652:
7641:
7640:
7636:
7615:
7608:
7596:Wayback Machine
7583:
7572:
7563:
7561:
7548:
7547:
7540:
7523:
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7504:
7500:
7478:
7467:
7442:
7435:
7430:Wayback Machine
7413:
7409:
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7377:
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7362:
7358:
7349:
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7335:
7331:
7322:
7318:
7310:
7308:
7289:
7285:
7277:
7275:
7256:
7252:
7243:
7239:
7213:
7209:
7187:
7183:
7179:(3-4), 161–171.
7171:
7167:
7159:
7157:
7140:Iqbal, Muhammad
7137:
7130:
7124:
7109:
7105:
7101:, Islam Herald.
7099:Wayback Machine
7090:
7083:
7077:Wayback Machine
7056:
7052:
7040:Wayback Machine
7031:
7024:
7007:
7003:
6973:
6969:
6961:
6959:
6955:
6944:
6936:
6932:
6915:
6908:
6902:Wayback Machine
6893:
6889:
6883:Wayback Machine
6870:
6860:
6854:
6850:
6838:
6834:
6813:
6809:
6788:
6784:
6768:, pp. 111-129,
6763:
6759:
6748:The Philosopher
6744:
6735:
6718:
6714:
6705:
6703:
6694:
6693:
6689:
6684:Wayback Machine
6667:
6663:
6654:
6652:
6643:
6642:
6638:
6612:
6608:
6596:
6592:
6572:
6565:
6551:Wayback Machine
6541:
6534:
6526:
6524:
6522:
6494:
6490:
6482:
6480:
6470:
6447:
6441:
6437:
6428:
6424:
6416:
6412:
6408:430a18, 23-24).
6403:
6399:
6391:
6387:
6381:Aquinas on Mind
6379:Anthony Kenny,
6378:
6374:
6324:
6320:
6305:
6263:
6254:
6239:
6205:
6198:
6189:
6187:
6142:
6135:
6128:
6104:. Vol. I.
6092:
6088:
6079:
6077:
6062:
6019:
6013:
6011:
5996:
5953:
5944:
5937:
5913:. Vol. V.
5901:
5897:
5887:
5885:
5870:
5866:
5855:
5851:
5846:
5842:
5811:
5807:
5797:
5795:
5780:
5776:
5766:
5764:
5749:
5745:
5722:
5718:
5702:
5698:
5675:
5671:
5640:
5636:
5626:
5624:
5597:
5593:
5587:Wayback Machine
5578:
5574:
5570:
5562:Sufi philosophy
5547:Islamic science
5531:
5484:Islamic history
5431:, however, the
5387:
5303:" developed in
5255:Robinson Crusoe
5191:science fiction
5117:(Abubacer) and
5111:
5072:
5064:Main articles:
5062:
5054:science fiction
4939:
4933:
4913:, published by
4898:Hayy ibn Yaqzan
4859:
4853:
4848:
4803:
4750:clinical trials
4735:
4725:or a "reliable
4723:arithmetic mean
4622:); that is how
4529:
4524:
4522:Islamic science
4518:
4481:
4445:
4371:
4341:epistemological
4237:
4235:Place and space
4183:
4177:
4133:
4127:
3944:plant evolution
3793:Book of Animals
3764:
3682:John Philoponus
3657:
3649:
3641:
3635:Surah Al-Anbiya
3633:
3607:
3601:
3561:
3555:
3550:
3544:
3509:to find truth.
3445:
3424:John Philoponus
3393:
3342:intelligibility
3306:
3300:
3251:-philosophers,
3245:
3243:Soul and spirit
3204:
3195:
3135:'s "view about
3133:Alexius Meinong
3118:mumkin al-wujud
3094:la mahiyya lahu
3028:Aristotelianism
3020:
2978:
2972:
2967:
2961:
2921:inductive logic
2854:inductive logic
2826:of categorical
2798:
2744:
2664:Early forms of
2662:
2638:inductive logic
2623:system of logic
2560:. The works of
2516:
2510:
2413:and scientific
2403:
2383:of the medical
2366:The manners of
2337:
2331:
2321:facilities for
2291:water pollution
2222:
2214:
2199:
2189:
2130:natural capital
2126:
2121:
2115:
2101:'s concept of "
2076:medieval Europe
2046:
2038:Main articles:
2036:
2005:Albertus Magnus
1977:medieval Europe
1953:Aristotelianism
1941:
1751:
1750:
1725:
1719:
1652:
1646:
1641:
1616:sifat al-dhatia
1584:
1573:
1567:
1564:
1549:
1533:
1522:
1516:
1411:(Avempace) and
1386:
1325:
1308:, but rather a
1259:Aristotelianism
1166:
1155:
1149:
1146:
1131:
1115:
1104:
1061:Māturīdī school
949:, who affirmed
932:Socratic method
928:Muslim theology
908:Islamic science
854:
843:
837:
834:
823:
811:
800:
794:
789:
721:
710:
704:
701:
686:
670:
659:
651:human free-will
623:Islamic studies
592:
545:inductive logic
534:reproducibility
526:experimentation
423:
368:
367:
360:
353:
313:
307:
260:
211:
203:
196:
157:
133:Islamic studies
114:
103:
97:
94:
51:
49:
39:
27:
12:
11:
5:
11985:
11975:
11974:
11969:
11952:
11951:
11949:
11948:
11936:
11921:
11918:
11917:
11914:
11913:
11910:
11909:
11906:
11905:
11903:
11902:
11897:
11892:
11887:
11882:
11876:
11874:
11870:
11869:
11867:
11866:
11861:
11856:
11851:
11846:
11841:
11836:
11831:
11826:
11821:
11816:
11811:
11806:
11801:
11800:
11799:
11789:
11784:
11778:
11776:
11770:
11769:
11767:
11766:
11761:
11756:
11751:
11746:
11740:
11738:
11736:Middle Eastern
11732:
11731:
11729:
11728:
11723:
11718:
11713:
11708:
11703:
11698:
11693:
11687:
11685:
11679:
11678:
11676:
11675:
11670:
11665:
11660:
11654:
11652:
11643:
11633:
11632:
11629:
11628:
11624:
11616:
11615:
11612:
11611:
11608:
11607:
11604:
11603:
11601:
11600:
11593:
11588:
11583:
11578:
11572:
11570:
11566:
11565:
11563:
11562:
11557:
11552:
11547:
11542:
11537:
11532:
11527:
11522:
11517:
11512:
11507:
11502:
11500:Existentialism
11497:
11495:Deconstruction
11492:
11486:
11484:
11478:
11477:
11475:
11474:
11469:
11464:
11459:
11454:
11449:
11444:
11439:
11434:
11429:
11424:
11419:
11414:
11409:
11404:
11399:
11394:
11389:
11384:
11379:
11374:
11365:
11360:
11355:
11350:
11345:
11340:
11335:
11330:
11328:Applied ethics
11324:
11322:
11313:
11307:
11306:
11303:
11302:
11300:
11299:
11294:
11292:Nietzscheanism
11289:
11284:
11279:
11274:
11269:
11264:
11263:
11262:
11252:
11246:
11244:
11240:
11239:
11237:
11236:
11234:Utilitarianism
11231:
11226:
11221:
11216:
11211:
11206:
11201:
11196:
11191:
11186:
11181:
11176:
11171:
11166:
11161:
11156:
11151:
11146:
11141:
11136:
11135:
11134:
11132:Transcendental
11129:
11124:
11119:
11114:
11109:
11099:
11098:
11097:
11087:
11082:
11077:
11072:
11070:Existentialism
11067:
11062:
11057:
11052:
11047:
11042:
11037:
11032:
11026:
11020:
11014:
11013:
11010:
11009:
11007:
11006:
11000:
10998:
10992:
10991:
10989:
10988:
10983:
10976:
10971:
10966:
10961:
10955:
10953:
10947:
10946:
10944:
10943:
10938:
10937:
10936:
10931:
10926:
10921:
10916:
10911:
10906:
10895:
10893:
10889:
10888:
10886:
10885:
10880:
10875:
10870:
10865:
10860:
10858:Augustinianism
10855:
10849:
10847:
10841:
10840:
10838:
10837:
10832:
10827:
10822:
10817:
10812:
10807:
10801:
10799:
10792:
10786:
10785:
10782:
10781:
10779:
10778:
10773:
10771:Zoroastrianism
10768:
10763:
10757:
10755:
10749:
10748:
10746:
10745:
10744:
10743:
10738:
10733:
10728:
10723:
10718:
10713:
10708:
10703:
10693:
10692:
10691:
10686:
10676:
10675:
10674:
10669:
10664:
10659:
10654:
10649:
10644:
10639:
10628:
10626:
10620:
10619:
10617:
10616:
10614:Church Fathers
10611:
10606:
10601:
10596:
10591:
10586:
10585:
10584:
10579:
10574:
10569:
10559:
10554:
10549:
10544:
10539:
10534:
10529:
10528:
10527:
10522:
10517:
10512:
10507:
10496:
10494:
10485:
10484:
10482:
10481:
10476:
10471:
10466:
10461:
10456:
10451:
10446:
10440:
10438:
10429:
10423:
10422:
10420:
10419:
10418:
10417:
10412:
10407:
10402:
10397:
10387:
10381:
10379:
10369:
10368:
10358:
10357:
10354:
10353:
10350:
10349:
10347:
10346:
10341:
10336:
10331:
10326:
10321:
10316:
10311:
10305:
10303:
10297:
10296:
10294:
10293:
10288:
10283:
10277:
10275:
10269:
10268:
10266:
10265:
10260:
10255:
10250:
10245:
10240:
10234:
10232:
10226:
10225:
10223:
10222:
10217:
10212:
10207:
10202:
10197:
10192:
10186:
10184:
10178:
10177:
10175:
10174:
10169:
10164:
10159:
10154:
10149:
10143:
10141:
10135:
10134:
10132:
10131:
10129:Libertarianism
10126:
10125:
10124:
10114:
10113:
10112:
10102:
10096:
10094:
10088:
10087:
10085:
10084:
10079:
10074:
10068:
10066:
10060:
10059:
10057:
10056:
10051:
10046:
10041:
10036:
10031:
10026:
10020:
10018:
10012:
10011:
10009:
10008:
10003:
9998:
9992:
9990:
9984:
9983:
9981:
9980:
9975:
9970:
9965:
9960:
9955:
9950:
9945:
9940:
9935:
9933:Metaphilosophy
9930:
9925:
9919:
9917:
9907:
9906:
9896:
9895:
9888:
9887:
9880:
9873:
9865:
9856:
9855:
9852:
9851:
9848:
9847:
9845:
9844:
9839:
9834:
9829:
9824:
9819:
9814:
9809:
9804:
9799:
9794:
9789:
9784:
9779:
9774:
9769:
9764:
9759:
9754:
9749:
9744:
9742:Muhammad Iqbal
9739:
9733:
9731:
9724:
9723:
9721:
9720:
9718:Hādī Sabzavārī
9715:
9710:
9705:
9700:
9695:
9690:
9685:
9680:
9678:Mir Fendereski
9675:
9669:
9667:
9663:
9662:
9660:
9659:
9654:
9649:
9644:
9639:
9634:
9629:
9624:
9619:
9614:
9609:
9603:
9601:
9597:
9596:
9594:
9593:
9588:
9583:
9578:
9573:
9568:
9563:
9558:
9553:
9548:
9542:
9540:
9536:
9535:
9533:
9532:
9527:
9522:
9517:
9512:
9507:
9502:
9497:
9492:
9487:
9481:
9479:
9475:
9474:
9472:
9471:
9466:
9461:
9456:
9451:
9446:
9441:
9436:
9430:
9428:
9424:
9423:
9421:
9420:
9415:
9410:
9405:
9403:Ikhwan al-Safa
9400:
9395:
9390:
9385:
9380:
9375:
9370:
9364:
9362:
9354:
9353:
9336:
9335:
9332:
9331:
9329:
9328:
9323:
9318:
9313:
9308:
9303:
9298:
9293:
9288:
9283:
9278:
9273:
9268:
9263:
9258:
9252:
9250:
9246:
9245:
9243:
9242:
9237:
9235:Traditionalist
9232:
9227:
9226:
9225:
9220:
9215:
9205:
9200:
9195:
9190:
9185:
9179:
9177:
9171:
9170:
9168:
9167:
9159:
9154:
9149:
9139:
9134:
9126:
9121:
9116:
9106:
9096:
9091:
9086:
9085:
9084:
9079:
9069:
9058:
9048:
9042:
9040:
9032:
9031:
9024:
9023:
9016:
9009:
9001:
8995:
8994:
8984:
8978:
8963:
8958:
8945:
8939:
8926:
8913:
8898:
8895:
8893:
8892:
8890:(1988), p. 239
8879:
8854:
8829:
8805:
8779:
8754:
8733:
8708:
8684:
8663:
8661:(4): 357-377 .
8647:
8623:
8610:
8585:
8554:
8533:
8507:
8481:
8461:
8443:Jon Mcginnis,
8436:
8427:
8393:
8365:
8340:
8324:
8299:
8280:
8278:(1), p. 17-23.
8264:
8251:
8220:
8196:
8181:
8144:
8135:
8115:
8109:
8087:
8081:
8056:
8018:
8000:
7987:
7974:
7945:
7916:
7903:
7887:
7871:The Muqaddimah
7868:Khaldūn, Ibn,
7849:
7841:, p. 815.
7837:Fahd, Toufic,
7829:
7795:
7783:10.1086/348801
7759:
7742:Ehsan Masood,
7735:
7722:
7706:
7693:
7671:A. Abd-Allah.
7663:
7650:
7634:
7606:
7570:
7554:Ibn Al-Haytham
7538:
7514:
7498:
7488:(2): 165–70 ,
7465:
7433:
7407:
7398:
7384:
7370:
7356:
7342:
7329:
7327:, p. 129)
7316:
7283:
7250:
7237:
7207:
7181:
7165:
7128:
7122:
7103:
7081:
7050:
7022:
7001:
6989:10.2307/604423
6967:
6930:
6906:
6887:
6848:
6832:
6807:
6782:
6757:
6733:
6712:
6687:
6661:
6636:
6606:
6590:
6580:2012-06-29 at
6563:
6532:
6520:
6488:
6468:
6435:
6422:
6410:
6397:
6385:
6372:
6318:
6303:
6252:
6237:
6196:
6133:
6126:
6086:
6060:
5994:
5942:
5935:
5895:
5864:
5849:
5840:
5821:(8): 357–358.
5805:
5774:
5743:
5738:10.1086/349914
5732:(4): 463–465.
5716:
5696:
5685:(2): 151–159.
5669:
5650:(2): 189–218.
5634:
5591:
5571:
5569:
5566:
5565:
5564:
5559:
5554:
5549:
5544:
5543:
5542:
5530:
5527:
5519:Ernest Gellner
5389:Early Islamic
5386:
5383:
5379:Samuel Hartlib
5371:Robert Barclay
5226:Edward Pococke
5110:
5107:
5061:
5058:
5046:Arabic fiction
4957:Last Judgement
4935:Main article:
4932:
4929:
4915:Edward Pococke
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4831:Arabic medical
4802:
4799:
4798:
4797:
4794:
4791:
4788:
4785:
4782:
4779:
4734:
4731:
4668:study of India
4544:Ibn al-Haytham
4528:
4525:
4517:
4514:
4480:
4477:
4473:Islamic ethics
4444:
4441:
4370:
4367:
4346:Book of Optics
4298:analysis situs
4241:Ibn al-Haytham
4236:
4233:
4179:Main article:
4176:
4173:
4141:Ibn al-Haytham
4131:Book of Optics
4126:
4123:
4107:Ibn al-Haytham
4071:Charles Darwin
3976:Charles Darwin
3940:Book of Plants
3929:
3928:
3769:
3768:
3763:
3760:
3743:published the
3730:
3729:
3726:
3723:
3716:
3715:
3712:
3709:
3647:
3631:
3613:verses in the
3603:Main article:
3600:
3597:
3554:
3551:
3543:
3540:
3513:Ibn al-Haytham
3483:Thomas Aquinas
3444:
3441:
3392:
3389:
3381:René Descartes
3370:relative terms
3322:self-awareness
3299:
3296:
3244:
3241:
3203:
3200:
3194:
3193:Wajib al-Wujud
3191:
3098:existentialist
3019:
3016:
3007:a priori proof
2974:Main article:
2971:
2968:
2963:Main article:
2960:
2957:
2876:Scope of Logic
2820:quantification
2816:classification
2797:
2794:
2743:
2740:
2730:) argued that
2661:
2658:
2512:Main article:
2509:
2506:
2497:ars dictaminis
2425:, history and
2402:
2399:
2398:
2397:
2394:
2387:
2377:
2370:
2364:
2353:medical ethics
2333:Main article:
2330:
2329:Medical ethics
2327:
2319:waste disposal
2271:Ali ibn Ridwan
2247:Qusta ibn Luqa
2216:Surah Al-An'am
2212:
2187:
2142:urban planning
2125:
2122:
2119:Islamic ethics
2117:Main article:
2114:
2111:
2095:existentialism
2035:
2032:
2013:Thomas Aquinas
1943:
1942:
1940:
1939:
1932:
1925:
1917:
1914:
1913:
1912:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1893:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1863:
1862:
1858:
1857:
1856:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1832:
1831:
1825:
1824:
1823:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1799:
1798:
1794:
1793:
1792:
1791:
1790:
1789:
1782:
1775:
1763:
1762:
1756:
1755:
1745:
1744:
1736:
1735:
1721:Main article:
1718:
1715:
1648:Main article:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1637:
1606:, just as the
1597:Emunot ve-Deot
1586:
1585:
1536:
1534:
1527:
1518:Main article:
1515:
1512:
1385:
1382:
1324:
1314:
1302:historiography
1213:Neopythagorean
1168:
1167:
1118:
1116:
1109:
1103:
1100:
1053:Ashʿarī school
1014:
1013:
1005:
1002:
984:Hasan of Basra
922:and the first
856:
855:
814:
812:
805:
796:Main article:
793:
790:
788:
785:
723:
722:
673:
671:
664:
658:
655:
647:predestination
606:late antiquity
591:
588:
565:Thomas Aquinas
559:or "backing".
425:
424:
422:
421:
414:
407:
399:
396:
395:
389:
388:
384:
383:
382:
381:
376:
370:
369:
366:
365:
358:
350:
346:
343:
342:
337:
332:
324:
323:
317:
316:
315:
314:
303:
300:
299:
293:
292:
287:
279:
278:
272:
271:
270:
269:
264:
258:
253:
248:
243:
238:
233:
225:
224:
218:
217:
216:
215:
207:
197:
195:
194:
192:Concept of God
189:
183:
181:
172:
167:
159:
158:
156:
155:
150:
145:
139:
136:
135:
129:
128:
116:
115:
30:
28:
21:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
11984:
11973:
11970:
11968:
11965:
11964:
11962:
11947:
11946:
11937:
11935:
11934:
11923:
11922:
11919:
11901:
11898:
11896:
11893:
11891:
11888:
11886:
11883:
11881:
11878:
11877:
11875:
11873:Miscellaneous
11871:
11865:
11862:
11860:
11857:
11855:
11852:
11850:
11847:
11845:
11842:
11840:
11837:
11835:
11832:
11830:
11827:
11825:
11822:
11820:
11817:
11815:
11812:
11810:
11807:
11805:
11802:
11798:
11795:
11794:
11793:
11790:
11788:
11785:
11783:
11780:
11779:
11777:
11775:
11771:
11765:
11762:
11760:
11757:
11755:
11752:
11750:
11747:
11745:
11742:
11741:
11739:
11737:
11733:
11727:
11724:
11722:
11719:
11717:
11714:
11712:
11709:
11707:
11704:
11702:
11699:
11697:
11694:
11692:
11689:
11688:
11686:
11684:
11680:
11674:
11671:
11669:
11666:
11664:
11661:
11659:
11656:
11655:
11653:
11651:
11647:
11644:
11642:
11638:
11634:
11626:
11625:
11621:
11617:
11599:
11598:
11594:
11592:
11589:
11587:
11584:
11582:
11579:
11577:
11574:
11573:
11571:
11569:Miscellaneous
11567:
11561:
11558:
11556:
11555:Structuralism
11553:
11551:
11548:
11546:
11543:
11541:
11540:Postmodernism
11538:
11536:
11533:
11531:
11530:Phenomenology
11528:
11526:
11523:
11521:
11518:
11516:
11513:
11511:
11508:
11506:
11503:
11501:
11498:
11496:
11493:
11491:
11488:
11487:
11485:
11483:
11479:
11473:
11470:
11468:
11467:Vienna Circle
11465:
11463:
11460:
11458:
11455:
11453:
11450:
11448:
11445:
11443:
11440:
11438:
11435:
11433:
11430:
11428:
11425:
11423:
11420:
11418:
11415:
11413:
11410:
11408:
11405:
11403:
11400:
11398:
11397:Moral realism
11395:
11393:
11390:
11388:
11385:
11383:
11380:
11378:
11375:
11373:
11369:
11366:
11364:
11361:
11359:
11356:
11354:
11351:
11349:
11346:
11344:
11341:
11339:
11336:
11334:
11331:
11329:
11326:
11325:
11323:
11321:
11317:
11314:
11312:
11308:
11298:
11295:
11293:
11290:
11288:
11285:
11283:
11280:
11278:
11275:
11273:
11270:
11268:
11265:
11261:
11258:
11257:
11256:
11253:
11251:
11248:
11247:
11245:
11241:
11235:
11232:
11230:
11227:
11225:
11222:
11220:
11217:
11215:
11212:
11210:
11207:
11205:
11202:
11200:
11199:Phenomenology
11197:
11195:
11192:
11190:
11187:
11185:
11182:
11180:
11177:
11175:
11172:
11170:
11167:
11165:
11162:
11160:
11157:
11155:
11152:
11150:
11147:
11145:
11142:
11140:
11139:Individualism
11137:
11133:
11130:
11128:
11125:
11123:
11120:
11118:
11115:
11113:
11110:
11108:
11105:
11104:
11103:
11100:
11096:
11093:
11092:
11091:
11088:
11086:
11083:
11081:
11078:
11076:
11073:
11071:
11068:
11066:
11063:
11061:
11058:
11056:
11053:
11051:
11048:
11046:
11043:
11041:
11038:
11036:
11033:
11031:
11028:
11027:
11024:
11021:
11019:
11015:
11005:
11004:Judeo-Islamic
11002:
11001:
10999:
10997:
10993:
10987:
10984:
10982:
10981:
10980:ʿIlm al-Kalām
10977:
10975:
10972:
10970:
10967:
10965:
10962:
10960:
10957:
10956:
10954:
10952:
10948:
10942:
10939:
10935:
10932:
10930:
10929:Shuddhadvaita
10927:
10925:
10922:
10920:
10917:
10915:
10912:
10910:
10907:
10905:
10902:
10901:
10900:
10897:
10896:
10894:
10890:
10884:
10881:
10879:
10876:
10874:
10871:
10869:
10866:
10864:
10863:Scholasticism
10861:
10859:
10856:
10854:
10851:
10850:
10848:
10846:
10842:
10836:
10833:
10831:
10828:
10826:
10823:
10821:
10818:
10816:
10813:
10811:
10808:
10806:
10803:
10802:
10800:
10796:
10793:
10791:
10787:
10777:
10774:
10772:
10769:
10767:
10764:
10762:
10759:
10758:
10756:
10754:
10750:
10742:
10739:
10737:
10734:
10732:
10729:
10727:
10724:
10722:
10719:
10717:
10714:
10712:
10709:
10707:
10704:
10702:
10699:
10698:
10697:
10694:
10690:
10687:
10685:
10682:
10681:
10680:
10677:
10673:
10670:
10668:
10665:
10663:
10660:
10658:
10655:
10653:
10650:
10648:
10645:
10643:
10640:
10638:
10635:
10634:
10633:
10630:
10629:
10627:
10625:
10621:
10615:
10612:
10610:
10607:
10605:
10602:
10600:
10597:
10595:
10592:
10590:
10587:
10583:
10580:
10578:
10575:
10573:
10570:
10568:
10565:
10564:
10563:
10560:
10558:
10555:
10553:
10550:
10548:
10545:
10543:
10540:
10538:
10535:
10533:
10530:
10526:
10523:
10521:
10518:
10516:
10513:
10511:
10508:
10506:
10503:
10502:
10501:
10498:
10497:
10495:
10493:
10490:
10486:
10480:
10477:
10475:
10472:
10470:
10467:
10465:
10462:
10460:
10457:
10455:
10452:
10450:
10447:
10445:
10442:
10441:
10439:
10437:
10433:
10430:
10428:
10424:
10416:
10413:
10411:
10408:
10406:
10403:
10401:
10398:
10396:
10393:
10392:
10391:
10388:
10386:
10383:
10382:
10380:
10378:
10374:
10370:
10363:
10359:
10345:
10342:
10340:
10337:
10335:
10332:
10330:
10327:
10325:
10322:
10320:
10317:
10315:
10314:Conceptualism
10312:
10310:
10307:
10306:
10304:
10302:
10298:
10292:
10289:
10287:
10284:
10282:
10279:
10278:
10276:
10274:
10270:
10264:
10261:
10259:
10256:
10254:
10251:
10249:
10246:
10244:
10243:Particularism
10241:
10239:
10236:
10235:
10233:
10231:
10227:
10221:
10218:
10216:
10213:
10211:
10210:Functionalism
10208:
10206:
10203:
10201:
10198:
10196:
10195:Eliminativism
10193:
10191:
10188:
10187:
10185:
10183:
10179:
10173:
10170:
10168:
10165:
10163:
10160:
10158:
10155:
10153:
10150:
10148:
10145:
10144:
10142:
10140:
10136:
10130:
10127:
10123:
10120:
10119:
10118:
10115:
10111:
10108:
10107:
10106:
10103:
10101:
10100:Compatibilism
10098:
10097:
10095:
10093:
10089:
10083:
10080:
10078:
10075:
10073:
10070:
10069:
10067:
10065:
10061:
10055:
10052:
10050:
10047:
10045:
10042:
10040:
10039:Particularism
10037:
10035:
10032:
10030:
10027:
10025:
10022:
10021:
10019:
10017:
10013:
10007:
10004:
10002:
9999:
9997:
9994:
9993:
9991:
9989:
9985:
9979:
9976:
9974:
9971:
9969:
9966:
9964:
9961:
9959:
9956:
9954:
9951:
9949:
9946:
9944:
9941:
9939:
9936:
9934:
9931:
9929:
9926:
9924:
9921:
9920:
9918:
9916:
9912:
9908:
9901:
9897:
9893:
9886:
9881:
9879:
9874:
9872:
9867:
9866:
9863:
9843:
9840:
9838:
9835:
9833:
9830:
9828:
9825:
9823:
9820:
9818:
9815:
9813:
9810:
9808:
9805:
9803:
9800:
9798:
9795:
9793:
9790:
9788:
9785:
9783:
9780:
9778:
9775:
9773:
9770:
9768:
9765:
9763:
9760:
9758:
9755:
9753:
9750:
9748:
9745:
9743:
9740:
9738:
9735:
9734:
9732:
9725:
9719:
9716:
9714:
9711:
9709:
9706:
9704:
9701:
9699:
9696:
9694:
9691:
9689:
9686:
9684:
9681:
9679:
9676:
9674:
9671:
9670:
9668:
9664:
9658:
9655:
9653:
9650:
9648:
9645:
9643:
9640:
9638:
9635:
9633:
9630:
9628:
9625:
9623:
9620:
9618:
9615:
9613:
9610:
9608:
9605:
9604:
9602:
9598:
9592:
9589:
9587:
9584:
9582:
9579:
9577:
9574:
9572:
9569:
9567:
9564:
9562:
9559:
9557:
9554:
9552:
9549:
9547:
9544:
9543:
9541:
9537:
9531:
9530:Shams Tabrizi
9528:
9526:
9523:
9521:
9518:
9516:
9513:
9511:
9508:
9506:
9503:
9501:
9498:
9496:
9493:
9491:
9488:
9486:
9483:
9482:
9480:
9476:
9470:
9467:
9465:
9464:Nasir Khusraw
9462:
9460:
9457:
9455:
9452:
9450:
9447:
9445:
9442:
9440:
9439:Ibn Miskawayh
9437:
9435:
9432:
9431:
9429:
9425:
9419:
9416:
9414:
9411:
9409:
9406:
9404:
9401:
9399:
9396:
9394:
9391:
9389:
9386:
9384:
9381:
9379:
9376:
9374:
9371:
9369:
9366:
9365:
9363:
9359:
9355:
9350:
9346:
9341:
9337:
9327:
9324:
9322:
9319:
9317:
9314:
9312:
9309:
9307:
9304:
9302:
9299:
9297:
9294:
9292:
9289:
9287:
9284:
9282:
9279:
9277:
9274:
9272:
9269:
9267:
9264:
9262:
9259:
9257:
9254:
9253:
9251:
9247:
9241:
9238:
9236:
9233:
9231:
9228:
9224:
9221:
9219:
9216:
9214:
9211:
9210:
9209:
9206:
9204:
9201:
9199:
9196:
9194:
9191:
9189:
9186:
9184:
9181:
9180:
9178:
9176:
9172:
9166:
9160:
9158:
9155:
9153:
9150:
9148:
9144:
9140:
9138:
9135:
9133:
9127:
9125:
9122:
9120:
9117:
9115:
9111:
9107:
9105:
9101:
9097:
9095:
9092:
9090:
9087:
9083:
9080:
9078:
9075:
9074:
9073:
9070:
9068:
9064:
9059:
9057:
9053:
9049:
9047:
9044:
9043:
9041:
9037:
9033:
9029:
9022:
9017:
9015:
9010:
9008:
9003:
9002:
8999:
8992:
8990:
8985:
8981:
8975:
8971:
8970:
8964:
8961:
8959:0-7007-0412-4
8955:
8952:, Routledge,
8951:
8946:
8942:
8940:9780203086537
8936:
8932:
8927:
8924:
8920:
8916:
8914:0-415-96930-1
8910:
8907:, Routledge,
8906:
8901:
8900:
8889:
8883:
8876:
8875:90-04-09459-8
8872:
8868:
8864:
8858:
8851:
8850:90-04-09459-8
8847:
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8839:
8833:
8826:
8825:0-19-820291-1
8822:
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8810:
8803:
8799:
8796:
8793:
8789:
8783:
8776:
8775:90-04-09300-1
8772:
8768:
8765:, pp. 38-46,
8764:
8758:
8751:
8750:0-19-820291-1
8747:
8743:
8737:
8730:
8729:90-04-09459-8
8726:
8722:
8718:
8712:
8705:
8704:0-7391-1989-3
8701:
8697:
8693:
8688:
8681:
8680:0-19-820291-1
8677:
8673:
8667:
8660:
8657:
8651:
8644:
8643:0-7591-0190-6
8640:
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8635:
8627:
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8607:
8606:90-04-09459-8
8603:
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8457:0-87220-871-0
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8389:90-04-09459-8
8386:
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8350:
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8337:
8334:
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8320:0-521-52994-8
8317:
8313:
8309:
8303:
8296:
8293:
8287:
8285:
8277:
8274:
8268:
8261:
8255:
8242:on 2012-02-10
8241:
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7716:
7710:
7704:, p. 77)
7703:
7697:
7683:on 2008-11-28
7682:
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7461:0-415-13159-6
7458:
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7449:Oliver Leaman
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7197:(2): 234–49,
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6880:
6877:
6874:
6869:, pp 148-50.
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6152:(in French).
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5308:
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5298:
5297:Immanuel Kant
5294:
5290:
5286:
5285:Thomas Hobbes
5282:
5278:
5274:
5271:
5267:
5263:
5261:
5257:
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5176:
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5169:and Kamil in
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5017:
5014:(a test) and
5013:
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5007:
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4907:desert island
4904:
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4871:
4867:
4863:
4858:
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4832:
4828:
4824:
4820:
4817:(854–931) of
4816:
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4786:
4783:
4780:
4777:
4776:
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4755:
4751:
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4728:
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4720:
4716:
4712:
4711:random errors
4708:
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4696:
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4597:
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4588:
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4574:
4570:
4568:
4563:
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4557:
4556:Occam's razor
4553:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4538:
4534:
4523:
4513:
4511:
4507:
4506:craftsmanship
4503:
4499:
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4470:
4466:
4462:
4458:
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4434:
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4426:
4422:
4418:
4415:from private
4414:
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4406:
4402:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4386:
4382:
4381:
4376:
4366:
4364:
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4357:supported by
4356:
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4229:neurosciences
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4213:Islamic world
4210:
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4145:phenomenology
4142:
4138:
4132:
4125:Phenomenology
4122:
4121:and science.
4120:
4116:
4112:
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3993:
3989:
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3954:Ibn Miskawayh
3951:
3949:
3945:
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3937:
3936:Arabic botany
3933:
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3920:
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3910:
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3904:
3898:
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3869:evolved into
3868:
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3758:
3754:
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3749:, in which a
3748:
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3737:
3735:
3734:Immanuel Kant
3727:
3724:
3721:
3720:
3719:
3713:
3710:
3707:
3706:
3705:
3703:
3699:
3695:
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3679:
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3674:creation myth
3671:
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2942:
2938:
2937:Ibn Taymiyyah
2934:
2931:, founded by
2930:
2926:
2922:
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2914:
2910:
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2904:
2900:
2896:
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2477:
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2465:
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2459:
2455:
2451:
2446:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2433:, occasional
2432:
2431:individualism
2428:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2395:
2393:of physicians
2392:
2388:
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2378:
2375:
2371:
2369:
2365:
2362:
2358:
2357:
2356:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2345:Adab al-Tabib
2342:
2336:
2326:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2287:air pollution
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2255:Ibn Al-Jazzar
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2233:, especially
2232:
2228:
2220:
2217:
2211:
2207:
2205:
2197:
2194:
2193:
2186:
2182:
2180:
2179:
2178:Sahih Bukhari
2174:
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2162:
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2002:
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1898:
1897:The Physician
1894:
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1890:The Physician
1887:
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1872:
1870:
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1848:Ibn Abi Sadiq
1846:
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1598:
1593:
1582:
1579:
1571:
1568:February 2023
1561:
1557:
1553:
1547:
1546:
1542:
1537:This section
1535:
1531:
1526:
1525:
1521:
1511:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1488:
1486:
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1470:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1434:
1433:Judah ha-Levi
1430:
1425:
1420:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1405:
1400:
1399:Judah ha-Levi
1396:
1391:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1370:
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1356:
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1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1175:
1164:
1161:
1153:
1150:February 2023
1143:
1139:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1124:
1119:This section
1117:
1113:
1108:
1107:
1099:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1069:creator deity
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1049:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1010:
1006:
1003:
1000:
999:
998:
996:
992:
991:
985:
981:
980:Wasil ibn Ata
977:
973:
969:
964:
962:
958:
957:
952:
948:
944:
940:
935:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
892:
890:
889:mutakallimiin
886:
882:
878:
874:
866:
862:
852:
849:
841:
831:
827:
821:
820:
815:This section
813:
809:
804:
803:
799:
784:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
719:
716:
708:
705:February 2023
698:
694:
690:
684:
683:
679:
674:This section
672:
668:
663:
662:
654:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
611:
607:
603:
600:(2006), "The
599:
598:
587:
584:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
560:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
514:jurisprudence
510:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
483:Islamic Spain
480:
476:
475:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
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420:
415:
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349:
345:
344:
341:
338:
336:
333:
331:
328:
327:
326:
325:
322:
319:
318:
311:
310:Ophthalmology
306:
302:
301:
298:
295:
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288:
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222:Jurisprudence
220:
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109:
101:
90:
87:
83:
80:
76:
73:
69:
66:
62:
59: –
58:
54:
53:Find sources:
47:
43:
37:
36:
31:This article
29:
25:
20:
19:
16:
11938:
11924:
11595:
11586:Postcritique
11576:Kyoto School
11535:Posthumanism
11515:Hermeneutics
11370: /
11311:Contemporary
11287:Newtonianism
11250:Cartesianism
11209:Reductionism
11045:Conservatism
11040:Collectivism
10978:
10706:Sarvāstivadā
10684:Anekantavada
10609:Neoplatonism
10577:Epicureanism
10510:Pythagoreans
10449:Confucianism
10415:Contemporary
10405:Early modern
10309:Anti-realism
10263:Universalism
10220:Subjectivism
10016:Epistemology
9842:Partawi Shah
9837:Javadi Amoli
9822:Ahmad Fardid
9767:Martin Lings
9617:Hajji Bayram
9591:Ibn Taymiyya
9520:Omar Khayyám
9505:Ayn-al-Quzat
9500:Ahmad Yasavi
9413:Ibn Masarrah
9347:by century (
9345:Philosophers
9240:Contemporary
9182:
9142:
9109:
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8588:
8580:The Guardian
8578:
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8302:
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8291:
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8272:
8267:
8254:
8244:, retrieved
8240:the original
8230:
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8189:
8184:
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8160:
8138:
8129:, p. 7-55 .
8126:
8123:
8118:
8096:
8090:
8068:
8031:
8027:
8021:
8003:
7995:
7990:
7982:
7977:
7966:. Retrieved
7957:
7954:"New Page 1"
7948:
7937:. Retrieved
7928:
7925:"New Page 1"
7919:
7911:
7906:
7898:
7890:
7880:, retrieved
7870:
7857:Footnote 27a
7852:
7838:
7832:
7824:
7819:
7774:
7768:
7762:
7755:The Guardian
7753:
7738:
7730:
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7681:the original
7666:
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7617:
7599:
7562:. Retrieved
7553:
7525:
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7506:
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7481:
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7445:Hossein Nasr
7415:
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7276:, retrieved
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6953:the original
6940:
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6690:
6669:
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6639:
6623:
6619:
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6609:
6601:
6598:Henry Corbin
6593:
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6525:, retrieved
6501:
6491:
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6451:
6438:
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6157:
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6031:
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5965:
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5877:
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5787:
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5756:
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5637:
5625:. Retrieved
5608:
5604:
5594:
5575:
5508:
5462:(Avempace),
5458:(Avicenna),
5454:(Alfarabi),
5450:(Alkindus),
5437:
5422:
5398:
5388:
5367:George Keith
5346:
5342:
5339:Robert Boyle
5310:
5304:
5293:Isaac Newton
5265:
5264:
5253:
5250:Daniel Defoe
5241:
5230:Simon Ockley
5221:
5219:
5215:metaphysical
5203:resurrection
5197:
5195:
5186:
5182:
5177:individuals
5175:autodidactic
5170:
5166:
5163:protagonists
5158:
5152:
5143:
5135:
5129:
5127:Arabic novel
5119:Ibn al-Nafis
5112:
5102:
5098:
5094:
5090:
5088:
5075:
5073:
5049:
5048:, hence his
5038:rationalized
5033:
5030:Ibn al-Nafis
5028:
5026:tradition).
5019:
5015:
5009:
5003:
4993:
4983:
4979:resurrection
4968:
4946:
4940:
4922:
4910:
4896:
4893:Arabic novel
4886:
4866:epistemology
4860:
4851:Epistemology
4846:Other fields
4810:
4804:
4761:
4736:
4703:
4688:
4680:astronomical
4659:
4655:
4641:
4633:
4629:
4609:
4595:
4584:
4580:
4576:
4572:
4566:
4564:
4560:cosmological
4551:
4530:
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4263:
4262:Aristotle's
4261:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4238:
4199:(literally "
4194:
4184:
4151:and that of
4134:
4104:
4099:
4093:
4085:
4081:
4075:
4062:
4058:
4047:
4045:
4023:
3985:
3971:
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3957:
3952:
3948:plant growth
3942:, discussed
3939:
3930:
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3912:
3908:
3900:
3892:
3860:
3856:
3828:
3816:
3814:
3798:
3792:
3770:
3756:
3751:heliocentric
3744:
3738:
3731:
3717:
3659:
3644:
3628:
3611:cosmological
3608:
3589:
3569:
3562:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3516:
3511:
3500:
3494:
3492:
3486:
3478:
3476:
3472:
3464:
3462:
3458:
3446:
3413:Christianity
3394:
3378:
3326:intelligence
3307:
3277:
3257:Ibn al-Nafis
3246:
3233:metaphysical
3213:resurrection
3207:
3205:
3202:Resurrection
3196:
3180:
3145:
3122:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3106:essentialist
3101:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3075:essentialism
3070:
3066:
3063:orientalists
3062:
3060:
3050:'s works on
3021:
3000:
2996:
2979:
2944:
2940:
2917:first figure
2911:
2875:
2870:
2843:
2828:propositions
2805:
2799:
2784:
2745:
2735:
2731:
2720:metaphorical
2711:
2703:
2699:
2689:
2663:
2616:
2606:propositions
2594:epistemology
2587:
2579:
2553:
2547:
2517:
2495:
2489:
2479:
2467:
2447:
2404:
2372:The care of
2348:
2344:
2338:
2325:collection.
2283:Ibn al-Nafis
2224:
2209:
2201:
2190:
2184:
2176:
2154:
2127:
2088:
2067:
2059:
2053:
2047:
1974:
1970:
1957:Neoplatonism
1946:
1896:
1888:
1815:Floating man
1784:
1777:
1770:
1713:(Avicenna).
1703:
1664:
1627:
1619:
1615:
1613:
1601:
1595:
1589:
1574:
1565:
1550:Please help
1538:
1508:
1489:
1481:
1471:
1437:
1421:
1402:
1387:
1357:
1353:
1337:Aristotelian
1326:
1321:
1317:
1309:
1305:
1286:Muslim Spain
1267:
1263:Neoplatonism
1217:
1215:world view.
1171:
1156:
1147:
1132:Please help
1120:
1085:
1072:
1050:
1045:
1015:
994:
988:
965:
954:
936:
893:
888:
884:
861:Ilm al-Kalām
860:
859:
844:
835:
824:Please help
819:verification
816:
757:Imam Bukhari
727:The life of
726:
711:
702:
687:Please help
675:
638:
595:
593:
585:
561:
511:
481:, namely in
472:
436:
429:
428:
387:Other topics
335:Architecture
241:Etiquettical
200:
177: /
174:
104:
95:
85:
78:
71:
64:
52:
40:Please help
35:verification
32:
15:
11581:Objectivism
11520:Neo-Marxism
11482:Continental
11392:Meta-ethics
11372:Coherentism
11277:Hegelianism
11214:Rationalism
11174:Natural law
11154:Materialism
11080:Historicism
11050:Determinism
10941:Navya-Nyāya
10716:Sautrāntika
10711:Pudgalavada
10647:Vaisheshika
10500:Presocratic
10400:Renaissance
10339:Physicalism
10324:Materialism
10230:Normativity
10215:Objectivism
10200:Emergentism
10190:Behaviorism
10139:Metaphysics
10105:Determinism
10044:Rationalism
9757:René Guénon
9747:Gohar Shahi
9683:Mulla Sadra
9607:Ibn Khaldun
9218:metaphysics
9164:(mysticism)
9146:(education)
9124:Metaphysics
9103:(dialectic)
9089:Eschatology
9066:(intellect)
8692:Samar Attar
8292:Heart Views
7325:Razavi 1997
7270:: 183–195,
5784:"al-Farabi"
5704:Sabra, A.I.
5611:(3): 9–17.
5515:Ibn Khaldun
5504:Ehl-i Sunna
5468:Ibn Khaldun
5413:. The only
5359:John Wallis
5331:materialism
5319:tabula rasa
5301:tabula rasa
5207:immortality
5173:) who were
5036:, where he
4965:Eschatology
4943:eschatology
4931:Eschatology
4903:feral child
4878:syllogistic
4870:tabula rasa
4813:written by
4807:peer review
4801:Peer review
4772:medications
4699:philosopher
4425:discussions
4421:competition
4268:(Book IV -
4115:Renaissance
4101:themselves.
4078:Ibn Khaldun
4055:manuscripts
3932:Al-Dinawari
3881:, and then
3830:Mahabharata
3694:Saadia Gaon
3495:Metaphysica
3487:Metaphysics
3466:Metaphysics
3449:metaphysics
3432:Saadia Gaon
3405:creationism
3401:finite past
3269:immortality
3265:Scholastics
3217:immortality
3172:Mulla Sadra
3154:as well as
3052:metaphysics
2999:section of
2997:Metaphysics
2959:Metaphysics
2756:contingents
2634:modal logic
2598:metaphysics
2575:Renaissance
2524:Islamic law
2391:examination
2241:written by
2169:agriculture
2080:Scholastics
2009:metaphysics
1959:along with
1899:(2013 film)
1699:First Cause
1695:Neoplatonic
1683:methodology
1679:metaphysics
1677:moves from
1594:(892–942),
1592:Saadia Gaon
1492:Ibn Tibbons
1290:Ibn Khaldun
1257:, combined
1218:During the
1209:Neoplatonic
978:. A pupil,
910:) and law (
877:theological
765:Al-Tirmidhi
761:Imam Muslim
581:Duns Scotus
569:Roger Bacon
549:peer review
541:modal logic
340:Calligraphy
297:Mathematics
267:Theological
187:Eschatology
11961:Categories
11880:Amerindian
11787:Australian
11726:Vietnamese
11706:Indonesian
11255:Kantianism
11204:Positivism
11194:Pragmatism
11169:Naturalism
11149:Liberalism
11127:Subjective
11065:Empiricism
10969:Avicennism
10914:Bhedabheda
10798:East Asian
10721:Madhyamaka
10701:Abhidharma
10567:Pyrrhonism
10334:Nominalism
10329:Naturalism
10258:Skepticism
10248:Relativism
10238:Absolutism
10167:Naturalism
10077:Deontology
10049:Skepticism
10034:Naturalism
10024:Empiricism
9988:Aesthetics
9892:Philosophy
9612:Yunus Emre
9556:Ibn Sab’in
9525:Suhrawardi
9515:Ibn Tufail
9434:Al-Ghazali
9388:Apharabius
9223:psychology
9193:Avicennism
9055:(theology)
8897:References
8865:, p. 247,
8840:, p. 227,
8788:Ibn Tufayl
8596:, p. 228,
8447:, p. 284,
8310:, p. 218.
8246:2008-02-02
8176:2008-02-03
8038:: 219–40,
7968:2010-02-25
7939:2010-02-25
7882:2010-02-25
7687:2008-01-22
7564:2018-01-19
7311:2008-01-29
7278:2008-01-29
7160:2008-02-15
6962:2008-01-31
6876:References
6706:2022-10-06
6655:2007-07-13
6527:2023-05-24
6483:2023-05-24
6313:2016935488
6247:2016935488
6190:2021-11-30
6080:2021-10-19
6070:2016935488
6014:2021-10-19
6004:2016935488
5753:"al-Kindi"
5691:A217042312
5523:government
5496:Shia Islam
5460:Ibn Bajjah
5403:Mutazilite
5315:empiricism
5289:John Locke
5140:al-Ghazali
5115:Ibn Tufail
4959:) and the
4919:John Locke
4889:Ibn Tufail
4880:method of
4857:Avicennism
4758:substances
4652:mineralogy
4636:effulgence
4520:See also:
4469:literature
4429:curriculum
4395:(known as
4225:psychiatry
4221:psychology
4165:perception
4157:psychology
4129:See also:
4111:Al-Khazini
4087:Muqaddimah
4012:vegetation
3887:hereditary
3839:biological
3702:Al-Ghazali
3576:al-Ghazali
3557:See also:
3546:See also:
3535:effulgence
3479:Quodlibeta
3436:Al-Ghazali
3407:shared by
3350:sensations
3334:hypostasis
3304:Avicennism
3261:Avicennian
3237:al-Ghazali
3152:Avicennism
3040:contingent
2895:al-Ghazali
2887:Al-Ghazali
2883:perception
2824:predicates
2812:definition
2790:al-Andalus
2764:categories
2724:al-Ghazali
2610:syllogisms
2570:al-Ghazali
2443:liberalism
2439:skepticism
2435:secularism
2415:discourses
2407:humanistic
2385:profession
2335:Bimaristan
2311:al-Andalus
2275:Ibn Jumay‘
2140:and early
2084:secularism
2064:al-Ghazali
2007:, and his
1997:psychology
1993:proscribed
1805:Avicennism
1752:(Ibn Sīnā)
1723:Avicennism
1717:Avicennism
1667:Avicennism
1500:Gersonides
1472:But while
1467:secularism
1459:Ibn Tufail
1455:Ibn Bajjah
1451:Al-Ghazali
1443:Maimonides
1409:Ibn Bajjah
1390:apotheosis
1378:omniscient
1374:omnipotent
1183:, and the
953:, and the
885:mutakallim
869:علم الكلام
619:historians
573:Maimonedes
495:Avicennism
453:philosophy
348:Literature
290:Inventions
246:Hygienical
210:Mysticism
148:Philosophy
68:newspapers
11759:Pakistani
11721:Taiwanese
11668:Ethiopian
11641:By region
11627:By region
11442:Scientism
11437:Systemics
11297:Spinozism
11224:Socialism
11159:Modernism
11122:Objective
11030:Anarchism
10964:Averroism
10853:Christian
10805:Neotaoism
10776:Zurvanism
10766:Mithraism
10761:Mazdakism
10532:Cyrenaics
10459:Logicians
10092:Free will
10054:Solipsism
10001:Formalism
9673:Mir Damad
9666:17th–19th
9600:14th–16th
9566:al-Abharī
9561:Ibn Arabi
9495:Ahi Evren
9454:Bahmanyār
9213:cosmology
9198:Averroism
9131:(physics)
9077:astrology
9072:Cosmology
8923:218847614
8052:171003284
7791:143086988
7733:. London.
7702:Nasr 1993
7303:: 74–86,
6478:216319017
6359:0870-5283
6180:1638-1580
5664:123057532
5617:2773-6334
5589:, use TOC
5464:Ibn Rushd
5452:al-Farabi
5411:Caliphate
5252:to write
5211:reasoning
5165:(Hayy in
5078:شَرِيعَةٌ
4882:reasoning
4874:empirical
4676:mechanics
4542:polymath
4487:stage of
4385:madrasahs
4318:Aristotle
4314:Aristotle
4286:Descartes
4251:) in his
4245:Aristotle
4211:) in the
4153:intuition
4139:polymath
4028:barbarian
4016:date-palm
3980:Darwinism
3895:organisms
3843:Darwinism
3809:organisms
3801:resources
3781:evolution
3773:Mu'tazili
3762:Evolution
3599:Cosmology
3585:causation
3564:Atomistic
3385:epistemic
3374:substance
3280:Aristotle
3273:intellect
3221:reasoning
3187:Heidegger
3141:necessary
3056:al-Farabi
3036:existence
2949:syllogism
2839:modifiers
2776:inference
2752:al-Farabi
2674:syllogism
2590:inference
2562:al-Farabi
2544:Aristotle
2540:Mu'tazili
2491:dictation
2454:al-Ma'mun
2361:physician
2359:What the
2263:al-Masihi
2259:al-Tamimi
2235:pollution
2107:existence
2105:precedes
2050:Aristotle
2044:Averroism
2034:Averroism
2027:Averroism
1981:existence
1861:Monuments
1843:Bahmanyar
1691:political
1687:modernity
1675:Aristotle
1659:Al-Farabi
1650:Al-Farabi
1630:(compare
1603:ex nihilo
1539:does not
1474:Al-Farabi
1463:Averroist
1439:Ibn Rushd
1413:Ibn Rushd
1298:sociology
1247:al-Farabi
1239:Aristotle
1232:Christian
1224:heterodox
1193:Al-Farabi
1177:al-Ma'mun
1121:does not
1075:) solely
1026:Muʿtazila
1009:salvation
990:Muʿtazila
956:Jabarites
951:free will
947:Qadarites
881:dialectic
838:June 2023
777:Al-Nasa'i
773:Abu Dawud
769:Ibn Majah
676:does not
615:biography
522:empirical
330:Astrology
285:Astronomy
262:Political
11945:Category
11900:Yugoslav
11890:Romanian
11797:Scottish
11782:American
11711:Japanese
11691:Buddhist
11673:Africana
11663:Egyptian
11505:Feminist
11427:Rawlsian
11422:Quietism
11320:Analytic
11272:Krausism
11179:Nihilism
11144:Kokugaku
11107:Absolute
11102:Idealism
11090:Humanism
10878:Occamism
10845:European
10790:Medieval
10736:Yogacara
10696:Buddhist
10689:Syādvāda
10572:Stoicism
10537:Cynicism
10525:Sophists
10520:Atomists
10515:Eleatics
10454:Legalism
10395:Medieval
10319:Idealism
10273:Ontology
10253:Nihilism
10157:Idealism
9915:Branches
9904:Branches
9510:Averroes
9449:Ibn Hazm
9444:Avicenna
9398:Al Amiri
9368:Al-Kindi
9361:9th–10th
9271:ʼIjtihād
9256:ʻAṣabīya
9249:Concepts
9188:Farabism
9143:Madrasah
8798:Archived
8571:Archived
8526:Archived
8500:Archived
8415:Archived
8352:Archived
8273:Becka J.
8208:Archived
8170:archived
8011:Archived
7962:Archived
7933:Archived
7876:archived
7860:Archived
7812:Archived
7746:Archived
7592:Archived
7587:(2003).
7558:Archived
7451:(1996),
7426:Archived
7305:archived
7272:archived
7154:archived
7142:(1930),
7095:Archived
7073:Archived
7036:Archived
6898:Archived
6879:Archived
6700:Archived
6680:Archived
6649:Archived
6578:Archived
6547:Archived
6406:De Anima
6393:De Anima
6367:43816275
6283:New York
6184:Archived
6074:Archived
6040:New York
6008:Archived
5974:New York
5888:10 March
5882:Archived
5835:12127284
5798:10 March
5792:Archived
5767:10 March
5761:Archived
5627:10 March
5621:Archived
5583:Archived
5529:See also
5513:scholar
5480:Khawarij
5456:İbn Sina
5448:al-Kindi
5442:and the
5433:Asharite
5424:Republic
5349:include
5205:and the
5074:Sharia (
4995:Jahannam
4941:Islamic
4862:Avicenna
4742:medicine
4738:Avicenna
4727:estimate
4719:constant
4691:Avicenna
4498:geometry
4494:medicine
4465:language
4439:school.
4397:Avicenna
4393:Ibn Sina
4339:and its
4310:cylinder
4292:or even
4290:Extensio
4274:al-makan
4227:and the
3960:and the
3938:for his
3922:bodies."
3871:minerals
3867:elements
3777:al-Jahiz
3686:Al-Kindi
3666:universe
3648:—
3632:—
3625:theory:
3623:Big Bang
3593:Averroes
3580:Asharite
3572:Asharite
3453:Avicenna
3428:Al-Kindi
3314:Avicenna
3310:Hamadhan
3253:Avicenna
3229:Avicenna
3225:evidence
3215:and the
3183:ontology
3168:Averroes
3158:and his
3148:Avicenna
3082:al-wujud
3048:Avicenna
2981:Avicenna
2905:and the
2872:Ibn Hazm
2858:syndrome
2846:Avicenna
2832:temporal
2818:and the
2808:Avicenna
2801:Avicenna
2786:Averroes
2748:al-Kindi
2708:Ibn Hazm
2631:temporal
2619:Avicenna
2566:Avicenna
2558:Averroes
2460:through
2411:rational
2401:Humanism
2374:remedies
2368:visitors
2267:Avicenna
2243:al-Kindi
2213:—
2188:—
2099:Avicenna
2062:against
2060:falasifa
2040:Averroes
2023:Averroes
1949:Avicenna
1797:Thoughts
1786:Al-Nijat
1749:Avicenna
1741:a series
1739:Part of
1711:Ibn Sina
1644:Farabism
1478:Ibn Sina
1417:Averroes
1333:prophecy
1312:author.
1284:born in
1255:al-Kindi
1189:Al-Kindi
995:i'tazala
961:fatalism
887:(plural
787:Branches
783:in 631.
729:Muhammad
657:Muhammad
635:fatalism
610:Muḥammad
538:temporal
530:evidence
469:Averroes
465:al-Kindi
305:Medicine
256:Military
236:Economic
231:Criminal
212:(Sufism)
153:Theology
125:a series
123:Part of
98:May 2017
11895:Russian
11864:Spanish
11859:Slovene
11849:Maltese
11844:Italian
11824:Finland
11792:British
11774:Western
11764:Turkish
11749:Islamic
11744:Iranian
11696:Chinese
11683:Eastern
11650:African
11597:more...
11282:Marxism
11112:British
11055:Dualism
10951:Islamic
10909:Advaita
10899:Vedanta
10873:Scotism
10868:Thomism
10810:Tiantai
10753:Persian
10741:Tibetan
10731:Śūnyatā
10672:Cārvāka
10662:Ājīvika
10657:Mīmāṃsā
10637:Samkhya
10552:Academy
10505:Ionians
10479:Yangism
10436:Chinese
10427:Ancient
10390:Western
10385:Ancient
10344:Realism
10301:Reality
10291:Process
10172:Realism
10152:Dualism
10147:Atomism
10029:Fideism
9729:present
9291:Maslaha
9175:Schools
9162:Sufism
9046:Alchemy
7443:Seyyed
6273:(ed.).
6215:(ed.).
6098:(ed.).
6030:(ed.).
5964:(ed.).
5907:(ed.).
5488:Khilafa
5472:jurists
5407:secular
5395:ijtihad
5375:Quakers
5193:novel.
5042:science
5024:shi'ite
5022:in the
5016:malahim
4948:Qiyamah
4840:lawsuit
4819:al-Raha
4648:inquiry
4616:Ptolemy
4565:In his
4540:Ash'ari
4535:by the
4413:tuition
4409:classes
4373:In the
4363:Ptolemy
4306:al-kura
4294:Leibniz
4265:Physics
4169:reality
4137:Ash'ari
4057:of the
4036:prophet
4000:mineral
3879:animals
3877:, then
3873:, then
3835:natural
3553:Atomism
3507:ijtihad
3477:In his
3409:Judaism
3354:sensory
3071:mahiyya
3032:essence
2899:Ash'ari
2822:of the
2772:grammar
2654:ijtihad
2554:Organon
2549:Organon
2458:convert
2381:dignity
2341:ethical
2307:Cordoba
2251:al-Razi
2237:, were
2165:hadiths
2103:essence
2072:Ash'ari
1985:essence
1947:Due to
1639:Schools
1560:removed
1545:sources
1496:Narboni
1447:Ash'ari
1424:Ghazali
1395:Ghazali
1329:Creator
1322:Falsafa
1306:falsafa
1294:Tunisia
1142:removed
1127:sources
1102:Falsafa
1046:makhlūq
1016:In the
1012:places.
939:ijtihad
920:ijtihad
697:removed
682:sources
590:Origins
518:ijtihad
457:science
379:Pottery
251:Marital
143:History
82:scholar
11854:Polish
11834:German
11829:French
11814:Danish
11804:Canada
11754:Jewish
11716:Korean
11701:Indian
11243:People
11164:Monism
11117:German
11085:Holism
11018:Modern
10996:Jewish
10919:Dvaita
10892:Indian
10815:Huayan
10667:Ajñana
10624:Indian
10489:Greco-
10474:Taoism
10464:Mohism
10410:Modern
10377:By era
10366:By era
10281:Action
10162:Monism
10082:Virtue
10064:Ethics
9321:Tawḥīd
9281:ʻIrfān
9094:Ethics
9052:Aqidah
9039:Fields
8976:
8956:
8937:
8921:
8911:
8873:
8848:
8823:
8773:
8748:
8727:
8702:
8678:
8641:
8604:
8548:
8455:
8387:
8318:
8107:
8079:
8050:
7843:, in (
7789:
7624:
7532:
7459:
7191:Monist
7120:
7016:
6997:604423
6995:
6924:
6826:
6801:
6776:
6727:
6518:
6476:
6466:
6365:
6357:
6311:
6301:
6279:Oxford
6245:
6235:
6178:
6124:
6106:Leiden
6068:
6058:
6036:Oxford
6002:
5992:
5970:Oxford
5933:
5915:Leiden
5833:
5710:
5689:
5662:
5615:
5500:Imamah
5444:Sunnah
5440:Qur'an
5377:, and
5373:, the
5333:, and
5295:, and
5279:" and
5270:modern
5234:German
5103:sharia
5095:sharia
5070:Sharia
5056:work.
5020:ghayba
5005:hadith
4990:Heaven
4985:Jannah
4970:aqidah
4836:review
4620:taqlid
4612:Shaykh
4510:career
4489:maktab
4457:Qur'an
4449:maktab
4437:maktab
4433:maktab
4417:tutors
4405:maktab
4401:maktab
4380:maktab
4359:Euclid
4302:sphere
4209:Arabic
4205:psyche
4203:" or "
4052:Arabic
4004:stones
3996:vapour
3992:energy
3988:matter
3883:humans
3875:plants
3615:Qur'an
3501:Early
3434:, and
3419:. The
3346:nature
3288:organs
3078:per se
2907:Levant
2903:Persia
2844:While
2760:number
2758:, the
2682:Sharia
2644:, the
2470:Reason
2462:reason
2423:poetry
2419:values
2323:litter
2204:Qur'an
2163:. His
2113:Ethics
1829:Pupils
1707:Sufism
1484:nihilo
1376:, and
1288:) and
1270:Hebrew
1243:Europe
1199:, and
1174:Caliph
1096:theism
1030:reason
993:(from
943:Qur'an
916:sharia
904:hadith
865:Arabic
775:, and
745:sunnah
741:hadith
737:Qur'an
649:, and
602:Qurʾān
579:, and
555:, the
532:, and
505:, and
487:Persia
459:. For
430:Early
362:Poetry
201:Tawhid
84:
77:
70:
63:
55:
11885:Aztec
11839:Greek
11819:Dutch
11809:Czech
11658:Bantu
11095:Anti-
10642:Nyaya
10632:Hindu
10492:Roman
10286:Event
9928:Logic
9727:20th–
9326:Ummah
9316:Shūrā
9311:Qiyās
9301:Qadar
9286:Ijmāʿ
9266:Iʻjaz
9183:Early
9137:Peace
9119:Logic
9100:Kalam
8048:S2CID
8034:(2),
7787:S2CID
7632:Publ.
7585:Sabra
7512:(11).
7223:(1),
6993:JSTOR
6956:(PDF)
6945:(PDF)
6752:LXXXX
6474:S2CID
6448:(PDF)
6363:JSTOR
6343:Braga
6269:. In
6211:. In
6162:Paris
6026:. In
5960:. In
5660:S2CID
5568:Notes
5492:Ummah
5476:ulama
5419:Plato
5415:Greek
5238:Dutch
5150:novel
5011:fitna
4823:Syria
4768:drugs
4664:exact
4600:faith
4550:. In
4431:of a
4282:space
4270:Delta
4249:topos
4207:" in
4149:world
4040:angel
4032:saint
4008:coral
3919:Sudan
3903:adapt
3893:"The
3817:India
3805:breed
3654:51:47
3638:21:30
3443:Truth
3417:Islam
3366:thing
3284:heart
3125:Frege
3116:; or
3114:imkan
3110:wujud
3102:wujub
3067:wujud
3061:Some
3044:being
2891:Kalam
2880:sense
2835:modal
2780:proof
2768:logic
2736:Qiyas
2732:Qiyas
2712:Qiyas
2704:Qiyas
2700:Qiyas
2691:Qiyas
2686:Kalam
2646:isnad
2602:terms
2528:Kalam
2520:logic
2508:Logic
2474:2:256
2134:haram
1961:Kalam
1760:Works
1671:Plato
1608:Bible
1429:Kalam
1369:Space
1318:Kalam
1310:kalam
1274:Latin
1228:Hindu
1181:Arabs
1092:Deism
1073:bāriʾ
972:Basra
968:Hijra
896:Kalam
894:With
798:Kalam
792:Kalam
749:isnad
639:ḳadar
557:isnad
491:India
374:Music
175:Early
89:JSTOR
75:books
10986:Sufi
10820:Chan
10679:Jain
10652:Yoga
10182:Mind
10122:Hard
10110:Hard
9657:Jami
9539:13th
9478:12th
9427:11th
9306:Qalb
9296:Nafs
9276:ʻIlm
9208:Sufi
9110:Fiqh
8974:ISBN
8954:ISBN
8935:ISBN
8919:OCLC
8909:ISBN
8871:ISBN
8846:ISBN
8821:ISBN
8771:ISBN
8746:ISBN
8725:ISBN
8700:ISBN
8676:ISBN
8639:ISBN
8632:New
8602:ISBN
8546:ISBN
8453:ISBN
8385:ISBN
8316:ISBN
8297:(2).
8105:ISBN
8077:ISBN
7827:(2).
7770:Isis
7622:ISBN
7530:ISBN
7457:ISBN
7447:and
7118:ISBN
7014:ISBN
6922:ISBN
6824:ISBN
6799:ISBN
6774:ISBN
6725:ISBN
6516:ISBN
6464:ISBN
6355:ISSN
6337:(1:
6309:LCCN
6299:ISBN
6281:and
6243:LCCN
6233:ISBN
6176:ISSN
6156:(1:
6122:ISBN
6066:LCCN
6056:ISBN
6038:and
6000:LCCN
5990:ISBN
5972:and
5931:ISBN
5890:2023
5831:PMID
5800:2023
5769:2023
5726:Isis
5708:ISBN
5687:Gale
5629:2023
5613:ISSN
5511:Arab
5490:and
5474:and
5236:and
5101:and
5099:fiqh
5091:fiqh
5068:and
5066:Fiqh
5018:(or
5000:Hell
4748:and
4709:and
4589:and
4537:Arab
4361:and
4201:self
4196:nafs
4185:The
4159:and
4135:The
4109:and
4061:and
4034:, a
3845:and
3771:The
3415:and
3391:Time
3362:self
3338:mind
3294:’."
3255:and
3247:The
3170:and
3127:and
3034:and
2814:and
2770:and
2716:real
2678:Fiqh
2636:and
2608:and
2596:and
2534:and
2441:and
2389:The
2379:The
2339:The
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