333:). Despite his success in China, Paramārtha wished to return to India toward the end of his life, but felt that this journey back to the west would be "impossible." Instead, he accepted the patronage of Ouyang Ho and continued his translation efforts at a rapid pace. During much of his later life, Paramārtha continued a pattern of continually translating texts while traveling from region to region in China. He also continued to review his older translations for any areas in which the words and the general meaning were in conflict.
215:
223:
207:
318:
Funan. His manner was lively and intelligent and he relished details in scriptural texts and profound texts, all of which he had studied. In the first year of T'ai-ch'ing (547) he went to the capital and had a visit with the emperor who himself bowed down to him in the
Jeweled Cloud quarters of the palace in reverence to him, wishing for him to translate sutras and sastras.
613:
There are many disagreements and discrepancies between the main
Chinese Buddhist catalogs regarding Paramārtha's translations and modern scholarly opinion on which works to attribute to him also remain divided. Some scholars have also argued that the term “Paramārtha" should often be regarded not as
322:
In China, Paramārtha worked with a translation team of twenty accomplished monks. Paramartha's work was interrupted by political events and the general chaotic state of China during this period, which included the murder of
Emperor Wu. Several years later, Paramārtha was able to continue translation
799:
It was only due to the efforts of
Tanqian (曇遷; 542–607) that Paramārtha's teachings flourished and became popular in the north. In spite of the fact that Tanqian had neither met Paramārtha, nor studied with any of Paramārtha’s students, it was Tanqian who really popularized Paramārtha's teachings,
780:
Scholars have noted that some of Paramārtha's translations contain deviations from their Indic or
Tibetan counterparts. Some scholars such as Funayama Tōru have argued that this difference is due to Paramārtha's "lecture notes" being included as part of the translations of the Indian source texts.
840:). While numerous later sources claim that Paramārtha taught the immaculate consciousness as a “ninth consciousness”, this is not found in any of Paramārtha's extant works and Michael Radich writes that the truth of the issue is impossible to determine. Later sources also drew on a passage in the
317:
of various kinds. This country then yielded in turning over the western Indian Dharma Master from Ujjain, namely
Paramartha, who in Liang was called Chen-ti, and many sutras and sastras in order to honor the emperor. After Dharma Master Paramartha had traveled to many kingdoms he had settled in
193:
ideas, Paramārtha is traditionally seen as a key figure of the Shelun School (攝論宗), a major tradition of
Chinese Buddhist thought in the 6th and 7th centuries as well as a major figure of the Faxing school (法性宗, “School of Dharma-nature”). The distinctive doctrine of the Faxing school was "the
835:
Paramārtha's doctrine of the immaculate consciousness was a particularly influential teaching which was widely adopted by many later
Chinese Buddhist thinkers. Beginning with the work of Huijun (慧均, d.u., fl. 574-580s?), the immaculate consciousness began to be widely called the untainted
275:
He received support from royalty for his travels to spread the teachings of
Buddhism. He most likely received royal patronage from Bālāditya II or Kumāragupta III. The Maukhari ruler Dhruvasena I may have also supported Paramārtha, as his kingdom was a well-known bastion of the type of
998:
523:). Thus, according to Michael Radich "Paramărtha understood *amalavijñăna to be the counteragent to ălayavijñăna, and the two to be in a temporal relationship to one another, whereby ălayavijñăna existed only until liberation, and was then succeeded by fully realised *amalavijñăna."
886:
on the immaculate consciousness doctrine can already be seen in the work of
Jingying Huiyuan (淨影慧遠, 523-592). For Huiyuan, the amalavijñăna and the ălayavijñăna are both two aspects of the same "true" consciousness, reminiscent of the "One Mind" of the
441:
In this text, the term refers to a “consciousness without outflows” (anăsravavijñăna). This is a consciousness that has been purified of all defilement through insight into the four noble truths and which brings freedom from rebirth. Likewise, the
604:
Since the status of the various texts attributed to Paramārtha are still up for debate, attempting to extract Paramārtha's original doctrine from later interpolations and the ideas of other figures in Paramārtha's tradition is quite difficult.
784:
Some of Paramārtha's various lost works, including some of his oral commentaries written by his students, have survived in fragmentary form as quotations in later texts. Modern scholars are still working on collecting these fragments.
92:). He is also known for the various oral commentaries he gave on his translations which were written down by his disciples (and now only survive in fragmentary form). Some of Paramārtha's influential translations include
485:(consciousness aggregate). As Michael Radich notes, Paramārtha holds that there are two different types of basic consciousnesses, "one the basis for worldly and defiled dharmas, and the other the basis of transcendent (
353:
In this later period, Paramārtha had become famous throughout southern China and had acquired a supportive following of disciples, many of whom traveled great distance to hear his teachings, especially those from the
617:
According to Keng Ching and Michael Radich, the following key texts are agreed upon by all catalogs (with minor differences in dating etc) as being translations of Paramārtha (and his team of translators):
552:
According to Radich, some sources attributed to Paramārtha also identify the immaculate consciousness with the “innate purity of the mind” (prakṛtiprabhāsvaracitta) and this links the concept with the pure
194:
existence of a pure and transcendent element within the mind, in which case liberation would simply be a matter of recovering that innate purity." This was opposed to the view of
340:. It was during this late period that he and his main students, like Huikai, Sengzong (僧宗), Fazhun (法准), and Sengren (僧忍), produced the most important translations, like the
302:(then called Nanhai) on 25 September 546 CE.23 The conditions of Paramartha's arrival at the capital are described in a Chinese introduction written by Pao Kuei in 597 CE:
117:
774:, T. 1584). This text is not included in all catalogs of Paramārtha's works but is considered to be by Paramārtha by various modern scholars including Michael Radich.
614:
a single individual, but as a group of scholars, the “Paramārtha group” or translation workshop. This helps explain why the various catalogs diverge in many ways.
822:
As Paramārtha's work became more influential, it also became central to the so called Faxing school (法性宗, “School of Dharma-nature”), which was a Chinese form of
575:
and, according to Radich, "this is the beginning of a process that links *amalavijñāna into a chain of identifications for (aspects of) the Mahāyāna “absolute”.
1082:
777:
There are numerous other works attributed to Paramārtha and there is still much scholarly debate regarding which works can be attributed to him.
128:
Paramārtha is associated with some unique doctrines. He is traditionally seen as having taught the doctrine of the "immaculate consciousness" (
178:
to Paramārtha (as well as numerous other texts), and scholarly opinion remains divided, often due to discrepancies between ancient Chinese
1004:, edited by Jonathan A. Silk (editor-in chief), Richard Bowring, Vincent Eltschinger, and Michael Radich, 752-758. Leiden, Brill, 2019.
489:) dharmas." Furthermore, the phenomena produced by the immaculate consciousness act as the counteragent to all the defilements and the
538:
Some of these texts also see the teaching of the immaculate consciousness as a superior or higher version of the Yogacara doctrine of
793:
After the Paramārtha's death, his various students dispersed and attempted to spread his teachings, but they were not very successful
757:大乘起信論, T. 1666), it is cited as "dubious" in one of the Chinese catalogs, hence the current scholarly debate as to its provenance.
597:(both texts share many similarities). Because of this, Paramārtha is seen as an important figure in the development of the Yogacara-
1385:
1332:
Boucher, Daniel, "Paramartha". In: Buswell, Robert E. ed. (2003). Encyclopedia of Buddhism, New York: Macmillan Reference Lib.
902:
thinks also commented on the doctrines associated with Paramārtha, the immaculate consciousness and the "ninth consciousness".
808:
Tanqian is also seen as a key figure of the Shelun School (攝論宗) and he possibly was the main force behind the promotion of the
336:
During his later years (562–569) Paramārtha finally attained a stable patronage and could remain in one single place to work -
1440:
1425:
1390:
546:), which posits not just the unreality of non-mental phenomena, but also the unreality of the defiled consciousness itself
1430:
876:
Many later authors interpreted Paramārtha's doctrine of the immaculate consciousness through other works, especially the
505:
is achieved when, after practicing the noble path, the mind experiences the “revolutionary transformation of the basis” (
836:
consciousness (wugoushi 無垢識) as well as the “ninth consciousness” (jiushi 九識), an extension of the Yogacara doctrine of
878:
749:
158:
769:
444:
306:
During the Ta-t'ung period the emperor sent a rear guard Chang Szu to Funan to send back to China eminent monks and
1344:
1415:
1337:
37:
452:). It is likely that these earlier sources influenced Paramārtha's conception of immaculate consciousness.
1246:
47:
842:
179:
1351:
943:
1420:
1400:
1395:
1380:
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sent ambassadors to bring Paramārtha to the Chinese imperial court. Paramārtha arrived in China through
1435:
666:
433:
342:
1410:
682:
348:
107:
899:
698:
1083:
The Doctrine of *Amalavijnana in Paramartha (499-569), and Later Authors to Approximately 800 C.E.
1405:
837:
651:
473:
417:
593:
559:
8:
295:
226:
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and his school, which held that the mind was impure and had to be totally transformed.
893:
635:
468:
325:
743:
Posoupandou fashi zhuan (婆藪槃豆法師傳, Biography of the Dharma Master Vasubandhu, T. 2049).
1333:
760:
An important source for Paramārtha's doctrine of the immaculate consciousness is the
244:. His given name was Kulanātha, meaning "savior of the family", and his parents were
214:
866:
284:
145:
81:
69:
1319:
Philosophy of Mind in Sixth-Century China: Paramartha's Evolution of Consciousness
710:
traditionally attributed to Vasubandhu, but this is questioned by modern scholars.
1347:, Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 31, 1/2, 141 - 183
98:
85:
19:
870:
846:
to defend the doctrine of immaculate consciousness as a ninth consciousness.
513:) ceases to exist, leaving only the immaculate consciousness free of all evil (
471:. This immaculate consciousness is not a basis for the defilements (unlike the
373:
Paramārtha's interest ranged across a wide variety of Buddhist teachings, from
264:
context, this refers to the absolute, as opposed to merely conventional truth.
73:
174:. However, modern scholars have expressed doubts about the attribution of the
1374:
827:
598:
564:
527:
382:
241:
190:
171:
141:
77:
816:
The Shelun School based itself off Paramārtha's translation of Vasubandhu’s
1354:, Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 5 (1), 37-69
554:
526:
Some texts attributed to Paramārtha also identify the Yogacara idea of the
494:
944:
The work of Paramārtha: An example of Sino-Indian cross-cultural exchange.
849:
The idea is used by numerous influential East Asian Buddhist authors like
1345:
The Work of Paramārtha: An Example of Sino-Indian Cross-cultural Exchange
862:
572:
268:
1358:
502:
464:
428:
420:
by introducing the immaculate consciousness as a ninth consciousness.
374:
93:
33:
916:
meanwhile uses the term untainted consciousness as just a synonym for
113:
1313:
State University of New York Press (SUNY Series in Buddhist Studies).
823:
737:
401:
386:
378:
337:
299:
186:
404:
doctrine of the "pure consciousness" or "immaculate consciousness" (
913:
907:
854:
493:
is said to be attained by the cultivation of the wisdom that knows
400:
However, Paramārtha is most well known for introducing his unique
307:
291:
277:
261:
195:
89:
29:
591:
to be an original work of Paramārtha, based on his reading of the
294:. Here in Funan, Paramārtha's reputation grew to the extent that
482:
416:無垢識). This doctrine expands on the Yogacara school's doctrine of
323:
efforts in earnest with his translation team, beginning with the
310:
245:
140:” (benjue ). Paramārtha is also associated with various works on
137:
1361:, Philosophy East and West, 31/3, 297-319 – via
1359:
The Structure of Consciousness in Paramārtha's Purported Trilogy
910:, saw the doctrine as heterodox and criticized it in his works.
858:
288:
267:
Paramārtha became a Buddhist monk in India, most likely in the
167:
103:
65:
57:
218:
Status of China during the Northern and Southern Dynasties era
1362:
903:
850:
519:
362:
314:
237:
230:
222:
206:
236:
Paramārtha was born in 499 CE in the autonomous kingdom of
136:阿摩羅識). He is also seen as the source of the doctrine of “
1107:
Lusthaus, Dan (1998), Buddhist Philosophy, Chinese. In:
283:
The first destination of Paramārtha was the kingdom of
248:
belonging to the Bhāradvāja clan. His Buddhist name of
661:
Fo apitan jing chujia xiang pin (佛阿毘曇經出家 相品, T. 1482).
80:. He is known as one of the four great translators in
1212:
1202:
1200:
1187:
1185:
1160:
1158:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1224:
1197:
1182:
1170:
1155:
1001:Brill's Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Volume II: Lives
826:that also placed much emphasis on the doctrine of
719:Suixiang lun jie shiliu di yi (隨相論解十六諦義, T. 1641).
1138:
1126:
1114:
1372:
891:. The doctrine is also further developed in the
448:contains teachings on purified consciousness (
1321:, Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press
509:) during which the storehouse consciousness (
477:), but rather is a basis for the noble path (
51:
41:
716:Rushi lun fan zhinan pin (如實論反質難品, T. 1633).
658:Lü ershi’er mingliao lun (律二十二明了論, T. 1461).
361:In 569 CE, at the age of 70, he died, and a
1352:The Life and Time of Paramārtha (499-569)
571:佛性). This purity is also linked with the
583:Some modern scholars also consider the "
427:was not a new term and had been used by
221:
213:
205:
64:) (499-569 CE) was an Indian monk from
1373:
1089:41:45-174 (2009) Copy BIBT
585:Treatise on Buddha Nature" (Foxing lun
463:) consciousness that is unaffected by
185:Due to his teachings which synthesize
1241:
1239:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1064:
1062:
1060:
1058:
1056:
1054:
1052:
1050:
1048:
993:
991:
989:
987:
985:
983:
981:
979:
977:
975:
973:
395:
144:that became extremely influential in
68:, who is best known for his prolific
1316:
1230:
1218:
1206:
1191:
1176:
1164:
1149:
1132:
1120:
1109:Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1103:
1101:
1099:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1030:
1028:
971:
969:
967:
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963:
961:
959:
957:
955:
953:
937:
935:
933:
931:
240:in central India, at the end of the
280:teachings advocated by Paramārtha.
13:
1326:
1236:
804:which he taught together with the
14:
1452:
1096:
1025:
950:
928:
481:). It is thus a purified vijñāna
706:Foxing lun (佛性論, T. 1610), The "
664:Apidamo jushe shilun (阿毘達磨俱舍釋論,
649:Jiejie jing (解節經, a part of the
578:
1386:6th-century Indian philosophers
1291:
1282:
1273:
1264:
997:Keng Ching and Michael Radich.
517:), suffering and all outflows (
1247:"amalavijñāna - Buddha-Nature"
1111:, p. 84. Taylor & Francis.
1016:
1007:
732:Baoxing wang zhenglun (寶行王正論,
713:San wuxing lun (三無性論, T. 1617)
696:Zhong bian fenbie lun (中邊分別論,
563:and thus with the doctrine of
252:means "the ultimate meaning,"
52:
42:
1:
922:
1441:People from the Gupta Empire
1426:Scholars from Madhya Pradesh
788:
764:(決定藏論, the beginning of the
689:She dasheng lun shi (攝大乘論釋,
501:). According to Paramārtha,
455:Paramārtha's concept of the
201:
7:
1391:Indian scholars of Buddhism
750:Mahayana Awakening of Faith
724:*Lokasthānābhidharma-śāstra
708:Treatise on Buddha Nature",
673:Dasheng weishi lun (大乘唯識論,
622:Guangyi famen jing (廣義法門經,
368:
229:was Paramārtha's patron in
159:Mahayana Awakening of Faith
10:
1457:
1431:6th-century Indian writers
1303:
722:Lishi apitan lun (立世阿毘曇論,
629:Jin guangming jing (金光明經,
17:
729:Si di lun (四諦論, T. 1647).
459:is a pure and permanent (
150:Treatise on Buddha Nature
1309:King, Sallie B. (1991).
608:
365:was built in his honor.
18:Not to be confused with
1366:(subscription required)
1343:Funayama, Toru (2010).
1279:King (1991), pp. 24-26.
1251:buddhanature.tsadra.org
1022:King (1991), pp. 22-23.
882:. The influence of the
818:Mahāyānasaṃgrahabhāṣya.
802:Mahāyānasaṃgrahabhāṣya,
693:of Vasubandhu, T. 1595)
680:She dasheng lun (攝大乘論,
642:Wushang yi jing (無上依經,
631:Suvarṇabhāsottama-sūtra
166:大乘起信論), a key work for
691:Mahāyānasaṃgrahabhāṣya
320:
233:
219:
211:
1416:Indian Buddhist monks
838:eight consciousnesses
747:Regarding the famous
652:Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra
644:*Anuttarāśraya-sūtra?
418:eight consciousnesses
331:Suvarṇaprabhāsa Sūtra
304:
225:
217:
209:
1357:Paul, Diana (1981).
1350:Paul, Diana (1982).
1317:Paul, Diana (1984),
947:JIABS 31/1-2 (2008).
906:, a key disciple of
812:as Paramārtha's work
667:Abhidharmakośabhāṣya
532:pariniṣpannasvabhāva
343:Abhidharmakośabhāṣya
148:. These include the
84:history (along with
1297:King (1991), p. 23.
1288:King (1991), p. 23.
1270:King (1991), p. 23.
1013:King (1991), p. 21.
894:Vajrasamādhi sūtra.
869:(澄觀, 738-839); and
806:Awakening of Faith.
766:Viniścayasaṃgrahaṇī
624:*Arthavistara-sūtra
296:Emperor Wu of Liang
227:Emperor Wu of Liang
38:traditional Chinese
1421:People from Ujjain
1401:6th-century deaths
1396:Mahayana Buddhists
1381:5th-century births
1340:, pp. 630–631
889:Awakening of Faith
884:Awakening of Faith
879:Awakening of Faith
810:Awakening of Faith
755:Dasheng qi xin lun
636:Golden Light Sutra
469:mental afflictions
396:Pure consciousness
326:Golden Light Sutra
260:: meaning. In the
234:
220:
212:
176:Awakening of Faith
164:Dasheng qi xin lun
138:original awakening
123:Hastavālaprakaraṇa
48:simplified Chinese
1436:Yogacara scholars
1221:, pp. 32–33.
1080:Radich, Michael.
865:(不空金剛, 705-774),
843:Laṃkâvatăra sūtra
699:Madhyānta-vibhāga
594:Ratnagotravibhāga
560:Ratnagotravibhāga
389:ethical teachings
78:Six Dynasties era
1448:
1411:Indian logicians
1367:
1322:
1298:
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1023:
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1014:
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1005:
995:
948:
939:
873:(宗密, 780-841).
762:Jueding zang lun
683:Mahāyānasaṃgraha
528:perfected nature
450:visuddha vijñāna
356:Mahāyānasaṃgraha
349:Mahāyānasaṃgraha
146:Chinese Buddhism
108:Mahāyānasaṃgraha
82:Chinese Buddhist
72:translations of
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54:
45:
44:
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1455:
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1327:Further reading
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1021:
1017:
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1008:
996:
951:
941:Toru Funayama.
940:
929:
925:
861:(元曉, 617-686);
857:(圓測, 613-696);
853:(智顗, 538-597),
828:tathagatagarbha
800:especially the
791:
768:portion of the
611:
599:tathagatagarbha
581:
507:āśrayaparāvṛtti
398:
371:
204:
118:Ālambanaparīkṣā
23:
20:Guru Paramartha
12:
11:
5:
1454:
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1428:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1408:
1406:Buddhist logic
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1383:
1369:
1368:
1355:
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1341:
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1325:
1324:
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1314:
1311:Buddha Nature.
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1196:
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1095:
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1015:
1006:
999:"Paramārtha."
949:
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924:
921:
900:Faxiang school
790:
787:
745:
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741:
730:
727:
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610:
607:
580:
577:
434:Abhidharmakośa
397:
394:
370:
367:
210:Asia in 500 CE
203:
200:
99:Abhidharmakośa
74:Buddhist texts
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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1312:
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1294:
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1276:
1267:
1252:
1248:
1242:
1240:
1233:, p. 35.
1232:
1227:
1220:
1215:
1209:, p. 33.
1208:
1203:
1201:
1194:, p. 27.
1193:
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256:: uppermost,
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189:thought with
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156:佛性論) and the
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601:synthesis.
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587:佛性論, T. 1610
584:
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511:ālayavijñāna
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130:amalavijñāna
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56:;
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1256:27 November
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740:, T. 1656).
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686:, T. 1593).
677:, T. 1589).
573:dharmadhātu
534:) with the
387:Nagarjuna's
76:during the
36:: परमार्थ;
1375:Categories
1338:0028657187
923:References
670:, T. 1559)
655:, T. 677).
515:dauṣṭhulya
503:Buddhahood
429:Vasubandhu
381:Buddhism,
375:Abhidharma
250:Paramārtha
154:Foxing lun
94:Vasubandhu
86:Kumārajīva
34:Devanagari
26:Paramārtha
1231:Paul 1984
1219:Paul 1984
1207:Paul 1984
1192:Paul 1984
1177:Paul 1984
1165:Paul 1984
1150:Paul 1984
1133:Paul 1984
1121:Paul 1984
867:Chengguan
789:Influence
738:Nagarjuna
734:Ratnāvalī
703:T. 1599).
646:, T. 669)
487:lokôttara
479:āryamārga
465:suffering
437:(at 5.29)
423:The term
414:wugou shi
410:amoluoshi
338:Guangzhou
300:Guangdong
287:, or pre-
269:Sāṃmitīya
202:Biography
134:amoluoshi
114:Dignāga's
914:Wŏnch’uk
908:Xuanzang
855:Wŏnch’uk
824:Yogacara
626:, T. 97)
555:Thusness
495:Thusness
412:阿摩羅識 or
402:Yogacara
379:Yogacara
369:Teaching
346:and the
308:Mahayana
292:Cambodia
278:Yogācāra
262:Buddhist
246:Brahmins
196:Xuanzang
187:Yogacara
180:catalogs
104:Asaṅga’s
90:Xuanzang
30:Sanskrit
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675:Viṃśikā
557:of the
499:tathatā
483:skandha
431:in his
311:sastras
70:Chinese
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1087:Zinbun
871:Zongmi
859:Wŏnhyo
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544:weishi
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315:sutras
289:Angkor
271:Vinaya
254:parama
168:Huayan
132:, Ch:
121:&
66:Ujjain
62:Zhēndì
58:pinyin
1363:JSTOR
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851:Zhiyi
633:i.e.
609:Works
461:nitya
377:, to
363:stūpa
285:Funan
258:artha
238:Malwa
231:China
1334:ISBN
1258:2022
313:and
170:and
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112:and
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736:of
467:or
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