3422:
3191:
1363:
3891:, for Tahmasp, the background of this initiation and eventual composition that would be only finalized under Shah Abbas I, circled around the military tribal elite of the empire, the Qizilbash, who believed that physical proximity to and control of a member of the immediate Safavid family guaranteed spiritual advantages, political fortune, and material advancement. This was a huge impedance for the authority of the Shah, and furthermore, it undermined any developments without the agreeing or shared profit of the Qizilbash. As Tahmasp understood and realized that any long-term solutions would mainly involve minimizing the political and military presence of the Qizilbash as a whole, it would require them to be replaced by a whole new layer in society, that would question and battle the authority of the Qizilbash on every possible level, and minimize any of their influences. This layer would be solely composed of hundreds of thousands of deported, imported, and to a lesser extent voluntarily migrated ethnic
2940:
2012:, had shown far greater military ability. The two princes quarrelled and eventually Bayezid rebelled against his father. His letter of remorse never reached Suleiman, and he was forced to flee abroad to avoid execution. In 1559 Bayezid arrived in Iran where Tahmasp gave him a warm welcome. Suleiman was eager to negotiate his son's return, but Tahmasp rejected his promises and threats until, in 1561, Suleiman compromised with him. In September of that year, Tahmasp and Bayezid were enjoying a banquet at Tabriz when Tahmasp suddenly pretended he had received news that the Ottoman prince was engaged in a plot against his life. An angry mob gathered and Tahmasp had Bayezid put into custody, alleging it was for his own safety. Tahmasp then handed the prince over to the Ottoman ambassador. Shortly afterwards, Bayezid was killed by agents sent by his own father.
2615:
which had assumed control of
Khorasan under the nominal rule of young Abbas. The Ustajlu chief, Murshid Quli Khan, immediately acquiesced and received a royal pardon. The Shumlu leader, Ali Quli Khan, however, holed himself inside Herat with Abbas. The vizier thought that the royal forces failed to prosecute the siege sufficiently and accused the forces of sedition. The loyal Qizibash recoiled at their treatment by Mirza Salman, who they resented for a number of reasons (not least of which was the fact that a Tajik was given military command over them), and demanded that he be turned over to them. The crown prince (the vizier's son-in-law) meekly turned him over, and the Qizilbash executed him and confiscated his property. The siege of Herat thus ended in 1583 without Ali Quli Khan's surrender, and Khorasan was in a state of open rebellion.
4438:, that initiated the program of trying to increase the royal revenues by buying land from the governors and putting in place local commissioners. In time, this proved to become a burden to the people that were under the direct rule of the Shah, as these commissioners, unlike the former governors, had little knowledge about the local communities that they controlled and were primarily interested in increasing the income of the Shah. And, while it was in the governors’ own interest to increase the productivity and prosperity of their provinces, the commissioners received their income directly from the royal treasury and, as such, did not care so much about investing in agriculture and local industries. Thus, the majority of the people suffered from rapacity and corruption carried out in the name of the Shah.
2642:
1843:) established themselves as co-regents of the young shah. The Qizilbash, which still suffered under the legacy of the battle of Chaldiran, was engulfed in internal rivalries. The first two years of Tahmāsp's reign was consumed with Div Sultān's efforts to eliminate Ustajlu from power. This court intrigue lead directly to tribal conflict. Beginning in 1526 periodic battles broke out, beginning in northwest Iran but soon involving all of Khorasan. In the absence of a charismatic, messianic rallying figure like the young Ismail, the tribal leaders reclaimed their traditional prerogative and threatened to return to the time of local warlords. For nearly 10 years rival Qizilbash factions fought each other. Af first, Kopek Sultān's Ustajlu tribe suffered the heaviest, and he himself was killed in a battle.
2192:
the throne, and
Mohammad's three sons, Hamza Mirza, Abbas Mirza and Abu Talib Mirza. While the murderous actions of Ismail might be explained by political prudence (Ottoman sultans occasionally purged the bloodline to prevent succession rivals), his actions against Shi’a suggest retaliation against his father, who saw himself as a pious practitioner. Ismail sought to reintroduce Sunni orthodoxy. But even here there may have been practical political considerations; namely, "concern about the excessively powerful position of Shiʻi dignitaries, which would have been undermined by a reintroduction of the Sunna." His conduct might also be explained by his drug use. In any event, he was ultimately killed (according to some accounts) by his Circassian half-sister,
1214:
7824:, p. 331: "Depressing though the condition in the country may have been at the time of the fall of Safavids, they cannot be allowed to overshadow the achievements of the dynasty, which was in many respects to prove essential factors in the development of Persia in modern times. These include the maintenance of Persian as the official language and of the present-day boundaries of the country, adherence to the Twelever Shiʻi, the monarchical system, the planning and architectural features of the urban centers, the centralised administration of the state, the alliance of the Shiʻi Ulama with the merchant bazaars, and the symbiosis of the Persian-speaking population with important non-Persian, especially Turkish speaking minorities".
6066:
dynasty. The original name was just turki, and so a convenient name might be Turki-yi Acemi. This variety of
Persian Turkish must have been also spoken in the Caucasian and Transcaucasian regions, which during the 16th century belonged to both the Ottomans and the Safavids, and were not fully integrated into the Safavid empire until 1606. Though that language might generally be identified as Middle Azerbaijanian, it is not yet possible to define exactly the limits of this language, both in linguistic and territorial respects. It was certainly not homogenous – maybe it was an Azerbaijanian-Ottoman mixed language, as Beltadze (1967:161) states for a translation of the gospels in Georgian script from the 18th century.
4843:" between whoever was the landlord, and the farmer. This agreement consisted of five elements: land, water, plough-animals, seed and labour. Each element constituted 20 percent of the crop production, and if, for instance, the farmer provided the labour force and the animals, he would be entitled to 40 percent of the earnings. According to contemporary historians, though, the landlord always had the worst of the bargain with the farmer in the crop-sharing agreements. In general, the farmers lived in comfort, and they were well paid and wore good clothes, although it was also noted that they were subject to forced labour and lived under heavy demands.
682:
5473:
3489:
6137:
neither
Persian nor European authors mention in which language people communicated with each other. The Turkish spoken in Safavid Iran was mostly what nowadays is referred to as Azeri or Azerbaijani Turkish. However, at that time it was referred to by various other names. It would seemthat the poet and miniaturist Sadeqi Afshar (1533–1610), whose mother tongue was not Azerbaijani Turkish, but Chaghatay (although he was born in Tabriz), was the first to refer to speakers of Qizilbashi (motakallemin-e Qizilbash), but he, and one century later ‘Abdol-Jamil Nasiri, were the exception to this general rule of calling the language "Turki".
1653:
9128:". Quote 2: "Even Ottoman sultans, when addressing the Āq Quyunlu and Safavid kings, used such titles as the "king of Iranian lands" or the "sultan of the lands of Iran" or "the king of kings of Iran, the lord of the Persians" or the "holders of the glory of Jamšid and the vision of Faridun and the wisdom of Dārā." They addressed Shah Esmaʿil as: "the king of Persian lands and the heir to Jamšid and Kay-ḵosrow" (Navāʾi, pp. 578, 700–702, 707). During Shah ʿAbbās's reign the transformation is complete and Shiʿite Iran comes to face the two adjacent Sunni powers: the Ottoman Empire to the west and the Kingdom of Uzbeks to the east."
4762:
2065:, who believed that physical proximity to and control of a member of the immediate Safavid family guaranteed spiritual advantages, political fortune, and material advancement. Despite that Tahmāsp could nullify and neglect some of his consternations regarding potential issues related to his family by having his close direct male relatives such as his brothers and sons routinely transferred around to various governorships in the empire, he understood and realized that any long-term solutions would mainly involve minimizing the political and military presence of the Qezelbāš as a whole. According to
640:
2316:
8156:, pp. 948–965. P. 950: "In day-to-day affairs, the language chiefly used at the Safavid court and by the great military and political officers, as well as the religious dignitaries, was Turkish, not Persian; and the last class of persons wrote their religious works mainly in Arabic. Those who wrote in Persian were either lacking in proper tuition in this tongue, or wrote outside Iran and hence at a distance from centers where Persian was the accepted vernacular, endued with that vitality and susceptibility to skill in its use which a language can have only in places where it truly belongs."
4188:
deputy or superintendent, whose job was to keep records of all actions of the state officials and report directly to the Shah. The Shah himself exercised his own measures for keeping his ministers under control by fostering an atmosphere of rivalry and competitive surveillance. And since the
Safavid society was meritocratic, and successions seldom were made on the basis of heritage, this meant that government offices constantly felt the pressure of being under surveillance and had to make sure they governed in the best interest of their leader, and not merely their own.
5929:
4472:
3789:
2148:, Tasmāsp underwent what he called a "sincere repentance." Tasmāsp at the same time removed his son Ismail from his Qizilbash followers and imprisoned him at Qahqaha. Moreover, he began to strengthen Shiʻi practice by such things as forbidding in the new capital of Qazvin poetry and music which did not esteem Ali and the Twelve Imams. He also reduced the taxes of districts that were traditionally Shiʻi, regulated services in mosques and engaged Shiʻi propagandists and spies. Extortion, intimidation and harassment were practiced against Sunnis.
4268:, Court Minister. He was perhaps the closest advisor to the Shah, and, as such, functioned as his eyes and ears within the Court. His primary job was to appoint and supervise all the officials of the household and to be their contact with the Shah. But his responsibilities also included that of being the treasurer of the Shah's properties. This meant that even the Prime Minister, who held the highest office in the state, had to work in association with the Nazir when it came to managing those transactions that directly related to the Shah.
5880:
2322:
6208:. The Safavids thus set in train a struggle for power between the turban and the crown that is to say, between the proponents of secular government and the proponents of a theocratic government; third, they laid the foundation of alliance between the religious classes ('Ulama') and the bazaar which played an important role both in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1906, and again in the Islamic Revolution of 1979; fourth the policies introduced by Shah Abbas I conduced to a more centralized administrative system.
7989:, IB Tauris 2006, p. 76: "Although the Arabic language was still the medium for religious scholastic expression, it was precisely under the Safavids that hadith complications and doctrinal works of all sorts were being translated to Persian. The ʻAmili (Lebanese scholars of Shiʻi faith) operating through the Court-based religious posts, were forced to master the Persian language; their students translated their instructions into Persian. Persianization went hand in hand with the popularization of 'mainstream' Shiʻi belief."
6247:
1665:
5945:
104:
5937:
3969:, one of the richest provinces in Iran. And his power reached its peak in 1598, when he became the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Thus, starting from the reign of Tahmāsp I but only fully implemented and completed by Shah Abbas, this new group solely composed of ethnic Caucasians eventually came to constitute a powerful "third force" within the state as a new layer in society, alongside the Persians and the Qizilbash Turks, and it only goes to prove the meritocratic society of the Safavids.
6044:
5695:
2339:
4884:
travelers, as they could stay there for as long as they wished, without payment for lodging. During the reign of Shah Abbas I, as he tried to upgrade the Silk Road to improve the commercial prosperity of the Empire, an abundance of caravanserais, bridges, bazaars and roads were built, and this strategy was followed by wealthy merchants who also profited from the increase in trade. To uphold the standard, another source of revenue was needed, and road toll, that were collected by guards (
2021:
5436:(1565–1635) introduced new subjects to Persian painting – semi-nude women, youth, lovers. His painting and calligraphic style influenced Iranian artists for much of the Safavid period, which came to be known as the Isfahan school. Increased contact with distant cultures in the 17th century, especially Europe, provided a boost of inspiration to Iranian artists who adopted modeling, foreshortening, spatial recession, and the medium of oil painting (Shah Abbas II sent
3590:
3772:, nature of many dynasties which ruled over Greater Iran between the 12th and 20th centuries, in that these dynasties promoted and helped continue the dominant Persian linguistic and cultural identity of their states, although the dynasties themselves were of non-Persian (e.g. Turkic) origins. The relationship between the Turkic-speaking 'Turks' and Persian-speaking 'Tajiks' was symbiotic, yet some form of rivalry did exist between the two. As the former represented the "
5375:, the 17th-century French traveler, spent many years in Iran and commented at length on their culture, customs and character. He admired their consideration towards foreigners, but he also stumbled upon characteristics that he found challenging. His descriptions of the public appearance, clothes and customs are corroborated by the miniatures, drawings and paintings from that time which have survived. He considered them to be a well-educated and well-behaved people.
4394:
3685:
5067:
2215:
5583:
4852:
16867:
4139:(died 1792), along with other Usuli mujtahids, crushed the Akhbari movement. It remains only a small minority in the Shiʻi world. One result of the resolution of this conflict was the rise in importance of the concept of ijtihad and the position of the mujtahid (as opposed to other ulama) in the 18th and early 19th centuries. It was from this time that the division of the Shiʻa world into mujtahid (those who could follow their own independent judgment) and
1945:
5953:
on their arms, such as on daggers and swords. Daggers were worn at the waist. In describing the lady's clothing, he noted that
Persian dress revealed more of the figure than did the European, but that women appeared differently depending on whether they were at home in the presence of friends and family, or if they were in the public. In private they usually wore a veil that only covered the hair and the back, but upon leaving the home, they put on
16877:
79:
7853:, accessed on April 4, 2010. "The Persian focus is also reflected in the fact that theological works also began to be composed in the Persian language and in that Persian verses replaced Arabic on the coins." "The political system that emerged under them had overlapping political and religious boundaries and a core language, Persian, which served as the literary tongue, and even began to replace Arabic as the vehicle for theological discourse".
5995:
5418:
5778:
1517:
4257:
3141:
4677:
2839:
5022:
provide the bulk of revenues to the
Iranian state from transit taxes. The revenue came not so much from exports, as from the custom charges and transit dues levied on goods passing through the country. Shah Abbas was determined to greatly expand this trade, but faced the problem of having to deal with the Ottomans, who controlled the two most vital routes: the route across Arabia to the Mediterranean ports, and the route through
1732:, "Salim's plan was to winter at Tabriz and complete the conquest of Persia the following spring. However, a mutiny among his officers who refused to spend the winter at Tabriz forced him to withdraw across territory laid waste by the Safavid forces, eight days later". Although Ismāʻil was defeated and his capital was captured, the Safavid empire survived. The war between the two powers continued under Ismāʻil's son, Emperor
5331:
7476:
5501:
4600:
3103:
668:
4906:
4355:, although this increasingly changed after the capital was moved to Isfahan. David Blow adds; "it seems likely that most, if not all, of the Turkoman grandees at the court also spoke Persian, which was the language of the administration and culture, as well as of the majority of the population. But the reverse seems not to have been true. When Abbas had a lively conversation in Turkish with the Italian traveller
3372:
3857:
2713:
654:
2741:
2269:, Adil Giray, who was captured during the 1578–1590 Ottoman war and held captive in the capital, Qazvin. None of the perpetrators were brought to justice, although the shah lectured the assembled amirs on how they departed from the old ways when the shah was master to his Sufi disciples. The shah used that occasion to proclaim the 11-year-old Sultan Hamza Mirza (Mahd-i ‘Ulyā's favorite) crown-prince.
5014:
1042:
1804:
2623:. When he reached the capital with Abbas a public demonstration in the boy's favor decided the issue, and Shah Mohammad voluntarily handed over the insignia of kingship to his son, who was crowned Abbas I on October 1, 1588. The moment was grave for the empire, with the Ottomans deep in Iranian territory in the west and north and the Uzbeks in possession of half of Khorasan in the east.
2675:
territories from the
Ottomans. Before he could begin to embark on the first stage, he needed relief from the most serious threat to the empire: the military pressure from the Ottomans. He did so by taking the humiliating step of coming to peace terms with the Ottomans by making, for now, permanent their territorial gains in Iraq and the territories in the north, including Azerbaijan,
3059:) on the symbolic throne of Kakheti, while placing a series of his own governors to rule of districts where rebellious inhabitants were mostly located. Moreover, he planned to deport all nobles of Kartli. Iranian rule had been fully restored over eastern Georgia, but the Georgian territories would continue to produce resistance to Safavid enroachments from 1624 until Abbas' death.
2231:
regent for any of the three (including her older brother, who was nearly blind). Mohammad was selected and received the crown on
February 11, 1579. Mohammad would rule for 10 years, and his sister at first dominated the court, but she fell in the first of many intrigues which continued even though the Uzbeks and Ottomans again used the opportunity to threaten Safavid territory.
6163:
6100:
although he was equally at ease speaking
Persian. It seems likely that most, if not all, of the Turkoman grandees at the court also spoke Persian, which was the language of the administration and culture, as well as of the majority of the population. But the reverse seems not to have been true. When Abbas had a lively conversation in Turkish with the Italian traveller
2619:
Safavid affairs, led a force to confront the Ottomans, but in 1586 was murdered under mysterious circumstances. In the east Murshid Quli Khan, of the Ustajlu tribe, managed to snatch Abbas away from the Shamlus. Two years later in 1587, the massive invasion of Khorasan by the Uzbeks proved the occasion whereby Murshid Quli Khan would make a play for supremacy in
1095:(† 794/1391–92). The order at this time was transformed into a religious movement that conducted religious propaganda throughout Iran, Syria and Asia Minor, and most likely had maintained its Sunni Shafi'ite origin at that time. The leadership of the order passed from Sadr ud-Dīn Mūsā to his son Khwādja Ali († 1429) and in turn to his son Ibrāhīm († 1429–47).
4160:, was a highly influential scholar during the 17th century (Safavid era). Majlisi's works emphasized his desire to purge Twelver Shiʻism of the influences of mysticism and philosophy, and to propagate an ideal of strict adherence to the Islamic law (sharia). Majlisi promoted specifically Shiʻi rituals such as mourning for Hussein ibn Ali and visitation (
4314:' reign (r. 1588–1629) they were no longer controlling the state, the Turkoman Qizilbash continued to provide many of the senior army officers and to fill important administrative and ceremonial offices in the royal household. There were the Persians who still dominated the bureaucracy and under Abbas held the two highest government offices of
5963:. Their hairstyle was simple, the hair gathered back in tresses, often adorned at the ends with pearls and clusters of jewels. Women with slender waists were regarded as more attractive than those with larger figures. Women from the provinces and slaves pierced their left nostrils with rings, but well-born Persian women would not do this.
3421:
5379:
seeing new places and experiencing different cultures. It was perhaps this sort of attitude towards the rest of the world that accounted for the ignorance of Persians regarding other countries of the world. The exercises that they took part in were for keeping the body supple and sturdy and to acquire skills in handling of arms.
4721:, of whom a sizeable amount would become part of the future ghulam system. Shah Abbas expanded this program significantly and fully implemented it, and eventually created a force of 15,000 ghulam cavalrymen and 3,000 ghulam royal bodyguards. With the advent of the brother's Shirley at Abbas' court and by the efforts of statesman
3743:. Sons of nobles were considered for the succession of their fathers as a mark of respect, but they had to prove themselves worthy of the position. This system avoided an entrenched aristocracy or a caste society. There are numerous recorded accounts of laymen that rose to high official posts as a result of their merits.
11082:
7655:"... the Order of the Lion and the Sun, a device which, since the 17 century at least, appeared on the national flag of the Safavids the lion representing 'Ali and the sun the glory of the Shiʻi faith", Mikhail Borisovich Piotrovskiĭ, J. M. Rogers, Hermitage Rooms at Somerset House, Courtauld Institute of Art,
1240:(1370–1506), Iran was politically splintered, giving rise to a number of religious movements. The demise of Tamerlane's political authority created a space in which several religious communities, particularly Shiʻi ones, could come to the fore and gain prominence. Among these were a number of Sufi brotherhoods, the
3047:, who had been sent to the shah as negotiator, tortured to death when she refused to renounce Christianity, in an act of revenge for the recalcitrance of Teimuraz. Kakheti lost two-thirds of its population in these years by Abbas' punitive campaign. The majority were deported to Iran, while some were slaughtered.
10825:
4817:, the variety in agricultural products in Iran was unrivaled in Europe and consisted of fruits and vegetables never even heard of in Europe. Chardin was present at some feasts in Isfahan were there were more than fifty different kinds of fruit. He thought that there was nothing like it in France or Italy:
9069:, translated by Janet Watson, Marian Hill, Edition: 2, illustrated, published by Columbia University Press, 2004, p. 80: "...he was able to make his triumphal entry into Alvand's capital Tabriz. Here he assumed the ancient Iranian title of King of Kings (Shahanshah) and setup up Shiʻi as the ruling faith"
8198:, pp. 165–166 "Georgian, Circassian and Armenian were also spoken , since these were the mother-tongues of many of the ghulams, as well as of a high proportion of the women of the harem. Figueroa heard Abbas speak Georgian, which he had no doubt acquired from his Georgian ghulams and concubines."
5539:
as the Great capital of Iran and the material splendor of the city attracted intellectual's from all corners of the world, which contributed to the city's rich cultural life. The impressive achievements of its 400,000 residents prompted the inhabitants to coin their famous boast, "Isfahan is half the
4867:
Horses were the most important of all the beasts of burden, and the best were brought in from Arabia and Central-Asia. They were costly because of the widespread trade in them, including to Turkey and India. The next most important mount, when traveling through Iran, was the mule. Also, the camel was
3934:
of the neighbouring Ottoman Empire. In turn, many of these transplanted women became wives and concubines of Tahmasp, and the Safavid harem emerged as a competitive, and sometimes lethal, arena of ethnic politics as cliques of Turkmen, Circassian, and Georgian women and courtiers vied with each other
2255:
who held a high official position. Mirza Salman left the capital before Pari Khān Khānum closed the gates and was able to meet Mohammad Khodabanda and his wife in Shiraz, to whom he offered his services. He may have believed that he would rule once their enemy was disposed of, but Mahd-i ‘Ulyā proved
2230:
On the death of Ismail II there were three candidates for succession: Shāh Shujā', the infant son of Ismail (only a few weeks old), Ismail's brother, Mohammad Khodabanda; and Mohammad's son, Sultan Hamza Mirza, 11 years old at the time. Pari Khān Khānum, sister of Ismail and Mohammad, hoped to act as
2073:, Qāżi Jahān of Qazvin, after 1535. While Persians continued to fill their historical role as administrators and clerical elites under Tahmāsp, little had been done so far to minimize the military role of the Qezelbāš. Therefore, in 1540, Shah Tahmāsp started the first of a series of invasions of the
2056:
Tahmāsp also planted the seeds that would, unintentionally, produce change much later. During his reign he had realized while both looking to his own empire and that of the neighboring Ottomans, that there were dangerous rivalling factions and internal family rivalries that were a threat to the heads
1993:, which controlled the overland trade route between central Iran and the Ganges. In 1545 a combined Iranian–Mughal force managed to seize Kandahar and occupy Kabul. Humayun handed over Kandahar, but Tahmāsp was forced to retake it in 1558, after Humayun seized it on the death of the Safavid governor.
1846:
Thus Div Soltān emerged victorious in the first palace struggle, but he fell victim to Chuha Sultān of the Takkalu, who turned Tahmāsp against his first mentor. In 1527 Tahmāsp demonstrated his desire by shooting an arrow at Div Soltān before the assembled court. The Takkalu replaced the Rumlu as the
7973:
Safavid power with its distinctive Persian-Shiʻi culture, however, remained a middle ground between its two mighty Turkish neighbors. The Safavid state, which lasted at least until 1722, was essentially a "Turkish" dynasty, with Azeri Turkish (Azerbaijan being the family's home base) as the language
5990:
as a second language. The language chiefly used by the Safavid court and military establishment was Azerbaijani. But the official language of the empire as well as the administrative language, language of correspondence, literature and historiography was Persian. The inscriptions on Safavid currency
5952:
As noted before, a key aspect of the Persian character was its love of luxury, particularly on keeping up appearances. They would adorn their clothes, wearing stones and decorate the harness of their horses. Men wore many rings on their fingers, almost as many as their wives. They also placed jewels
5767:
They were the continuers of the classical tradition of Islamic thought, which after Averroes died in the Arab west. The Persians schools of thought were the true heirs of the great Islamic thinkers of the golden age of Islam, whereas in the Ottoman empire there was an intellectual stagnation, as far
4554:
Chardin also noted that bringing cases into court in Iran was easier than in the West. The judge (qazi) was informed of relevant points involved and would decide whether or not to take up the case. Having agreed to do so, a sergeant would investigate and summon the defendant, who was then obliged to
3480:
Iranian trade with European merchants led to the depletion of much of Iran's metal supplies. Except for Shah Abbas II, the Safavid rulers after Abbas I were therefore rendered ineffectual, and the Iranian government declined and finally collapsed when a serious military threat emerged on its eastern
2191:
Ismail's 14-month reign was notable for two things: continual bloodletting of his relatives and others (including his own supporters) and his reversal on religion. He had all his relatives killed except for his older brother, Mohammad Khudabanda, who, being nearly blind, was not a real candidate for
2172:
as well as the rest of the Circassians, while Haydar was mostly supported by the Georgians at court although he also had support from the Turkmen Ustajlu. Ismail had been imprisoned at Qahqaha since 1556 by his father on charges of plotting a coup, but his selection was ensured when 30,000 Qizilbash
6020:
In the heyday of the Mughal, Safawi, and Ottoman regimes New Persian was being patronized as the language of litterae humaniores by the ruling element over the whole of this huge realm, while it was also being employed as the official language of administration in those two-thirds of its realm that
5907:
The two wrestlers were covered in grease. They are present on the level ground, and a small drum is always playing during the contest for excitement. They swear to a good fight and shake hands. That done, they slap their thighs, buttocks and hips to the rhythm of the drum. That is for the women and
5037:
By the end of the 17th century, the Dutch had become dominant in the trade that went via the Persian Gulf, having won most trade agreements, and managed to strike deals before the English or French were able to. They particularly established monopoly of the spice and porcelain trade between the Far
5021:
In the long term, however, the seaborne trade route was of less significance to the Persians than was the traditional Silk Road. Lack of investment in ship building and the navy provided the Europeans with the opportunity to monopolize this trading route. The land-borne trade would thus continue to
4838:
In the period prior to Shah Abbas I, most of the land was assigned to officials (civil, military and religious). From the time of Shah Abbas onwards, more land was brought under the direct control of the shah. And since agriculture accounted for by far largest share of tax revenue, he took measures
4834:
Despite this, he was disappointed when travelling the country and witnessing the abundance of land that was not irrigated, or the fertile plains that were not cultivated, something he thought was in stark contrast to Europe. He blamed this on misgovernment, the sparse population of the country, and
4809:
and agriculture. And, just as the higher levels of the social hierarchy was divided between the Turkish "men of the sword" and the Persian "men of the pen"; so were the lower level divided between the Turcoman tribes, who were cattle breeders and lived apart from the surrounding population, and the
4549:
There were no particular place assigned for the administration of justice. Each magistrate executes justice in his own house in a large room opening on to a courtyard or a garden which is raised two or three feet above the ground. The Judge is seated at one end of the room having a writer and a man
4413:
generals had been appointed to most of these posts. They ruled their provinces like petty shahs and spent all their revenues on their own province, only presenting the Shah with the balance. In return, they had to keep ready a standing army at all times and provide the Shah with military assistance
3976:
had been deported and imported from the Caucasus to mainland Iran, all obtaining functions and roles as part of the newly created layer in society, such as within the highest positions of the state, or as farmers, soldiers, craftspeople, as part of the Royal harem, the Court, and peasantry, amongst
3464:
More importantly, European trading companies used their superior means of maritime power to control trade routes in the western Indian Ocean. As a result, Safavid Iran's overseas links to East Africa, the Arabian peninsula and South Asia were greatly diminished. Overland trade grew notably however,
3216:
The shah had set great store on an alliance with Spain, the chief opponent of the Ottomans in Europe. Abbas offered trading rights and the chance to preach Christianity in Iran in return for help against the Ottomans. But the stumbling block of Hormuz remained, a vassal kingdom that had fallen into
2708:
and had them executed. Then, having made the point that he would not encourage rivalries even purporting to favor his interests, he felt secure enough to have Murshid Quli Khan assassinated on his own orders in July 1589. It was clear that Abbas' style of leadership would be entirely different from
2151:
When Tahmāsp died in 984/1576, Iran was calm domestically, with secure borders and no imminent threat from either the Uzbeks or the Ottomans. What remained unchanged, however, was the constant threat of local disaffection with the weak central authority. That condition would not change (and in fact
2028:
When the young Shah Tahmāsp took the throne, Iran was in a dire state. But in spite of a weak economy, a civil war and foreign wars on two fronts, Tahmāsp managed to retain his crown and maintain the territorial integrity of the empire (although much reduced from Ismail's time). During the first 30
1988:
was ousted from his territories and threatened by his half-brother and rival, who had inherited the northern part of Babur's territories. Having to flee from city to city, Humayun eventually sought refuge at the court of Tahmāsp in Qazvin in 1543. Tahmāsp received Humayun as the true emperor of the
1931:
in June 1555, ending the war with the Ottomans for the next two decades. The treaty was the first formal diplomatic recognition of the Safavid Empire by the Ottomans. Under the Peace, the Ottomans agreed to restore Yerevan, Karabakh and Nakhjuwan to the Safavids and in turn would retain Mesopotamia
6038:
In day-to-day affairs, the language chiefly used at the Safavid court and by the great military and political officers, as well as the religious dignitaries, was Turkish, not Persian; and the last class of persons wrote their religious works mainly in Arabic. Those who wrote in Persian were either
3608:
in Khorasan, a vassal state of the Safavids. Quickly making a name as a military genius both feared and respected amongst the empire's friends and enemies (including Iran's archrival the Ottoman Empire, and Russia; both empires Nader would deal with soon afterwards), Nader Shah easily defeated the
2748:
What effectively fully severed Abbas's dependence on the Qizilbash, however, was how he constituted this new army. In order not to favor one Turkic tribe over another and to avoid inflaming the Turk-Persian enmity, he recruited his army from the "third force", a policy that had been implemented in
2614:
of Abbas and Ismail II's man in Herat proclaimed Abbas shah there April 1581. The following year the loyal Qizilbash forces (the Turkmen and Takkalu who controlled Qazvin), with vizier Mirza Salman and crown prince Sultan Hamza Mirza at their head, confronted the rebelling Ustajlu-Shamlu coalition
2260:
She was by no means content to exercise a more or less indirect influence on affairs of state: instead, she openly carried out all essential functions herself, including the appointment of the chief officers of the realm. In place of the usual royal audience, these high dignitaries had to assemble
2234:
Mohammad allowed others to direct the affairs of state, but none of them had either the prestige, skill or ruthlessness of either Tahmāsp or Ismail II to rein in the ethnic or palace factions, and each of his rulers met grim ends. Mohammad's younger sister, who had a hand in elevating and deposing
1880:
invaded Iran four times. Decentralized control over Uzbek forces was largely responsible for the inability of the Uzbeks to make territorial inroads into Khorasan. Putting aside internal dissension, the Safavid nobles responded to a threat to Herat in 1528 by riding eastward with Tahmāsp (then 17)
1743:
The consequences of the defeat at Chaldiran were also psychological for Ismāʻil: the defeat destroyed Ismāʻil's belief in his invincibility, based on his claimed divine status. His relationships with his Qizilbash followers were also fundamentally altered. The tribal rivalries among the Qizilbash,
6212:
According to Donald Struesand, "although the Safavid unification of the eastern and western halves of the Iranian plateau and imposition of Twelver Shiʻi Islam on the region created a recognizable precursor of modern Iran, the Safavid polity itself was neither distinctively Iranian nor national."
6136:
During the Safavid period Azerbaijani Turkish, or, as it was also referred to at that time, Qizilbash Turkish, occupied an important place in society, and it was spoken both atcourt and by the common people. Although Turkish was widely spoken in Safavid Iran this fact is rarely mentioned. Usually
4290:
Chardin specifically noticed the rank of doctors and astrologers and the respect that the Shahs had for them. The Shah had a dozen of each in his service and would usually be accompanied by three doctors and three astrologers, who were authorized to sit by his side on various occasions. The Chief
4187:
thought the Safavid Shahs ruled their land with an iron fist and often in a despotic manner. To ensure transparency and avoid decisions being made that circumvented the Shah, a complex system of bureaucracy and departmental procedures had been put in place that prevented fraud. Every office had a
3955:
Shah Abbas, who significantly enlargened and completed this program and under whom the creation of this new layer in society may be mentioned as fully "finalized", completed the ghulam system as well. As part of its completion, he greatly expanded the ghulam military corps from just a few hundred
9055:
Stefan Sperl, C. Shackle, Nicholas Awde, "Qasida poetry in Islamic Asia and Africa", Brill Academic Pub; Set Only edition (February 1996), p. 193: "Like Shah Ni'mat Allah-i Vali he hosted distinguished visitors among them Ismail Safavi, who had proclaimed himself Shahanshah of Iran in 1501 after
6099:
The primary court language remained Turkish. But it was not the Turkish of Istanbul. It was a Turkish dialect, the dialect of the Qizilbash Turkomans, which is still spoken today in the province of Azerbaijan, in north-western Iran. This form of Turkish was also the mother-tongue of Shah Abbas,
6029:
In the 16th century, the Turcophone Safavid family of Ardabil in Azerbaijan, probably of Turkicized Iranian, origin, conquered Iran and established Turkic, the language of the court and the military, as a high-status vernacular and a widespread contact language, influencing spoken Persian, while
5401:
Abbas I recognized the commercial benefit of promoting the arts – artisan products provided much of Iran's foreign trade. In this period, handicrafts such as tile making, pottery and textiles developed and great advances were made in miniature painting, bookbinding, decoration and
5378:
Unlike Europeans, they much disliked physical activity, and were not in favor of exercise for its own sake, preferring the leisure of repose and luxuries that life could offer. Travelling was valued only for the specific purpose of getting from one place to another, not interesting themselves in
4969:
all sought Persian suzerainty not just because of religious or cultural ties, but also because of the need for a counterweight to Mughal expansion. The Persians complied, and thousands of Persians emigrated to the Deccan during the 16th and 17th centuries, continuing a process that already began
4949:
and regain control of this trading route. He convinced the English to assist him by allowing them to open factories in Shiraz, Isfahan and Jask. With the later end of the Portuguese Empire, the English, Dutch and French in particular gained easier access to Persian seaborne trade, although they,
3951:
regiments, or employed in the royal household. The rest of the masses of deportees and importees, a significant portion numbering many hundreds of thousands, were settled in various regions of mainland Iran, and were given all kinds of roles as part of society, such as craftsmen, farmers, cattle
3050:
Teimuraz returned to eastern Georgia in 1615 and defeated a Safavid force. It was just a brief setback, however, as Abbas had already been making long-term plans to prevent further incursions. He was eventually successful in making the eastern Georgian territories an integral part of the Safavid
6065:
A specific Turkic language was attested in Safavid Persia during the 16th and 17th centuries, a language that Europeans often called Persian Turkish ("Turc Agemi", "lingua turcica agemica"), which was a favourite language at the court and in the army because of the Turkic origins of the Safavid
4725:, from 1600 onwards, the ghulam fighting regiments were further dramatically expanded under Abbas reaching 25,000. Under Abbas, this force amounted to a total of near 40,000 soldiers paid for and beholden to the Shah. They would become the elite soldiers of the Safavid armies (like the Ottoman
3946:
Following the full implementation of this policy by Abbas I, the women (only Circassian and Georgian) now very often came to occupy prominent positions in the harems of the Safavid elite, while the men who became part of the ghulam "class" as part of the powerful third force were given special
3118:
Abbas's tolerance towards Christians was part of his policy of establishing diplomatic links with European powers to try to enlist their help in the fight against their common enemy, the Ottoman Empire. The idea of such an anti-Ottoman alliance was not a new one – over a century
2790:
Abbas also greatly increased the number of cannons at his disposal, permitting him to field 500 in a single battle. Ruthless discipline was enforced and looting was severely punished. Abbas was also able to draw on military advice from a number of European envoys, particularly from the English
2665:
for himself. Abbas' own position seemed even more dependent on Qizilbash approval than Mohammad Khodabanda's was. The dependence of Abbas on the Qizilbash (which provided the only military force) was further reinforced by the precarious situation of the empire, in the vice of Ottoman and Uzbek
2618:
In 1585 two events occurred that would combine to break the impasse among the Qizilbash. First, in the west, the Ottomans, seeing the disarray of the warriors, pressed deep into Safavid territory and occupied the old capital of Tabriz. Crown prince Hamza Mirza, now 21 years old and director of
3960:
ghulams. He then went on to completely reduce the number of Qizilbash provincial governorships and systematically moved qizilbash governors to other districts, thus disrupting their ties with the local community, and reducing their power. Most were replaced by a ghulam, and within short time,
2674:
Whether Abbas had fully formed his strategy at the onset, at least in retrospect his method of restoring the shah's authority involved three phases: (1) restoration of internal security and law and order; (2) recovery of the eastern territories from the Uzbeks; and (3) recovery of the western
4883:
commented that the Iranian caravanserais were better built and cleaner than their Turkish counterparts. According to Chardin, they were also more abundant than in the Mughal or Ottoman Empires, where they were less frequent but larger. Caravanserais were designed especially to benefit poorer
4689:
within the aristocracy and all other functions within the empire, but even more important in undermining the authority of the Qizilbash was the introduction of the Royal Corps into the military. This military force would serve the shah only and eventually consisted of four separate branches:
3837:
Shah Tahmasp introduced a change to this, when he, and the other Safavid rulers who succeeded him, sought to blur the formerly defined lines between the two linguistic groups, by taking the sons of Turkic-speaking officers into the royal household for their education in the Persian language.
3763:
The power structure of the Safavid state was mainly divided into two groups: the Turkic-speaking military/ruling elite – whose job was to maintain the territorial integrity and continuity of the Iranian empire through their leadership – and the Persian-speaking
1252:. Of these various movements, the Safavid Qizilbash was the most politically resilient, and due to its success Shah Isma'il I gained political prominence in 1501. There were many local states prior to the Iranian state established by Ismāʻil. The most important local rulers about 1500 were:
4752:
Despite the reforms, the Qizilbash would remain the strongest and most effective element within the military, accounting for more than half of its total strength. But the creation of this large standing army, that, for the first time in Safavid history, was serving directly under the Shah,
1748:, resurfaced in intense form immediately after the death of Ismāʻil, and led to ten years of civil war (930–040/1524–1533) until Shāh Tahmāsp regained control of the affairs of the state. For most of the last decade of Ismail's reign, the domestic affairs of the empire were overseen by the
4275:), who would always accompany the Shah and was easily recognizable because of the great baton that he carried with him. He was responsible for introducing all guests, receiving petitions presented to the Shah and reading them if required. Next in line were the Master of the Royal Stables (
3754:
Also among the aristocracy, in the middle of the hierarchical pyramid, were the religious officials, who, mindful of the historic role of the religious classes as a buffer between the ruler and his subjects, usually did their best to shield the ordinary people from oppressive governments.
7974:
of the rulers and the court as well as the Qizilbash military establishment. Shah Ismail wrote poetry in Turkish. The administration nevertheless was Persian, and the Persian language was the vehicle of diplomatic correspondence (insha'), of belles-lettres (adab), and of history (tarikh).
3930:) were completely unrestrained by clan loyalties and kinship obligations, which was an attractive feature for a ruler like Tahmāsp whose childhood and upbringing had been deeply affected by Qizilbash tribal politics. Their formation, implementation, and usage was very much alike to the
5637:(1714) appeared in Isfahan and other cities. This extensive development of architecture was rooted in Persian culture and took form in the design of schools, baths, houses, caravanserai and other urban spaces such as bazaars and squares. It continued until the end of the Qajar reign.
4732:
Musketeers: realizing the advantages that the Ottomans had because of their firearms, Shah Abbas was at pains to equip both the qurchi and the ghulam soldiers with up-to-date weaponry. More importantly, for the first time in Iranian history, a substantial infantry corps of musketeers
3176:
in 1602. Although the expedition never managed to return to Iran, being shipwrecked on the journey around Africa, it marked an important new step in contacts between Iran and Europe. The Europeans began to be fascinated by the Iranians and their culture – Shakespeare's
11048:
3266:, was executed following a court intrigue in which several Circassians were involved, while two others were blinded. Since two other sons had predeceased him, the result was a personal tragedy for Shah Abbas. When he died on 19 January 1629, he had no son capable of succeeding him.
1527:
Although Ismāʻil I initially gained mastery over Azerbaijan alone, the Safavids ultimately won the struggle for power over all of Iran, which had been going on for nearly a century between various dynasties and political forces. A year after his victory in Tabriz, Ismāʻil I claimed
6199:
In a number of ways the Safavids affected the development of the modern Iranian state: first, they ensured the continuance of various ancient and traditional Persian institutions, and transmitted these in a strengthened, or more 'national', form; second, by imposing Ithna 'Ashari
2666:
territorial plunder. Yet over the course of ten years Abbas was able, using cautiously-timed but nonetheless decisive steps, to affect a profound transformation of Safavid administration and military, throw back the foreign invaders, and preside over a flourishing of Persian art.
2272:
The palace intrigues reflected ethnic unrest which would soon erupt into open warfare. Iran's neighbors seized the opportunity to attack. The Uzbeks struck in the Spring of 1578 but were repelled by Murtaza Quli Sultan, governor of Mashhad. More seriously the Ottomans ended the
4221:), who was always chosen from among doctors of law. He enjoyed tremendous power and control over national affairs as he was the immediate deputy of the Shah. No act of the Shah was valid without the counter seal of the Prime Minister. But even he stood accountable to a deputy (
1532:, and within 10 years established a complete control over all of it. Ismāʻil followed the line of Iranian and Turkmen rulers prior to his assumption of the title "Padishah-i-Iran", previously held by Uzun Hasan and many other Iranian kings. The Ottoman sultans addressed him as
5547:
began with the rise of the Safavid dynasty. Economically robust and politically stable, this period saw a flourishing growth of theological sciences. Traditional architecture evolved in its patterns and methods leaving its impact on the architecture of the following periods.
3221:
when the King of Spain inherited the throne of Portugal in 1580. The Spanish demanded Abbas break off relations with the English before they would consider relinquishing the town. Abbas was unable to comply. Eventually Abbas became frustrated with Spain, as he did with the
6039:
lacking in proper tuition in this tongue, or wrote outside Iran and hence at a distance from centers where Persian was the accepted vernacular, endued with that vitality and susceptibility to skill in its use which a language can have only in places where it truly belongs.
4082:. They would thus retain the official ownership and secure their land from being confiscated by royal commissioners or local governors, as long as a percentage of the revenues from the land went to the ulama. Increasingly, members of the religious class, particularly the
4145:(those who had to follow the rulings of a mujtahid) took place. According to author Moojan Momen, "up to the middle of the 19th century there were very few mujtahids (three or four) anywhere at any one time," but "several hundred existed by the end of the 19th century."
10822:
8662:, "The origins of the Safavids are clouded in obscurity. They may have been of Kurdish origin (see R. Savory, Iran Under the Safavids, 1980, p. 2; R. Matthee, "Safavid Dynasty" at iranica.com), but for all practical purposes they were Turkish-speaking and Turkified."
6170:
It was the Safavids who made Iran the spiritual bastion of Shiʻism, and the repository of Persian cultural traditions and self-awareness of Iranianhood, acting as a bridge to modern Iran. The founder of the dynasty, Shah Isma'il, adopted the title of "King of Iran"
2069:, his father and founder of the Empire, Ismail I, had begun this process on a bureaucratic level as he appointed a number of prominent Persians in powerful bureaucratic positions, and one can see this continued in Tahmāsp's lengthy and close relationship with the
4888:), were stationed along the trading routes. They in turn provided for the safety of the travelers, and both Thevenot and Tavernier stressed the safety of traveling in 17th century Iran, and the courtesy and refinement of the policing guards. The Italian traveler
1077:. Due to the great spiritual charisma of Safi al-Din, the order was later known as the Safaviyya. The Safavid order soon gained great influence in the city of Ardabil, and Hamdullah Mustaufi noted that most of the people of Ardabil were followers of Safi al-Din.
5610:) and governors of the different provinces making up the empire. Shah Abbas wanted to undermine this political structure, and the recreation of Isfahan, as a Grand capital of Iran, was an important step in centralizing the power. The ingenuity of the square, or
4446:
In 16th and 17th century Iran, there existed a considerable number of local democratic institutions. Examples of such were the trade and artisan guilds, which had started to appear in Iran from the 1500s. Also, there were the quazi-religious fraternities called
3136:
from his court on hearing he was a Christian. For his part, Abbas declared that he "preferred the dust from the shoe soles of the lowest Christian to the highest Ottoman personage." Abbas would take active and all measures needed in order to seal the alliances.
2736:
provinces, which produced Iran's single most important export; silk. With the substantial new revenue, Abbas was able to build up a central, standing army, loyal only to him. This freed him of his dependence on Qizilbash warriors loyal to local tribal chiefs.
3751:, which in modern Persian means "government", was then an abstract term meaning "bliss" or "felicity", and it began to be used as concrete sense of the Safavid state, reflecting the view that the people had of their ruler, as someone elevated above humanity.
2040:
In cultural matters, Tahmāsp presided the revival of the fine arts, which flourished under his patronage. Safavid culture is often admired for the large-scale city planning and architecture, achievements made during the reign of later shahs, but the arts of
4684:
Shah Abbas realized that in order to retain absolute control over his empire without antagonizing the Qizilbash, he needed to create reforms that reduced the dependency that the shah had on their military support. Part of these reforms was the creation of
3127:
for military aid – but none of the Safavids had made diplomatic overtures to Europe. Shah Ismail I was the first of the Safavids to try to establish once again an alliance against the common Ottoman enemy through the earlier stages of the
2660:
The 16-year-old Abbas I was installed as nominal shah in 1588, but the real power was intended to remain in the hands of his "mentor," Murshid Quli Khan, who reorganized court offices and principal governorships among the Qizilbash and took the title of
6213:
Rudolph Matthee concluded that "though not a nation-state, Safavid Iran contained the elements that would later spawn one by generating many enduring bureaucratic features and by initiating a polity of overlapping religious and territorial boundaries."
5729:
2124:) were completely unrestrained by clan loyalties and kinship obligations, which was an attractive feature for a ruler like Tahmāsp whose childhood and upbringing had been deeply affected by Qezelbāš tribal politics. In turn, many of these transplanted
5726:
who is arguably the most significant Islamic philosopher after Avicenna. Mulla Sadra has become the dominant philosopher of the Islamic East, and his approach to the nature of philosophy has been exceptionally influential up to this day. He wrote the
1771:
Early Safavid power in Iran was based on the military power of the Qizilbash. Ismāʻil exploited the first element to seize power in Iran. But eschewing politics after his defeat in Chaldiran, he left the affairs of the government to the office of the
2128:
became wives and concubines of Tahmāsp, and the Safavid harem emerged as a competitive, and sometimes lethal, arena of ethnic politics as cliques of Turkmen, Circassian, and Georgian women and courtiers vied with each other for the shah's attention.
3269:
During the early 17th century the power of the Qizilbash drastically diminished, the original militia that had helped Ismail I capture Tabriz and that had gained many administrative powers over the centuries. Power was shifting to the new class of
2136:
and in the civil and military administration, and by that becoming their way of eventually becoming an integral part of the society. One of Tahmāsp's sisters married a Circassian, who would use his court office to team up with Tahmāsp's daughter,
6153:, where it is still spoken by many Iranians. Otherwise, Turkic speech in Iran largely remained a tribal/Qizilbash and provincial Azerbaijani phenomenon, subordinate to Persian as the language of formal education and the dominant literary culture.
3460:
himself. However, strategically it remained inconclusive. The Iranian authority was restored in Kakheti, but the Qizilbash Turkics were prevented from settling in Kakheti, which undermined the planned Iranian policies in the respective province.
2703:
did not mistake this apparent show of weakness as a signal for more tribal rivalry at the court. Although no one could have bristled more at the power grab of his "mentor" Murshid Quli Khan, he rounded up the leaders of a plot to assassinate the
4782:, silk and textiles. Other exports were horses, goat hair, pearls and an inedible bitter almond hadam-talka used as a spice in India. The main imports were spice, textiles (woolens from Europe, cottons from Gujarat), metals, coffee, and sugar.
3720:
While large in terms of land area, the large proportion of deserts and mountains in its territory meant density was very low; the empire's population is estimated to have probably numbered between eight and ten million in 1650, as compared to
1989:
Mughal dynasty, despite the fact that Humayun had been living in exile for more than fifteen years. After Humayun converted to Shiʻi Islam (under extreme duress), Tahmāsp offered him military assistance to regain his territories in return for
6083:) operating through the Court-based religious posts, were forced to master the Persian language; their students translated their instructions into Persian. Persianization went hand in hand with the popularization of 'mainstream' Shiʻi belief.
5856:(c. 980–1037) was still regarded as one of the primary textbooks in medicine throughout most of the civilized world. As such, the status of medicine in the Safavid period did not change much, and relied as much on these works as ever before.
2824:, deeper into central Iran. Abbas I built a new city next to the ancient Persian one. From this time the state began to take on a more Persian character. The Safavids ultimately succeeded in establishing a new Persian national monarchy.
1854:. From 1553 for forty years the shah was able to avoid being ensnared in tribal treacheries. But the decade of civil war had exposed the empire to foreign danger and Tahmāsp had to turn his attention to the repeated raids by the Uzbeks.
9581:
3465:
as Iran was able to further develop its overland trade with North and Central Europe during the second half of the seventeenth century. In the late seventeenth century, Iranian merchants established a permanent presence as far north as
4668:, the Qizilbash, considering it a dishonor to be obliged to serve under him, deserted him on the battlefield with the result that he was slain. The fourth vakil was murdered by the Qizilbash, and the fifth was put to death by them.
4359:, in front of his courtiers, he had to translate the conversation afterwards into Persian for the benefit of most of those present." Lastly, due to the large amount of Georgians, Circassians, and Armenians at the Safavid court (the
4821:
Tobacco grew all over the country and was as strong as that grown in Brazil. Saffron was the best in the world... Melons were regarded as excellent fruit, and there were more than 50 different sorts, the finest of which came from
3746:
Nevertheless, the Iranian society during the Safavids was that of a hierarchy, with the Shah at the apex of the hierarchical pyramid, the common people, merchants and peasants at the base, and the aristocrats in between. The term
3237:
More came of Abbas's contacts with the English, although England had little interest in fighting against the Ottomans. The Shirley brothers arrived in 1598 and helped reorganize the Iranian army, which proved to be crucial in the
7758:
Blake, Stephen P., ed. (2013), "Safavid, Mughal, and Ottoman Empires", Time in Early Modern Islam: Calendar, Ceremony, and Chronology in the Safavid, Mughal and Ottoman Empires, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 21–47,
4581:, a triangular wooden collar placed around the neck. On extraordinary occasions when the Shah took justice into his own hand, he would dress himself up in red for the importance of the event, according to ancient tradition.
1936:, the cursing of the first three Rashidun caliphs. It was a heavy price in terms of territory and prestige lost, but it allowed the empire to last, something that seemed improbable during the first years of Tahmāsp's reign.
3481:
border in the early eighteenth century. The end of the reign of Abbas II, 1666, thus marked the beginning of the end of the Safavid dynasty. Despite falling revenues and military threats, later shahs had lavish lifestyles.
4769:
The growth of Safavid economy was fuelled by the stability which allowed the agriculture to thrive, as well as trade, due to Iran's position between the burgeoning civilizations of Europe to its west and India and Islamic
8127:
qizilbash normally spoke Azari brand of Turkish at court, as did the Safavid shahs themselves; lack of familiarity with the Persian language may have contributed to the decline from the pure classical standards of former
1444:. As such, he was the last in the line of hereditary Grand Masters of the Safaviyeh order, prior to its ascent to a ruling dynasty. Ismāʻil was known as a brave and charismatic youth, zealous with regards to his faith in
6074:
Although the Arabic language was still the medium for religious scholastic expression, it was precisely under the Safavids that hadith complications and doctrinal works of all sorts were being translated to Persian. The
5446:("Book of Kings"), a stellar example of manuscript illumination and calligraphy, was made during Shah Tahmasp's reign. (This book was written by Ferdousi in 1000 AD for Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi) Another manuscript is the
9091:
H.R. Roemer, The Safavid Period, in Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. VI, Cambridge University Press 1986, p. 339: "Further evidence of a desire to follow in the line of Turkmen rulers is Ismail's assumption of the title
2235:
Ismail II and thus had considerable influence among the Qizilbash, was the first. She did not last much longer than Mohammad's installation at Qazvin, where she was murdered. She was done in by intrigues by the vizier
1161:
After Uzun Hassan's death, his son Ya'qub felt threatened by the growing Safavid religious influence. Ya'qub allied himself with the Shirvanshah and killed Haydar in 1488. By this time, the bulk of the Safaviyya were
9046:
George Lenczowski, "Iran under the Pahlavis", Hoover Institution Press, 1978, p. 79: "Ismail Safavi, descendant of the pious Shaykh Ishaq Safi al-Din (d. 1334), seized Tabriz assuming the title of Shahanshah-e-Iran".
4617:
militant groups who helped found the Safavid Empire. Their military power was essential during the reign of the Shahs Ismail and Tahmasp. The Qizilbash tribes were essential to the military of Iran until the rule of
3764:
administrative/governing elite – whose job was to oversee the operation and development of the nation and its identity through their high positions. Thus came the term "Turk and Tajik" to describe the
951:) was the common and official name of the Safavid realm. The idea of the Guarded Domains illustrated a feeling of territorial and political uniformity in a society where the Persian language, culture, monarchy, and
3641:; in the same year, in need of fortune to aid his military careers against his Ottoman and Russian imperial rivals, he started his invasion of the wealthy but weak Mughal Empire accompanied by his Georgian subject
1923:. During these operations an agent of the Samlu (now supporting Sam Mizra's pretensions) attempted to poison the shah. Tahmāsp resolved to end hostilities and sent his ambassador to Soleymān's winter quarters in
4515:. While the imams and judges of law applied civil law in their practice, urf was primarily exercised by the local commissioners, who inspected the villages on behalf of the Shah, and by the Minister of Justice (
1692:
was a widespread pro-Shia and pro-Safavid uprising directed against the Ottoman Empire from within the empire. Furthermore, by the early 1510s Ismail's expansionistic policies had pushed the Safavid borders in
1881:
and soundly defeating the numerically superior forces of the Uzbeks at Jām. The victory resulted at least in part from Safavid use of firearms, which they had been acquiring and drilling with since Chaldiran.
7931:
by the ruling element over the whole of this huge realm, while it was also being employed as the official language of administration in those two-thirds of its realm that lay within the Safawi and the Mughal
7914:. His reigned marked the peak of Safavid dynasty's achievement in art, diplomacy, and commerce. It was probably around this time that the court, which originally spoke a Turkic language, began to use Persian"
4748:
became the Commander in Chief of the military that sufficient effort was put into modernizing the artillery corps and the Persians managed to excel and become self-sufficient in the manufacturing of firearms.
1932:(Iraq) and eastern Anatolia. Soleymān agreed to permit Safavid Shi’a pilgrims to make pilgrimages to Mecca and Medina as well as tombs of imams in Iraq and Arabia on condition that the shah would abolish the
2029:
years of his long reign, he was able to suppress the internal divisions by exerting control over a strengthened central military force. In the war against the Uzbeks he showed that the Safavids had become a
4174:
The Safavid state was one of checks and balance, both within the government and on a local level. At the apex of this system was the Shah, with total power over the state, legitimized by his bloodline as a
2890:. Thus Abbas was able to break dependence on the Qizilbash for military might indefinitely, and therefore was able to fully centralize control for the first time since the foundation of the Safavid state.
1630:, where they continued to attack the Safavids. Ismāʻil's decisive victory over the Uzbeks, who had occupied most of Khorasan, ensured Iran's eastern borders, and the Uzbeks never since expanded beyond the
8672:
Why is there such confusion about the origins of this important dynasty, which reasserted Iranian identity and established an independent Iranian state after eight and a half centuries of rule by foreign
5733:("The Transcendent Philosophy of the Four Journeys of the Intellect"), a meditation on what he called 'meta philosophy' which brought to a synthesis the philosophical mysticism of Sufism, the theology of
2767:(slaves) which (after conversion to Islam) were trained for the military or some branch of the civil or military administration. The standing army created by Abbas consisted of: (1) 10,000–15,000 cavalry
1185:, who was also pursued and subsequently killed by Ya'qub. According to official Safavid history, before passing away, Ali had designated his young brother Ismail as the spiritual leader of the Safaviyya.
3935:
for the king's attention. Although the first slave soldiers would not be organized until the reign of Abbas I, during Tahmasp's reign, Caucasians already became important members of the royal household,
1019:. This recurring expression highlights the authors' pride and recognition of their homeland. This expression is likely the fitting Persian way to describe an "empire" found in the writings of that time.
4555:
pay the fee of the sergeant. The two parties with their witnesses pleaded their respective cases, usually without any counsel, and the judge would pass his judgment after the first or second hearing.
4050:
or clergy were either killed or exiled. Ismail I, brought in mainstream Twelver Shi'a religious leaders and granted them land and money in return for loyalty. Later, during the Safavid and especially
700:
Official language, coinage, civil administration, court (since Isfahan became capital), literary, theological discourse, diplomatic correspondence, historiography, court-based religious posts, poetry
4463:), who was not elected by the people but directly appointed by the Shah, and whose function was to protect the people against injustices on the part of the local governors, supervised the kadkhoda.
2921:
was established delineating a border between Iran and Turkey in 1639, a border which still stands in northwest Iran/southeast Turkey. The 150-year tug-of-war accentuated the Sunni and Shi'a rift in
10833:
4826:. And in spite of being transported for more than thirty days, they were fresh when they reached Isfahan... After melons the finest fruits were grapes and dates, and the best dates were grown in
4641:
elements, the "men of the pen", who filled the ranks of the bureaucracy and the religious establishment in the Safavid state as they had done for centuries under previous rulers of Iran, be they
3780:", high-level official posts would naturally be reserved for the Persians. Indeed, this had been the situation throughout Persian history, even before the Safavids, ever since the Arab conquest.
3696:
Immediately after Nader Shah's assassination in 1747 and the disintegration of his short-lived empire, the Safavids were re-appointed as shahs of Iran in order to lend legitimacy to the nascent
3132:, but this also proved to be largely unfruitful during his reign. Abbas's attitude, however, was in marked contrast to that of his grandfather, Tahmasp I, who had expelled the English traveller
1847:
dominant tribe. They in turn would be replaced by the Shamlu, whose amir, Husain Khan, became the chief adviser. This latest leader would only last until 1534, when he was deposed and executed.
9589:
5920:, particularly in certain districts, like those near the mausoleum of Harun-e Velayat. People met there to drink liqueurs or coffee, to smoke tobacco or opium, and to chat or listen to poetry.
5586:
The 16th-century Chehel Sotun pavilion in Qazvin, Iran. It is the last remains of the palace of the second Safavid king, Shah Tahmasp; it was heavily restored by the Qajars in the 19th century.
3991:
Even though the Safavids were not the first Shiʻi rulers in Iran, they played a crucial role in making Shiʻa Islam the official religion in the whole of Iran, as well as what is nowadays the
3961:
Georgians, Circassians, and to a lesser extent Armenians had been appointed to many of the highest offices of state, and were employed within all other possible sections of society. By 1595,
3190:
1760:
fueled by geo-politics and ideological differences between the Ottomans and the Iranian Safavids (as well as successive Iranian states) mainly regarding territories in Eastern Anatolia, the
15369:
2057:
of state. Not taken care of accordingly, these were a serious threat to the ruler, or worse, could bring the fall of the former or could lead to unnecessary court intrigues. According to
5805:
accorded high social status to their doctors, Iranians had from ancient times honored their physicians, who were often appointed counselors of the Shahs. This would not change with the
5038:
East and Iran. Protected by Dutch naval power, competition from Bengali silk and Sino-Japanese porcelain contributed to the decline of the Safavid economy during the late 17th century.
10713:
Aspects of Altaic Civilization III: Proceedings of the Thirtieth Meeting of the Permanent International Altaistic Conference, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, June 19–25, 1987
3386:
In addition to fighting its perennial enemies, their archrival the Ottomans and the Uzbeks as the 17th century progressed, Iran had to contend with the rise of new neighbors. Russian
5867:
The only field within medicine where some progress were made was pharmacology, with the compilement of the "Tibb-e Shifa’i" in 1556. This book was translated into French in 1681 by
5387:, where the wrist had to be firm but flexible and movements agile. Thirdly there was horsemanship. A very strenuous form of exercise which the Persians greatly enjoyed was hunting.
2132:
Although the first slave soldiers would not be organized until the reign of Abbas I, during Tahmāsp's time Caucasians would already become important members of the royal household,
1900:, they lacked a communications line sufficient to occupy it for long. Nevertheless, given the insecurity in Iraq and its northwest territory, Tahmāsp moved his court from Tabriz to
11558:
5551:
Indeed, one of the greatest legacies of the Safavids is the architecture. In 1598, when Shah Abbas decided to move the capital of his Iranian empire from the north-western city of
1463:
to avenge the death of his father, Sheik Haydar, who had been murdered in 1488 by the ruling Shirvanshah, Farrukh Yassar. Afterwards, Ismail went on a conquest campaign, capturing
5559:, he initiated what would become one of the greatest programmes in Iranian history; the complete remaking of the city. By choosing the central city of Isfahan, fertilized by the
3230:
subjects swear allegiance to the Pope but did not trouble to inform the shah when the Emperor Rudolf signed a peace treaty with the Ottomans. Contacts with the Pope, Poland and
5520:
bears the most prominent samples of the Safavid architecture, all constructed in the years after Shah Abbas I permanently moved the capital there in 1598: the Imperial Mosque,
4744:, who accompanied an English embassy to Iran in 1628, the Persians relied heavily on support from the Europeans in manufacturing cannons. It wasn't until a century later, when
4248:), General of the Musketeers, General of the Ghulams and The Master of Artillery. A separate official, the Commander-in-Chief, was appointed to be the head of these officials.
2998:, they didn't show up due to the fear they would be either imprisoned or killed. Ultimately forming an alliance, the two sought refuge with the Ottoman forces in Ottoman ruled
2787:, was dramatically increased to 3,000. This force of well-trained Caucasian ghulams under Abbas amounted to a total of near 40,000 soldiers paid for and beholden to the Shah.
1884:
Notwithstanding the success with firearms at Jām, Tahmāsp still lacked the confidence to engage their archrivals the Ottomans, choosing instead to cede territory, often using
3250:
from 1609 to 1615. The English East India Company also began to take an interest in Iran, and in 1622 four of its ships helped Abbas retake Hormuz from the Portuguese in the
15359:
3902:
between 1540 and 1554 were meant to uphold the morale and the fighting efficiency of the Qizilbash military, but they brought home large numbers (over 70,000) of Christian
2897:
and Safavids fought over the fertile plains of Iraq for more than 150 years. The capture of Baghdad by Ismail I in 1509 was only followed by its loss to the Ottoman Sultan
2870:
provinces by 1616, all through the 1603–1618, marking the first grand Safavid pitched victory over the Ottomans. He also used his new force to dislodge the Portuguese from
1362:
12041:
Dabashi, H. (1996) 'Mir Damad and the Founding of the School of Isfahan', in SH Nasr and O. Leaman (eds) History of Islamic Philosophy, London: Routledge, ch. 34, 597–634.
6124:
Georgian, Circassian and Armenian were also spoken, since these were the mother-tongues of many of the ghulams, as well as of a high proportion of the women of the harem.
3262:
Due to his obsessive fear of assassination, Shah Abbas either put to death or blinded any member of his family who aroused his suspicion. His oldest son, the crown prince
1178:"Red Heads" because of their distinct red headgear. The Qizilbash were warriors, spiritual followers of Haydar, and a source of the Safavid military and political power.
5411:
3094:. Nowadays, there is a community of nearly 1.7 million people who are descendants of the tribes deported from Kurdistan to Khorasan (Northeastern Iran) by the Safavids.
4778:
which led through northern Iran was revived in the 16th century. Abbas I also supported direct trade with Europe, particularly England and The Netherlands which sought
3079:, which lasted from November 1609 to the summer of 1610, the Kurdish stronghold of Dimdim was captured. Shah Abbas ordered a general massacre in Beradost and Mukriyan (
5606:"). Prior to the Shah's ascent to power, Iran had a decentralized power-structure, in which different institutions battled for power, including both the military (the
5402:
calligraphy. In the 16th century, carpet weaving evolved from a nomadic and peasant craft to a well-executed industry with specialization of design and manufacturing.
615:
601:
587:
573:
559:
545:
531:
517:
5860:
was still based on the four humours of ancient and mediaeval medicine, and bleeding and purging were still the principal forms of therapy by surgeons, something even
3879:
From 1540 and onwards, Shah Tahmasp initiated a gradual transformation of the Iranian society by slowly constructing a new branch and layer solely composed of ethnic
8525:
This official version contains textual changes designed to obscure the Kurdish origins of the Safavid family and to vindicate their claim to descent from the Imams."
103:
5034:
they could cross over to Moscow, reaching Europe via Poland. This trading route proved to be of vital importance, especially during times of war with the Ottomans.
827:
The Safavids ruled from 1501 to 1722 (experiencing a brief restoration from 1729 to 1736 and 1750 to 1773) and, at their height, they controlled all of what is now
5790:
4950:
unlike the Portuguese, did not arrive as colonisers, but as merchant adventurers. The terms of trade were not imposed on the Safavid shahs, but rather negotiated.
1420:. His background is disputed: the language he used is not identical with that of his "race" or "nationality" and he was bilingual from birth. Ismāʻil was of mixed
4340:. As a result of Abbas' reforms, they held high offices in the army, the administration and the royal household. Last but by no means least there were the palace
2813:, in conjunction with Robert Sherley, undertook further reorganizations of the army, which meant among other things further dramatically increasing the number of
962:
in the late 13th-century, a period in which regional actions, trade, written culture, and partly Shia Islam, contributed to the establishment of the early modern
3204:
11790:""Lands below the Winds" as Part of the Persian Cosmopolis: An Inquiry into Linguistic and Cultural Borrowings from the Persianate societies in the Malay World"
9105:
5614:, was that, by building it, Shah Abbas would gather the three main components of power in Iran in his own backyard; the power of the clergy, represented by the
4753:
significantly reduced their influence, and perhaps any possibilities for the type of civil unrest that had caused havoc during the reign of the previous shahs.
4106:(died 1627 AD). It rejected the use of reasoning in deriving verdicts and believed that only the Quran, hadith, (prophetic sayings and recorded opinions of the
12771:: A Manual of Later Safavid Administration. Annotated English Translation, Comments on the Offices and Services, and Facsimile of the Unique Persian Manuscript
9168:
4896:
He examined our baggage, but in the most obliging manner possible, not opening our trunks or packages, and was satisfied with a small tax, which was his due...
4740:
Artillery Corps: with the help of Westerners, he also formed an artillery corps of 12 000 men, although this was the weakest element in his army. According to
4871:
Under the governance of the strong shahs, especially during the first half of the 17th century, traveling through Iran was easy because of good roads and the
7882:, January 24, 2006: "... written Persian, the language of high literature and civil administration, remained virtually unaffected in status and content"
4078:). Because of the relative insecurity of property ownership in Iran, many private landowners secured their lands by donating them to the clergy as so called
3637:, he retook all territories lost by the Ottoman invasion of the 1720s, as well as beyond. With the Safavid state and its territories secured, in 1738 Nader
2261:
each morning at the entrance to the women's apartments in order to receive the Begum's orders. On these occasions the royal edicts were drawn up and sealed.
3906:, Circassian and Armenian slaves as its main objective, and would be the basis of this third force; the new (Caucasian) layer in society. According to the
3242:, which resulted in Ottoman defeats in all stages of the war and the first clear pitched Safavid victory of their archrivals. One of the Shirley brothers,
2265:
The amirs demanded that she be removed, and Mahd-i Ulya was strangled in the harem in July 1579 on the ground of an alleged affair with the brother of the
5567:"), lying as an oasis of intense cultivation in the midst of a vast area of arid landscape, he both distanced his capital from any future assaults by the
1497:) openly declaring their Shīʿīte position, and others to promptly assume Shīʿa Islam. Among these, the founder of one of the most successful Ṣūfī orders,
16916:
10329:
10222:
10065:
8208:
1106:, "Sheikh Junayd was not content with spiritual authority and he sought material power." At that time, the most powerful dynasty in Iran was that of the
1102:, the son of Ibrāhim, assumed the leadership of the Safaviyya in 1447, the history of the Safavid movement was radically changed. According to historian
9426:
Max Scherberger, “The Confrontation between Sunni and Shiʻi Empires: Ottoman-Safavid Relations between the Fourteenth and the Seventeenth Centuries” in
16528:
15381:
4522:
The highest level in the legal system was the Minister of Justice, and the law officers were divided into senior appointments, such as the magistrate (
4135:
It achieved its greatest influence in the late Safavid and early post-Safavid era, when it dominated Twelver Shiʻi Islam. However, shortly thereafter
3895:, Georgians, and Armenians. This layer would become the "third force" in Iranian society, alongside the other two forces, the Turkomans and Persians.
16634:
5912:
As well as wrestling, what gathered the masses was fencing, tightrope dancers, puppet-players and acrobats, performing in large squares, such as the
2720:
Abbas was able to begin gradually transforming the empire from a tribal confederation to a modern imperial government by transferring provinces from
2608:
In the midst of these foreign perils, rebellion broke out in Khorasan fomented by (or on behalf of) Mohammad's son, Abbas. Ali Quli Khan Shamlu, the
1780:
in Turkish). Ismāʻil's successors, most manifestly Shāh Abbās I, successfully diminished the influence of the Qizilbash on the affairs of the state.
4577:. Robbers had their right wrists amputated the first time, and sentenced to death on any subsequent occasion. State criminals were subjected to the
4483:
In Safavid Iran there was little distinction between theology and jurisprudence, or between divine justice and human justice, and it all went under
9138:
3838:
Consequently, they were slowly able to take on administrative jobs in areas which had hitherto been the exclusive preserve of the ethnic Persians.
2406:
2397:
1128:, and cemented his relationship by marrying Uzun Hassan's sister, Khadija Begum. Junayd was killed during an incursion into the territories of the
16048:
16039:
15783:
15295:
10549:
Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (1988). "Persians, pilgrims, and Portuguese: The travails of Masulipatnam shipping in the western Indian ocean, 1590–1665".
10440:
3031:, the capital of Imereti, and punished its peoples for harbouring his defected subjects. He returned to Kartli, and in two punitive campaigns he
2728:(central) rule presided over by a court appointee and the revenue of which reverted to the court. Particularly important in this regard were the
12752:
Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India and Early Ottoman Turkey
4859:, was a luxury resort meant for the wealthiest merchants and selected guests of the shah. Today it is a luxury hotel and goes under the name of
1996:
Humayun was not the only royal figure to seek refuge at Tahmasp's court. A dispute arose in the Ottoman Empire over who was to succeed the aged
15280:
10762:
10617:
10294:
9030:
4405:
On a local level, the government was divided into public land and royal possessions. The public land was under the rule of local governors, or
13504:
5710:
is considered the founder of this school. Among luminaries of this school of philosophy, the names of Iranian philosophers such as Mir Damad,
4287:
around the country. In addition to these, there were separate officials appointed for the caretaking of royal banquets and for entertainment.
2939:
1634:. Although the Uzbeks continued to make occasional raids into Khorasan, the Safavid empire was able to keep them at bay throughout its reign.
5447:
3445:
2994:
and Kakheti, the Iranian Safavid ruled areas of Georgia. Later that year, when the shah summoned them to join him on a hunting expedition in
1819:, succeeded his father Ismāʻil in 1524, when he was ten years and three months old. The succession was evidently undisputed. Tahmāsp was the
2783:. Both corps of musketeers and artillerymen totaled 12,000 men. In addition the shah's personal bodyguard, made up exclusively of Caucasian
2116:, who would dominate the Safavid military for most of the empire's length. As non-Turcoman converts to Islam, these Circassian and Georgian
16931:
15571:
3523:
by Sunni peninsula Arabs. Sultan Hosein tried to forcibly convert his Afghan subjects in Qandahar from Sunni to Twelverism. In response, a
2096:. At the fourth invasion in 1553, it was now clear that Tahmāsp followed a policy of annexation and resettlement as he gained control over
1509:, as evidenced in a poem as well as another unpublished literary composition. Although Shāh Ni'matullāh was apparently a Sunnī Muslim, the
4573:, it relied upon certain sets of legal principles. Murder was punishable by death, and the penalty for bodily injuries was invariably the
4233:, Minister of Justice. The latter was the final appeal in civil and criminal cases, and his office stood next to the main entrance to the
3452:
subjects to Iran's mainland and massacre of another thousand in 1616 virtually left the province without any substantial population. This
15349:
11568:
11077:
7927:, V, pp. 514–515. Excerpt: "in the heyday of the Mughal, Safawi, and Ottoman regimes New Persian was being patronized as the language of
6425:
5598:
avenue, flanked at either side by all the prominent institutions of the city, such as the residences of all foreign dignitaries. And the
8898:
5649:
form languished in over-the-top lyricism. Poetry lacked the royal patronage of other arts and was hemmed in by religious prescriptions.
15717:
15233:
13082:
4813:
The Safavid economy was to a large extent based on agriculture and taxation of agricultural products. According to the French jeweller
4237:
palace. In earlier times, the Shah had been closely involved in judicial proceedings, but this part of the royal duty was neglected by
4225:), who kept records of his decision-makings and notified the Shah. Second to the Prime Minister post were the General of the Revenues (
2724:(provincial) rule governed by a Qizilbash chief and the revenue of which mostly supported local Qizilbash administration and forces to
4913:
Palace in Isfahan was where the Shah would meet foreign dignitaries and embassies. It is famous for the frescoes that cover its walls.
4066:(the religious class) and the merchant community. The latter included merchants trading in the bazaars, the trade and artisan guilds (
3952:
breeders, traders, soldiers, generals, governors, woodcutters, etc., all also part of the newly established layer in Iranian society.
2315:
7504:
6091:
The Safavid dynasty under Shah Ismail (961/1501) adopted Persian and the Shiʻite form of Islam as the national language and religion.
5359:
3157:
3111:
3972:
It is estimated that during Abbas' reign alone some 130,000–200,000 Georgians, tens of thousands of Circassians, and around 300,000
3939:
and in the civil and military administration, and were on their way of becoming an integral part of society. Tahmasp I's successor,
13010:
9255:
7679:
7528:
6104:, in front of his courtiers, he had to translate the conversation afterwards into Persian for the benefit of most of those present.
5974:, while men of status never wore the same turban two days running. Clothes that became soiled in any way were changed immediately.
4657:
put it, friction between these two groups was inevitable, because the Qizilbash "were no party to the national Persian tradition".
4054:
period, the Shiʻi Ulema's power increased and they were able to exercise a role, independent of or compatible with the government.
3986:
2641:
2597:
1486:
1386:
1357:
907:
760:
12962:
3582:. Together with the Russians, they agreed to divide and keep the conquered Iranian territories for themselves as confirmed in the
1088:—and accompanied by a paraphrase in Persian that helps its understanding, has survived to this day and has linguistic importance.
15268:
7398:
3247:
3199:
2963:
2833:
2173:
supporters demonstrated outside the prison. Shortly after the installation of Ismail II on August 22, 1576, Haydar was beheaded.
1889:
1863:
12891:
8454:"The emergence of the Safavids as a mystical order and their subsequent rise to power in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries"
5618:, the power of the merchants, represented by the Imperial Bazaar, and of course, the power of the Shah himself, residing in the
4868:
a good investment for the merchant, as they cost nearly nothing to feed, carried a lot weight and could travel almost anywhere.
4637:("Redhead") Turcomans, the "men of sword" of classical Islamic society whose military prowess had brought him to power, and the
4622: – their leaders were able to exercise enormous influence and participate in court intrigues (assassinating Shah
4422:
intended to decrease the power of the Qizilbash by bringing some of these provinces into his direct control, creating so called
4166:) of the tombs of the Imams and Imamzadas, stressing "the concept of the Imams as mediators and intercessors for man with God."
16936:
15893:
15744:
15507:
12939:
6030:
written Persian, the language of high literature and civil administration, remained virtually unaffected in status and content.
6016:
as a cultural and administrative language throughout the empire and were bilingual in Persian. According to Arnold J. Toynbee,
4941:
by cutting off and controlling these strategic locations with high taxation. In 1602, Shah Abbas I drove the Portuguese out of
4702:, or "Friends of the King", were Qizilbash tribesmen who had forsaken their tribal allegiance for allegiance to the shah alone.
3661:, in India, when he completely humiliated and looted the militarily inferior Mughals. These cities were later inherited by his
1118:
or else he would bring destruction and ruin upon the city. Junayd sought refuge with the rival of Kara Koyunlu Jahan Shah, the
12896:
4633:
after the establishment of the Safavid state was how to bridge the gap between the two major ethnic groups in that state: the
3187:', then the English term for the Shahs of Iran. Henceforward, the number of diplomatic missions to and fro greatly increased.
1896:, respectively) as shah in order to make Iran a vassal state. Although in those campaigns (and in 1554) the Ottomans captured
16901:
16239:
16069:
16014:
15883:
15749:
14647:
14457:
13839:
12741:
12715:
12446:
11289:
11264:
11239:
11214:
11189:
11164:
11124:
11043:
10721:
10535:
10517:
10498:
10454:
10389:
10278:
10236:
10184:
10079:
10015:
9996:
9972:
9680:
9628:
9291:
9237:
9212:
9182:
9152:
8884:
8485:
8436:
8334:
8222:
8177:
8120:
7966:
7772:
7743:
4348:, and "black" eunuchs from India and Africa. Under Abbas, the eunuchs became an increasingly important element at the court.
3634:
3239:
2906:
2278:
1850:
At the downfall of Husain Khan, Tahmāsp asserted his rule. Rather than rely on another Turkmen tribe, he appointed a Persian
10995:
1916:
16921:
16906:
15401:
15391:
12967:
10633:
Cultural exchange, imperialist violence, and pious missions: Local perspectives from Tanjavur and Lenape country, 1720–1760
5106:
1756:
until his assassination in 1523. The Chaldiran battle also holds historical significance as the start of over 300 years of
1323:
14363:
12902:
2775:, armed with muskets in addition to the usual weapons (then the largest cavalry in the world); (2) a corps of musketeers,
2092:
of the neighbouring Ottoman Empire, as well as at the same time forming a new layer in Iranian society composed of ethnic
16599:
16549:
16275:
15809:
7842:
5908:
to get themselves in good form. After that they join together in uttering a great cry and trying to overthrow each other.
5230:
4388:
4302:
The Safavid court was furthermore a rich mix of peoples from its earliest days. As David Blow states, foremost among the
3032:
2934:
1980:, was developing in South-Asia. The Mughals adhered (for the most part) to a tolerant Sunni Islam while ruling a largely
882:
Despite their demise in 1736, the legacy that they left behind was the revival of Iran as an economic stronghold between
4324:
15824:
15813:
15758:
15706:
15561:
15364:
14509:
13509:
12682:
12663:
12644:
12582:
12534:
12486:
12467:
12427:
12406:
11097:
11064:
10746:
9933:
8090:
8065:
4107:
3735:
where officials were appointed on the basis of worth and merit, and not on the basis of birth. It was certainly not an
3600:
The tribal Afghans dominated their conquered territory for seven years but were prevented from making further gains by
3286:. This new layer of society would continue to play a vital role in Iranian history up to and including the fall of the
2800:
4295:) was a highly considered member of the Royal court, and the most revered astrologer of the court was given the title
3965:, a Georgian, became one of the most powerful men in the Safavid state, when he was appointed the Governor-General of
2160:
On Tahmāsp's death support for a successor coalesced around two of his nine sons; the support divided on ethnic lines—
1213:
16254:
16198:
16178:
15994:
15969:
15865:
15789:
15691:
15321:
15163:
13153:
13067:
12793:
12778:
12759:
12515:
12313:
12209:
11917:
10946:
10807:
10601:
9102:
8601:
8153:
7903:
7821:
7523:
3824:
3658:
3362:
16088:
12907:
4538:, corresponding a civil lieutenant, who ranked under the local governors and functioned as judges in the provinces.
16719:
16285:
12623:
9643:
Rosemary Stanfield Johnson, "Sunni Survival in Safavid Iran: Anti-Sunni Activities during the Reign of Tahmasp I,"
2077:
region, both meant as a training and drilling for his soldiers, as well as mainly bringing back massive numbers of
955:
became integral elements of the developing national identity. The concept presumably had started to form under the
5970:. Although they lasted a long time it was necessary to have changes for different occasions like weddings and the
5840:(865–892) (known to the West as Razes) were still used in European universities as standard textbooks of alchemy,
4945:, but he needed naval assistance from the newly arrived English East India Company to finally expel them from the
1728:; furthermore, the Ottomans had the advantage of artillery, which the Safavid army lacked. According to historian
16229:
15769:
15605:
15600:
15339:
14966:
14135:
13087:
12328:"18 Iran, Armenia and Georgia – Rise of a Shiʻi State in Iran and New Orientation in Islamic Thought and Culture"
11509:
6865:
5026:
and Istanbul. A third route was therefore devised which circumvented Ottoman territory. By travelling across the
4741:
4590:
3583:
3366:
13297:
10931:
Babayan, Associate Professor of Iranian History Culture Kathryn; Babaie, Sussan; Babayan, Kathryn; McCabe, Ina;
8407:
4793:, for example, farmers in Iran had higher living standards than farmers in the most fertile European countries.
4660:
Between 1508 and 1524, the year of Ismail's death, the shah appointed five successive Persians to the office of
3918:, who would dominate the Safavid military for most of the empire's length, and would form a crucial part of the
16834:
16659:
16539:
16523:
16009:
15944:
15845:
15794:
15566:
15517:
15502:
15406:
15396:
15376:
15168:
14827:
12862:
11089:
7704:
7432:
6607:
5959:, large cloaks that concealed their whole bodies except their faces. They often dyed their feet and hands with
895:
17:
16467:
15238:
15178:
12867:
10308:
16693:
16134:
16117:
16024:
15999:
15855:
15763:
15753:
14573:
13103:
12984:
11818:
7698:
7497:
5837:
5352:
3571:
3129:
2772:
2093:
2070:
1697:
even more westwards. The Ottomans soon reacted with a large-scale incursion into Eastern Anatolia by Safavid
276:
9462:
Indo-Persian Relations: A Study of the Political and Diplomatic Relations between the Mughal Empire and Iran
9395:
Mikheil Svanidze, "The Amasya Peace Treaty between the Ottoman Empire and Iran (June 1, 1555) and Georgia,"
4933:. They correctly identified the three key points to control all seaborne trade between Asia and Europe: The
16911:
16697:
16533:
16249:
15989:
15979:
15727:
15583:
15183:
14568:
14452:
12356:
is the number twelve in Arabic, signifying Twelver Imami Shiʻi Islam. Ulama: Arabic for religious scholars.
5903:. Their sport also provided the masses with entertainment and spectacle. Chardin described one such event:
5706:
Islamic philosophy flourished in the Safavid era in what scholars commonly refer to the School of Isfahan.
4283:). The Shah had stables in all the principal towns, and Shah Abbas was said to have about 30,000 horses in
2218:"Jealousy among Rivals" attributed to Muhammadi. Miniature painting contained in a Persian volume entitled
16463:
11079:
From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean: The Global Trade Networks of Armenian Merchants from New Julfa
3578:, invaded western and northwestern Safavid Iran and took swaths of territory there, including the city of
3083:, reported by Eskandar Beg Monshi, Safavid Historian (1557–1642), in "Alam Ara Abbasi") and resettled the
1158:. She had been married to Uzun Hassan in exchange for protection of the Grand Komnenos from the Ottomans.
16488:
16482:
16433:
16244:
16074:
15953:
15578:
14578:
13615:
12977:
11564:
7657:
Heaven on earth: Art from Islamic Lands: Works from the State Hermitage Museum and the Khalili Collection
7469:
7457:
6296:
6004:
5594:(Baha' ad-Din al-`Amili), who focused the programme on two key features of Shah Abbas's master plan: the
4929:
as a trading nation, but it also hurt the trade that was going on along the Silk Road and especially the
4680:
Persian Musketeer in time of Abbas I by Habib-Allah Mashadi after Falsafi (Berlin Museum of Islamic Art).
4103:
1688:
forcefully deported many Shiʻite Muslims from Anatolia to other parts of the Ottoman realm. In 1511, the
1456:
12799:
11304:
Ferrier, R. W.; A Journey to Persia: Jean Chardin's Portrait of a Seventeenth-century Empire; pp. 71–71.
6125:
4201:
3712:
felt strong enough to take nominal power of the country as well and officially end the Safavid dynasty.
3538:, the Safavid governor of the region, along with his army. In 1722, an Afghan army led by Mir Wais' son
2289:. While the initial attacks were repelled, the Ottomans continued and grabbed considerable territory in
1701:
under Nūr-ʿAlī Ḵalīfa. This action coincided with the accession to the Ottoman throne in 1512 of Sultan
16703:
16164:
16029:
15497:
15275:
15173:
13062:
12932:
12908:"Iran ix. Religions in Iran (2) Islam in Iran (2.3) Shiʿism in Iran Since the Safavids: Safavid Period"
12636:
12572:
12507:
8653:
7427:
7388:
5899:, were considered important members of the society. Each town had their own troop of wrestlers, called
5742:
2104:
while physically transplanting more than 30,000 people to the central Iranian heartlands. According to
1414:
1367:
745:
12656:
The Islamic World in Decline: From the Treaty of Karlowitz to the Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire
12334:. Vol. 5: From the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. London, New York: Routledge. p. 263.
3956:
during Tahmāsp's era, to 15,000 highly trained cavalrymen, as part of a whole army division of 40,000
3440:
rose up against the Safavid Iranian rule due to a change of policy that included the mass settling of
3164:
and spent the winter in Moscow before proceeding through Norway and Germany (where it was received by
16807:
16398:
16168:
15949:
15875:
15737:
15712:
15635:
15386:
15285:
15228:
14640:
14536:
13684:
13248:
12497:
11476:
Ferrier, RW, A journey to Persia: Jean Chardin's Portrait of a Seventeenth-century Empire, pp. 90–94.
9112:: "The Safavid kings called themselves, among other appellations, the "heart of the shrine of ʿAli" (
8390:
7369:
7273:
6532:
5806:
5472:
5101:
2902:
2779:, mainly Iranians, originally foot soldiers but eventually mounted, and (3) a corps of artillerymen,
1716:
In 1514, Sultan Selim I marched through Anatolia and reached the plain of Chaldiran near the city of
1652:
1502:
12857:
9025:
8529:
Amoretti, Biancamaria Scarcia; Matthee, Rudi. (2009). "Ṣafavid Dynasty". In Esposito, John L. (ed.)
6128:
heard Abbas speak Georgian, which he had no doubt acquired from his Georgian ghulams and concubines.
5895:
had been an integral part of the Iranian identity, and the professional wrestlers, who performed in
16518:
16308:
16188:
16139:
16111:
15974:
15512:
15426:
15155:
14494:
14469:
14319:
13978:
13973:
13057:
13052:
10198:
8386:
7533:
7490:
7452:
7447:
7437:
6226:
6149:
Shah Ismail's Azeri dialect never became a state language and its use remained largely confined to
5529:
5345:
5096:
4761:
4492:
4136:
3797:
3610:
3488:
2898:
2887:
1997:
1877:
1757:
1737:
12052:
5660:
written a few years after its subject's death, achieved a nuanced depth of history and character.
4953:
Furthermore, the Safavids maintained a sizeable sphere of influence overseas, particularly in the
4042:
Following his conquest of Iran and Azerbaijan, Ismail I made conversion mandatory for the largely
3943:, brought another 30,000 Circassians and Georgians to Iran of which many joined the ghulam force.
1092:
16749:
16723:
16714:
16584:
16544:
16148:
16084:
16044:
15779:
15630:
15487:
15446:
14704:
14561:
14442:
13983:
13936:
13879:
13578:
13522:
13270:
13077:
10353:
9430:
ed. by Ofra Bengio & Meir Litvak (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011) (“Scherberger”), p. 60.
7015:
6771:
6352:
5702:
in Isfahan, built during the time of Soltan Hossein to serve as a theological and clerical school
4880:
4315:
4122:
3957:
3880:
3769:
3516:
3251:
3016:
1888:
tactics in the process. The goal of the Ottomans in the 1534 and 1548–1549 campaigns, during the
1506:
1398:
1394:
948:
228:
31:
12187:
10780:
10479:
10256:
8798:
8658:
8303:
16839:
16478:
16219:
16174:
15898:
15860:
15588:
15344:
14583:
14484:
14479:
14167:
14115:
14035:
13968:
13872:
13857:
13750:
13517:
13471:
13312:
13199:
13072:
12286:(2020). "Turks, Turks and türk Turks: Anatolia, Iran and India in Comparative Perspective". In
11056:
10593:
10444:
8053:
7816:, Vol. 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 189–350.
7332:
6835:
6309:
4153:
3992:
3184:
2243:, known as Mahd-i ‘Ulyā. There is some indication that Mirza Salman was the chief conspirator.
1660:
After the battle Ismail purportedly gilded the skull of Shaybani Khan for use as a wine goblet.
12327:
11114:
10588:
Russia's foreign trade and economic expansion in the seventeenth century: Windows on the world
10404:
Richard Wilson, “When Golden Time Convents”: Twelfth Night and Shakespeare's Eastern Promise,
10379:
9618:
9202:
9172:
8212:
8110:
1448:, and believed himself to be of divine descent – practically worshipped by his
78:
16926:
16127:
16079:
16054:
15774:
15522:
15300:
15218:
14835:
14792:
14514:
14474:
14287:
14162:
13226:
13216:
13175:
13146:
12925:
12568:
11156:
11150:
10711:
10636:
10226:
10069:
9142:
8864:
8453:
8167:
7954:
7733:
6713:
6633:
6571:
5960:
5849:
5521:
5493:
5489:
3630:
3149:
3107:
2975:
2882:(a vital link in Portuguese trade with India). He expanded commercial links with the English
2805:
2450:
2165:
2138:
2125:
1724:
was fought. Most sources agree that the Ottoman army was at least double the size of that of
1249:
14402:
12437:
Amanat, Abbas (2019). "Remembering the Persianate". In Amanat, Abbas; Ashraf, Assef (eds.).
11933:
10585:
10033:
7670:
6343:
3625:
that resulted in the return of the recently annexed Iranian territories, making most of the
3254:. This was the beginning of the English East India Company's long-running interest in Iran.
1489:. The establishment of Twelver Shīʿīsm as the state religion of Safavid Iran led to various
16678:
16580:
16473:
16413:
16388:
16367:
16347:
16320:
16122:
16064:
15959:
15722:
15687:
15451:
14633:
14607:
14437:
14407:
14282:
14213:
14184:
14103:
13437:
13275:
13265:
13005:
12892:
A Study of the Migration of Shiʻi Works from Arab Regions to Iran at the Early Safavid Era.
12841:
7442:
5983:
5913:
5868:
5599:
5544:
5510:
5505:
5485:
5467:
5186:
4958:
4352:
3509:
3263:
3040:
2971:
2803:
on an unofficial mission to induce Iran into an anti-Ottoman alliance. As mentioned by the
1510:
1498:
1441:
1155:
1062:
1036:
1032:
354:
190:
181:
85:
14387:
10737:
Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). "Treaty of Ganja (1735)". In Mikaberidze, Alexander (ed.).
8266:
Stanford Jay Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge University Press. 1977, p. 77.
5928:
4565:
administered through the Minister of Justice, local governors and the Court minister (the
4322:), which was the nearest thing to a finance minister. There were also the large number of
3898:
The series of campaigns that Tahmāsp subsequently waged after realising this in the wider
1689:
8:
16418:
16107:
15840:
15732:
15331:
15326:
15290:
15223:
15072:
14760:
14299:
14179:
14145:
14047:
13867:
13862:
13674:
13393:
13329:
13204:
13189:
12725:
12202:
Linguistic Convergence and Areal Diffusion: Case Studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic
12067:
10793:
10375:
8312:
7175:
7045:
6474:
6270:
6113:
5900:
5760:
5719:
5689:
5653:
5410:
were commissioned to commemorate the Safavid dynasty. The elegantly baroque yet famously
5266:
5248:
5082:
4991:
4686:
4471:
4368:
4091:
3860:
3851:
3453:
3425:
3173:
3009:
2995:
2733:
2439:
2240:
2236:
2223:
2209:
1721:
1643:
1010:
789:
337:
14015:
14005:
9252:
8018:
Floor, Willem; Javadi, Hasan (2013). "The Role of Azerbaijani Turkish in Safavid Iran".
8000:
7671:"Chronicling a Dynasty on the Make: New Light on the Early Ṣafavids in Ḥayātī Tabrīzī's
5936:
5861:
5797:
The status of physicians during the Safavids stood as high as ever. Whereas neither the
5007:
4876:
3485:(1694–1722) in particular was known for his love of wine and disinterest in governance.
2554:
1513:
order soon declared its adherence to Shīʿa Islam after the rise of the Safavid dynasty.
16782:
16744:
16689:
16684:
16589:
16504:
16144:
16004:
15964:
15804:
15799:
15697:
15682:
15441:
15243:
15064:
15033:
14926:
14683:
14412:
14392:
14375:
14326:
14191:
14000:
13951:
13884:
13802:
13743:
13738:
13733:
13689:
13659:
13551:
13449:
13317:
13292:
12823:
12612:
12265:
12221:
Ruda Jurdi Abisaab. "Iran and Pre-Independence Lebanon" in Houchang Esfandiar Chehabi,
11863:
11752:
11039:
10756:
10671:
10611:
10566:
10288:
8793:
8491:
8394:
8035:
7985:
Ruda Jurdi Abisaab. "Iran and Pre-Independence Lebanon" in Houchang Esfandiar Chehabi,
7378:
7165:
6785:
6256:
6101:
5810:
5738:
5699:
5634:
5619:
5261:
5191:
5160:
5137:
4962:
4938:
4889:
4856:
4356:
4234:
3883:. The implementation of this branch would be completed and significantly widened under
3666:
3543:
3457:
3437:
3375:
3318:
3076:
3052:
3044:
3039:
captives to mainland Iran. After fully securing the region, he executed the rebellious
3035:, killed 60–70,000 Kakheti Georgian peasants, and deported between 130,000 and 200,000
2999:
2983:
2883:
2692:
2492:
2061:, for Tahmāsp, the problem circled around the military tribal elite of the empire, the
1753:
1745:
1684:
for the Safavid cause as a major threat. To counter the rising Safavid power, in 1502,
1656:
Ismail's battle with Uzbek warlord Muhammad Shaybani Khan in 1510, on a folio from the
1615:
1406:
1081:
1050:
207:
12806:
Hasan Javadi; Willem Floor (2013). "The Role of Azerbaijani Turkish in Safavid Iran".
12527:
The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran
12248:
Hasan Javadi; Willem Floor (2013). "The Role of Azerbaijani Turkish in Safavid Iran".
8644:(1975), Appendix II "Genealogy of the Muslim Marriages of the Princesses of Trebizond"
6043:
4418:) to the Court who would inform them on matters pertaining to the provincial affairs.
4094:, Iran started to witness the emergence of a new and significant group of landowners.
4062:
An important feature of the Safavid society was the alliance that emerged between the
3947:
training on completion of which they were either enrolled in one of the newly created
2009:
16876:
16792:
16709:
16615:
16605:
16514:
16423:
16408:
16403:
16372:
16362:
16352:
16342:
16329:
16184:
15888:
15702:
15640:
15615:
15595:
15545:
15465:
15313:
14942:
14934:
14859:
14811:
14521:
14417:
14353:
14348:
14277:
14174:
13889:
13817:
13812:
13654:
13583:
13566:
13561:
13556:
13356:
13307:
13113:
13036:
13031:
12872:
12827:
12789:
12774:
12755:
12737:
12711:
12678:
12659:
12640:
12578:
12560:
12530:
12511:
12482:
12463:
12442:
12423:
12402:
12309:
12269:
12205:
11913:
11855:
11285:
11260:
11235:
11210:
11185:
11160:
11120:
11093:
11060:
10942:
10803:
10742:
10717:
10675:
10654:
Floor, Willem; Clawson, Patrick (2000). "Safavid Iran's search for silver and gold".
10597:
10586:
10570:
10450:
10385:
10274:
10232:
10075:
9676:
9624:
9233:
9208:
9178:
9148:
8890:
8880:
8597:
8495:
8481:
8432:
8428:
8326:
8237:
8218:
8173:
8149:
8116:
8086:
8061:
8039:
7962:
7899:
7817:
7768:
7739:
7693:
7205:
7105:
7095:
6805:
6795:
6753:
6653:
6597:
6150:
6117:
6109:
6049:
5999:
5884:
5750:
5669:
5595:
5234:
5142:
5119:
5087:
4979:
4971:
4922:
4918:
4654:
4619:
4419:
4372:
4364:
4311:
4183:. So absolute was his power, that the French merchant, and later ambassador to Iran,
3868:
3847:
3803:
3638:
3613:. He had removed them from power and banished them from Iran by 1729. In 1732 by the
3539:
3387:
3310:
3231:
3223:
3218:
3209:
3169:
3165:
3133:
2991:
2955:
2951:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2565:
2543:
2512:
2298:
2282:
2042:
2030:
1961:
1623:
1611:
1551:
1468:
1171:
1085:
1016:
840:
741:
536:
470:
194:
186:
12881:
12018:
The Safavid empire at the height of its power under Shāh Abbas the Great (1588–1629)
7955:"Islamic Culture and Literature in Iran and Central Asia in the early modern period"
5879:
16763:
16754:
16664:
16654:
16610:
16450:
16438:
16392:
16337:
16154:
16019:
15850:
15819:
15664:
15645:
15354:
14974:
14370:
14157:
14152:
14108:
14095:
14025:
13993:
13988:
13852:
13847:
13829:
13790:
13723:
13706:
13647:
13637:
13632:
13573:
13529:
13499:
13459:
13442:
13425:
13388:
13139:
13108:
12815:
12604:
12556:
12287:
12257:
11797:
11771:
11497:
Blow, David; Shah Abbas: The ruthless king who became an Iranian legend, pp. 37–38.
10889:
10775:
10663:
10558:
9444:
8473:
8424:
8420:
8321:
8316:
8027:
7760:
7688:
7621:
7568:
7235:
6925:
6895:
6176:
6013:
5987:
5626:
5155:
5124:
4946:
4823:
4786:
4206:
4032:
3547:
3444:
Turkic tribes in the region in order to repopulate the province, after Shah Abbas'
3407:
3358:
3293:
At its zenith, during the long reign of Shah Abbas I, the empire's reach comprised
3145:
3091:
3020:
2943:
2676:
2649:
2481:
2321:
2302:
2244:
2193:
1957:
1949:
1873:
1830:
1816:
1607:
1182:
764:
592:
327:
176:
54:
12398:
Pivot of the Universe: Nasir Al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896
11282:
An introduction to Shiʻi Islam : the history and doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism
11257:
An introduction to Shiʻi Islam : the history and doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism
11232:
An introduction to Shiʻi Islam : the history and doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism
11207:
An introduction to Shiʻi Islam : the history and doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism
11182:
An introduction to Shiʻi Islam : the history and doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism
10145:
9518:
9288:
8298:
8184:
The Shah was a native Turkic speaker and wrote poetry in the Azerbaijani language.
8148:, vol. 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
6204:
on Iran as the official religion of the Safavid state, they enhanced the power of
5579:, which had recently become an important trading route for the Dutch and English.
4210:
in his records, which perhaps was a term for governmental gatherings of the time.
3027:
and a Muslim, he was fully loyal to the shah. Subsequently, the shah marched upon
16797:
16734:
16669:
16644:
16629:
16568:
16357:
16209:
16099:
15921:
15620:
15556:
15460:
15308:
15210:
14982:
14958:
14894:
14875:
14867:
14843:
14728:
14670:
14588:
14556:
14429:
14397:
14380:
14336:
14331:
14309:
14304:
14262:
14255:
14230:
14090:
14085:
13926:
13807:
13701:
13696:
13664:
13489:
13479:
13373:
13366:
13361:
13346:
13302:
13184:
13170:
12972:
12882:
Artistic and cultural history of the Safavids from the Metropolitan Museum of Art
12846:
12819:
12768:
12501:
12457:
12417:
12396:
12292:
Turkish History and Culture in India: Identity, Art and Transregional Connections
12261:
11789:
11711:
Blow, D; Shah Abbas: The ruthless king who became an Iranian legend; pp. 113–131.
11520:
Magazine, Cultural, Economical and General Events of Iran (retrieved 4 Sep 2007).
11513:
11086:
11052:
10999:
10992:
10936:
10932:
10829:
10797:
10333:
9670:
9318:(Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1968–1991) ("Roemer"), pp. 233–234.
9295:
9259:
9198:
9109:
9034:
8956:
Roemer, H.R. (1986). "The Safavid Period" in Jackson, Peter; Lockhart, Laurence.
8549:
Roemer, H.R. (1986). "The Safavid Period" in Jackson, Peter; Lockhart, Laurence.
8031:
7846:
7839:
7764:
7115:
7065:
6965:
6935:
6875:
6815:
6733:
6703:
6673:
6643:
6438:
6283:
6246:
6235:
5833:
5829:
5318:
5313:
5308:
5295:
5276:
5221:
5211:
5077:
5058:
5031:
5003:
4722:
4706:
4214:
4102:
The Akhbari movement "crystalized" as a "separate movement" with the writings of
4090:, gained full ownership of these lands, and, according to contemporary historian
4023:. As a result of the Mongol conquest and the relative religious tolerance of the
3962:
3884:
3618:
3614:
3559:
3555:
3394:
and expanded its influence into Europe, the Caucasus Mountains and Central Asia.
3072:
2918:
2810:
2792:
2636:
2521:
2355:
2274:
2266:
2248:
2169:
2145:
1973:
1928:
1867:
1713:
leading to Selim's decision to invade neighbouring Safavid Iran two years later.
1374:
1260:
1256:
1139:
Haydar married Martha 'Alamshah Begom, Uzun Hassan's daughter, who gave birth to
817:
737:
733:
109:
14010:
11325:
Blow, David. Shah Abbas: the ruthless king who became an Iranian legend, p. 165.
10861:
Sir E. Denison Ross, Sir Anthony Sherley and his Persian Adventure, pp. 219–220.
10640:
10271:
Kurdski geroicheski epos Zlatoruki Khan (The Kurdish heroic epic Gold-hand Khan)
9556:
9428:
The Sunna and Shi'a in History: Division and Ecumenism in the Muslim Middle East
8514:
The Safavids, as Iranians of Kurdish ancestry and of nontribal background (...)"
5944:
2008:, to become the next sultan. But Selim was an alcoholic and Hürrem's other son,
16639:
16159:
15984:
15472:
15436:
15099:
15017:
14950:
14776:
14531:
14526:
14489:
14464:
14447:
14358:
14343:
14314:
14272:
14120:
14080:
14075:
14030:
13956:
13916:
13906:
13896:
13711:
13590:
13484:
13351:
13233:
13118:
10436:
10251:
9925:
9614:
8402:
8398:
7225:
6905:
6885:
6825:
6461:
6372:
6201:
5798:
5782:
5734:
5711:
5681:
5568:
5517:
5451:
5437:
5407:
5282:
5271:
5216:
4995:
4975:
4954:
4779:
4650:
4376:
4016:
3670:
3622:
3575:
3563:
3501:
3378:
holding a banquet for foreign dignitaries. Detail from a ceiling fresco at the
3243:
3195:
3084:
3068:
2855:
2796:
2729:
2503:
2470:
2366:
2037:
threat eventually allowed for a treaty which preserved peace for twenty years.
2034:
1953:
1885:
1839:
ruler of the state. Rūmlū and Kopek Sultān Ustajlu (who had been Ismail's last
1673:
1348:
Ismāʻil was able to unite all these lands under the Iranian Empire he created.
1341:
1337:
1237:
1144:
844:
675:
661:
550:
475:
12608:
12072:
Sadr al-Din Shirazi and his Transcendent Theosophy, Background, Life and Works
10667:
10562:
9080:
The Ismailis in the Middle Ages: A History of Survival, A Search for Salvation
8842:
The Ismailis in the Middle Ages: A History of Survival, A Search for Salvation
4414:
upon his request. It was also requested from them that they appoint a lawyer (
4260:
Frontpage on Jean Chardin's book on his journeys to Persia, published in 1739.
3542:
advanced on the heart of the empire and defeated the government forces at the
3496:
The country was repeatedly raided on its frontiers – Kerman by
16895:
16870:
16774:
16759:
16729:
16674:
16554:
16509:
16458:
16428:
15131:
15025:
14990:
14712:
14612:
14499:
14294:
14267:
14240:
14218:
14196:
13963:
13946:
13931:
13775:
13728:
13716:
13642:
13534:
13408:
13403:
13378:
13260:
13000:
12786:
From Isfahan to Ayutthaya: Contacts between Iran and Siam in the 17th Century
11859:
11772:"Persians and Shi'ites in Thailand: From the Ayutthaya Period to the Present"
11628:
Blow, D.; Shah Abbas: The ruthless king who became an Iranian legend; p. 211.
11110:
11045:
A Concise History of the Armenian People: (from Ancient Times to the Present)
9666:
8876:
8872:
8461:
8330:
8308:
7304:
7293:
7035:
6955:
6915:
6362:
6322:
6080:
5722:
standout. The school reached its apogee with that of the Iranian philosopher
5694:
5630:
5206:
5196:
5050:
4983:
4966:
4910:
4351:
During the first century of the dynasty, the primary court language remained
4051:
4012:
3966:
3567:
3531:
3527:
3497:
3482:
3403:
3379:
3354:
3287:
3179:
2914:
2894:
2843:
2587:
2428:
2338:
2290:
1969:
1907:
In the gravest crisis of Tahmāsp's reign, Ottoman forces in 1553–54 captured
1808:
1664:
1472:
1429:
1289:
1225:
1133:
1099:
1002:
956:
887:
883:
821:
805:
801:
778:
647:
633:
377:
350:
295:
14040:
14020:
11948:
A journey to Persia: Jean Chardin's portrait of a seventeenth-century empire
11599:
A journey to Persia: Jean Chardin's portrait of a seventeenth-century Empire
7898:, Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, revised ed., 2003,
7786:
A Journey to Persia: Jean Chardin's Portrait of a Seventeenth-century Empire
4855:
The Mothers Inn caravanserai in Isfahan, that was built during the reign of
4519:). The latter were all secular functionaries working on behalf of the Shah.
4455:. Another official selected by the consensus of the local community was the
2020:
1583:
16802:
16787:
16739:
16648:
16193:
16059:
15482:
15431:
15139:
15107:
15049:
14504:
14245:
14201:
14130:
14125:
14052:
13842:
13824:
13785:
13780:
13760:
13755:
13627:
13620:
13610:
13605:
13600:
13494:
13432:
13413:
13398:
13334:
12699:
12592:
12544:
12392:
12283:
11695:
11554:
11362:
10914:
10873:
10845:
9345:
8675:
8510:
The Pursuit of Pleasure: Drugs and Stimulants in Iranian History, 1500–1900
8382:
8294:
8106:
7422:
7351:
7314:
7245:
7215:
7135:
6975:
6541:
6192:
6188:
6142:
5841:
5802:
5715:
5685:
5591:
5576:
5477:
5372:
5173:
4934:
4930:
4872:
4860:
4814:
4802:
4790:
4771:
4664:. When the second Persian vakil was placed in command of a Safavid army in
4558:
4542:
4398:
4184:
4036:
3701:
3697:
3605:
3589:
3391:
3326:
3087:
2879:
2609:
2417:
2078:
2046:
1729:
1595:
1529:
1521:
1312:
1273:
1193:
1148:
1143:, founder of the Safavid dynasty. Martha's mother Theodora—better known as
1122:
1107:
1103:
1074:
999:("the expansive realm of Iran") is used in both the 17th-century chronicle
927:
915:
872:
813:
606:
12886:
11802:
10981:
Blow, D; Shah Abbas: The ruthless king who became an Iranian legend, p. 9.
9144:
Immortal, Updated Edition: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces
8594:
The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early
8535:
Of Kurdish ancestry, the Ṣafavids started as a Sunnī mystical order (...)"
8477:
5789:, dated 1484, located at the P.I. Nixon Medical Historical Library of The
4694:
Shahsevans: these were 12,000 strong and built up from the small group of
4244:
Next in authority were the generals: the General of the Royal Troops (the
3172:
gave the travellers a long audience. They finally arrived at the court of
2196:, who championed him over Haydar. She is said to have poisoned his opium.
2088:
slaves, who would form the basis of a military slave system, alike to the
16880:
16844:
16595:
16280:
16203:
16034:
14223:
14208:
14057:
13770:
13679:
13669:
13595:
13243:
13238:
13026:
12733:
11910:
The Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from Tribal Warrior to Conquering Tyrant
8083:
The Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from Tribal Warrior to Conquering Tyrant
7480:
7125:
7085:
6845:
6723:
6054:
5757:
5723:
5673:
5615:
5525:
5433:
5421:
5396:
5335:
5226:
5066:
5027:
4806:
4710:
4665:
4614:
4393:
4333:
3931:
3892:
3740:
3732:
3684:
3535:
3520:
3411:
3334:
3279:
3183:(1601–02), for example, makes two references (at II.5 and III.4) to 'the
3161:
3120:
2827:
2754:
2576:
2252:
2089:
2081:
2053:, in fact, never received as much attention as they did during his time.
2050:
1927:
in September 1554 to sue for peace. Temporary terms were followed by the
1893:
1765:
1710:
1677:
1539:
1390:
1297:
1163:
1129:
1125:
931:
911:
899:
891:
868:
797:
620:
578:
564:
12503:
The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods
11867:
11843:
11756:
11740:
11152:
The Shia revival : how conflicts within Islam will shape the future
5582:
4851:
4200:, as we know them today. But the Portuguese ambassador to the Safavids,
2214:
2152:
it would worsen) until Tahmāsp's grandson, Abbas I, assumed the throne.
16234:
15625:
15147:
15115:
15041:
15009:
14819:
14250:
14067:
13941:
13901:
13834:
12616:
11516:, Dr P. Shahsavand, Professor of Sociology at Islamic Azad University.
9174:
Eastern Turkey: An Architectural & Archaeological Survey, Volume II
8551:
The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods
7735:
The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume One: The Imperial Experience
7703:
Shah Ismāʿīl's enthronement took place in Tabrīz immediately after the
7518:
7341:
7255:
7075:
7055:
7025:
6985:
6945:
6777:
6743:
6663:
6617:
6262:
6076:
5857:
5845:
5560:
5535:
According to William Cleveland and Martin Bunton, the establishment of
4745:
4512:
4213:
The highest level in the government was that of the Prime Minister, or
4197:
4028:
3765:
3709:
3705:
3688:
Part of the Safavid Persian Empire (on right), the Ottoman Empire, and
3674:
3601:
3551:
3470:
3330:
3306:
1956:
Institute of Oriental Studies in Russia, ever since it was acquired by
1944:
1820:
1706:
1694:
1685:
1631:
1627:
1445:
1389:
of his newly-founded Persian Empire, causing sectarian tensions in the
1382:
1333:
1283:
1270:
1167:
1119:
1111:
963:
952:
876:
832:
756:
522:
414:
391:
310:
210:
11506:
10635:(Ph.D. thesis). Pennsylvania State University. pp. 84–85, 93–94.
9372:
The Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran: Power, Religion and Rhetoric
8958:
The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods
8853:
The writer Ṛūmlu documented the most important of them in his history.
5030:
to the north, they would reach Russia. And with the assistance of the
4441:
3856:
3390:
in the previous century had deposed two western Asian khanates of the
2239:(who was a holdover from Ismail II's reign) and Mohammad's chief wife
15360:
International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–)
15080:
15057:
14851:
14784:
14752:
14140:
13911:
13795:
13765:
13546:
13420:
13211:
12707:
10739:
Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia
8469:
7800:, Ed. Cyril Glassé, (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2008), 449.
7185:
7155:
7145:
6855:
6693:
6551:
6180:
5994:
5896:
5892:
5818:
5814:
5809:, and it was primarily the Persians that took upon them the works of
5777:
5707:
5677:
5607:
5455:
5442:
5417:
4775:
4726:
4714:
4699:
4634:
4623:
4594:
4574:
4435:
4431:
4410:
4337:
4329:
4307:
4303:
4284:
4238:
4024:
4008:
3973:
3940:
3903:
3736:
3689:
3678:
3642:
3449:
3441:
3395:
3283:
3275:
3227:
3036:
2967:
2758:
2700:
2186:
2161:
2085:
2062:
1793:
1733:
1647:
1516:
1449:
1433:
1175:
1066:
1058:
1046:
1028:
959:
793:
262:
4676:
4256:
3554:
and acknowledged him as the new king of Iran. At the same time, the
3140:
2838:
2699:, and Kurdistan. At the same time, he took steps to ensure that the
1968:
Almost simultaneously with the emergence of the Safavid Empire, the
1065:(1252–1334). In 700/1301, Safi al-Din assumed the leadership of the
906:. The Safavids have also left their mark down to the present era by
16270:
15610:
15492:
14744:
13541:
13324:
13282:
13221:
10107:
10105:
10103:
8144:
Zabiollah Safa (1986), "Persian Literature in the Safavid Period",
7005:
6995:
6561:
6448:
6205:
5955:
5853:
5746:
5023:
4987:
4718:
4630:
4459:, who functioned as a common law administrator. The local sheriff (
4345:
4180:
4083:
4004:
4000:
3922:. As non-Turcoman converts to Islam, these Circassian and Georgian
3899:
3872:
3626:
3505:
3415:
3399:
3338:
3314:
3271:
2910:
2867:
2696:
2294:
2074:
2005:
2001:
1990:
1912:
1761:
1725:
1681:
1563:
1421:
1417:
1370:
1241:
1217:
1203:
1152:
1140:
923:
919:
903:
864:
748:
247:
221:
11720:
Blow; chapter: "English adventurers at the servise of Shah Abbas."
8894:
5663:
5500:
4310:
lords and their sons. Although already by the early years of king
4112:
2854:
and Mashhad in 1598. Then he turned against Iran's archrival, the
2164:
was supported by most of the Turkmen tribes as well as his sister
2141:
to assert themselves in succession matters after Tahmāsp's death.
16813:
14736:
13454:
13383:
13339:
13194:
12376:
The Politics of Trade in Safavid Iran: Silk for Silver, 1600–1730
12074:, 2nd ed., Tehran: Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies.
10993:
The Politics of Trade in Safavid Iran: Silk for Silver, 1600–1730
10183:
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAsat'ianiBendianachvili1997 (
9056:
having taken Tabriz, the symbolic and political capital of Iran".
8359:(Boulder, Col : Westview Press, 2011) ("Streusand"), p. 135.
7911:
7195:
6683:
6514:
6504:
6494:
6412:
6385:
5917:
5822:
5556:
5536:
5384:
5380:
5200:
4942:
4646:
4599:
4452:
4341:
4162:
4157:
4128:
4071:
4020:
3923:
3864:
3662:
3604:, a former slave who had risen to military leadership within the
3579:
3524:
3513:
3474:
3322:
3302:
3102:
3080:
3028:
3024:
2871:
2859:
2821:
2763:
2377:
2346:
2328:
2286:
2117:
2097:
1985:
1924:
1920:
1908:
1740:, until Shah Abbās retook the area lost to the Ottomans by 1602.
1702:
1599:
1591:
1571:
1567:
1559:
1555:
1547:
1535:
1482:
1460:
1378:
1245:
1181:
After the death of Haydar, the Safaviyya gathered around his son
1115:
836:
809:
752:
157:
13255:
10100:
6175:), with its implicit notion of an Iranian state stretching from
5590:
The Chief architect of this colossal task of urban planning was
4974:
of the Deccan. From here, Persian traders ventured eastwards to
4905:
4003:
as early as the 8th century. In the 10th and 11th centuries the
3910:, this would be as well the starting point for the corps of the
3371:
3274:
deportees and imports, many of the hundreds of thousands ethnic
3008:
infuriated the shah, as reported by the Safavid court historian
3002:. This defection of two of the shah's most trusted subjects and
2712:
2247:
could master strong support among the Qizilbash, and her uncle,
1680:
dynasty, considered the active recruitment of Turkmen tribes of
820:
of the region, thus becoming the first native dynasty since the
16619:
15939:
14768:
13287:
13162:
12917:
12051:
Rizvi, Sajjad (2009). "Mulla Sadra". In Zalta, Edward N (ed.).
9121:
8465:
8416:
8412:
7907:
6581:
6484:
6162:
5971:
5967:
5646:
5572:
5552:
5403:
4999:
4926:
4827:
4638:
4609:
4496:
4176:
4141:
4087:
3654:
3646:
3633:
alliance against the common neighbouring Ottoman enemy. In the
3594:
3342:
3124:
3004:
2740:
2620:
2532:
2386:
2306:
2101:
1901:
1897:
1749:
1698:
1672:
More problematic for the Safavids was the powerful neighboring
1619:
1579:
1575:
1490:
1464:
1437:
1402:
1327:
1277:
1221:
1070:
856:
848:
785:
703:
Court, religious dignitaries, military, mother tongue, poetry.
149:
141:
128:
108:
The Safavid Empire at its greatest extent, during the reign of
14625:
9451:(Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, c. 1995), p. 11.
4110:) and consensus should be used as sources to derive verdicts (
3809:
You can help by providing page numbers for existing citations.
3015:
The following spring in 1614, Abbas I appointed a grandson of
2966:, Abbas suppressed a rebellion led by his formerly most loyal
15477:
13921:
11934:"Chinese–Iranian Relations iv. The Safavid Period, 1501–1732"
11423:
9620:
Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History
7604:
6389:
5013:
4892:
was impressed by an encounter with one of these road guards:
4642:
4264:
As for the royal household, the highest post was that of the
4117:
4063:
4047:
4043:
3936:
3650:
3593:
A map of Safavid Empire in 1720, showing different states of
3466:
2913:
in 1638 after Abbas had died. Henceforth a treaty, signed in
2875:
2851:
2602:
The Safavid Empire and contemporary Asian polities circa 1588
2408:
2133:
1981:
1977:
1948:
Shah Suleiman I and his courtiers, Isfahan, 1670. Painter is
1603:
1587:
1425:
1340:
such as: Bisotun II, Ashraf ibn Taj al-Dawla, Mirza Ali, and
1303:
1264:
1091:
After Safī al-Dīn, the leadership of the Safaviyya passed to
972:("Kingdom of Iran"), and it also had other variants, such as
860:
782:
12378:(Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 231.
8691:
8640:
Anthony Bryer. "Greeks and Türkmens: The Pontic Exception",
7890:
7888:
7732:
Bang, Peter Fibiger; Bayly, C. A.; Scheidel, Walter (2020).
3621:, he negotiated an agreement with the government of Empress
3398:
came under Russian rule, nearing the Safavid possessions in
3097:
1803:
1798:
1073:
order in Gilan, from his spiritual master and father-in-law
1041:
15257:
14720:
14656:
11413:
11411:
10335:
Memoirs of the Court, Aristocracy, and Diplomacy of Austria
10313:
10178:
9125:
7583:
6402:
6184:
4705:
Ghulams: Tahmasp I had started introducing huge amounts of
4535:
4488:
3456:
was successfully defeated under personal direction of Shah
3298:
3294:
2922:
2863:
1717:
1477:
1318:
852:
828:
775:
771:
729:
13131:
12479:
Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend
11741:"The Safavids and Mughal Relations with the Deccan States"
10930:
10060:
10058:
10056:
10054:
9772:
Abolala Soudavar, "The Patronage of Vizier Mirza Salman,"
9557:"BARDA and BARDA-DĀRI v. Military slavery in Islamic Iran"
8965:
Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend
8558:
Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend
8357:
Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals
4835:
lack of appreciation of agriculture amongst the Persians.
4271:
The second most senior appointment was the Grand Steward (
4070:) and members of the quasi-religious organizations run by
3198:
being honoured by the Trumpets of Fame, together with the
908:
establishing Twelver Shīʿīsm as the state religion of Iran
763:, marking one of the most important turning points in the
16235:
Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO)
12223:
Distant Relations: Iran and Lebanon in the Last 500 Years
7987:
Distant Relations: Iran and Lebanon in the Last 500 Years
7885:
7589:
7577:
5488:
flourished again and saw many new monuments, such as the
4561:
was entirely separate from civil law and was judged upon
4504:
4344:
who were also ghulams – "white" eunuchs largely from the
3996:
3995:. There were large Shiʻi communities in some cities like
2222:
by Sa'di in 1579, possibly under the patronage of Vizier
910:, as well as spreading Shīʿa Islam in major parts of the
12805:
12549:
Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
12247:
11408:
10690:
The Mantle of the Prophet: Religion and Politics in Iran
9314:
ed. by Peter Jackson and Laurence Lockhart, volume 6 of
8619:
8607:
7952:
6166:
Safavid Star from ceiling of Shah Mosque, Isfahan, Iran.
5791:
University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
5652:
The arguably most renowned historian from this time was
5645:
Poetry stagnated under the Safavids; the great medieval
4698:
that Shah Abbas had inherited from his predecessor. The
2108:, this would be the starting point for the corps of the
1919:, destroyed palaces, villas and gardens, and threatened
824:
to establish a national state officially known as Iran.
11398:
11396:
11394:
11392:
11390:
11388:
11386:
11384:
10124:
10122:
10120:
10051:
9464:(Tehran: Iranian Cultural Foundation, 1970), pp. 22–47.
8748:
5916:. A leisurely form of amusement was to be found in the
5768:
as the traditions of Islamic philosophy were concerned.
5730:
Al-Hikma al-muta‘aliya fi-l-asfar al-‘aqliyya al-arba‘a
1546:
Having started with just the possession of Azerbaijan,
11442:
11440:
11438:
11337:
11335:
11333:
11331:
10146:"GEORGIA vii. Georgians in the Safavid Administration"
9779:
9001:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
8943:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
8922:
8920:
8918:
8916:
8772:
8060:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 240.
4409:. Since the earliest days of the Safavid dynasty, the
4375:
languages were spoken as well, since these were their
4057:
2986:. In 1613, Abbas had appointed these trusted Georgian
2828:
Recovery of territory from the Uzbeks and the Ottomans
1939:
1872:
The Uzbeks, during the reign of Tahmāsp, attacked the
10027:
10025:
10014:
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998 (
9995:
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998 (
9397:
Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences
9003:, University of London, Vol. 37, No. 3, 1974, p. 324.
8760:
8712:
8636:
8634:
7629:
7601:
7580:
7574:
3090:
in the region while deporting many Kurdish tribes to
2199:
1637:
1467:
in July 1501, where he enthroned himself the Shāh of
1057:
Safavid history begins with the establishment of the
60:
12348:
in Arabic means a person who qualified to engage in
12096:
Savory, Roger: Iran under the Safavids, pp. 220–225.
11381:
10228:
New Perspectives on Safavid Iran: Empire and Society
10117:
10071:
New Perspectives on Safavid Iran: Empire and Society
9551:
9549:
9547:
9537:
9535:
9382:
9380:
8736:
8724:
8700:
8682:(Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1980), p. 3.
7592:
7586:
5575:, and at the same time gained more control over the
4607:
The Qizilbash were a wide variety of Shiʻi Muslims (
4379:. Abbas himself was able to speak Georgian as well.
3629:
fall back into Iranian hands, while establishing an
3414:) at the expense of Iranian control, briefly taking
3062:
1481:) of Iran and minted coins in his name, proclaiming
1436:
descent, and was a direct descendant of the Kurdish
11435:
11328:
10534:
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFJavakhishvili1970 (
9101:"Iranian identity iii. Medieval Islamic period" in
8913:
8451:
7598:
7571:
4986:helped foster cordial diplomatic relations between
4442:
Democratic institutions in an authoritarian society
3257:
2809:, lastly, from 1600 onwards, the Safavid statesman
2669:
1892:, was to install Tahmāsp's brothers (Sam Mirza and
12802:, Adam Olearius, translated by John Davies (1662),
11819:"Cetbang, Teknologi Senjata Api Andalan Majapahit"
11484:
11482:
11030:Eskandar Beg, pp. 900–901, tr. Savory, II, p. 1116
10799:The Last Years of the Georgian Monarchy, 1658–1832
10338:. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. p. 71.
10022:
9962:
9960:
9609:
9607:
9227:
8844:(New York: Oxford University Press), 2007, p. 113.
8631:
4921:and the discovery of the trading route around the
4900:
4875:, that were strategically placed along the route.
4785:In the late 17th century, Safavid Iran had higher
4491:). The legal system was built up of two branches:
4039:converted to Twelver Shiʻism in the 13th century.
3639:conquered the Hotaki's last stronghold in Kandahar
2901:in 1534. After subsequent campaigns, the Safavids
2753:since the reign of Tahmasp I – the
1080:Religious poetry from Safi al-Din, written in the
11588:Savory, R.; Iran under the Safavids; pp. 186–187.
9647:vol. 27, pp. 123–133 (1994), pp. 125–126, 128–131
9544:
9532:
9399:, Vol. 3, pp. 191–97 (2009) ("Svanidze"), p. 191.
9377:
8052:
7998:
7731:
5496:which is the biggest historic plaza in the world.
3550:the capital of Isfahan, until Shah Soltan Hoseyn
3023:also known as "Isā Khān". Raised at the court in
2928:
812:, the Safavids established control over parts of
16893:
12439:The Persianate World: Rethinking a Shared Sphere
12057:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
11560:Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes
11472:
11470:
10139:
10137:
8140:
8138:
8136:
7999:Savory, Roger M.; Karamustafa, Ahmet T. (2012).
4839:to expand it. What remained unchanged, was the "
3673:in 1747. Nadir had effective control under Shah
3570:, and northern mainland territories through the
3562:attacked and conquered swaths of Safavid Iran's
2842:Abbas I as shown on one of the paintings in the
1857:
15296:December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum
12495:
11479:
10009:
9990:
9957:
9604:
9082:(New York: Oxford University Press), 2007, 113.
8999:Richard Tapper. "Shahsevan in Safavid Persia",
8970:Savory, Roger M.; Karamustafa, Ahmet T. (1998)
8563:Savory, Roger M.; Karamustafa, Ahmet T. (1998)
7834:
7832:
7830:
5664:The Isfahan School – Islamic philosophy revived
4479:, a tool used for punishment of state criminals
4027:, Shiʻi dynasties were re-established in Iran,
3448:mass deportations of between 130,000 – 200,000
1208:
732:empires. It was ruled from 1501 to 1736 by the
15382:2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests
15281:March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum
12459:Making and Remaking Empire in Early Qajar Iran
11358:
11356:
10869:
10867:
9440:
9438:
9436:
8945:, University of London 10/4 (1942): 1006–1053.
8377:
8375:
8373:
8371:
8369:
8367:
8365:
8214:Visualizing Belief and Piety in Iranian Shiism
8169:Iran's Diverse Peoples: A Reference Sourcebook
7961:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 86–87.
7669:Ghereghlou, Kioumars (October–December 2017).
6021:lay within the Safawi and the Mughal frontiers
4982:, where influential Persian families like the
4805:, the twin bases of the domestic economy were
3841:
1984:population. After the death of Babur, his son
1783:
1744:which temporarily ceased before the defeat at
1413:The Safavid dynasty was founded about 1501 by
890:, the establishment of an efficient state and
15164:Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911)
14641:
13147:
12933:
11467:
10938:Slaves of the Shah:New Elites of Safavid Iran
10530:
10134:
8941:V. Minorsky, "The Poetry of Shāh Ismā‘īl I",
8133:
7953:Mazzaoui, Michel B; Canfield, Robert (2002).
7906:, p. 392: "Shah Abbas moved his capital from
7552:
7498:
5353:
4810:Persians, who were settled agriculturalists.
4035:being the most important. The Ilkhanid ruler
3681:until 1736 when he had himself crowned shah.
3574:. The Safavids' archrivals, the neighbouring
2850:Abbas I first fought the Uzbeks, recapturing
2155:
1008:
1000:
994:
985:
979:
973:
967:
942:
438:2,900,000 km (1,100,000 sq mi)
46:
16240:Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO)
14604:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy
12800:"The Voyages and Travels of the Ambassadors"
12603:(1/2). Cambridge University Press: 179–212.
11940:
11553:
11321:
11319:
10656:International Journal of Middle East Studies
10653:
10548:
10497:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMunshī1978 (
10449:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 1005.
9971:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSavory1980 (
9741:
9739:
9737:
9513:
9511:
9509:
9507:
9505:
9503:
9501:
9499:
9497:
9274:
9272:
9270:
9268:
8867:. In Ágoston, Gábor; Masters, Bruce (eds.).
8856:
8531:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
8445:
8105:
7827:
7812:Roemer, H. R. (1986). "The Safavid Period".
7808:
7806:
6132:According to Willem Floor and Hasan Javadi,
5982:The Safavids by the time of their rise were
5966:The most precious accessory for men was the
4990:and Iran, as evidenced in the expedition of
3226:, which wanted him to make his over 400,000
3123:, then ruler of part of Iran, had asked the
2626:
1815:Shāh Tahmāsp, the young titular governor of
1618:were made his vassals as well. By 1511, the
15350:2009 Iranian presidential election protests
12567:
11981:(Westview Press, 2000), 2nd ed., pp. 56–57.
11977:William L. Cleveland and Martin P. Bunton,
11540:
11538:
11353:
10864:
10736:
10446:Historical Dictionary of the British Empire
10435:
10408:, Volume 6, Issue 2 June 2010, pp. 209–226.
10374:
10111:
9623:. Cambridge University Press. p. 494.
9433:
9147:. Georgetown University Press. p. 43.
8810:Peter Charanis. "Review of Emile Janssens'
8362:
8115:. Cambridge University Press. p. 213.
8017:
7948:
7946:
7944:
7942:
7940:
7938:
7738:. Oxford University Press. pp. 92–94.
5836:, was resting on its laurels. The works of
5414:were made in Iran during the 17th century.
5383:took first place. Second place was held by
4846:
2176:
1626:, were driven far to the north, across the
1194:Founding of the dynasty by Shāh Ismāʻil I (
728:, was one of the largest and long-standing
16917:States and territories established in 1501
15856:Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament)
15718:Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran
15234:1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election
14648:
14634:
13154:
13140:
12940:
12926:
12194:
12185:John R. Perry, "Turkic-Iranian contacts",
11745:Proceedings of the Indian History Congress
11116:The Caspian: Politics, Energy and Security
10802:. Columbia University Press. p. 142.
10761:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
10616:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
10293:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
9473:Savory, R, Iran under the Safavids, p. 66.
8960:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 214, 229
8553:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 214, 229
8289:
8287:
8285:
8257:. University of Texas Press. 1989, p. 145.
7668:
7505:
7491:
5923:
5509:in Isfahan is the epitome of 16th-century
5360:
5346:
4671:
3492:Map of the Safavid Empire, published 1736.
3051:provinces. In 1619 he appointed the loyal
2279:a war with Iran that would last until 1590
1534:the king of Iranian lands and the heir to
736:. It is often considered the beginning of
102:
15365:Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015)
12873:"Georgians in the Safavid administration"
12672:
12524:
12238:, Columbia University Press, 1997, p. 71.
12030:Iran: Architecture For Changing Societies
11801:
11316:
10583:
10516:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSīstānī (
10268:
10094:
9986:
9984:
9982:
9734:
9494:
9265:
9037:. "Safavid Dynasty", Online Edition 2007.
8625:
8613:
8521:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VIII, Fasc. 1
8320:
8277:Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire
8207:
8058:The Persian Presence in the Islamic World
7878:John R Perry, "Turkic-Iranian contacts",
7803:
7725:
7692:
5871:, under the name "Pharmacopoea Persica".
4434:, under influence by his Prime Minister,
4328:or "slaves of the shah", who were mainly
4318:and Comptroller-General of the Revenues (
4156:, commonly referenced to using the title
4097:
3825:Learn how and when to remove this message
3098:Contacts with Europe during Abbas's reign
2799:, who arrived in 1598 as envoys from the
2015:
1964:figures with their names at the top left.
1807:Shah Tahmasp, fresco on the walls of the
1799:Civil strife during Tahmāsp's early reign
1351:
1049:soldier, showing characteristic red cap (
984:("the Imperial Guarded Domains"). Simply
804:dignitaries and was Turkish-speaking and
15184:Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020)
13011:Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam
12724:
12595:(1974). "The Safavid State and Polity".
12577:(2 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.
12352:, or interpretation of religious texts.
11907:
11769:
11535:
10692:, One World, Oxford, 1985, 2000, p. 204.
10221:
10064:
9197:
9167:
8976:Encyclopaedia Iranica Vol. VIII, Fasc. 6
8569:Encyclopaedia Iranica Vol. VIII, Fasc. 6
8099:
8080:
7935:
7874:
7872:
7680:Journal of the American Oriental Society
7529:Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam
6161:
6042:
5993:
5943:
5935:
5927:
5878:
5776:
5693:
5581:
5499:
5471:
5416:
5012:
4904:
4850:
4760:
4675:
4598:
4511:and very similar to the Western form of
4470:
4392:
4255:
3987:Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam
3855:
3683:
3588:
3487:
3420:
3370:
3189:
3139:
3101:
2938:
2837:
2739:
2711:
2640:
2213:
2019:
1943:
1802:
1663:
1651:
1515:
1361:
1358:Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam
1212:
1040:
15970:Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO)
14428:
12842:History of the Safavids on Iran Chamber
12698:
12547:(2009). "Was Safavid Iran an Empire?".
12543:
12054:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
10834:List of Countries by population in 1700
10143:
9665:
9613:
9575:
9573:
9065:Heinz Halm, Janet Watson, Marian Hill,
8937:
8935:
8862:
8778:
8692:Herzig, Edmund; Stewart, Sarah (2011).
8647:
8293:
8282:
8244:. 1989. University of Michigan, p. 313.
6120:at the Royal Court, David Blow states,
5633:(Eight Paradise Palace) (1469) and the
5432:Using traditional forms and materials,
4994:. The Persians were also active in the
4789:than in Europe. According to traveller
3677:and then ruled as regent of the infant
3152:receiving the Persian Ambassadors, 1599
1501:(d. 1431), traced his descent from the
1311:Huṣayn Kīā Chalavī, the local ruler of
14:
16894:
15508:History of democracy in classical Iran
12653:
12630:
12591:
12455:
12436:
12415:
12391:
12163:, Yale University Press, 1989, p. 199.
11816:
11529:
11109:
10716:. Psychology Press. 1996. p. 49.
10492:
10384:. Classic Books Company. p. 177.
9979:
9966:
9926:"Why Did Men Stop Wearing High Heels?"
9923:
9785:
9012:Lawrence Davidson, Arthur Goldschmid,
8789:
8787:
8766:
8754:
8742:
8730:
8718:
8706:
8512:. Princeton University Press. p. 18; "
8408:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
8381:
7959:Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective
7707:, on 1 Jumādā II 907/22 December 1501.
5891:Since pre-Islamic times, the sport of
5864:experienced during his visit to Iran.
3402:. In the far eastern territories, the
2563:
2552:
2541:
2448:
2437:
2426:
2384:
2226:. E.M. Soudavar Trust, Houston, Texas.
2024:Shah Tahmasp greets the exiled Humayun
1366:One of the first actions performed by
16306:
16230:Defense Industries Organization (DIO)
16015:Iran and the World Trade Organization
15919:
15662:
15543:
14668:
14629:
13135:
12921:
12903:Historiography During the Safawid Era
12788:, Singapore, Pustaka Nasional, 2005,
12754:, Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003,
12732:. The Idea of Iran, Vol. 10. London:
12050:
12032:: Umberto Allemandi (August 2, 2006).
11841:
11787:
11738:
11279:
11254:
11229:
11204:
11179:
11119:. Taylor & Francis. p. 158.
10823:Safavid, Mughal, and Ottoman Empires.
10328:
9310:H.R. Roemer, "The Safavid Period" in
9204:Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia
8818:, Vol. 45, No. 3 (July 1970), p. 476.
8519:Savory, Roger. (2008). "EBN BAZZĀZ".
8165:
7869:
5406:was the center of this industry. The
4925:in 1487 not only hit a death blow to
3290:, some 300 years after Abbas' death.
3112:Persian embassy to Europe (1599–1602)
3071:tribes and the Safavid Empire. After
2585:
2574:
2530:
2490:
2415:
2404:
2395:
2375:
2364:
2353:
2344:
2326:
1622:in the north-east, led by their Khan
1530:most of Iran as part of his territory
15402:2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests
15392:2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests
12968:List of mothers of the Safavid shahs
12730:Safavid Persia in the Age of Empires
12476:
12282:
12200:É. Á. Csató, B. Isaksson, C Jahani.
11429:
11417:
11402:
11148:
10792:
10231:. Taylor & Francis. p. 70.
10128:
10074:. Taylor & Francis. p. 69.
9776:Vol. 30, pp. 213–234 (2013), p. 216.
9570:
9137:
9014:A Concise History of the Middle East
8932:
8596:. London & New York. IB Tauris.
8195:
7866:. Yale University Press. 1989, p. 9.
4382:
3782:
3067:In 1609–10, a war broke out between
2874:(1602) and, with English help, from
2771:regiments solely composed of ethnic
2519:
2510:
2501:
2479:
2468:
2457:
1610:, in 1510. In 1503, the kingdoms of
1324:Sultan Mahmud ibn Nizam al-Din Yahya
1220:declares himself "Shah" by entering
1151:princess, the daughter of the Grand
16932:Historical transcontinental empires
16635:Chicago Persian antiquities dispute
16276:Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone
16250:National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC)
16049:UN Security Council Resolution 1747
15784:UN Security Council Resolution 1747
12234:Cornelis Henricus Maria Versteegh,
11979:A History of the Modern Middle East
10630:
10511:
10179:Asat'iani & Bendianachvili 1997
9936:from the original on 17 August 2014
9924:Kremer, William (25 January 2013).
9374:(London: I.B. Tauris, 2000), p. 59.
8784:
8460:. Routledge Worlds (1st ed.).
7625:
7553:
6187:to the southern Territories of the
4957:region of India. The Sultanates of
4397:View of Tbilisi by French traveler
4389:List of Safavid governors of Kerman
4058:Emergence of a clerical aristocracy
3758:
3248:second diplomatic mission to Europe
1940:Royal refugees: Bayezid and Humayun
1876:five times, and the Ottomans under
1668:Artwork of the Battle of Chaldiran.
1520:Extent of Shāh Ismāʻil's empire in
1393:when he destroyed the tombs of the
1317:Murād Beg Bayandar, local ruler of
1302:Badi Alzamān Mīrzā, local ruler of
47:
24:
15174:Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–)
12765:Christoph Marcinkowski (tr., ed.),
12692:
12325:
11284:. Oxford: G. Ronald. p. 116.
11259:. Oxford: G. Ronald. p. 115.
11234:. Oxford: G. Ronald. p. 204.
11209:. Oxford: G. Ronald. p. 222.
11184:. Oxford: G. Ronald. p. 127.
8869:Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire
8452:Baltacıoğlu-Brammer, Ayşe (2021).
5986:-speaking although they also used
5476:Painting by the French architect,
4306:were the old nobility of Turkoman
4251:
4148:
3692:in general, Emanuel Bowen, 1744–52
3158:first diplomatic mission to Europe
2709:Mohammad Khodabanda's leadership.
2335:
2281:by invading Iran's territories of
2033:. His tactics in dealing with the
1638:Start of clashes with the Ottomans
1120:Aq Qoyunlu (White Sheep Turkomans)
978:("the Royal Guarded Domains") and
25:
16948:
16245:Iran Electronics Industries (IEI)
15866:Supreme National Security Council
15692:Persian Constitutional Revolution
15322:Interim Government of Iran (1981)
15229:Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–)
15219:Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975)
12897:Why is Safavid history important?
12835:
12290:; McClary, Richard Piran (eds.).
10970:Georgians and Circassians in Iran
10144:Matthee, Rudi (7 February 2012).
8217:. A&C Black. pp. 182–3.
6087:According to Cornelis Versteegh,
6070:According to Rula Jurdi Abisaab,
6061:According to É. Á. Csató et al.,
4765:A 19th-century drawing of Isfahan
4737:), numbering 12 000, was created.
4534:). The lesser officials were the
4196:There probably did not exist any
3609:Afghan Hotaki forces in the 1729
3063:Suppressing the Kurdish rebellion
3043:and later had the Georgian queen
1110:, the "Black Sheep", whose ruler
16875:
16866:
16865:
15841:Assembly (or Council) of Experts
12947:
12868:Iranian culture and history site
12574:Historical Dictionary of Georgia
12561:10.1163/002249910X12573963244449
12368:
12359:
12338:
12319:
12298:
12276:
12241:
12228:
12215:
12179:
12166:
12153:
12144:
12135:
12126:
12117:
12108:
12099:
12090:
12077:
12061:
12044:
12035:
12022:
12010:
11997:
11984:
11971:
11962:
11953:
11926:
11901:
11892:
11883:
11874:
11835:
11810:
11781:
11763:
11732:
11723:
11714:
11705:
11689:
11680:
11671:
11662:
11653:
11644:
11631:
11622:
11613:
11604:
11591:
11582:
11547:
11523:
11500:
11491:
11458:
11449:
11372:
11344:
11307:
11298:
11273:
11248:
11223:
11198:
11173:
11142:
11133:
11103:
11070:
11033:
11024:
11015:
11006:
10984:
10975:
10962:
10924:
10908:
10899:
10883:
10855:
10839:
10816:
10786:
10769:
10730:
10704:
10695:
10682:
10647:
10624:
10577:
10542:
10524:
10505:
10486:
10472:
10463:
10429:
10420:
10411:
10398:
10381:Twelfth Night: Or, What You Will
10368:
10359:
10342:
10322:
10301:
10262:
10245:
10215:
10191:
10172:
10163:
10088:
10031:
10003:
9948:
9917:
9908:
9899:
9890:
9881:
9872:
9863:
9854:
9845:
9836:
9827:
9818:
9809:
9800:
9791:
9766:
9757:
9748:
9725:
9716:
9707:
9698:
9689:
9659:
9579:
9482:Nahavandi and Bomati pp. 284–286
8901:from the original on 16 May 2016
8429:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0964
8337:from the original on 25 May 2022
7694:10.7817/jameroriesoci.137.4.0805
7567:
7474:
6245:
6079:(Shiite scholars of what is now
5874:
5832:, which to a large extent meant
5813:, logic, medicine, mathematics,
5480:, visiting Persia in 1841 (from
5329:
5065:
4229:), or finance minister, and the
4120:, Akhbari did and do not follow
4011:branch of Shiʻa Islam, ruled in
3787:
3728:for the Ottoman Empire in 1600.
3258:Succession and legacy of Abbas I
3075:led by the Safavid grand vizier
2990:of his on the puppet thrones of
2935:Shah Abbas' invasions of Georgia
2820:Abbas also moved the capital to
2761:and to a lesser extent Armenian
2670:Restoration of central authority
2646:Shah ‘Abbās King of the Persians
2337:
2320:
2314:
1874:eastern provinces of the kingdom
680:
666:
652:
638:
613:
599:
585:
571:
557:
543:
529:
515:
88:
77:
16040:Military equipment manufactured
15606:Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests
15370:United States withdrawal (2018)
15291:Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981)
14655:
12385:
10469:Nahavandi, Bomati, pp. 161–162.
10426:Nahavandi, Bomati, pp. 130–137.
9650:
9637:
9485:
9476:
9467:
9454:
9420:
9411:
9402:
9389:
9364:
9355:
9339:
9330:
9321:
9312:The Timurid and Safavid Periods
9304:
9281:
9246:
9221:
9207:. Reaktion Books. p. 165.
9191:
9161:
9131:
9116:), while assuming the title of
9095:
9085:
9072:
9059:
9049:
9040:
9019:
9016:, Westview Press, 2006, p. 153.
9006:
8993:
8948:
8847:
8834:
8821:
8804:
8685:
8665:
8586:
8541:
8502:
8349:
8269:
8260:
8247:
8231:
8201:
8189:
8159:
8074:
8046:
8011:
7992:
7979:
7917:
7856:
7615:
7559:
7546:
5658:History of Shah Abbas the Great
5625:Distinctive monuments like the
5461:
4901:Foreign trade and the Silk Road
4591:Military of the Safavid dynasty
3669:, who would go on to found the
3584:Treaty of Constantinople (1724)
3367:Treaty of Constantinople (1724)
2964:Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)
2834:Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1612)
2305:and in 993/1585 they even took
1864:Ottoman–Safavid War (1532–1555)
1487:official religion of his domain
975:mamalik-i mahrusa-yi khusravani
788:, it heavily intermarried with
761:official religion of the empire
114:
16600:modern / contemporary
15846:Expediency Discernment Council
15169:1908 bombardment of the Majlis
15158:Caucasus (18th–20th centuries)
14682:
12677:. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
12658:. Greenwood Publishing Group.
12462:. Cambridge University Press.
11844:"The Mediterranean Connection"
11639:Landlord and Peasant in Persia
11090:University of California Press
10972:, The Hague, 1963; pp. 127–143
10417:Nahavandi, Bomati pp. 128–130.
8642:Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 29
8322:10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_509
8001:"ESMĀʿĪL I ṢAFAWĪ: His poetry"
7791:
7778:
7752:
7712:
7662:
7649:
7524:List of Shi'a Muslim dynasties
6008:, by Habibulla Meshedi (1600).
5948:A brocade garment, Safavid era
5482:Monuments modernes de la Perse
4796:
4717:slaves and deportees from the
4279:) and the Master of the Hunt (
2929:Quelling the Georgian uprising
966:world. Its shortened form was
13:
1:
16937:Former countries in West Asia
15814:state-sponsorship allegations
15544:
12773:, Kuala Lumpur, ISTAC, 2002,
12750:Christoph Marcinkowski (tr.),
12087:, Phoenix Press, 2000, p. 234
11842:Scott, William Henry (1989).
11567:. p. 107. Archived from
10483:, "Abbas I the Great", p. 75.
9316:The Cambridge History of Iran
9177:. Pindar Press. p. 289.
8981:Ghereghlou, Kioumars (2016).
8574:Ghereghlou, Kioumars (2016).
8146:The Cambridge History of Iran
7896:The New Encyclopedia of Islam
7814:The Cambridge History of Iran
7798:The New Encyclopedia of Islam
7722:(Greenwood Press, 2001) p. 95
7642:
6622:
6586:
6466:
6453:
6430:
6417:
6394:
6377:
6327:
6314:
6301:
6288:
6275:
6034:According to Zabiollah Safa,
5932:Ladies’ clothing in the 1600s
5698:19th-century painting of the
5640:
4169:
3887:(Abbas I). According to the
3722:
3635:Ottoman–Iranian War (1730–35)
3572:Russo-Iranian War (1722-1723)
3363:Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)
3240:Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–18)
2907:Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–39)
2000:. Suleiman's favourite wife,
1890:1532–1555 Ottoman–Safavid War
1858:Foreign threats to the Empire
1570:fell into his power in 1502,
1164:nomadic Oghuz Turkic-speaking
1132:and was succeeded by his son
1086:Northwestern Iranian language
1022:
1015:by the Safavid ambassador to
16902:Empires and kingdoms of Iran
16271:Asaluyeh industrial corridor
15663:
15572:twin towns and sister cities
14878:Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224)
14755:Mannai (10th–7th century BC)
14731:Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC)
12820:10.1080/00210862.2013.784516
12306:Islamic Art and Architecture
12262:10.1080/00210862.2013.784516
12225:, I.B. Tauris (2006), p. 76.
11155:. New York: Norton. p.
10990:Matthee, Rudolph P. (1999),
10584:Kotilaine, Jarmo T. (2005).
10365:Nahavandi and Bomati p. 114.
8533:. Oxford University Press. "
8032:10.1080/00210862.2013.784516
7765:10.1017/CBO9781139343305.004
6025:According to John R. Perry,
5440:to study in Rome). The epic
4191:
1606:, as well as other parts of
1554:(with its important city of
1377:was the proclamation of the
1209:Iran prior to Ismāʻil's rule
996:mulk-i vasi' al-faza-yi Iran
981:mamalik-i mahrusa-yi humayun
349:• Establishment of the
7:
16922:1501 establishments in Asia
16907:Monarchy in Persia and Iran
16550:Water supply and sanitation
16307:
16281:Kish Island Free Trade Zone
15920:
15340:KDPI insurgency (1989–1996)
14715:civilization (3100–2700 BC)
14669:
13161:
12978:Safavid dynasty family tree
12332:UNESCO: History of Humanity
12204:, Routledge, 2004, p. 228,
12005:The Land of the Great Sophy
11641:(Oxford 1953); pp. 127–128.
11565:University of Chicago Press
10010:Bomati & Nahavandi 1998
9991:Bomati & Nahavandi 1998
9228:Christine Woodhead (2011).
8085:. I.B. Tauris. p. 33.
7630:
6216:
6005:The Conference of the Birds
5977:
5940:Men's clothing in the 1600s
5772:
5458:and his school in Isfahan.
4937:, The Persian Gulf and the
4801:According to the historian
4774:to its east and north. The
4584:
4104:Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi
3980:
3912:ḡolāmān-e ḵāṣṣa-ye-e šarifa
3842:The third force: Caucasians
3665:Afghan military commander,
3406:of India had expanded into
2110:ḡolāmān-e ḵāṣṣa-ye-e šarifa
2100:(Tiflis) and the region of
1009:
1001:
995:
986:
980:
974:
968:
943:
61:
10:
16953:
16030:Economy of the Middle East
15407:2021–2022 Iranian protests
15397:2019–2020 Iranian protests
15377:2017–2018 Iranian protests
14838:Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17)
12637:Cambridge University Press
12508:Cambridge University Press
11908:Axworthy, Michael (2009).
8456:. In Matthee, Rudi (ed.).
8081:Axworthy, Michael (2010).
8056:; Sabagh, Georges (1998).
5828:By the sixteenth century,
5667:
5484:). In the Safavid era the
5465:
5394:
5041:
4756:
4588:
4569:). Despite being based on
4451:, which were run by local
4386:
3984:
3845:
3715:
3352:
3348:
2932:
2903:recaptured Baghdad in 1624
2831:
2634:
2207:
2184:
2156:Chaos under Tahmasp's sons
1861:
1823:of the powerful Qizilbash
1791:
1758:frequent and harsh warfare
1641:
1355:
1201:
1188:
1026:
485:1 Tuman = 50 French livres
29:
27:Iranian empire (1501–1736)
16861:
16827:
16773:
16576:
16567:
16497:
16449:
16381:
16328:
16319:
16315:
16302:
16263:
16255:National Development Fund
16218:
16175:Telecommunications and IT
16169:Anglo-Persian Oil Company
16098:
15995:Foreign direct investment
15940:Bonyad (charitable trust)
15932:
15928:
15915:
15874:
15833:
15675:
15671:
15658:
15552:
15539:
15419:
15286:1979 Khuzestan insurgency
15276:Interim Government (1979)
15255:
15203:
15196:
15092:
15002:
14919:
14910:
14887:
14804:
14697:
14690:
14681:
14677:
14664:
14597:
14549:
14066:
13470:
13169:
13104:Ottoman–Safavid relations
13096:
13045:
13019:
12993:
12955:
12814:(4). Routledge: 569–581.
12673:Yarshater, Ehsan (2001).
12609:10.1080/00210867408701463
12525:Khanbaghi, Aptin (2006).
12441:. Brill. pp. 15–62.
12422:. Yale University Press.
11770:Marcinkowski, Christoph.
11059:) Mazda Publishers, 2002
10832:Cambridge Core. See also
10741:. ABC-CLIO. p. 329.
10668:10.1017/S0020743800021139
10563:10.1017/S0026749X00009653
10269:Dzhalilov, O Dzh (1967).
9675:. Bloomsbury Publishing.
9232:. Routledge. p. 94.
8508:* Matthee, Rudi. (2005).
7699:Columbia Academic Commons
6191:. According to Professor
6157:
6095:According to David Blow,
5524:, completed in 1630, the
4629:A major problem faced by
4495:, which had its roots in
3500:in 1698, Khorasan by the
3200:1609–1615 Persian embassy
3130:Habsburg–Persian alliance
3019:to the throne of Kartli,
2256:the stronger of the two.
2004:, was eager for her son,
1835:) who saw himself as the
1736:, and the Ottoman Sultan
1658:Kebir Musaver Silsilname.
1236:After the decline of the
1224:; his troops in front of
1061:by its eponymous founder
1007:and the 1680s travelogue
944:Mamalik-i Mahrusa-yi Iran
900:architectural innovations
696:
494:
465:
461:
451:
447:
442:
434:
429:
425:
411:
401:
388:
374:
364:
347:
343:
333:
323:
319:
304:
289:
285:
275:
271:
256:
241:
237:
227:
217:
203:
169:
134:
124:
101:
74:
69:
62:Mamalik-i Mahrusa-yi Iran
41:
16005:International oil bourse
15770:Ministry of Intelligence
15355:Syrian civil war (2011–)
15179:1921 Persian coup d'état
13053:Military of Safavid Iran
12294:. Brill. pp. 74–75.
12085:The Golden Age of Persia
11739:Anwar, M. Siraj (1991).
11455:Malcolm; vol II, p. 456.
11432:, pp. 118–119, 166.
8385:(2012) . "Ṣafawids". In
8255:Islam: Origin and Belief
8172:. ABC-CLIO. p. 66.
8166:Price, Massoume (2005).
7659:, Prestel, 2004, p. 178.
7539:
7534:Khanates of the Caucasus
6048:Prince Muhammad-Beik of
4847:Travel and caravanserais
4137:Muhammad Baqir Behbahani
3160:. The group crossed the
3156:In 1599, Abbas sent his
2888:Dutch East India Company
2654:Atrium heroicum Caesarum
1998:Suleiman the Magnificent
1738:Suleiman the Magnificent
1332:Several local rulers of
1232:, in private collection.
1114:ordered Junāyd to leave
937:
740:, as well as one of the
390:• Reconquest under
16529:scientists and scholars
16035:Milad Tower and complex
15825:Women's rights movement
15820:White Revolution (1963)
15488:Peoples of the Caucasus
14830:Armenia (321 BC–AD 428)
14723:dynasties (2700–540 BC)
12863:BBC History of Religion
12784:Christoph Marcinkowski,
12654:Sicker, Martin (2001).
12633:Iran under the Safavids
12555:(1–2). Brill: 233–265.
11992:Iran under the Safavids
11912:. Bloomsbury Academic.
11700:Iran under the Safavids
11367:Iran under the Safavids
10941:. Bloomsbury Academic.
10919:Iran under the Safavids
10878:Iran under the Safavids
10850:Iran under the Safavids
10354:Oxford University Press
9896:Streusand, pp. 151–152.
9361:Streusand, pp. 146–147.
9350:Iran under the Safavids
9120:(the king of kings) of
8863:Masters, Bruce (2009).
8680:Iran under the Safavids
8592:Aptin Khanbaghi (2006)
8355:Streusand, Douglas E.,
8112:Iran Under the Safavids
8054:Hovannisian, Richard G.
6297:Shulaveri–Shomu culture
6108:Regarding the usage of
5924:Clothes and appearances
5555:to the central city of
4978:kingdoms, most notably
4672:Reforms in the military
4363:and in the harem), the
3796:This article cites its
3234:were no more fruitful.
3205:Allégorie de l'Occasion
3073:a long and bloody siege
3017:Alexander II of Imereti
2168:, her Circassian uncle
1709:'s son, and it was the
1045:Mannequin of a Safavid
949:Guarded Domains of Iran
904:patronage for fine arts
714:Guarded Domains of Iran
43:Guarded Domains of Iran
32:Safavi (disambiguation)
16840:Anti-Iranian sentiment
16835:Science and technology
16660:Intellectual movements
16540:International rankings
16524:Intellectual movements
16010:International rankings
15503:Heads of state of Iran
15309:Nojeh coup plot (1980)
14870:Empire (247 BC–AD 224)
14707:culture (3400–2000 BC)
13063:Persian–Portuguese War
12899:(Iran Chamber Society)
12887:History of Safavid art
12631:Savory, Roger (2007).
12569:Mikaberidze, Alexander
12456:Ashraf, Assef (2024).
12419:Iran: A Modern History
12416:Amanat, Abbas (2017).
12284:Dale, Stephen Frederic
11280:Momen, Moojan (1985).
11255:Momen, Moojan (1985).
11230:Momen, Moojan (1985).
11205:Momen, Moojan (1985).
11180:Momen, Moojan (1985).
11057:University of Michigan
11040:Bournoutian, George A.
10318:. University of Texas.
10273:(in Russian). Moscow.
9672:Iran at War: 1500–1988
8812:Trébizonde en Colchide
7775:, retrieved 2021-11-10
6836:Masmughans of Damavand
6310:Zayandeh River Culture
6210:
6167:
6155:
6139:
6130:
6106:
6093:
6085:
6068:
6058:
6041:
6032:
6023:
6009:
5991:were also in Persian.
5949:
5941:
5933:
5910:
5888:
5887:depicting a polo-match
5794:
5770:
5703:
5587:
5532:and the Royal Palace.
5514:
5497:
5454:executed 1539–1543 by
5429:
5390:
5018:
4914:
4898:
4864:
4841:crop-sharing agreement
4832:
4766:
4681:
4604:
4552:
4509:traditional experience
4480:
4466:
4402:
4261:
4154:Muhammad Baqir Majlisi
4098:Akhbaris versus Usulis
4046:population. The Sunni
3993:Republic of Azerbaijan
3876:
3863:, military commander,
3731:Safavid society was a
3693:
3597:
3493:
3433:
3383:
3213:
3153:
3115:
2962:In 1614–16 during the
2959:
2847:
2745:
2717:
2657:
2648:, copper engraving by
2263:
2227:
2025:
2016:Legacy of Shah Tahmasp
1965:
1827:Ali Beg Rūmlū (titled
1812:
1776:(chief administrator,
1669:
1661:
1524:
1410:
1352:Rise of Shāh Ismāʻil I
1233:
1054:
855:, as well as parts of
774:dynasty rooted in the
738:modern Iranian history
403:• Disestablished
16128:Shetab Banking System
16118:Banking and insurance
16080:Tehran Stock Exchange
16000:Intellectual property
15345:PJAK conflict (2004–)
15118:Turcomans (1378–1508)
15110:Turcomans (1374–1468)
15059:Ilkhanate (1256–1335)
14862:Pontus (281 BC–AD 62)
14574:Medieval great powers
13083:Georgian-Safavid Wars
12994:Ideology and religion
12624:registration required
12141:Ferrier; pp. 120–124.
12132:Ferrier; pp. 117–118.
11968:Ferrier; pp. 114–115.
11959:Ferrier; pp. 111–113.
11817:Editor (2020-03-03).
11803:10.4000/moussons.3572
11788:Petrů, Tomáš (2016).
10348:Laurence Lockhart in
10038:Encyclopaedia Iranica
10034:"ALLĀHVERDĪ KHAN (1)"
8987:Encyclopaedia Iranica
8580:Encyclopaedia Iranica
8478:10.4324/9781003170822
8242:Iran, a Country study
8005:Encyclopaedia Iranica
6714:Indo-Parthian Kingdom
6668:3rd-century BC–132 BC
6634:Kingdom of Cappadocia
6590: 6th century BC
6572:Neo-Babylonian Empire
6197:
6165:
6147:
6134:
6122:
6097:
6089:
6072:
6063:
6046:
6036:
6027:
6018:
5997:
5947:
5939:
5931:
5905:
5882:
5850:The Canon of Medicine
5807:Arab conquest of Iran
5787:The Canon of Medicine
5780:
5765:
5697:
5604:Examplar of the World
5585:
5528:(Masjid-e Imami) the
5503:
5494:Naghsh-i Jahan Square
5475:
5420:
5016:
4908:
4894:
4854:
4819:
4764:
4679:
4602:
4547:
4485:Islamic jurisprudence
4474:
4396:
4259:
4241:and the later kings.
4204:, still mentions the
3859:
3778:the people of the pen
3700:. However, the brief
3687:
3592:
3491:
3424:
3374:
3246:, would lead Abbas's
3193:
3143:
3105:
2942:
2909:yet lost it again to
2841:
2806:Encyclopaedia Iranica
2743:
2715:
2644:
2514:TSARDOM OF RUSSIA
2258:
2217:
2200:Mohammad Khodabanda (
2023:
1952:, and is kept at The
1947:
1806:
1667:
1655:
1519:
1499:Shāh Ni'matullāh Walī
1471:, proclaimed himself
1365:
1356:Further information:
1286:ruler of Irāq al-Ajam
1216:
1044:
808:. From their base in
170:Common languages
16089:Technology start-ups
15990:Environmental issues
15980:Economic Reform Plan
15894:Provincial governors
15584:Environmental issues
15332:Iran Air Flight 655
15073:Jalayirid Sultanate
14945:Caliphate (750–1258)
14787:Kingdom (652–625 BC)
14584:European colonialism
14569:Ancient great powers
13097:Other related topics
13058:Ottoman–Persian Wars
13006:Ideology of Safavids
12912:Encyclopædia Iranica
12877:Encyclopædia Iranica
12851:Encyclopædia Iranica
12675:Encyclopædia Iranica
12496:Lockhart, Laurence;
12477:Blow, David (2009).
12374:Rudolph P. Matthee,
12188:Encyclopædia Iranica
12068:Nasr, Seyyed Hossein
11898:Savory; pp. 199–200.
11139:Savory, pp. 185–186.
10905:Savory; pp. 184–185.
10794:Lang, David Marshall
10781:Encyclopædia Iranica
10551:Modern Asian Studies
10480:Encyclopædia Iranica
10376:Shakespeare, William
10350:The Legacy of Persia
10257:Encyclopædia Iranica
10114:, pp. 291, 536.
9815:Roemer, pp. 257–258.
9586:Encyclopædia Iranica
9491:Savory, pp. 129–131.
9299:Encyclopædia Iranica
9103:Encyclopædia Iranica
9078:Virani, Shafique N.
8963:Blow, David (2009).
8928:Encyclopædia Iranica
8840:Virani, Shafique N.
8799:Encyclopædia Iranica
8659:Encyclopædia Iranica
8556:Blow, David (2009).
8304:Encyclopædia Iranica
7894:Cyril Glassé (ed.),
7880:Encyclopædia Iranica
7851:Encyclopædia Iranica
5600:Naqsh-e Jahan Square
5545:Iranian architecture
5511:Iranian architecture
5486:Persian architecture
5468:Persian architecture
5107:World Heritage Sites
4299:(Chief Astrologer).
3908:Encyclopædia Iranica
3889:Encyclopædia Iranica
3867:and the governor of
3534:revolted and killed
3380:Chehel Sotoun Palace
3264:Mohammad Baqer Mirza
3041:Luarsab II of Kartli
2958:, from 1633 to 1658.
2744:Safavid Persia, 1610
2716:Safavid Persia, 1598
2598:class=notpageimage|
2106:Encyclopædia Iranica
2067:Encyclopædia Iranica
2059:Encyclopædia Iranica
1507:Muhammad ibn Ismāʿīl
1399:Abū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān
1156:John IV of Trebizond
1063:Safi-ad-din Ardabili
1037:Ideology of Safavids
1033:Safi-ad-din Ardabili
355:Safi-ad-din Ardabili
30:For other uses, see
16912:History of Dagestan
16489:Freedom of religion
16075:Supreme Audit Court
15954:Automotive industry
15601:Iranian Balochistan
15327:1987 Mecca incident
15224:Iran crisis of 1946
15213:dynasty (1925–1979)
15142:Dynasty (1751–1794)
15083:dynasty (1338–1357)
15075:dynasty (1335–1432)
15067:dynasty (1314–1393)
15052:dynasty (1244–1381)
15036:dynasty (1077–1231)
15020:dynasty (1011–1215)
14937:Caliphate (661–750)
14929:Caliphate (632–661)
14897:Empire (AD 224–651)
14814:Empire (550–330 BC)
14795:Empire (626–539 BC)
14779:Empire (678–549 BC)
14763:Empire (911–609 BC)
14579:Modern great powers
13078:Mughal–Persian Wars
12856:The History Files:
12256:(4). Routledge: 1.
12236:The Arabic Language
12172:Arnold J. Toynbee,
12159:Ronald W. Ferrier,
12003:Sir Roger Stevens;
11650:Ferrier; pp. 25–26.
11637:Lambton, A. K. S.;
11446:Ferrier; pp. 85–89.
11420:, pp. 165–166.
11341:Ferrier, pp. 80–82.
11149:Nasr, Vali (2006).
11055:(original from the
10592:. Leiden. pp.
10352:ed. A. J. Arberry (
9656:Roemer. pp. 250–51.
9370:Colin P. Mitchell,
9336:Romer, pp. 234–237.
9287:Colin P. Mitchell,
9262:Retrieved July 2015
9114:kalb-e āstān-e ʿAli
8967:. I.B. Tauris. p. 3
8560:. I.B. Tauris. p. 3
8313:Columbia University
8279:, IB Tauris (2006).
7923:Arnold J. Toynbee,
7720:The History of Iran
7631:Šāhanšāhi-ye Safavi
7554:ممالک محروسهٔ ایران
7370:Contemporary period
7274:Early modern period
7176:Jalayirid Sultanate
7046:Khwarazmian dynasty
6475:Neo-Assyrian Empire
6353:Kura–Araxes culture
6271:Baradostian culture
6012:Safavids also used
5761:Richard Nelson Frye
5720:Mohsen Fayz Kashani
5690:Mohsen Fayz Kashani
5654:Iskandar Beg Munshi
5506:Naqshe Jahan square
5412:'Polonaise' carpets
4550:of law by his side.
4320:mostoufi-ye mamalek
4227:mostoufi-ye mamalek
4179:, or descendant of
3861:Daud Khan Undiladze
3852:Iranian Circassians
3776:" and the latter, "
3774:people of the sword
3708:ended in 1760 when
3454:Bakhtrioni Uprising
3426:David II of Kakheti
3174:Philip III of Spain
3150:Doge Marino Grimani
3010:Iskandar Beg Munshi
2241:Khayr al-Nisa Begum
2237:Mirza Salman Jaberi
2224:Mirza Salman Jaberi
2210:Mohammad Khodabanda
1644:Battle of Chaldiran
1503:first Ismāʿīlī Imam
1455:In 1500, Ismāʻil I
1407:ʿAbdul Qādir Gīlānī
1011:Safine-ye Solaymani
896:checks and balances
816:and reasserted the
482:1 Tuman = 50 Abbasi
366:• Established
338:Early modern period
16620:Persian New Year (
16025:Main economic laws
15596:Iranian Azerbaijan
15498:Monarchs of Persia
15442:Persianate society
15150:Empire (1789–1925)
15134:Empire (1736–1796)
15126:Empire (1501–1736)
15102:Empire (1370–1507)
15028:Empire (1037–1194)
14993:dynasty (934–1062)
14985:dynasty (931–1090)
14977:dynasty (861–1003)
14846:Empire (312–63 BC)
14747:(c.1595–c.1155 BC)
13073:Persian–Uzbek wars
12706:. Abingdon, Oxon:
12365:Streusand, p. 137.
12174:A Study of History
12161:The Arts of Persia
11848:Philippine Studies
11512:2007-10-08 at the
11507:"Shahsavan Tribes"
11085:2022-11-18 at the
11076:Aslanian, Sebouh.
11051:2022-11-18 at the
10998:2022-10-20 at the
10968:Oberling, Pierre,
10828:2021-09-27 at the
10701:Axworthy pp. 39–55
10631:Utz, Axel (2011).
10531:Javakhishvili 1970
10330:Vehse, Carl Eduard
10223:Mitchell, Colin P.
10199:"Alaverdy Eparchy"
10066:Mitchell, Colin P.
9993:, pp. 141–142
9954:Savory, pp. 78–79.
9914:Streusand, p. 152.
9905:Savory, pp. 82–83.
9851:Savory, pp. 74–76.
9763:Streusand, P. 149.
9695:Streusand, p. 149.
9592:on 2 November 2014
9541:Streusand, p. 148.
9386:Streusand, p. 147.
9294:2015-05-17 at the
9278:Streusand, p. 146.
9258:2019-07-25 at the
9108:2019-10-25 at the
9033:2008-01-20 at the
9027:Britannica Concise
8694:Early Islamic Iran
8472:. pp. 15–36.
8275:Andrew J. Newman,
8209:Flaskerud, Ingvild
7929:literae humaniores
7925:A Study of History
7864:The Arts of Persia
7862:Ronald W Ferrier,
7845:2022-09-01 at the
7389:Interim Government
7379:Iranian Revolution
7166:Muzaffarid dynasty
6870:864 – 14th century
6860:791 – 11th century
6786:Rashidun Caliphate
6608:Kingdom of Armenia
6257:Prehistoric period
6168:
6102:Pietro Della Valle
6059:
6010:
5950:
5942:
5934:
5889:
5795:
5704:
5700:Chahar Bagh School
5635:Chahar Bagh School
5588:
5515:
5498:
5430:
5408:carpets of Ardabil
5235:Miniature painting
5227:Visual art history
5019:
4939:Straits of Malacca
4915:
4890:Pietro Della Valle
4865:
4767:
4742:Sir Thomas Herbert
4682:
4605:
4481:
4403:
4357:Pietro Della Valle
4262:
4007:, who were of the
3877:
3875:from 1625 to 1630.
3694:
3667:Ahmad Shah Durrani
3598:
3544:Battle of Gulnabad
3494:
3438:Kingdom of Kakheti
3434:
3384:
3319:Kabardino-Balkaria
3214:
3154:
3116:
3033:devastated Tbilisi
2984:Kingdom of Kakheti
2960:
2884:East India Company
2848:
2746:
2718:
2658:
2251:, was a prominent
2228:
2026:
1966:
1813:
1754:Mirza Shah Hossein
1676:. The Ottomans, a
1670:
1662:
1525:
1442:Sheikh Safi al-Din
1411:
1269:Alwand Mīrzā, the
1234:
1230:Chingiz Mehbaliyev
1174:and were known as
1082:Old Azari language
1055:
716:, commonly called
488:1 Tuman = £3 6s 8d
48:ممالک محروسه ایران
16889:
16888:
16857:
16856:
16853:
16852:
16823:
16822:
16730:Opium consumption
16563:
16562:
16399:Ethnic minorities
16373:Iranian languages
16298:
16297:
16294:
16293:
15911:
15910:
15907:
15906:
15790:Political parties
15728:Children's rights
15713:Foreign relations
15707:2009 presidential
15654:
15653:
15616:Iranian Kurdistan
15535:
15534:
15531:
15530:
15415:
15414:
15387:COVID-19 pandemic
15246:Revolution (1979)
15192:
15191:
15012:Empire (977–1186)
14969:dynasty (864–928)
14961:dynasty (821–873)
14953:dynasty (819–999)
14906:
14905:
14822:(c.323 BC–AD 226)
14623:
14622:
14545:
14544:
14510:Polish–Lithuanian
13685:Gurjara-Pratihara
13129:
13128:
13068:Russo-Persian War
13046:Military and wars
13037:School of Isfahan
12847:"Safavid dynasty"
12743:978-0-7556-3378-4
12726:Melville, Charles
12717:978-1-138-94406-0
12704:The Safavid World
12448:978-90-04-38728-7
12308:, London (1999),
12176:, V, pp. 514–515.
12028:Jodidio, Philip,
11291:978-0-85398-201-2
11266:978-0-85398-201-2
11241:978-0-85398-201-2
11216:978-0-85398-201-2
11191:978-0-85398-201-2
11166:978-0-393-06211-3
11126:978-0-203-64167-5
10890:Axworthy, Michael
10723:978-0-7007-0380-7
10688:Mottahedeh, Roy,
10456:978-0-313-29367-2
10391:978-0-7426-5294-1
10280:978-0-89158-296-0
10238:978-1-136-99194-3
10150:iranicaonline.org
10081:978-1-136-99194-3
9860:Streusand, p. 151
9833:Streusand, p. 150
9682:978-1-78096-240-5
9630:978-0-521-51441-5
9449:The Mughal Empire
9417:Streusand, p. 50.
9239:978-1-136-49894-7
9230:The Ottoman World
9214:978-1-78023-070-2
9184:978-1-904597-75-9
9154:978-1-62616-032-3
9092:"Padishah-i-Iran"
8886:978-0-8160-6259-1
8757:, pp. 82–83.
8487:978-1-003-17082-2
8458:The Safavid World
8438:978-90-04-16121-4
8391:van Donzel, E. J.
8299:"Safavid Dynasty"
8238:Helen Chapin Metz
8224:978-1-4411-4907-7
8179:978-1-57607-993-5
8122:978-0-521-04251-2
7968:978-0-521-52291-5
7773:978-1-107-03023-7
7745:978-0-19-977311-4
7718:Elton L. Daniel,
7519:Persianate states
7515:
7514:
7407:
7406:
7360:
7359:
7323:
7322:
7264:
7263:
7206:Afrasiyab dynasty
7106:Khorshidi dynasty
7096:Pishkinid dynasty
6986:Ghaznavid dynasty
6806:Abbasid Caliphate
6796:Umayyad Caliphate
6762:
6761:
6758:550s–11th century
6654:Kingdom of Pontus
6598:Achaemenid Empire
6562:Anshanite Kingdom
6523:
6522:
6426:Oxus Civilization
6334:
6333:
5885:persian miniature
5756:According to the
5670:School of Isfahan
5565:life-giving river
5370:
5369:
4972:Bahmani Sultanate
4923:Cape of Good Hope
4919:Portuguese Empire
4655:Vladimir Minorsky
4530:), and recorder (
4383:Local governments
4273:Ichik Agasi bashi
3926:(also written as
3848:Iranian Georgians
3835:
3834:
3827:
3802:does not provide
3726: 20 million
3611:Battle of Damghan
3473:, in what now is
3224:Holy Roman Empire
3219:Spanish Habsburgs
3217:the hands of the
3210:Frans II Francken
3194:Abbas I as a new
3170:Pope Clement VIII
3168:) to Rome, where
3166:Emperor Rudolf II
3134:Anthony Jenkinson
2689:Kingdom of Kartli
2120:(also written as
2043:persian miniature
1972:, founded by the
1690:Şahkulu rebellion
1686:Sultan Bayezid II
1624:Muhammad Shaybāni
1397:, the Sunnī Imam
1387:official religion
742:gunpowder empires
710:
709:
692:
691:
688:
687:
626:
625:
537:Afrasiyab dynasty
315:
306:• 1729–1736
300:
291:• 1501–1507
267:
258:• 1732–1736
252:
243:• 1501–1524
162:
154:
146:
16:(Redirected from
16944:
16879:
16869:
16868:
16720:National symbols
16574:
16573:
16389:Iranian citizens
16326:
16325:
16317:
16316:
16304:
16303:
16286:Research centers
15975:Economic history
15930:
15929:
15917:
15916:
15851:Guardian Council
15673:
15672:
15660:
15659:
15541:
15540:
15518:Electric history
15513:Military history
15427:Ancient Persians
15335:
15334:shootdown (1988)
15317:
15304:
15301:Iranian Embassy
15271:
15260:
15258:Islamic Republic
15247:
15239:1953 coup d'état
15214:
15201:
15200:
15159:
15156:Khanates of the
15151:
15143:
15135:
15127:
15119:
15111:
15103:
15084:
15076:
15068:
15060:
15053:
15045:
15037:
15029:
15021:
15013:
14994:
14986:
14978:
14970:
14962:
14954:
14946:
14938:
14930:
14917:
14916:
14898:
14879:
14871:
14863:
14855:
14847:
14839:
14831:
14823:
14815:
14796:
14788:
14780:
14772:
14764:
14756:
14748:
14740:
14732:
14724:
14716:
14708:
14695:
14694:
14679:
14678:
14666:
14665:
14650:
14643:
14636:
14627:
14626:
14426:
14425:
14091:Austro-Hungarian
13791:Chagatai Khanate
13156:
13149:
13142:
13133:
13132:
13109:Gunpowder Empire
12942:
12935:
12928:
12919:
12918:
12858:Rulers of Persia
12831:
12747:
12721:
12688:
12669:
12650:
12627:
12620:
12588:
12564:
12540:
12521:
12492:
12473:
12452:
12433:
12412:
12379:
12372:
12366:
12363:
12357:
12342:
12336:
12335:
12323:
12317:
12304:Hillenbrand R.,
12302:
12296:
12295:
12280:
12274:
12273:
12245:
12239:
12232:
12226:
12219:
12213:
12198:
12192:
12183:
12177:
12170:
12164:
12157:
12151:
12150:Ferrier; p. 124.
12148:
12142:
12139:
12133:
12130:
12124:
12123:Ferrier; p. 116.
12121:
12115:
12112:
12106:
12103:
12097:
12094:
12088:
12081:
12075:
12065:
12059:
12058:
12048:
12042:
12039:
12033:
12026:
12020:
12014:
12008:
12001:
11995:
11988:
11982:
11975:
11969:
11966:
11960:
11957:
11951:
11944:
11938:
11937:
11930:
11924:
11923:
11905:
11899:
11896:
11890:
11887:
11881:
11878:
11872:
11871:
11839:
11833:
11832:
11830:
11829:
11814:
11808:
11807:
11805:
11785:
11779:
11778:
11776:
11767:
11761:
11760:
11736:
11730:
11727:
11721:
11718:
11712:
11709:
11703:
11693:
11687:
11684:
11678:
11675:
11669:
11666:
11660:
11657:
11651:
11648:
11642:
11635:
11629:
11626:
11620:
11617:
11611:
11608:
11602:
11597:Ferrier, R. W.;
11595:
11589:
11586:
11580:
11579:
11577:
11576:
11551:
11545:
11542:
11533:
11527:
11521:
11504:
11498:
11495:
11489:
11486:
11477:
11474:
11465:
11462:
11456:
11453:
11447:
11444:
11433:
11427:
11421:
11415:
11406:
11400:
11379:
11376:
11370:
11360:
11351:
11348:
11342:
11339:
11326:
11323:
11314:
11311:
11305:
11302:
11296:
11295:
11277:
11271:
11270:
11252:
11246:
11245:
11227:
11221:
11220:
11202:
11196:
11195:
11177:
11171:
11170:
11146:
11140:
11137:
11131:
11130:
11107:
11101:
11074:
11068:
11037:
11031:
11028:
11022:
11019:
11013:
11010:
11004:
10988:
10982:
10979:
10973:
10966:
10960:
10959:
10957:
10955:
10933:Farhad, Massumeh
10928:
10922:
10912:
10906:
10903:
10897:
10887:
10881:
10871:
10862:
10859:
10853:
10843:
10837:
10820:
10814:
10813:
10790:
10784:
10773:
10767:
10766:
10760:
10752:
10734:
10728:
10727:
10708:
10702:
10699:
10693:
10686:
10680:
10679:
10651:
10645:
10644:
10628:
10622:
10621:
10615:
10607:
10591:
10581:
10575:
10574:
10546:
10540:
10539:
10528:
10522:
10521:
10509:
10503:
10502:
10490:
10484:
10476:
10470:
10467:
10461:
10460:
10433:
10427:
10424:
10418:
10415:
10409:
10402:
10396:
10395:
10372:
10366:
10363:
10357:
10356:, 1953), p. 347.
10346:
10340:
10339:
10326:
10320:
10319:
10317:
10309:"Islamic Groups"
10305:
10299:
10298:
10292:
10284:
10266:
10260:
10249:
10243:
10242:
10219:
10213:
10212:
10210:
10208:
10203:
10195:
10189:
10188:
10176:
10170:
10167:
10161:
10160:
10158:
10156:
10141:
10132:
10126:
10115:
10112:Mikaberidze 2015
10109:
10098:
10092:
10086:
10085:
10062:
10049:
10048:
10046:
10044:
10029:
10020:
10019:
10007:
10001:
10000:
9988:
9977:
9976:
9964:
9955:
9952:
9946:
9945:
9943:
9941:
9921:
9915:
9912:
9906:
9903:
9897:
9894:
9888:
9885:
9879:
9876:
9870:
9867:
9861:
9858:
9852:
9849:
9843:
9840:
9834:
9831:
9825:
9822:
9816:
9813:
9807:
9804:
9798:
9795:
9789:
9783:
9777:
9770:
9764:
9761:
9755:
9752:
9746:
9743:
9732:
9729:
9723:
9720:
9714:
9711:
9705:
9702:
9696:
9693:
9687:
9686:
9663:
9657:
9654:
9648:
9645:Iranian Studies,
9641:
9635:
9634:
9611:
9602:
9601:
9599:
9597:
9588:. Archived from
9580:Manz, Beatrice.
9577:
9568:
9567:
9565:
9563:
9553:
9542:
9539:
9530:
9529:
9527:
9525:
9515:
9492:
9489:
9483:
9480:
9474:
9471:
9465:
9458:
9452:
9445:John F. Richards
9442:
9431:
9424:
9418:
9415:
9409:
9408:Svanidze, p. 192
9406:
9400:
9393:
9387:
9384:
9375:
9368:
9362:
9359:
9353:
9343:
9337:
9334:
9328:
9325:
9319:
9308:
9302:
9301:(July 15, 2009).
9285:
9279:
9276:
9263:
9250:
9244:
9243:
9225:
9219:
9218:
9199:Rayfield, Donald
9195:
9189:
9188:
9165:
9159:
9158:
9135:
9129:
9099:
9093:
9089:
9083:
9076:
9070:
9063:
9057:
9053:
9047:
9044:
9038:
9023:
9017:
9010:
9004:
8997:
8991:
8972:ESMĀʿĪL I ṢAFAWĪ
8952:
8946:
8939:
8930:
8926:"Ismail Safavi"
8924:
8911:
8910:
8908:
8906:
8860:
8854:
8851:
8845:
8838:
8832:
8825:
8819:
8808:
8802:
8791:
8782:
8776:
8770:
8764:
8758:
8752:
8746:
8740:
8734:
8728:
8722:
8716:
8710:
8704:
8698:
8697:
8689:
8683:
8669:
8663:
8651:
8645:
8638:
8629:
8623:
8617:
8611:
8605:
8590:
8584:
8565:ESMĀʿĪL I ṢAFAWĪ
8545:
8539:
8506:
8500:
8499:
8449:
8443:
8442:
8421:Brill Publishers
8395:Heinrichs, W. P.
8379:
8360:
8353:
8347:
8346:
8344:
8342:
8324:
8291:
8280:
8273:
8267:
8264:
8258:
8253:Emory C. Bogle.
8251:
8245:
8235:
8229:
8228:
8205:
8199:
8193:
8187:
8186:
8163:
8157:
8142:
8131:
8130:
8103:
8097:
8096:
8078:
8072:
8071:
8050:
8044:
8043:
8015:
8009:
8008:
7996:
7990:
7983:
7977:
7976:
7950:
7933:
7921:
7915:
7892:
7883:
7876:
7867:
7860:
7854:
7836:
7825:
7810:
7801:
7795:
7789:
7782:
7776:
7756:
7750:
7749:
7729:
7723:
7716:
7710:
7709:
7705:battle of Sharūr
7696:
7666:
7660:
7653:
7636:
7633:
7627:
7619:
7613:
7611:
7610:
7607:
7606:
7603:
7600:
7595:
7594:
7591:
7588:
7585:
7582:
7579:
7576:
7573:
7563:
7557:
7556:
7555:
7550:
7507:
7500:
7493:
7479:
7478:
7477:
7448:Military history
7438:Economic history
7416:Related articles
7399:Islamic Republic
7375:
7374:
7338:
7337:
7279:
7278:
7236:Kar-Kiya dynasty
7156:Chobanid dynasty
7146:Ilkhanate Empire
6926:Sallarid dynasty
6896:Saffarid dynasty
6782:
6781:
6627:
6624:
6592:–11th century AD
6591:
6588:
6552:Scythian Kingdom
6538:
6537:
6468:
6455:
6432:
6419:
6396:
6379:
6349:
6348:
6329:
6316:
6303:
6290:
6277:
6267:
6266:
6249:
6239:
6221:
6220:
5869:Angulus de Saint
5745:philosophies of
5627:Sheikh Lotfallah
5530:Lutfallah Mosque
5362:
5355:
5348:
5334:
5333:
5332:
5069:
5046:
5045:
5000:Brunei Sultanate
4947:Strait of Hormuz
4787:living standards
4603:A Safavid helmet
4559:Criminal justice
4207:Council of State
3830:
3823:
3819:
3816:
3810:
3791:
3790:
3783:
3759:Turks and Tajiks
3739:, nor was it an
3727:
3724:
3530:chieftain named
3519:, constantly in
3359:Afsharid dynasty
3252:capture of Ormuz
3021:Jesse of Kakheti
2795:and his brother
2791:adventurers Sir
2687:(comprising the
2650:Dominicus Custos
2592:
2590:
2583:
2581:
2572:
2570:
2561:
2559:
2550:
2548:
2539:
2537:
2528:
2526:
2517:
2515:
2508:
2506:
2499:
2497:
2488:
2486:
2477:
2475:
2466:
2464:
2455:
2453:
2446:
2444:
2435:
2433:
2424:
2422:
2413:
2411:
2402:
2400:
2393:
2391:
2382:
2380:
2373:
2371:
2362:
2360:
2351:
2349:
2342:
2341:
2333:
2331:
2324:
2318:
2245:Pari Khān Khānum
2194:Pari Khān Khānum
2166:Pari Khān Khānum
2139:Pari Khān Khānum
2031:gunpowder empire
1958:Tsar Nicholas II
1950:Aliquli Jabbadar
1831:Div Soltān Rumlu
1381:denomination of
1183:Ali Mirza Safavi
1093:Sadr al-Dīn Mūsā
1069:, a significant
1014:
1006:
998:
989:
983:
977:
971:
946:
818:Iranian identity
765:history of Islam
755:denomination of
751:established the
698:State religion.
684:
683:
670:
669:
656:
655:
642:
641:
630:
629:
617:
616:
603:
602:
593:Kar-Kiya dynasty
589:
588:
575:
574:
561:
560:
547:
546:
533:
532:
519:
518:
512:
511:
496:
495:
370:22 December 1501
328:Council of State
313:
298:
265:
250:
160:
152:
144:
118:
117: 1588–1629
116:
106:
95:
91:
86:Flag (1576–1732)
81:
64:
58:
50:
49:
39:
38:
21:
16952:
16951:
16947:
16946:
16945:
16943:
16942:
16941:
16892:
16891:
16890:
16885:
16849:
16819:
16798:Rap and hip-hop
16769:
16750:Public holidays
16735:Persian gardens
16724:Imperial Anthem
16715:National Jewels
16670:Iranian studies
16559:
16493:
16445:
16377:
16338:Persian (Farsi)
16311:
16290:
16259:
16221:
16214:
16149:Pharmaceuticals
16094:
16085:Venture capital
16060:Rial (currency)
16045:Nuclear program
15924:
15903:
15870:
15829:
15780:Nuclear program
15745:Judicial system
15667:
15650:
15621:Iranian plateau
15548:
15527:
15411:
15333:
15315:
15302:
15270:History (1979–)
15269:
15261:
15256:
15251:
15245:
15212:
15188:
15157:
15149:
15141:
15133:
15125:
15117:
15109:
15101:
15088:
15082:
15074:
15066:
15058:
15051:
15043:
15035:
15027:
15019:
15011:
14998:
14992:
14984:
14976:
14968:
14960:
14952:
14944:
14936:
14928:
14912:
14902:
14896:
14883:
14877:
14869:
14861:
14853:
14845:
14837:
14829:
14821:
14813:
14800:
14794:
14793:Neo-Babylonian
14786:
14778:
14771:(860 BC–590 BC)
14770:
14762:
14754:
14746:
14739:(c.2300–675 BC)
14738:
14730:
14722:
14714:
14706:
14686:
14673:
14660:
14654:
14624:
14619:
14608:American Empire
14593:
14589:African empires
14541:
14424:
14116:Central African
14062:
13880:Romano-Germanic
13466:
13200:Middle Assyrian
13173:
13165:
13160:
13130:
13125:
13092:
13088:Defensive walls
13041:
13015:
12989:
12973:Safavid dynasty
12951:
12946:
12853:by Rudi Matthee
12838:
12808:Iranian Studies
12769:Dastur al-Muluk
12767:Mirza Rafi‘a's
12744:
12718:
12695:
12693:Further reading
12685:
12666:
12647:
12621:
12597:Iranian Studies
12585:
12537:
12529:. I.B. Tauris.
12518:
12500:, eds. (1986).
12489:
12481:. I.B. Tauris.
12470:
12449:
12430:
12409:
12401:. I.B. Tauris.
12388:
12383:
12382:
12373:
12369:
12364:
12360:
12343:
12339:
12324:
12320:
12303:
12299:
12288:Peacock, A.C.S.
12281:
12277:
12250:Iranian Studies
12246:
12242:
12233:
12229:
12220:
12216:
12199:
12195:
12184:
12180:
12171:
12167:
12158:
12154:
12149:
12145:
12140:
12136:
12131:
12127:
12122:
12118:
12114:Savory, p. 222.
12113:
12109:
12105:Savory, p. 220.
12104:
12100:
12095:
12091:
12082:
12078:
12066:
12062:
12049:
12045:
12040:
12036:
12027:
12023:
12015:
12011:
12002:
11998:
11990:Savory, Roger;
11989:
11985:
11976:
11972:
11967:
11963:
11958:
11954:
11945:
11941:
11932:
11931:
11927:
11920:
11906:
11902:
11897:
11893:
11889:Savory; p. 196.
11888:
11884:
11879:
11875:
11840:
11836:
11827:
11825:
11815:
11811:
11796:(27): 147–161.
11786:
11782:
11774:
11768:
11764:
11737:
11733:
11729:Savory; p. 195.
11728:
11724:
11719:
11715:
11710:
11706:
11694:
11690:
11685:
11681:
11677:Savory; p. 191.
11676:
11672:
11668:Ferrier; p. 31.
11667:
11663:
11659:Savory; p. 190.
11658:
11654:
11649:
11645:
11636:
11632:
11627:
11623:
11619:Savory; p. 187.
11618:
11614:
11610:Ferrier; p. 23.
11609:
11605:
11596:
11592:
11587:
11583:
11574:
11572:
11552:
11548:
11543:
11536:
11528:
11524:
11514:Wayback Machine
11505:
11501:
11496:
11492:
11487:
11480:
11475:
11468:
11464:Savory; p. 182.
11463:
11459:
11454:
11450:
11445:
11436:
11428:
11424:
11416:
11409:
11401:
11382:
11377:
11373:
11361:
11354:
11349:
11345:
11340:
11329:
11324:
11317:
11312:
11308:
11303:
11299:
11292:
11278:
11274:
11267:
11253:
11249:
11242:
11228:
11224:
11217:
11203:
11199:
11192:
11178:
11174:
11167:
11147:
11143:
11138:
11134:
11127:
11108:
11104:
11087:Wayback Machine
11075:
11071:
11053:Wayback Machine
11038:
11034:
11029:
11025:
11020:
11016:
11011:
11007:
11000:Wayback Machine
10989:
10985:
10980:
10976:
10967:
10963:
10953:
10951:
10949:
10929:
10925:
10913:
10909:
10904:
10900:
10894:History of Iran
10888:
10884:
10872:
10865:
10860:
10856:
10844:
10840:
10830:Wayback Machine
10821:
10817:
10810:
10791:
10787:
10774:
10770:
10754:
10753:
10749:
10735:
10731:
10724:
10710:
10709:
10705:
10700:
10696:
10687:
10683:
10652:
10648:
10629:
10625:
10609:
10608:
10604:
10596:–360, 450–485.
10582:
10578:
10547:
10543:
10533:
10529:
10525:
10515:
10510:
10506:
10496:
10491:
10487:
10477:
10473:
10468:
10464:
10457:
10437:Olson, James S.
10434:
10430:
10425:
10421:
10416:
10412:
10403:
10399:
10392:
10373:
10369:
10364:
10360:
10347:
10343:
10327:
10323:
10311:
10307:
10306:
10302:
10286:
10285:
10281:
10267:
10263:
10250:
10246:
10239:
10220:
10216:
10206:
10204:
10201:
10197:
10196:
10192:
10182:
10177:
10173:
10168:
10164:
10154:
10152:
10142:
10135:
10127:
10118:
10110:
10101:
10093:
10089:
10082:
10063:
10052:
10042:
10040:
10030:
10023:
10013:
10008:
10004:
9994:
9989:
9980:
9970:
9965:
9958:
9953:
9949:
9939:
9937:
9922:
9918:
9913:
9909:
9904:
9900:
9895:
9891:
9886:
9882:
9877:
9873:
9868:
9864:
9859:
9855:
9850:
9846:
9841:
9837:
9832:
9828:
9824:Roemer, p. 259.
9823:
9819:
9814:
9810:
9806:Roemer, p. 257.
9805:
9801:
9797:Roemer, p. 256.
9796:
9792:
9788:, pp. 2–3.
9784:
9780:
9771:
9767:
9762:
9758:
9753:
9749:
9745:Roemer, p. 255.
9744:
9735:
9731:Roemer, p. 253.
9730:
9726:
9721:
9717:
9713:Roemer, p. 252.
9712:
9708:
9704:Roemer, p. 251.
9703:
9699:
9694:
9690:
9683:
9664:
9660:
9655:
9651:
9642:
9638:
9631:
9615:Lapidus, Ira M.
9612:
9605:
9595:
9593:
9578:
9571:
9561:
9559:
9555:
9554:
9545:
9540:
9533:
9523:
9521:
9517:
9516:
9495:
9490:
9486:
9481:
9477:
9472:
9468:
9459:
9455:
9443:
9434:
9425:
9421:
9416:
9412:
9407:
9403:
9394:
9390:
9385:
9378:
9369:
9365:
9360:
9356:
9344:
9340:
9335:
9331:
9327:Roemer, p. 234.
9326:
9322:
9309:
9305:
9296:Wayback Machine
9286:
9282:
9277:
9266:
9260:Wayback Machine
9251:
9247:
9240:
9226:
9222:
9215:
9196:
9192:
9185:
9166:
9162:
9155:
9139:Ward, Steven R.
9136:
9132:
9110:Wayback Machine
9100:
9096:
9090:
9086:
9077:
9073:
9064:
9060:
9054:
9050:
9045:
9041:
9035:Wayback Machine
9024:
9020:
9011:
9007:
8998:
8994:
8953:
8949:
8940:
8933:
8925:
8914:
8904:
8902:
8887:
8861:
8857:
8852:
8848:
8839:
8835:
8827:Anthony Bryer,
8826:
8822:
8809:
8805:
8792:
8785:
8777:
8773:
8765:
8761:
8753:
8749:
8741:
8737:
8729:
8725:
8717:
8713:
8705:
8701:
8696:. I. B. Tauris.
8690:
8686:
8670:
8666:
8652:
8648:
8639:
8632:
8624:
8620:
8612:
8608:
8591:
8587:
8546:
8542:
8507:
8503:
8488:
8450:
8446:
8439:
8411:. Vol. 8.
8387:Bosworth, C. E.
8380:
8363:
8354:
8350:
8340:
8338:
8292:
8283:
8274:
8270:
8265:
8261:
8252:
8248:
8236:
8232:
8225:
8206:
8202:
8194:
8190:
8180:
8164:
8160:
8143:
8134:
8123:
8104:
8100:
8093:
8079:
8075:
8068:
8051:
8047:
8020:Iranian Studies
8016:
8012:
7997:
7993:
7984:
7980:
7969:
7951:
7936:
7922:
7918:
7893:
7886:
7877:
7870:
7861:
7857:
7847:Wayback Machine
7838:Rudi Matthee, "
7837:
7828:
7811:
7804:
7796:
7792:
7783:
7779:
7757:
7753:
7746:
7730:
7726:
7717:
7713:
7667:
7663:
7654:
7650:
7645:
7640:
7639:
7620:
7616:
7597:
7570:
7566:
7564:
7560:
7551:
7547:
7542:
7511:
7481:Iran portal
7475:
7473:
7472:
7464:
7463:
7462:
7453:Women's history
7417:
7409:
7408:
7372:
7362:
7361:
7335:
7325:
7324:
7276:
7266:
7265:
7116:Qutlugh-Khanids
7066:Atabegs of Yazd
6966:Rawadid dynasty
6936:Ziyarid dynasty
6876:Tahirid dynasty
6774:
6772:Medieval period
6764:
6763:
6748:6th century–785
6734:Sasanian Empire
6704:Kings of Persis
6674:Parthian Empire
6644:Seleucid Empire
6625:
6589:
6535:
6533:Imperial period
6525:
6524:
6439:Akkadian Empire
6386:Lullubi Kingdom
6346:
6336:
6335:
6284:Zarzian culture
6259:
6237:
6230:
6219:
6183:, and from the
6160:
5980:
5926:
5877:
5834:Persian science
5830:Islamic science
5775:
5743:Illuminationist
5692:
5666:
5643:
5470:
5464:
5399:
5393:
5366:
5336:Iran portal
5330:
5328:
5323:
5319:Kurdish cuisine
5314:Caspian cuisine
5309:Balochi cuisine
5300:
5287:
5253:
5240:
5178:
5165:
5147:
5129:
5111:
5092:
5059:Culture of Iran
5044:
5032:Muscovy Company
5004:Demak Sultanate
4992:Suleyman's Ship
4976:Southeast Asian
4903:
4849:
4799:
4759:
4723:Allahverdi Khan
4674:
4597:
4589:Main articles:
4587:
4501:received wisdom
4469:
4444:
4424:Crown Provinces
4391:
4385:
4281:Mirshekar bashi
4254:
4252:The royal court
4219:Etemad-e Dowlat
4194:
4172:
4151:
4149:Allamah Majlisi
4100:
4092:Iskandar Munshi
4060:
3989:
3983:
3963:Allahverdi Khan
3885:Abbas the Great
3854:
3844:
3831:
3820:
3814:
3811:
3808:
3804:page references
3792:
3788:
3761:
3725:
3718:
3659:as far as Delhi
3619:Treaty of Ganja
3615:Treaty of Resht
3564:North Caucasian
3560:Peter the Great
3369:
3353:Main articles:
3351:
3325:, and parts of
3260:
3106:The ambassador
3100:
3065:
2978:(also known as
2946:(also known as
2937:
2931:
2919:Treaty of Zuhab
2878:(1622), in the
2836:
2830:
2811:Allāhverdī Khan
2793:Anthony Shirley
2672:
2639:
2637:Abbas the Great
2633:
2606:
2605:
2604:
2603:
2600:
2594:
2593:
2588:
2586:
2584:
2579:
2577:
2575:
2573:
2568:
2566:
2564:
2562:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2551:
2546:
2544:
2542:
2540:
2535:
2533:
2531:
2529:
2524:
2522:
2520:
2518:
2513:
2511:
2509:
2504:
2502:
2500:
2495:
2493:
2491:
2489:
2484:
2482:
2480:
2478:
2473:
2471:
2469:
2467:
2462:
2460:
2458:
2456:
2451:
2449:
2447:
2442:
2440:
2438:
2436:
2431:
2429:
2427:
2425:
2420:
2418:
2416:
2414:
2409:
2407:
2405:
2403:
2398:
2396:
2394:
2389:
2387:
2385:
2383:
2378:
2376:
2374:
2369:
2367:
2365:
2363:
2358:
2356:
2354:
2352:
2347:
2345:
2343:
2336:
2334:
2329:
2327:
2325:
2275:Peace of Amasya
2249:Shamkhal Sultan
2212:
2206:
2189:
2183:
2170:Shamkhal Sultan
2158:
2146:Peace of Amasya
2018:
1960:. Note the two
1942:
1929:Peace of Amasya
1870:
1868:Peace of Amasya
1862:Main articles:
1860:
1801:
1796:
1790:
1722:decisive battle
1650:
1642:Main articles:
1640:
1483:Twelver Shīʿīsm
1395:Abbasid caliphs
1375:Safavid dynasty
1360:
1354:
1250:Musha'sha'iyyah
1211:
1206:
1200:
1191:
1084:—a now-extinct
1051:Sa'dabad Palace
1039:
1027:Main articles:
1025:
990:was also used.
940:
843:, parts of the
734:Safavid dynasty
706:
681:
667:
653:
639:
614:
600:
586:
572:
558:
544:
530:
516:
454:
418:
404:
394:
381:
367:
357:
307:
292:
259:
244:
199:
165:
120:
113:
110:Abbas the Great
97:
93:
89:
83:
82:
65:
59:
52:
44:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
16950:
16940:
16939:
16934:
16929:
16924:
16919:
16914:
16909:
16904:
16887:
16886:
16884:
16883:
16873:
16862:
16859:
16858:
16855:
16854:
16851:
16850:
16848:
16847:
16842:
16837:
16831:
16829:
16825:
16824:
16821:
16820:
16818:
16817:
16810:
16805:
16800:
16795:
16790:
16785:
16779:
16777:
16771:
16770:
16768:
16767:
16757:
16752:
16747:
16742:
16737:
16732:
16727:
16717:
16712:
16707:
16701:
16687:
16682:
16672:
16667:
16662:
16657:
16652:
16642:
16637:
16632:
16627:
16613:
16608:
16603:
16593:
16587:
16577:
16571:
16565:
16564:
16561:
16560:
16558:
16557:
16552:
16547:
16542:
16537:
16531:
16526:
16521:
16512:
16507:
16501:
16499:
16495:
16494:
16492:
16491:
16486:
16476:
16471:
16461:
16455:
16453:
16447:
16446:
16444:
16443:
16442:
16441:
16436:
16431:
16426:
16421:
16416:
16411:
16406:
16396:
16385:
16383:
16379:
16378:
16376:
16375:
16370:
16365:
16360:
16355:
16350:
16345:
16340:
16334:
16332:
16323:
16313:
16312:
16300:
16299:
16296:
16295:
16292:
16291:
16289:
16288:
16283:
16278:
16273:
16267:
16265:
16261:
16260:
16258:
16257:
16252:
16247:
16242:
16237:
16232:
16226:
16224:
16216:
16215:
16213:
16212:
16207:
16201:
16196:
16191:
16182:
16172:
16162:
16157:
16152:
16142:
16137:
16132:
16131:
16130:
16125:
16115:
16104:
16102:
16096:
16095:
16093:
16092:
16082:
16077:
16072:
16067:
16062:
16057:
16052:
16042:
16037:
16032:
16027:
16022:
16017:
16012:
16007:
16002:
15997:
15992:
15987:
15982:
15977:
15972:
15967:
15962:
15957:
15947:
15942:
15936:
15934:
15926:
15925:
15913:
15912:
15909:
15908:
15905:
15904:
15902:
15901:
15899:Supreme Leader
15896:
15891:
15886:
15880:
15878:
15872:
15871:
15869:
15868:
15863:
15861:Local councils
15858:
15853:
15848:
15843:
15837:
15835:
15831:
15830:
15828:
15827:
15822:
15817:
15807:
15802:
15797:
15792:
15787:
15777:
15772:
15767:
15761:
15756:
15747:
15742:
15741:
15740:
15738:Women's rights
15735:
15730:
15720:
15715:
15710:
15700:
15695:
15685:
15679:
15677:
15669:
15668:
15656:
15655:
15652:
15651:
15649:
15648:
15643:
15638:
15633:
15628:
15623:
15618:
15613:
15608:
15603:
15598:
15593:
15592:
15591:
15589:Climate change
15581:
15576:
15575:
15574:
15569:
15559:
15553:
15550:
15549:
15537:
15536:
15533:
15532:
15529:
15528:
15526:
15525:
15520:
15515:
15510:
15505:
15500:
15495:
15490:
15485:
15480:
15475:
15473:Jiroft culture
15470:
15469:
15468:
15461:Iranic peoples
15458:
15457:
15456:
15455:
15454:
15449:
15437:Persianization
15434:
15429:
15423:
15421:
15417:
15416:
15413:
15412:
15410:
15409:
15404:
15399:
15394:
15389:
15384:
15379:
15374:
15373:
15372:
15362:
15357:
15352:
15347:
15342:
15337:
15329:
15324:
15319:
15311:
15306:
15298:
15293:
15288:
15283:
15278:
15273:
15265:
15263:
15253:
15252:
15250:
15249:
15241:
15236:
15231:
15226:
15221:
15216:
15207:
15205:
15198:
15194:
15193:
15190:
15189:
15187:
15186:
15181:
15176:
15171:
15166:
15161:
15153:
15145:
15137:
15129:
15121:
15113:
15105:
15096:
15094:
15090:
15089:
15087:
15086:
15078:
15070:
15062:
15055:
15047:
15044:(1135/36-1225)
15039:
15031:
15023:
15015:
15006:
15004:
15000:
14999:
14997:
14996:
14988:
14980:
14972:
14964:
14956:
14948:
14940:
14932:
14923:
14921:
14914:
14908:
14907:
14904:
14903:
14901:
14900:
14891:
14889:
14885:
14884:
14882:
14881:
14873:
14865:
14857:
14854:(c.295–220 BC)
14849:
14841:
14833:
14825:
14817:
14808:
14806:
14802:
14801:
14799:
14798:
14790:
14782:
14774:
14766:
14758:
14750:
14742:
14734:
14726:
14718:
14713:Proto-Elamite
14710:
14701:
14699:
14692:
14688:
14687:
14675:
14674:
14662:
14661:
14653:
14652:
14645:
14638:
14630:
14621:
14620:
14618:
14617:
14616:
14615:
14610:
14601:
14599:
14595:
14594:
14592:
14591:
14586:
14581:
14576:
14571:
14566:
14565:
14564:
14553:
14551:
14547:
14546:
14543:
14542:
14540:
14539:
14534:
14529:
14524:
14519:
14518:
14517:
14507:
14502:
14497:
14492:
14487:
14482:
14477:
14472:
14467:
14462:
14461:
14460:
14455:
14445:
14440:
14434:
14432:
14423:
14422:
14421:
14420:
14415:
14410:
14405:
14400:
14390:
14385:
14384:
14383:
14373:
14368:
14367:
14366:
14361:
14356:
14346:
14341:
14340:
14339:
14334:
14324:
14323:
14322:
14317:
14312:
14307:
14302:
14292:
14291:
14290:
14285:
14275:
14270:
14265:
14260:
14259:
14258:
14253:
14248:
14243:
14238:
14228:
14227:
14226:
14221:
14211:
14206:
14205:
14204:
14199:
14189:
14188:
14187:
14182:
14172:
14171:
14170:
14165:
14155:
14150:
14149:
14148:
14143:
14138:
14133:
14128:
14118:
14113:
14112:
14111:
14106:
14098:
14093:
14088:
14083:
14078:
14072:
14070:
14064:
14063:
14061:
14060:
14055:
14050:
14045:
14044:
14043:
14038:
14033:
14028:
14023:
14018:
14013:
14003:
13998:
13997:
13996:
13991:
13986:
13981:
13976:
13971:
13961:
13960:
13959:
13954:
13949:
13944:
13934:
13929:
13924:
13919:
13914:
13909:
13904:
13899:
13894:
13893:
13892:
13887:
13877:
13876:
13875:
13870:
13865:
13860:
13855:
13850:
13837:
13832:
13827:
13822:
13821:
13820:
13815:
13810:
13800:
13799:
13798:
13793:
13788:
13783:
13773:
13768:
13763:
13758:
13753:
13748:
13747:
13746:
13741:
13736:
13731:
13721:
13720:
13719:
13714:
13709:
13704:
13694:
13693:
13692:
13687:
13682:
13672:
13667:
13662:
13657:
13652:
13651:
13650:
13645:
13640:
13630:
13625:
13624:
13623:
13618:
13613:
13608:
13603:
13598:
13588:
13587:
13586:
13581:
13571:
13570:
13569:
13564:
13559:
13554:
13544:
13539:
13538:
13537:
13527:
13526:
13525:
13520:
13512:
13507:
13502:
13497:
13492:
13487:
13482:
13476:
13474:
13472:Post-classical
13468:
13467:
13465:
13464:
13463:
13462:
13452:
13447:
13446:
13445:
13440:
13430:
13429:
13428:
13418:
13417:
13416:
13411:
13406:
13401:
13396:
13391:
13381:
13376:
13371:
13370:
13369:
13364:
13359:
13354:
13344:
13343:
13342:
13337:
13327:
13322:
13321:
13320:
13315:
13310:
13305:
13300:
13290:
13285:
13280:
13279:
13278:
13273:
13271:Middle Kingdom
13268:
13258:
13253:
13252:
13251:
13246:
13241:
13231:
13230:
13229:
13227:Neo-Babylonian
13224:
13219:
13217:Old Babylonian
13209:
13208:
13207:
13202:
13192:
13187:
13181:
13179:
13167:
13166:
13159:
13158:
13151:
13144:
13136:
13127:
13126:
13124:
13123:
13122:
13121:
13111:
13106:
13100:
13098:
13094:
13093:
13091:
13090:
13085:
13080:
13075:
13070:
13065:
13060:
13055:
13049:
13047:
13043:
13042:
13040:
13039:
13034:
13029:
13023:
13021:
13017:
13016:
13014:
13013:
13008:
13003:
12997:
12995:
12991:
12990:
12988:
12987:
12982:
12981:
12980:
12975:
12970:
12959:
12957:
12953:
12952:
12945:
12944:
12937:
12930:
12922:
12916:
12915:
12914:by Hamid Algar
12905:
12900:
12894:
12889:
12884:
12879:
12870:
12865:
12860:
12854:
12844:
12837:
12836:External links
12834:
12833:
12832:
12803:
12797:
12782:
12763:
12748:
12742:
12728:, ed. (2021).
12722:
12716:
12702:, ed. (2021).
12694:
12691:
12690:
12689:
12684:978-0933273566
12683:
12670:
12665:978-0275968915
12664:
12651:
12646:978-0521042512
12645:
12628:
12589:
12584:978-1442241466
12583:
12565:
12541:
12536:978-1845110567
12535:
12522:
12516:
12498:Jackson, Peter
12493:
12488:978-0857716767
12487:
12474:
12469:978-1009361552
12468:
12453:
12447:
12434:
12429:978-0300112542
12428:
12413:
12408:978-1845118280
12407:
12387:
12384:
12381:
12380:
12367:
12358:
12337:
12318:
12297:
12275:
12240:
12227:
12214:
12193:
12178:
12165:
12152:
12143:
12134:
12125:
12116:
12107:
12098:
12089:
12076:
12060:
12043:
12034:
12021:
12016:Savory; chpt:
12009:
11996:
11983:
11970:
11961:
11952:
11939:
11925:
11918:
11900:
11891:
11882:
11873:
11854:(2): 131–144.
11834:
11823:1001 Indonesia
11809:
11780:
11762:
11731:
11722:
11713:
11704:
11702:; pp. 193–195.
11688:
11679:
11670:
11661:
11652:
11643:
11630:
11621:
11612:
11603:
11590:
11581:
11546:
11534:
11522:
11499:
11490:
11488:Ferrier p. 91.
11478:
11466:
11457:
11448:
11434:
11422:
11407:
11405:, p. 165.
11380:
11371:
11352:
11343:
11327:
11315:
11306:
11297:
11290:
11272:
11265:
11247:
11240:
11222:
11215:
11197:
11190:
11172:
11165:
11141:
11132:
11125:
11111:Akiner, Shirin
11102:
11098:978-0520947573
11069:
11065:978-1568591414
11032:
11023:
11021:Savory; p. 82.
11014:
11005:
10983:
10974:
10961:
10947:
10923:
10907:
10898:
10882:
10863:
10854:
10838:
10815:
10808:
10785:
10776:"Safavid Iran"
10768:
10748:978-1598843361
10747:
10729:
10722:
10703:
10694:
10681:
10662:(3): 345–368.
10646:
10623:
10602:
10576:
10557:(3): 503–530.
10541:
10523:
10504:
10495:, p. 1116
10485:
10471:
10462:
10455:
10441:Shadle, Robert
10428:
10419:
10410:
10397:
10390:
10367:
10358:
10341:
10321:
10300:
10279:
10261:
10252:"Safavid Iran"
10244:
10237:
10214:
10190:
10171:
10162:
10133:
10131:, p. 174.
10116:
10099:
10095:Khanbaghi 2006
10087:
10080:
10050:
10032:R.M., Savory.
10021:
10002:
9978:
9956:
9947:
9916:
9907:
9898:
9889:
9887:Savory, p. 177
9880:
9878:Savory, p. 76.
9871:
9869:Savory, p. 77.
9862:
9853:
9844:
9842:Savory, p. 74.
9835:
9826:
9817:
9808:
9799:
9790:
9778:
9765:
9756:
9754:Roemer, p. 354
9747:
9733:
9724:
9722:Savory, p. 70.
9715:
9706:
9697:
9688:
9681:
9667:Farrokh, Kaveh
9658:
9649:
9636:
9629:
9603:
9569:
9543:
9531:
9493:
9484:
9475:
9466:
9460:Riazul Islam;
9453:
9432:
9419:
9410:
9401:
9388:
9376:
9363:
9354:
9338:
9329:
9320:
9303:
9280:
9264:
9245:
9238:
9220:
9213:
9190:
9183:
9169:Sinclair, T.A.
9160:
9153:
9130:
9094:
9084:
9071:
9058:
9048:
9039:
9018:
9005:
8992:
8990:
8989:
8979:
8968:
8961:
8947:
8931:
8912:
8885:
8879:. p. 71.
8855:
8846:
8833:
8820:
8803:
8794:"Safavid Iran"
8783:
8781:, p. 241.
8771:
8769:, p. 180.
8759:
8747:
8735:
8723:
8721:, p. 443.
8711:
8699:
8684:
8664:
8654:"Safavid Iran"
8646:
8630:
8628:, p. 130.
8626:Khanbaghi 2006
8618:
8616:, p. 493.
8614:Yarshater 2001
8606:
8585:
8583:
8582:
8572:
8561:
8554:
8540:
8538:
8537:
8527:
8501:
8486:
8444:
8437:
8361:
8348:
8281:
8268:
8259:
8246:
8230:
8223:
8200:
8188:
8178:
8158:
8132:
8121:
8098:
8092:978-0857721938
8091:
8073:
8067:978-0521591850
8066:
8045:
8026:(4): 569–581.
8010:
7991:
7978:
7967:
7934:
7916:
7884:
7868:
7855:
7826:
7802:
7790:
7777:
7751:
7744:
7724:
7711:
7661:
7647:
7646:
7644:
7641:
7638:
7637:
7614:
7558:
7544:
7543:
7541:
7538:
7537:
7536:
7531:
7526:
7521:
7513:
7512:
7510:
7509:
7502:
7495:
7487:
7484:
7483:
7466:
7465:
7461:
7460:
7455:
7450:
7445:
7440:
7435:
7433:Heads of state
7430:
7425:
7419:
7418:
7415:
7414:
7411:
7410:
7405:
7404:
7401:
7395:
7394:
7391:
7385:
7384:
7381:
7373:
7368:
7367:
7364:
7363:
7358:
7357:
7354:
7348:
7347:
7344:
7336:
7331:
7330:
7327:
7326:
7321:
7320:
7317:
7311:
7310:
7307:
7301:
7300:
7297:
7289:
7288:
7285:
7277:
7272:
7271:
7268:
7267:
7262:
7261:
7258:
7252:
7251:
7248:
7242:
7241:
7238:
7232:
7231:
7228:
7226:Timurid Empire
7222:
7221:
7218:
7212:
7211:
7208:
7202:
7201:
7198:
7192:
7191:
7188:
7182:
7181:
7178:
7172:
7171:
7168:
7162:
7161:
7158:
7152:
7151:
7148:
7142:
7141:
7138:
7132:
7131:
7128:
7122:
7121:
7118:
7112:
7111:
7108:
7102:
7101:
7098:
7092:
7091:
7088:
7082:
7081:
7078:
7072:
7071:
7068:
7062:
7061:
7058:
7052:
7051:
7048:
7042:
7041:
7038:
7032:
7031:
7028:
7022:
7021:
7018:
7016:Nasrid dynasty
7012:
7011:
7008:
7002:
7001:
6998:
6992:
6991:
6988:
6982:
6981:
6978:
6972:
6971:
6968:
6962:
6961:
6958:
6952:
6951:
6948:
6942:
6941:
6938:
6932:
6931:
6928:
6922:
6921:
6918:
6912:
6911:
6910:pre-879 – 1215
6908:
6906:Ghurid dynasty
6902:
6901:
6898:
6892:
6891:
6888:
6886:Samanid Empire
6882:
6881:
6878:
6872:
6871:
6868:
6866:Alid dynasties
6862:
6861:
6858:
6852:
6851:
6848:
6842:
6841:
6838:
6832:
6831:
6828:
6822:
6821:
6818:
6812:
6811:
6808:
6802:
6801:
6798:
6792:
6791:
6788:
6775:
6770:
6769:
6766:
6765:
6760:
6759:
6756:
6750:
6749:
6746:
6740:
6739:
6736:
6730:
6729:
6726:
6720:
6719:
6716:
6710:
6709:
6706:
6700:
6699:
6696:
6690:
6689:
6686:
6680:
6679:
6676:
6670:
6669:
6666:
6660:
6659:
6656:
6650:
6649:
6646:
6640:
6639:
6636:
6630:
6629:
6620:
6614:
6613:
6610:
6604:
6603:
6600:
6594:
6593:
6584:
6578:
6577:
6574:
6568:
6567:
6564:
6558:
6557:
6554:
6548:
6547:
6544:
6536:
6531:
6530:
6527:
6526:
6521:
6520:
6517:
6511:
6510:
6507:
6501:
6500:
6497:
6491:
6490:
6487:
6481:
6480:
6477:
6471:
6470:
6464:
6462:Avestan period
6458:
6457:
6451:
6445:
6444:
6441:
6435:
6434:
6428:
6422:
6421:
6415:
6409:
6408:
6405:
6399:
6398:
6392:
6382:
6381:
6375:
6373:Jiroft culture
6369:
6368:
6365:
6359:
6358:
6355:
6347:
6344:Ancient period
6342:
6341:
6338:
6337:
6332:
6331:
6330:5th millennium
6325:
6319:
6318:
6317:6th millennium
6312:
6306:
6305:
6299:
6293:
6292:
6286:
6280:
6279:
6273:
6260:
6255:
6254:
6251:
6250:
6242:
6241:
6232:
6231:
6224:
6218:
6215:
6173:Pādišah-ī Īrān
6159:
6156:
5979:
5976:
5925:
5922:
5876:
5873:
5799:ancient Greeks
5774:
5771:
5712:Mir Fendereski
5682:Mir Fendereski
5665:
5662:
5642:
5639:
5463:
5460:
5438:Muhammad Zaman
5395:Main article:
5392:
5389:
5368:
5367:
5365:
5364:
5357:
5350:
5342:
5339:
5338:
5325:
5324:
5322:
5321:
5316:
5311:
5305:
5302:
5301:
5299:
5298:
5292:
5289:
5288:
5286:
5285:
5280:
5274:
5269:
5264:
5258:
5255:
5254:
5252:
5251:
5245:
5242:
5241:
5239:
5238:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5209:
5204:
5194:
5189:
5183:
5180:
5179:
5177:
5176:
5170:
5167:
5166:
5164:
5163:
5158:
5152:
5149:
5148:
5146:
5145:
5140:
5134:
5131:
5130:
5128:
5127:
5122:
5116:
5113:
5112:
5110:
5109:
5104:
5099:
5093:
5091:
5090:
5085:
5080:
5074:
5071:
5070:
5062:
5061:
5055:
5054:
5043:
5040:
4996:Aceh Sultanate
4980:Ayutthaya Siam
4902:
4899:
4848:
4845:
4798:
4795:
4780:Persian carpet
4758:
4755:
4750:
4749:
4738:
4730:
4703:
4673:
4670:
4626:for example).
4586:
4583:
4526:), inspector (
4468:
4465:
4443:
4440:
4430:). But it was
4384:
4381:
4377:mother tongues
4297:Munajjim-bashi
4253:
4250:
4193:
4190:
4171:
4168:
4150:
4147:
4099:
4096:
4059:
4056:
3985:Main article:
3982:
3979:
3843:
3840:
3833:
3832:
3815:September 2022
3795:
3793:
3786:
3760:
3757:
3717:
3714:
3671:Durrani Empire
3568:Transcaucasian
3350:
3347:
3259:
3256:
3244:Robert Shirley
3144:Fresco in the
3110:led the first
3108:Husain Ali Beg
3099:
3096:
3064:
3061:
2950:), viceroy of
2930:
2927:
2858:, recapturing
2829:
2826:
2797:Robert Shirley
2671:
2668:
2635:Main article:
2632:
2625:
2601:
2596:
2595:
2505:KAZAKH KHANATE
2319:
2313:
2312:
2311:
2277:and commenced
2208:Main article:
2205:
2198:
2185:Main article:
2182:
2175:
2157:
2154:
2017:
2014:
1954:St. Petersburg
1941:
1938:
1886:scorched earth
1859:
1856:
1800:
1797:
1792:Main article:
1789:
1784:Shāh Tahmāsp (
1782:
1674:Ottoman Empire
1639:
1636:
1353:
1350:
1346:
1345:
1342:Kiya Husayn II
1330:
1321:
1315:
1309:
1300:
1298:Shah of Širvan
1287:
1280:
1267:
1257:Huṣayn Bāyqarā
1238:Timurid Empire
1210:
1207:
1202:Main article:
1199:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1145:Despina Khatun
1024:
1021:
969:mamalik-i Iran
939:
936:
845:North Caucasus
744:. The Safavid
726:Safavid Empire
722:Safavid Persia
708:
707:
697:
694:
693:
690:
689:
686:
685:
678:
676:Ottoman Empire
672:
671:
664:
662:Russian Empire
658:
657:
650:
644:
643:
636:
627:
624:
623:
618:
610:
609:
604:
596:
595:
590:
582:
581:
576:
568:
567:
562:
554:
553:
551:Timurid Empire
548:
540:
539:
534:
526:
525:
520:
508:
507:
502:
492:
491:
490:
489:
486:
483:
467:
463:
462:
459:
458:
455:
452:
449:
448:
445:
444:
440:
439:
436:
432:
431:
427:
426:
423:
422:
419:
412:
409:
408:
405:
402:
399:
398:
395:
389:
386:
385:
382:
375:
372:
371:
368:
365:
362:
361:
358:
348:
345:
344:
341:
340:
335:
334:Historical era
331:
330:
325:
321:
320:
317:
316:
311:Nader Qoli Beg
308:
305:
302:
301:
293:
290:
287:
286:
283:
282:
279:
273:
272:
269:
268:
260:
257:
254:
253:
245:
242:
239:
238:
235:
234:
231:
225:
224:
219:
215:
214:
205:
201:
200:
198:
197:
184:
179:
173:
171:
167:
166:
164:
163:
155:
147:
138:
136:
132:
131:
126:
122:
121:
107:
99:
98:
84:
76:
75:
72:
71:
67:
66:
45:
42:
26:
18:Safavid Persia
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
16949:
16938:
16935:
16933:
16930:
16928:
16925:
16923:
16920:
16918:
16915:
16913:
16910:
16908:
16905:
16903:
16900:
16899:
16897:
16882:
16878:
16874:
16872:
16864:
16863:
16860:
16846:
16843:
16841:
16838:
16836:
16833:
16832:
16830:
16826:
16816:
16815:
16811:
16809:
16806:
16804:
16801:
16799:
16796:
16794:
16791:
16789:
16786:
16784:
16781:
16780:
16778:
16776:
16772:
16765:
16761:
16758:
16756:
16753:
16751:
16748:
16746:
16743:
16741:
16738:
16736:
16733:
16731:
16728:
16725:
16721:
16718:
16716:
16713:
16711:
16708:
16705:
16702:
16699:
16695:
16694:news agencies
16691:
16688:
16686:
16683:
16680:
16676:
16673:
16671:
16668:
16666:
16663:
16661:
16658:
16656:
16653:
16650:
16646:
16643:
16641:
16638:
16636:
16633:
16631:
16628:
16625:
16623:
16617:
16614:
16612:
16609:
16607:
16604:
16601:
16597:
16594:
16591:
16588:
16586:
16582:
16579:
16578:
16575:
16572:
16570:
16566:
16556:
16553:
16551:
16548:
16546:
16543:
16541:
16538:
16535:
16532:
16530:
16527:
16525:
16522:
16520:
16516:
16513:
16511:
16508:
16506:
16503:
16502:
16500:
16496:
16490:
16487:
16484:
16480:
16477:
16475:
16472:
16469:
16465:
16462:
16460:
16457:
16456:
16454:
16452:
16448:
16440:
16437:
16435:
16432:
16430:
16427:
16425:
16422:
16420:
16417:
16415:
16412:
16410:
16407:
16405:
16402:
16401:
16400:
16397:
16394:
16390:
16387:
16386:
16384:
16380:
16374:
16371:
16369:
16366:
16364:
16361:
16359:
16356:
16354:
16351:
16349:
16346:
16344:
16341:
16339:
16336:
16335:
16333:
16331:
16327:
16324:
16322:
16318:
16314:
16310:
16305:
16301:
16287:
16284:
16282:
16279:
16277:
16274:
16272:
16269:
16268:
16266:
16262:
16256:
16253:
16251:
16248:
16246:
16243:
16241:
16238:
16236:
16233:
16231:
16228:
16227:
16225:
16223:
16217:
16211:
16208:
16205:
16202:
16200:
16197:
16195:
16192:
16190:
16186:
16183:
16180:
16176:
16173:
16170:
16166:
16163:
16161:
16158:
16156:
16153:
16150:
16146:
16143:
16141:
16138:
16136:
16133:
16129:
16126:
16124:
16121:
16120:
16119:
16116:
16113:
16109:
16106:
16105:
16103:
16101:
16097:
16090:
16086:
16083:
16081:
16078:
16076:
16073:
16071:
16068:
16066:
16063:
16061:
16058:
16056:
16055:Privatization
16053:
16050:
16046:
16043:
16041:
16038:
16036:
16033:
16031:
16028:
16026:
16023:
16021:
16018:
16016:
16013:
16011:
16008:
16006:
16003:
16001:
15998:
15996:
15993:
15991:
15988:
15986:
15983:
15981:
15978:
15976:
15973:
15971:
15968:
15966:
15963:
15961:
15958:
15955:
15951:
15948:
15946:
15943:
15941:
15938:
15937:
15935:
15931:
15927:
15923:
15918:
15914:
15900:
15897:
15895:
15892:
15890:
15887:
15885:
15882:
15881:
15879:
15877:
15873:
15867:
15864:
15862:
15859:
15857:
15854:
15852:
15849:
15847:
15844:
15842:
15839:
15838:
15836:
15832:
15826:
15823:
15821:
15818:
15815:
15811:
15808:
15806:
15803:
15801:
15798:
15796:
15793:
15791:
15788:
15785:
15781:
15778:
15776:
15773:
15771:
15768:
15765:
15762:
15760:
15757:
15755:
15751:
15748:
15746:
15743:
15739:
15736:
15734:
15731:
15729:
15726:
15725:
15724:
15721:
15719:
15716:
15714:
15711:
15708:
15704:
15701:
15699:
15696:
15693:
15689:
15686:
15684:
15681:
15680:
15678:
15674:
15670:
15666:
15661:
15657:
15647:
15644:
15642:
15639:
15637:
15634:
15632:
15629:
15627:
15624:
15622:
15619:
15617:
15614:
15612:
15609:
15607:
15604:
15602:
15599:
15597:
15594:
15590:
15587:
15586:
15585:
15582:
15580:
15577:
15573:
15570:
15568:
15565:
15564:
15563:
15560:
15558:
15555:
15554:
15551:
15547:
15542:
15538:
15524:
15523:Years in Iran
15521:
15519:
15516:
15514:
15511:
15509:
15506:
15504:
15501:
15499:
15496:
15494:
15491:
15489:
15486:
15484:
15481:
15479:
15476:
15474:
15471:
15467:
15464:
15463:
15462:
15459:
15453:
15450:
15448:
15447:Turco-Persian
15445:
15444:
15443:
15440:
15439:
15438:
15435:
15433:
15430:
15428:
15425:
15424:
15422:
15418:
15408:
15405:
15403:
15400:
15398:
15395:
15393:
15390:
15388:
15385:
15383:
15380:
15378:
15375:
15371:
15368:
15367:
15366:
15363:
15361:
15358:
15356:
15353:
15351:
15348:
15346:
15343:
15341:
15338:
15336:
15330:
15328:
15325:
15323:
15320:
15318:
15316:War (1980–88)
15312:
15310:
15307:
15305:
15299:
15297:
15294:
15292:
15289:
15287:
15284:
15282:
15279:
15277:
15274:
15272:
15267:
15266:
15264:
15259:
15254:
15248:
15242:
15240:
15237:
15235:
15232:
15230:
15227:
15225:
15222:
15220:
15217:
15215:
15209:
15208:
15206:
15202:
15199:
15195:
15185:
15182:
15180:
15177:
15175:
15172:
15170:
15167:
15165:
15162:
15160:
15154:
15152:
15146:
15144:
15138:
15136:
15130:
15128:
15122:
15120:
15114:
15112:
15108:Qara Qoyunlu
15106:
15104:
15098:
15097:
15095:
15091:
15085:
15079:
15077:
15071:
15069:
15063:
15061:
15056:
15054:
15048:
15046:
15040:
15038:
15032:
15030:
15024:
15022:
15016:
15014:
15008:
15007:
15005:
15001:
14995:
14989:
14987:
14981:
14979:
14973:
14971:
14965:
14963:
14957:
14955:
14949:
14947:
14941:
14939:
14933:
14931:
14925:
14924:
14922:
14918:
14915:
14909:
14899:
14893:
14892:
14890:
14886:
14880:
14874:
14872:
14866:
14864:
14858:
14856:
14850:
14848:
14842:
14840:
14834:
14832:
14826:
14824:
14818:
14816:
14810:
14809:
14807:
14805:550 BC–AD 224
14803:
14797:
14791:
14789:
14783:
14781:
14775:
14773:
14767:
14765:
14761:Neo-Assyrian
14759:
14757:
14751:
14749:
14743:
14741:
14735:
14733:
14727:
14725:
14719:
14717:
14711:
14709:
14703:
14702:
14700:
14696:
14693:
14689:
14685:
14680:
14676:
14672:
14667:
14663:
14658:
14651:
14646:
14644:
14639:
14637:
14632:
14631:
14628:
14614:
14613:Soviet empire
14611:
14609:
14606:
14605:
14603:
14602:
14600:
14598:Miscellaneous
14596:
14590:
14587:
14585:
14582:
14580:
14577:
14575:
14572:
14570:
14567:
14563:
14560:
14559:
14558:
14555:
14554:
14552:
14548:
14538:
14535:
14533:
14530:
14528:
14525:
14523:
14520:
14516:
14513:
14512:
14511:
14508:
14506:
14503:
14501:
14498:
14496:
14493:
14491:
14488:
14486:
14483:
14481:
14478:
14476:
14473:
14471:
14468:
14466:
14463:
14459:
14456:
14454:
14451:
14450:
14449:
14446:
14444:
14441:
14439:
14436:
14435:
14433:
14431:
14427:
14419:
14416:
14414:
14411:
14409:
14406:
14404:
14401:
14399:
14396:
14395:
14394:
14391:
14389:
14386:
14382:
14379:
14378:
14377:
14374:
14372:
14369:
14365:
14362:
14360:
14357:
14355:
14352:
14351:
14350:
14347:
14345:
14342:
14338:
14335:
14333:
14330:
14329:
14328:
14325:
14321:
14318:
14316:
14313:
14311:
14308:
14306:
14303:
14301:
14298:
14297:
14296:
14293:
14289:
14286:
14284:
14281:
14280:
14279:
14276:
14274:
14271:
14269:
14266:
14264:
14261:
14257:
14254:
14252:
14249:
14247:
14244:
14242:
14239:
14237:
14234:
14233:
14232:
14229:
14225:
14222:
14220:
14217:
14216:
14215:
14212:
14210:
14207:
14203:
14200:
14198:
14197:German Empire
14195:
14194:
14193:
14190:
14186:
14183:
14181:
14178:
14177:
14176:
14173:
14169:
14166:
14164:
14161:
14160:
14159:
14156:
14154:
14151:
14147:
14144:
14142:
14139:
14137:
14134:
14132:
14129:
14127:
14124:
14123:
14122:
14119:
14117:
14114:
14110:
14107:
14105:
14102:
14101:
14099:
14097:
14094:
14092:
14089:
14087:
14084:
14082:
14079:
14077:
14074:
14073:
14071:
14069:
14065:
14059:
14056:
14054:
14051:
14049:
14046:
14042:
14039:
14037:
14034:
14032:
14029:
14027:
14024:
14022:
14019:
14017:
14014:
14012:
14009:
14008:
14007:
14004:
14002:
13999:
13995:
13992:
13990:
13987:
13985:
13982:
13980:
13977:
13975:
13972:
13970:
13967:
13966:
13965:
13962:
13958:
13955:
13953:
13950:
13948:
13945:
13943:
13940:
13939:
13938:
13937:Turco-Persian
13935:
13933:
13930:
13928:
13925:
13923:
13920:
13918:
13915:
13913:
13910:
13908:
13905:
13903:
13900:
13898:
13895:
13891:
13888:
13886:
13883:
13882:
13881:
13878:
13874:
13871:
13869:
13866:
13864:
13861:
13859:
13856:
13854:
13851:
13849:
13846:
13845:
13844:
13841:
13838:
13836:
13833:
13831:
13828:
13826:
13823:
13819:
13816:
13814:
13811:
13809:
13806:
13805:
13804:
13801:
13797:
13794:
13792:
13789:
13787:
13784:
13782:
13779:
13778:
13777:
13774:
13772:
13769:
13767:
13764:
13762:
13759:
13757:
13754:
13752:
13749:
13745:
13742:
13740:
13737:
13735:
13732:
13730:
13727:
13726:
13725:
13722:
13718:
13715:
13713:
13710:
13708:
13705:
13703:
13700:
13699:
13698:
13695:
13691:
13688:
13686:
13683:
13681:
13678:
13677:
13676:
13673:
13671:
13668:
13666:
13663:
13661:
13658:
13656:
13653:
13649:
13646:
13644:
13641:
13639:
13636:
13635:
13634:
13631:
13629:
13626:
13622:
13619:
13617:
13614:
13612:
13609:
13607:
13604:
13602:
13599:
13597:
13594:
13593:
13592:
13589:
13585:
13582:
13580:
13577:
13576:
13575:
13572:
13568:
13565:
13563:
13560:
13558:
13555:
13553:
13550:
13549:
13548:
13545:
13543:
13540:
13536:
13533:
13532:
13531:
13528:
13524:
13521:
13519:
13516:
13515:
13513:
13511:
13508:
13506:
13503:
13501:
13498:
13496:
13493:
13491:
13488:
13486:
13483:
13481:
13478:
13477:
13475:
13473:
13469:
13461:
13458:
13457:
13456:
13453:
13451:
13448:
13444:
13441:
13439:
13436:
13435:
13434:
13431:
13427:
13424:
13423:
13422:
13419:
13415:
13412:
13410:
13407:
13405:
13402:
13400:
13397:
13395:
13392:
13390:
13387:
13386:
13385:
13382:
13380:
13377:
13375:
13372:
13368:
13365:
13363:
13360:
13358:
13355:
13353:
13350:
13349:
13348:
13345:
13341:
13338:
13336:
13333:
13332:
13331:
13328:
13326:
13323:
13319:
13316:
13314:
13311:
13309:
13306:
13304:
13301:
13299:
13296:
13295:
13294:
13291:
13289:
13286:
13284:
13281:
13277:
13274:
13272:
13269:
13267:
13264:
13263:
13262:
13259:
13257:
13254:
13250:
13247:
13245:
13242:
13240:
13237:
13236:
13235:
13232:
13228:
13225:
13223:
13220:
13218:
13215:
13214:
13213:
13210:
13206:
13203:
13201:
13198:
13197:
13196:
13193:
13191:
13188:
13186:
13183:
13182:
13180:
13177:
13172:
13168:
13164:
13157:
13152:
13150:
13145:
13143:
13138:
13137:
13134:
13120:
13117:
13116:
13115:
13112:
13110:
13107:
13105:
13102:
13101:
13099:
13095:
13089:
13086:
13084:
13081:
13079:
13076:
13074:
13071:
13069:
13066:
13064:
13061:
13059:
13056:
13054:
13051:
13050:
13048:
13044:
13038:
13035:
13033:
13030:
13028:
13025:
13024:
13022:
13018:
13012:
13009:
13007:
13004:
13002:
12999:
12998:
12996:
12992:
12986:
12985:Grand viziers
12983:
12979:
12976:
12974:
12971:
12969:
12966:
12965:
12964:
12963:Safavid shahs
12961:
12960:
12958:
12954:
12950:
12943:
12938:
12936:
12931:
12929:
12924:
12923:
12920:
12913:
12909:
12906:
12904:
12901:
12898:
12895:
12893:
12890:
12888:
12885:
12883:
12880:
12878:
12874:
12871:
12869:
12866:
12864:
12861:
12859:
12855:
12852:
12848:
12845:
12843:
12840:
12839:
12829:
12825:
12821:
12817:
12813:
12809:
12804:
12801:
12798:
12795:
12794:9971-77-491-7
12791:
12787:
12783:
12780:
12779:983-9379-26-7
12776:
12772:
12770:
12764:
12761:
12760:9971-77-488-7
12757:
12753:
12749:
12745:
12739:
12735:
12731:
12727:
12723:
12719:
12713:
12709:
12705:
12701:
12700:Matthee, Rudi
12697:
12696:
12686:
12680:
12676:
12671:
12667:
12661:
12657:
12652:
12648:
12642:
12638:
12634:
12629:
12625:
12618:
12614:
12610:
12606:
12602:
12598:
12594:
12593:Savory, Roger
12590:
12586:
12580:
12576:
12575:
12570:
12566:
12562:
12558:
12554:
12550:
12546:
12545:Matthee, Rudi
12542:
12538:
12532:
12528:
12523:
12519:
12517:0-521-20094-6
12513:
12509:
12506:. Cambridge:
12505:
12504:
12499:
12494:
12490:
12484:
12480:
12475:
12471:
12465:
12461:
12460:
12454:
12450:
12444:
12440:
12435:
12431:
12425:
12421:
12420:
12414:
12410:
12404:
12400:
12399:
12394:
12393:Amanat, Abbas
12390:
12389:
12377:
12371:
12362:
12355:
12354:Ithna 'ashari
12351:
12347:
12341:
12333:
12329:
12322:
12315:
12314:0-500-20305-9
12311:
12307:
12301:
12293:
12289:
12285:
12279:
12271:
12267:
12263:
12259:
12255:
12251:
12244:
12237:
12231:
12224:
12218:
12211:
12210:0-415-30804-6
12207:
12203:
12197:
12190:
12189:
12182:
12175:
12169:
12162:
12156:
12147:
12138:
12129:
12120:
12111:
12102:
12093:
12086:
12080:
12073:
12069:
12064:
12056:
12055:
12047:
12038:
12031:
12025:
12019:
12013:
12006:
12000:
11993:
11987:
11980:
11974:
11965:
11956:
11949:
11946:Ferrier, RW,
11943:
11935:
11929:
11921:
11919:9781845119829
11915:
11911:
11904:
11895:
11886:
11880:Blow; p. 212.
11877:
11869:
11865:
11861:
11857:
11853:
11849:
11845:
11838:
11824:
11820:
11813:
11804:
11799:
11795:
11791:
11784:
11773:
11766:
11758:
11754:
11750:
11746:
11742:
11735:
11726:
11717:
11708:
11701:
11697:
11692:
11686:Blow; p. 210.
11683:
11674:
11665:
11656:
11647:
11640:
11634:
11625:
11616:
11607:
11600:
11594:
11585:
11571:on 2017-10-12
11570:
11566:
11562:
11561:
11556:
11550:
11541:
11539:
11532:, p. 265
11531:
11526:
11519:
11515:
11511:
11508:
11503:
11494:
11485:
11483:
11473:
11471:
11461:
11452:
11443:
11441:
11439:
11431:
11426:
11419:
11414:
11412:
11404:
11399:
11397:
11395:
11393:
11391:
11389:
11387:
11385:
11378:Blow, p. 175.
11375:
11368:
11364:
11359:
11357:
11350:Blow, p. 170.
11347:
11338:
11336:
11334:
11332:
11322:
11320:
11313:Blow, p. 173.
11310:
11301:
11293:
11287:
11283:
11276:
11268:
11262:
11258:
11251:
11243:
11237:
11233:
11226:
11218:
11212:
11208:
11201:
11193:
11187:
11183:
11176:
11168:
11162:
11158:
11154:
11153:
11145:
11136:
11128:
11122:
11118:
11117:
11112:
11106:
11099:
11095:
11092:, 4 mei 2011
11091:
11088:
11084:
11081:
11080:
11073:
11066:
11062:
11058:
11054:
11050:
11047:
11046:
11041:
11036:
11027:
11018:
11009:
11003:
11001:
10997:
10994:
10987:
10978:
10971:
10965:
10950:
10948:9781860647215
10944:
10940:
10939:
10934:
10927:
10920:
10916:
10911:
10902:
10895:
10891:
10886:
10879:
10875:
10870:
10868:
10858:
10851:
10847:
10842:
10835:
10831:
10827:
10824:
10819:
10811:
10809:9780231937108
10805:
10801:
10800:
10795:
10789:
10783:
10782:
10777:
10772:
10764:
10758:
10750:
10744:
10740:
10733:
10725:
10719:
10715:
10714:
10707:
10698:
10691:
10685:
10677:
10673:
10669:
10665:
10661:
10657:
10650:
10642:
10638:
10634:
10627:
10619:
10613:
10605:
10603:9789004138964
10599:
10595:
10590:
10589:
10580:
10572:
10568:
10564:
10560:
10556:
10552:
10545:
10537:
10532:
10527:
10519:
10514:, p. 509
10513:
10508:
10500:
10494:
10489:
10482:
10481:
10475:
10466:
10458:
10452:
10448:
10447:
10442:
10438:
10432:
10423:
10414:
10407:
10401:
10393:
10387:
10383:
10382:
10377:
10371:
10362:
10355:
10351:
10345:
10337:
10336:
10331:
10325:
10315:
10310:
10304:
10296:
10290:
10282:
10276:
10272:
10265:
10259:
10258:
10253:
10248:
10240:
10234:
10230:
10229:
10224:
10218:
10200:
10194:
10186:
10181:, p. 188
10180:
10175:
10166:
10151:
10147:
10140:
10138:
10130:
10125:
10123:
10121:
10113:
10108:
10106:
10104:
10097:, p. 131
10096:
10091:
10083:
10077:
10073:
10072:
10067:
10061:
10059:
10057:
10055:
10039:
10035:
10028:
10026:
10017:
10012:, p. 143
10011:
10006:
9998:
9992:
9987:
9985:
9983:
9974:
9968:
9963:
9961:
9951:
9935:
9931:
9927:
9920:
9911:
9902:
9893:
9884:
9875:
9866:
9857:
9848:
9839:
9830:
9821:
9812:
9803:
9794:
9787:
9782:
9775:
9769:
9760:
9751:
9742:
9740:
9738:
9728:
9719:
9710:
9701:
9692:
9684:
9678:
9674:
9673:
9668:
9662:
9653:
9646:
9640:
9632:
9626:
9622:
9621:
9616:
9610:
9608:
9591:
9587:
9583:
9576:
9574:
9558:
9552:
9550:
9548:
9538:
9536:
9520:
9514:
9512:
9510:
9508:
9506:
9504:
9502:
9500:
9498:
9488:
9479:
9470:
9463:
9457:
9450:
9446:
9441:
9439:
9437:
9429:
9423:
9414:
9405:
9398:
9392:
9383:
9381:
9373:
9367:
9358:
9351:
9347:
9342:
9333:
9324:
9317:
9313:
9307:
9300:
9297:
9293:
9290:
9284:
9275:
9273:
9271:
9269:
9261:
9257:
9254:
9253:Shah Ismail I
9249:
9241:
9235:
9231:
9224:
9216:
9210:
9206:
9205:
9200:
9194:
9186:
9180:
9176:
9175:
9170:
9164:
9156:
9150:
9146:
9145:
9140:
9134:
9127:
9123:
9119:
9115:
9111:
9107:
9104:
9098:
9088:
9081:
9075:
9068:
9062:
9052:
9043:
9036:
9032:
9029:
9028:
9022:
9015:
9009:
9002:
8996:
8988:
8984:
8983:ḤAYDAR ṢAFAVI
8980:
8978:, pp. 628–636
8977:
8973:
8969:
8966:
8962:
8959:
8955:
8954:
8951:
8944:
8938:
8936:
8929:
8923:
8921:
8919:
8917:
8900:
8896:
8892:
8888:
8882:
8878:
8877:Facts On File
8874:
8870:
8866:
8859:
8850:
8843:
8837:
8830:
8829:open citation
8824:
8817:
8813:
8807:
8801:
8800:
8795:
8790:
8788:
8780:
8775:
8768:
8763:
8756:
8751:
8745:, p. 33.
8744:
8739:
8733:, p. 15.
8732:
8727:
8720:
8715:
8709:, p. 13.
8708:
8703:
8695:
8688:
8681:
8677:
8674:
8668:
8661:
8660:
8655:
8650:
8643:
8637:
8635:
8627:
8622:
8615:
8610:
8604:, pp. 130–131
8603:
8602:1-84511-056-0
8599:
8595:
8589:
8581:
8577:
8576:ḤAYDAR ṢAFAVI
8573:
8571:, pp. 628–636
8570:
8566:
8562:
8559:
8555:
8552:
8548:
8547:
8544:
8536:
8532:
8528:
8526:
8522:
8518:
8517:
8515:
8511:
8505:
8497:
8493:
8489:
8483:
8479:
8475:
8471:
8467:
8463:
8459:
8455:
8448:
8440:
8434:
8430:
8426:
8422:
8418:
8414:
8410:
8409:
8404:
8400:
8397:; Lewis, B.;
8396:
8392:
8388:
8384:
8383:Savory, Roger
8378:
8376:
8374:
8372:
8370:
8368:
8366:
8358:
8352:
8336:
8332:
8328:
8323:
8318:
8314:
8310:
8306:
8305:
8300:
8296:
8295:Matthee, Rudi
8290:
8288:
8286:
8278:
8272:
8263:
8256:
8250:
8243:
8239:
8234:
8226:
8220:
8216:
8215:
8210:
8204:
8197:
8192:
8185:
8181:
8175:
8171:
8170:
8162:
8155:
8154:0-521-20094-6
8151:
8147:
8141:
8139:
8137:
8129:
8124:
8118:
8114:
8113:
8108:
8102:
8094:
8088:
8084:
8077:
8069:
8063:
8059:
8055:
8049:
8041:
8037:
8033:
8029:
8025:
8021:
8014:
8006:
8002:
7995:
7988:
7982:
7975:
7970:
7964:
7960:
7956:
7949:
7947:
7945:
7943:
7941:
7939:
7930:
7926:
7920:
7913:
7909:
7905:
7904:0-7591-0190-6
7901:
7897:
7891:
7889:
7881:
7875:
7873:
7865:
7859:
7852:
7848:
7844:
7841:
7835:
7833:
7831:
7823:
7822:0-521-20094-6
7819:
7815:
7809:
7807:
7799:
7794:
7787:
7784:Ferrier, RW,
7781:
7774:
7770:
7766:
7762:
7755:
7747:
7741:
7737:
7736:
7728:
7721:
7715:
7708:
7706:
7700:
7695:
7690:
7686:
7682:
7681:
7676:
7674:
7665:
7658:
7652:
7648:
7634:
7632:
7626:شاهنشاهی صفوی
7623:
7618:
7609:
7562:
7549:
7545:
7535:
7532:
7530:
7527:
7525:
7522:
7520:
7517:
7516:
7508:
7503:
7501:
7496:
7494:
7489:
7488:
7486:
7485:
7482:
7471:
7468:
7467:
7459:
7456:
7454:
7451:
7449:
7446:
7444:
7441:
7439:
7436:
7434:
7431:
7429:
7426:
7424:
7421:
7420:
7413:
7412:
7402:
7400:
7397:
7396:
7392:
7390:
7387:
7386:
7382:
7380:
7377:
7376:
7371:
7366:
7365:
7355:
7353:
7350:
7349:
7345:
7343:
7340:
7339:
7334:
7333:Modern period
7329:
7328:
7318:
7316:
7313:
7312:
7308:
7306:
7305:Afsharid Iran
7303:
7302:
7298:
7295:
7294:Hotak dynasty
7291:
7290:
7286:
7284:
7281:
7280:
7275:
7270:
7269:
7259:
7257:
7254:
7253:
7249:
7247:
7244:
7243:
7239:
7237:
7234:
7233:
7229:
7227:
7224:
7223:
7219:
7217:
7214:
7213:
7209:
7207:
7204:
7203:
7199:
7197:
7194:
7193:
7189:
7187:
7184:
7183:
7179:
7177:
7174:
7173:
7169:
7167:
7164:
7163:
7159:
7157:
7154:
7153:
7149:
7147:
7144:
7143:
7139:
7137:
7134:
7133:
7129:
7127:
7124:
7123:
7119:
7117:
7114:
7113:
7109:
7107:
7104:
7103:
7099:
7097:
7094:
7093:
7089:
7087:
7084:
7083:
7079:
7077:
7074:
7073:
7069:
7067:
7064:
7063:
7059:
7057:
7054:
7053:
7049:
7047:
7044:
7043:
7039:
7037:
7036:Seljuk Empire
7034:
7033:
7029:
7027:
7024:
7023:
7019:
7017:
7014:
7013:
7009:
7007:
7004:
7003:
6999:
6997:
6994:
6993:
6989:
6987:
6984:
6983:
6979:
6977:
6974:
6973:
6969:
6967:
6964:
6963:
6959:
6957:
6956:Buyid dynasty
6954:
6953:
6949:
6947:
6944:
6943:
6939:
6937:
6934:
6933:
6929:
6927:
6924:
6923:
6919:
6917:
6916:Sajid dynasty
6914:
6913:
6909:
6907:
6904:
6903:
6899:
6897:
6894:
6893:
6889:
6887:
6884:
6883:
6879:
6877:
6874:
6873:
6869:
6867:
6864:
6863:
6859:
6857:
6854:
6853:
6849:
6847:
6844:
6843:
6839:
6837:
6834:
6833:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6823:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6813:
6809:
6807:
6804:
6803:
6799:
6797:
6794:
6793:
6789:
6787:
6784:
6783:
6780:
6779:
6773:
6768:
6767:
6757:
6755:
6752:
6751:
6747:
6745:
6742:
6741:
6737:
6735:
6732:
6731:
6727:
6725:
6722:
6721:
6717:
6715:
6712:
6711:
6708:132 BC–224 AD
6707:
6705:
6702:
6701:
6698:141 BC–222 AD
6697:
6695:
6692:
6691:
6688:147 BC–224 AD
6687:
6685:
6682:
6681:
6678:247 BC–224 AD
6677:
6675:
6672:
6671:
6667:
6665:
6662:
6661:
6657:
6655:
6652:
6651:
6647:
6645:
6642:
6641:
6638:320s BC–17 AD
6637:
6635:
6632:
6631:
6626: 323 BC
6621:
6619:
6616:
6615:
6612:331 BC–428 AD
6611:
6609:
6606:
6605:
6602:550 BC–330 BC
6601:
6599:
6596:
6595:
6585:
6583:
6580:
6579:
6576:626 BC–539 BC
6575:
6573:
6570:
6569:
6566:635 BC–550 BC
6565:
6563:
6560:
6559:
6555:
6553:
6550:
6549:
6545:
6543:
6542:Median Empire
6540:
6539:
6534:
6529:
6528:
6518:
6516:
6513:
6512:
6508:
6506:
6503:
6502:
6498:
6496:
6493:
6492:
6488:
6486:
6483:
6482:
6478:
6476:
6473:
6472:
6465:
6463:
6460:
6459:
6452:
6450:
6447:
6446:
6442:
6440:
6437:
6436:
6429:
6427:
6424:
6423:
6416:
6414:
6411:
6410:
6406:
6404:
6401:
6400:
6393:
6391:
6387:
6384:
6383:
6376:
6374:
6371:
6370:
6366:
6364:
6363:Proto-Elamite
6361:
6360:
6356:
6354:
6351:
6350:
6345:
6340:
6339:
6326:
6324:
6323:Dalma culture
6321:
6320:
6313:
6311:
6308:
6307:
6300:
6298:
6295:
6294:
6291:20,000–10,000
6287:
6285:
6282:
6281:
6278:36,000–18,000
6274:
6272:
6269:
6268:
6265:
6264:
6258:
6253:
6252:
6248:
6244:
6243:
6240:
6234:
6233:
6228:
6223:
6222:
6214:
6209:
6207:
6203:
6196:
6194:
6190:
6186:
6182:
6178:
6174:
6164:
6154:
6152:
6146:
6144:
6141:According to
6138:
6133:
6129:
6127:
6121:
6119:
6115:
6111:
6105:
6103:
6096:
6092:
6088:
6084:
6082:
6081:South Lebanon
6078:
6071:
6067:
6062:
6056:
6052:
6051:
6045:
6040:
6035:
6031:
6026:
6022:
6017:
6015:
6007:
6006:
6001:
5996:
5992:
5989:
5985:
5975:
5973:
5969:
5964:
5962:
5958:
5957:
5946:
5938:
5930:
5921:
5919:
5915:
5909:
5904:
5902:
5898:
5894:
5886:
5881:
5875:Entertainment
5872:
5870:
5865:
5863:
5859:
5855:
5851:
5847:
5843:
5839:
5835:
5831:
5826:
5824:
5820:
5816:
5812:
5808:
5804:
5800:
5792:
5788:
5784:
5779:
5769:
5764:
5762:
5759:
5754:
5752:
5748:
5744:
5740:
5736:
5732:
5731:
5725:
5721:
5717:
5713:
5709:
5701:
5696:
5691:
5687:
5683:
5679:
5675:
5671:
5661:
5659:
5655:
5650:
5648:
5638:
5636:
5632:
5631:Hasht Behesht
5628:
5623:
5621:
5617:
5616:Masjed-e Shah
5613:
5609:
5605:
5601:
5597:
5593:
5584:
5580:
5578:
5574:
5570:
5566:
5562:
5558:
5554:
5549:
5546:
5543:A new age in
5541:
5538:
5533:
5531:
5527:
5523:
5522:Masjid-e Shah
5519:
5512:
5508:
5507:
5502:
5495:
5491:
5490:Masjid-e Shah
5487:
5483:
5479:
5474:
5469:
5459:
5457:
5453:
5449:
5445:
5444:
5439:
5435:
5427:
5426:Youth reading
5423:
5419:
5415:
5413:
5409:
5405:
5398:
5388:
5386:
5382:
5376:
5374:
5363:
5358:
5356:
5351:
5349:
5344:
5343:
5341:
5340:
5337:
5327:
5326:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5307:
5306:
5304:
5303:
5297:
5294:
5293:
5291:
5290:
5284:
5281:
5278:
5275:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5263:
5260:
5259:
5257:
5256:
5250:
5247:
5246:
5244:
5243:
5236:
5232:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5202:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5185:
5184:
5182:
5181:
5175:
5172:
5171:
5169:
5168:
5162:
5159:
5157:
5154:
5153:
5151:
5150:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5135:
5133:
5132:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5117:
5115:
5114:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5100:
5098:
5095:
5094:
5089:
5086:
5084:
5081:
5079:
5076:
5075:
5073:
5072:
5068:
5064:
5063:
5060:
5057:
5056:
5052:
5048:
5047:
5039:
5035:
5033:
5029:
5025:
5017:The Silk Road
5015:
5011:
5009:
5005:
5001:
4997:
4993:
4989:
4985:
4981:
4977:
4973:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4956:
4951:
4948:
4944:
4940:
4936:
4932:
4928:
4924:
4920:
4912:
4911:Chehel Sotoun
4907:
4897:
4893:
4891:
4887:
4882:
4878:
4874:
4873:caravanserais
4869:
4862:
4858:
4857:Shah Abbas II
4853:
4844:
4842:
4836:
4831:
4829:
4825:
4818:
4816:
4811:
4808:
4804:
4794:
4792:
4788:
4783:
4781:
4777:
4773:
4763:
4754:
4747:
4743:
4739:
4736:
4731:
4728:
4724:
4720:
4716:
4712:
4708:
4704:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4692:
4691:
4688:
4687:the 3rd force
4678:
4669:
4667:
4663:
4658:
4656:
4652:
4648:
4644:
4640:
4636:
4632:
4627:
4625:
4621:
4616:
4613:) and mostly
4612:
4611:
4601:
4596:
4592:
4582:
4580:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4551:
4546:
4544:
4541:According to
4539:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4520:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4498:
4494:
4490:
4486:
4478:
4473:
4464:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4450:
4439:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4412:
4408:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4380:
4378:
4374:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4354:
4349:
4347:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4331:
4327:
4326:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4300:
4298:
4294:
4288:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4277:Mirakor bashi
4274:
4269:
4267:
4258:
4249:
4247:
4242:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4211:
4209:
4208:
4203:
4199:
4189:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4167:
4165:
4164:
4159:
4155:
4146:
4144:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4131:
4130:
4126:who practice
4125:
4124:
4119:
4115:
4114:
4109:
4105:
4095:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4069:
4065:
4055:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4040:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3998:
3994:
3988:
3978:
3975:
3970:
3968:
3964:
3959:
3953:
3950:
3944:
3942:
3938:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3896:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3874:
3870:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3853:
3849:
3839:
3829:
3826:
3818:
3806:
3805:
3799:
3794:
3785:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3770:Turko-Persian
3767:
3756:
3752:
3750:
3744:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3729:
3713:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3702:puppet regime
3699:
3691:
3686:
3682:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3631:Irano-Russian
3628:
3624:
3623:Anna Ioanovna
3620:
3616:
3612:
3607:
3603:
3596:
3591:
3587:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3532:Mirwais Hotak
3529:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3515:
3511:
3508:and northern
3507:
3503:
3499:
3498:Baloch tribes
3490:
3486:
3484:
3483:Soltan Hoseyn
3478:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3462:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3436:In 1659, the
3431:
3430:Emamqoli Khan
3427:
3423:
3419:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3381:
3377:
3376:Shah Abbas II
3373:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3355:Hotak dynasty
3346:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3291:
3289:
3288:Qajar dynasty
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3267:
3265:
3255:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3235:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3220:
3211:
3207:
3206:
3201:
3197:
3192:
3188:
3186:
3182:
3181:
3180:Twelfth Night
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3151:
3147:
3146:Doge's Palace
3142:
3138:
3135:
3131:
3126:
3122:
3113:
3109:
3104:
3095:
3093:
3089:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3060:
3058:
3054:
3048:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3013:
3011:
3007:
3006:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2980:Tahmuras Khan
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2936:
2926:
2924:
2920:
2917:known as the
2916:
2915:Qasr-e Shirin
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2895:Ottoman Turks
2891:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2845:
2844:Chehel Sotoun
2840:
2835:
2825:
2823:
2818:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2807:
2802:
2801:Earl of Essex
2798:
2794:
2788:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2765:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2742:
2738:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2714:
2710:
2707:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2667:
2664:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2638:
2630:
2624:
2622:
2616:
2613:
2612:
2599:
2591:
2589:NORTHERN YUAN
2582:
2571:
2560:
2549:
2538:
2527:
2516:
2507:
2498:
2487:
2476:
2465:
2454:
2445:
2434:
2423:
2412:
2401:
2392:
2381:
2372:
2361:
2350:
2340:
2332:
2323:
2317:
2310:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2291:Transcaucasia
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2270:
2268:
2262:
2257:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2232:
2225:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2203:
2197:
2195:
2188:
2180:
2174:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2153:
2149:
2147:
2142:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2054:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2022:
2013:
2011:
2007:
2003:
2002:Hürrem Sultan
1999:
1994:
1992:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1970:Mughal Empire
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1946:
1937:
1935:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1905:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1882:
1879:
1875:
1869:
1865:
1855:
1853:
1848:
1844:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1832:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1810:
1809:Chehel Sotoun
1805:
1795:
1787:
1781:
1779:
1775:
1769:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1741:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1714:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1666:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1645:
1635:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1602:in 1509, and
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1544:
1542:
1541:
1537:
1531:
1523:
1518:
1514:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1479:
1474:
1473:King of Kings
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1453:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1416:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1369:
1364:
1359:
1349:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1329:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1316:
1314:
1310:
1308:
1307:
1301:
1299:
1295:
1293:
1288:
1285:
1281:
1279:
1275:
1272:
1268:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1255:
1254:
1253:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1231:
1227:
1226:Arg of Tabriz
1223:
1219:
1215:
1205:
1197:
1186:
1184:
1179:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1137:
1135:
1134:Haydar Safavi
1131:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1100:Shaykh Junayd
1096:
1094:
1089:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1052:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1020:
1018:
1013:
1012:
1005:
1004:
1003:Khold-e barin
997:
991:
988:
982:
976:
970:
965:
961:
958:
954:
950:
945:
935:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
880:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
825:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
784:
780:
779:Safavid order
777:
773:
768:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
704:
701:
695:
679:
677:
674:
673:
665:
663:
660:
659:
651:
649:
648:Hotak dynasty
646:
645:
637:
635:
634:Afsharid Iran
632:
631:
628:
622:
619:
612:
611:
608:
605:
598:
597:
594:
591:
584:
583:
580:
577:
570:
569:
566:
563:
556:
555:
552:
549:
542:
541:
538:
535:
528:
527:
524:
521:
514:
513:
510:
509:
506:
503:
501:
498:
497:
493:
487:
484:
481:
480:
478:
477:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
450:
446:
441:
437:
433:
428:
424:
420:
416:
410:
406:
400:
396:
393:
387:
383:
379:
373:
369:
363:
359:
356:
352:
351:Safavid order
346:
342:
339:
336:
332:
329:
326:
322:
318:
312:
309:
303:
297:
296:Amir Zakariya
294:
288:
284:
280:
278:
274:
270:
264:
261:
255:
249:
246:
240:
236:
232:
230:
226:
223:
220:
216:
212:
209:
206:
202:
196:
192:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
174:
172:
168:
159:
156:
151:
148:
143:
140:
139:
137:
133:
130:
127:
123:
111:
105:
100:
96:
87:
80:
73:
68:
63:
56:
40:
37:
33:
19:
16927:Safavid Iran
16828:Other topics
16812:
16740:Persian name
16679:Islamization
16621:
16581:Architecture
16534:universities
16479:Zoroastrians
16474:Christianity
16464:Baháʼí Faith
16414:Azerbaijanis
16321:Demographics
16135:Construction
16123:Central Bank
16065:Space Agency
15960:Child labour
15795:Principlists
15775:Cyberwarfare
15723:Human rights
15688:Constitution
15483:Azerbaijanis
15452:Indo-Persian
15432:Greater Iran
15303:siege (1980)
15262:1979–present
15123:
14913:early modern
14911:Medieval and
14705:Kura-Araxes
14364:Contemporary
14235:
14214:Indo-Persian
14202:Nazi Germany
14146:Contemporary
14048:Vijayanagara
13947:Great Seljuk
13858:Thessalonica
13786:Golden Horde
13426:Carthaginian
13205:Neo-Assyrian
13190:Neo-Sumerian
12949:Safavid Iran
12948:
12911:
12876:
12850:
12811:
12807:
12785:
12766:
12751:
12729:
12703:
12674:
12655:
12632:
12600:
12596:
12573:
12552:
12548:
12526:
12502:
12478:
12458:
12438:
12418:
12397:
12386:Bibliography
12375:
12370:
12361:
12353:
12349:
12345:
12344:Mujtahid: A
12340:
12331:
12326:Savory, RM.
12321:
12305:
12300:
12291:
12278:
12253:
12249:
12243:
12235:
12230:
12222:
12217:
12201:
12196:
12186:
12181:
12173:
12168:
12160:
12155:
12146:
12137:
12128:
12119:
12110:
12101:
12092:
12084:
12079:
12071:
12063:
12053:
12046:
12037:
12029:
12024:
12017:
12012:
12004:
11999:
11991:
11986:
11978:
11973:
11964:
11955:
11947:
11942:
11928:
11909:
11903:
11894:
11885:
11876:
11851:
11847:
11837:
11826:. Retrieved
11822:
11812:
11793:
11783:
11765:
11748:
11744:
11734:
11725:
11716:
11707:
11699:
11696:Roger Savory
11691:
11682:
11673:
11664:
11655:
11646:
11638:
11633:
11624:
11615:
11606:
11598:
11593:
11584:
11573:. Retrieved
11569:the original
11559:
11555:Paul Bairoch
11549:
11544:Blow, p. 38.
11525:
11517:
11502:
11493:
11460:
11451:
11425:
11374:
11366:
11363:Roger Savory
11346:
11309:
11300:
11281:
11275:
11256:
11250:
11231:
11225:
11206:
11200:
11181:
11175:
11151:
11144:
11135:
11115:
11105:
11078:
11072:
11044:
11035:
11026:
11017:
11012:Blow; p. 37.
11008:
10991:
10986:
10977:
10969:
10964:
10952:. Retrieved
10937:
10926:
10918:
10915:Roger Savory
10910:
10901:
10893:
10885:
10877:
10874:Roger Savory
10857:
10849:
10846:Roger Savory
10841:
10818:
10798:
10788:
10779:
10771:
10738:
10732:
10712:
10706:
10697:
10689:
10684:
10659:
10655:
10649:
10632:
10626:
10587:
10579:
10554:
10550:
10544:
10526:
10507:
10488:
10478:
10474:
10465:
10445:
10431:
10422:
10413:
10405:
10400:
10380:
10370:
10361:
10349:
10344:
10334:
10324:
10303:
10270:
10264:
10255:
10247:
10227:
10217:
10205:. Retrieved
10193:
10174:
10165:
10153:. Retrieved
10149:
10090:
10070:
10041:. Retrieved
10037:
10005:
9969:, p. 79
9950:
9940:13 September
9938:. Retrieved
9929:
9919:
9910:
9901:
9892:
9883:
9874:
9865:
9856:
9847:
9838:
9829:
9820:
9811:
9802:
9793:
9781:
9773:
9768:
9759:
9750:
9727:
9718:
9709:
9700:
9691:
9671:
9661:
9652:
9644:
9639:
9619:
9594:. Retrieved
9590:the original
9585:
9560:. Retrieved
9522:. Retrieved
9487:
9478:
9469:
9461:
9456:
9448:
9427:
9422:
9413:
9404:
9396:
9391:
9371:
9366:
9357:
9352:, pp. 60–64.
9349:
9346:Roger Savory
9341:
9332:
9323:
9315:
9311:
9306:
9298:
9283:
9248:
9229:
9223:
9203:
9193:
9173:
9163:
9143:
9133:
9117:
9113:
9097:
9087:
9079:
9074:
9066:
9061:
9051:
9042:
9026:
9021:
9013:
9008:
9000:
8995:
8986:
8982:
8975:
8971:
8964:
8957:
8950:
8942:
8927:
8903:. Retrieved
8868:
8858:
8849:
8841:
8836:
8828:
8823:
8815:
8811:
8806:
8797:
8779:Matthee 2009
8774:
8762:
8750:
8738:
8726:
8714:
8702:
8693:
8687:
8679:
8676:Roger Savory
8671:
8667:
8657:
8649:
8641:
8621:
8609:
8593:
8588:
8579:
8575:
8568:
8564:
8557:
8550:
8543:
8534:
8530:
8524:
8520:
8513:
8509:
8504:
8457:
8447:
8406:
8356:
8351:
8339:. Retrieved
8302:
8276:
8271:
8262:
8254:
8249:
8241:
8233:
8213:
8203:
8191:
8183:
8168:
8161:
8145:
8126:
8111:
8107:Roger Savory
8101:
8082:
8076:
8057:
8048:
8023:
8019:
8013:
8004:
7994:
7986:
7981:
7972:
7958:
7928:
7924:
7919:
7895:
7879:
7863:
7858:
7850:
7813:
7797:
7793:
7785:
7780:
7754:
7734:
7727:
7719:
7714:
7702:
7697:– via
7684:
7678:
7672:
7664:
7656:
7651:
7628:
7617:
7561:
7548:
7443:LGBT history
7403:1979–present
7352:Pahlavi Iran
7315:Zand dynasty
7283:Safavid Iran
7282:
7246:Qara Qoyunlu
7136:Kurt dynasty
6976:Hasanwayhids
6776:
6754:Qarinvandids
6658:281 BC–62 BC
6648:312 BC–63 BC
6261:
6211:
6198:
6193:Roger Savory
6189:Persian Gulf
6172:
6169:
6148:
6143:Stephen Dale
6140:
6135:
6131:
6123:
6107:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6086:
6073:
6069:
6064:
6060:
6047:
6037:
6033:
6028:
6024:
6019:
6011:
6003:
5981:
5965:
5954:
5951:
5914:Royal square
5911:
5906:
5890:
5866:
5842:pharmacology
5827:
5821:, music and
5796:
5786:
5766:
5755:
5728:
5716:Shaykh Bahai
5705:
5686:Shaykh Bahai
5657:
5651:
5644:
5624:
5611:
5603:
5592:Shaykh Bahai
5589:
5577:Persian Gulf
5564:
5561:Zāyande roud
5550:
5542:
5534:
5516:
5504:
5481:
5478:Pascal Coste
5462:Architecture
5441:
5431:
5425:
5400:
5377:
5373:Jean Chardin
5371:
5187:Architecture
5036:
5020:
4952:
4935:Gulf of Aden
4931:Persian Gulf
4916:
4895:
4885:
4870:
4866:
4861:Hotel Abassi
4840:
4837:
4833:
4820:
4815:Jean Chardin
4812:
4803:Roger Savory
4800:
4791:Jean Chardin
4784:
4772:Central Asia
4768:
4751:
4734:
4695:
4683:
4661:
4659:
4628:
4620:Shah Abbas I
4608:
4606:
4578:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4557:
4553:
4548:
4540:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4521:
4516:
4508:
4500:
4484:
4482:
4476:
4460:
4456:
4448:
4445:
4427:
4423:
4420:Shah Abbas I
4415:
4406:
4404:
4399:Jean Chardin
4360:
4350:
4323:
4319:
4316:Grand Vizier
4301:
4296:
4292:
4289:
4280:
4276:
4272:
4270:
4265:
4263:
4245:
4243:
4230:
4226:
4222:
4218:
4215:Grand Vizier
4212:
4205:
4195:
4185:Jean Chardin
4173:
4161:
4152:
4140:
4134:
4127:
4121:
4111:
4101:
4079:
4075:
4067:
4061:
4041:
3990:
3971:
3954:
3948:
3945:
3927:
3919:
3916:royal slaves
3915:
3911:
3907:
3897:
3888:
3878:
3836:
3821:
3812:
3801:
3777:
3773:
3762:
3753:
3748:
3745:
3730:
3719:
3698:Zand dynasty
3695:
3645:, occupying
3617:and in 1735
3606:Afshar tribe
3599:
3495:
3479:
3463:
3435:
3429:
3392:Golden Horde
3385:
3327:Turkmenistan
3292:
3268:
3261:
3236:
3215:
3203:
3178:
3155:
3148:, depicting
3117:
3088:Afshar tribe
3066:
3057:Semayun Khan
3056:
3049:
3014:
3003:
2987:
2979:
2961:
2947:
2892:
2880:Persian Gulf
2849:
2819:
2814:
2804:
2789:
2784:
2780:
2777:tufangchiyān
2776:
2768:
2762:
2750:
2747:
2725:
2721:
2719:
2705:
2673:
2662:
2659:
2653:
2645:
2628:
2627:Shah Abbas (
2617:
2610:
2607:
2459:
2271:
2267:Crimean khan
2264:
2259:
2233:
2229:
2219:
2201:
2190:
2178:
2159:
2150:
2143:
2131:
2121:
2114:royal slaves
2113:
2109:
2105:
2071:chief vizier
2066:
2058:
2055:
2047:book-binding
2039:
2027:
1995:
1967:
1933:
1906:
1883:
1871:
1851:
1849:
1845:
1840:
1836:
1828:
1824:
1814:
1785:
1777:
1773:
1770:
1742:
1730:Roger Savory
1715:
1671:
1657:
1545:
1533:
1526:
1522:Western Asia
1511:Ni'matullāhī
1494:
1476:
1459:neighboring
1454:
1430:Pontic Greek
1412:
1347:
1305:
1291:
1235:
1229:
1195:
1180:
1160:
1149:Pontic Greek
1138:
1108:Qara Qoyunlu
1104:Roger Savory
1097:
1090:
1079:
1075:Zahed Gilani
1056:
992:
941:
928:Persian Gulf
916:Central Asia
894:based upon "
881:
873:Turkmenistan
826:
814:Greater Iran
802:Pontic Greek
769:
725:
721:
718:Safavid Iran
717:
713:
711:
702:
699:
505:Succeeded by
504:
499:
474:
457:8–10 million
453:• 1650
421:8 March 1736
407:8 March 1736
277:Grand Vizier
36:
16845:Tehrangeles
16808:Traditional
16545:Nationality
16483:persecution
16468:persecution
16419:Circassians
16368:Neo-Aramaic
16348:Azerbaijani
16220:State-owned
16145:Health care
16108:Agriculture
15945:Brain drain
15884:Ambassadors
15579:Earthquakes
15116:Aq Qoyunlu
15065:Muzaffarid
15042:Eldiguzids
15034:Anushtegin
14860:Kingdom of
14836:Kingdom of
14828:Kingdom of
14820:Atropatene
14812:Achaemenid
14753:Kingdom of
14698:3400–539 BC
13952:Khwarezmian
13885:Carolingian
13690:Rashtrakuta
13394:Shaishunaga
13293:Hellenistic
13276:New Kingdom
13266:Old Kingdom
12734:I.B. Tauris
11751:: 255–262.
11530:Roemer 1986
10493:Munshī 1978
10406:Shakespeare
9967:Savory 1980
9786:Sicker 2001
9519:"Tahmāsp I"
9289:"Ṭahmāsp I"
8767:Savory 1974
8755:Ashraf 2024
8743:Amanat 2019
8731:Amanat 1997
8719:Amanat 2017
8707:Amanat 1997
8403:Schacht, J.
8399:Pellat, Ch.
7675:(961/1554)"
7126:Mihrabanids
7086:Hazaraspids
6846:Baduspanids
6724:Paratarajas
6718:19 AD–224/5
6236:History of
6202:Shi'a Islam
6055:Reza Abbasi
5998:Scene from
5984:Azerbaijani
5758:Iranologist
5739:Peripatetic
5735:Shi'a Islam
5724:Mulla Sadra
5674:Mulla Sadra
5596:Chahar Bagh
5526:Imam Mosque
5434:Reza Abbasi
5422:Reza Abbasi
5397:Safavid art
5267:Calligraphy
5249:Handicrafts
5028:Caspian Sea
4807:pastoralism
4797:Agriculture
4735:tofang-chis
4666:Transoxiana
4334:Circassians
4293:Hakim-bashi
4291:Physician (
3932:janissaries
3920:third force
3893:Circassians
3741:aristocracy
3733:meritocracy
3536:Gurgin Khan
3521:Mesopotamia
3412:Afghanistan
3382:in Isfahan.
3335:Afghanistan
3280:Circassians
3162:Caspian Sea
3121:Uzun Hassan
2948:Rustam Khan
2905:during the
2817:to 25,000.
2656:(1600–1602)
2177:Ismail II (
2090:janissaries
2051:calligraphy
1894:Alqas Mirza
1766:Mesopotamia
1711:casus belli
1550:, southern
1540:Kai Khosrow
1491:Ṣūfī orders
1452:followers.
1446:Shīʿa Islam
1438:Ṣūfī Muslim
1403:Ṣūfī Muslim
1391:Middle East
1383:Shīʿa Islam
1326:, ruler of
1282:Murad Beg,
1166:clans from
1130:Shirvanshah
1126:Uzun Hassan
993:The phrase
932:Mesopotamia
912:Middle East
892:bureaucracy
869:Afghanistan
781:founded by
757:Shīʿa Islam
621:Baduspanids
579:Shirvanshah
565:Mihrabanids
500:Preceded by
324:Legislature
211:Shīʿa Islam
182:Azerbaijani
161:(1598–1736)
153:(1555–1598)
145:(1501–1555)
16896:Categories
16745:Philosophy
16704:newspapers
16685:Literature
16590:architects
16585:Achaemenid
16505:Corruption
15965:Corruption
15805:Reformists
15800:Propaganda
15698:Corruption
15683:Censorship
15626:Lake Urmia
15314:Iran–Iraq
15010:Ghaznavid
14888:AD 224–651
14852:Frataraka
14684:Prehistory
14522:Portuguese
14403:Revival Le
14393:Vietnamese
14036:Later Tran
14006:Vietnamese
13902:Singhasari
13890:Holy Roman
13514:Bulgarian
13450:Satavahana
13421:Phoenician
13357:Achaemenid
13318:Indo-Greek
13298:Macedonian
13212:Babylonian
11828:2022-05-17
11575:2020-01-03
10169:Suny p. 50
8895:2008020716
8673:dynasties?
7932:frontiers"
7687:(4): 827.
7643:References
7342:Qajar Iran
7256:Aq Qoyunlu
7240:1370s–1592
7076:Salghurids
7056:Eldiguzids
7026:Shabankara
7000:990/1–1117
6744:Zarmihrids
6664:Fratarakas
6618:Atropatene
6556:652–625 BC
6546:678–550 BC
6179:as far as
6151:Azerbaijan
6114:Circassian
5897:Zurkhanehs
5858:Physiology
5846:pediatrics
5811:philosophy
5751:Suhrawardi
5737:, and the
5668:See also:
5641:Literature
5492:, part of
5466:See also:
5262:Embroidery
5231:Modern art
5192:Literature
5161:Irreligion
5138:Philosophy
4970:under the
4959:Ahmednagar
4746:Nader Shah
4711:Circassian
4700:Shahsevans
4563:common law
4532:vak’anevis
4513:common law
4507:, meaning
4387:See also:
4369:Circassian
4246:Shahsevans
4223:vak’anevis
4198:parliament
4170:Government
4116:). Unlike
4029:Sarbedaran
3881:Caucasians
3846:See also:
3766:Persianate
3710:Karim Khan
3706:Ismail III
3675:Tahmasp II
3602:Nader Shah
3546:. He then
3471:Baltic Sea
3331:Uzbekistan
3307:Azerbaijan
2996:Mazandaran
2976:Teimuraz I
2972:Luarsab II
2954:, eastern
2933:See also:
2899:Suleiman I
2862:, eastern
2832:See also:
2773:Caucasians
2755:Circassian
2751:baby-steps
2734:Mazandaran
2683:, eastern
2631:1588–1629)
2253:Circassian
2204:1578–1587)
2181:1576–1577)
2144:After the
2094:Caucasians
2082:Circassian
1878:Soleymān I
1788:1524–1576)
1720:, where a
1707:Bayezid II
1695:Asia Minor
1632:Hindu Kush
1628:Oxus River
1584:Diyarbakır
1478:shahanshah
1469:Azerbaijan
1401:, and the
1334:Mazandaran
1284:Aq Qoyunlu
1271:Aq Qoyunlu
1228:, painter
1198:1501–1524)
1172:Azerbaijan
1168:Asia Minor
1112:Jahan Shah
1053:, Teheran)
1023:Background
964:Persianate
953:Shia Islam
877:Uzbekistan
847:including
839:, eastern
833:Azerbaijan
798:Circassian
523:Aq Qoyunlu
443:Population
415:Nader Shah
392:Nader Shah
229:Shahanshah
218:Government
213:(official)
191:Circassian
16710:Mythology
16616:Calendars
16606:Astronomy
16515:Education
16424:Georgians
16409:Assyrians
16404:Armenians
16330:Languages
16222:companies
16185:Transport
16165:Petroleum
15950:Companies
15889:President
15876:Officials
15810:Terrorism
15759:Air Force
15703:Elections
15641:Provinces
15636:Mountains
15546:Geography
15466:languages
15204:1925–1979
15132:Afsharid
15093:1370–1925
15081:Chobanid
14975:Saffarid
14927:Rashidun
14895:Sasanian
14876:Kings of
14868:Parthian
14844:Seleucid
14785:Scythian
14745:Kassites
14729:Akkadian
14515:Couronian
14153:Ethiopian
14141:Manchukuo
14096:Brazilian
13942:Ghaznavid
13912:Srivijaya
13863:Trebizond
13848:Byzantine
13830:North Sea
13825:Norwegian
13813:Almoravid
13796:Ilkhanate
13766:Majapahit
13739:Muromachi
13648:Solomonic
13633:Ethiopian
13547:Caliphate
13480:Aragonese
13308:Ptolemaic
13032:Miniature
13001:Safaviyya
12828:161700244
12708:Routledge
12316:, p. 228.
12270:161700244
12083:RN Frye,
12007:, p. 172.
11994:, p. 155.
11950:, p. 110.
11860:0031-7837
11430:Blow 2009
11418:Blow 2009
11403:Blow 2009
11369:, p. 221.
10852:, p. 183.
10757:cite book
10676:162418783
10641:902171220
10612:cite book
10571:144502214
10289:cite book
10129:Blow 2009
10043:1 January
9774:Muqarmas.
8865:"Baghdad"
8831:, p. 136.
8523:. p. 8. "
8496:236371308
8470:Routledge
8331:2330-4804
8297:(2017) .
8196:Blow 2009
8040:161700244
7356:1925–1979
7346:1789–1925
7319:1751–1794
7309:1736–1796
7299:1722–1729
7287:1501–1736
7260:1468–1508
7250:1406–1468
7230:1370–1507
7220:1359–1596
7216:Mar'ashis
7210:1349–1504
7200:1335–1357
7190:1337–1376
7186:Sarbadars
7180:1337–1376
7170:1335–1393
7160:1335–1357
7150:1256–1335
7140:1244–1396
7130:1236–1537
7120:1223-1306
7110:1184-1597
7100:1155–1231
7090:1155–1424
7080:1148–1282
7070:1141–1319
7060:1135–1225
7050:1077–1231
7040:1037–1194
7030:1030–1355
7020:1029–1236
7010:1008–1141
6856:Justanids
6826:Bavandids
6694:Characene
6456:1500–1155
6443:2400–2150
6433:2400–1700
6420:2550-2020
6380:3100–2200
6367:3200–2700
6357:3400–2000
6304:6000–5000
6206:mujtahids
6181:Euphrates
5901:Pahlavans
5893:wrestling
5819:astrology
5815:astronomy
5708:Mir Damad
5678:Mir Damad
5608:Qizilbash
5456:Aqa Mirak
5443:Shahnameh
5428:, 1625–26
5143:Astronomy
5120:Mythology
5102:Festivals
5088:Languages
4881:Tavernier
4776:Silk Road
4727:Janissary
4635:Qizilbash
4624:Ismail II
4595:Qizilbash
4575:bastinado
4517:Divanbegi
4493:civil law
4453:dervishes
4436:Saru Taqi
4432:Shah Safi
4411:Qizilbash
4338:Armenians
4330:Georgians
4308:Qizilbash
4304:courtiers
4239:Shah Safi
4231:Divanbegi
4202:De Gouvea
4192:Structure
4084:mujtahids
4072:dervishes
4025:Ilkhanids
4009:Zaidiyyah
4005:Buwayhids
3974:Armenians
3958:Caucasian
3941:Ismail II
3737:oligarchy
3690:West Asia
3679:Abbas III
3643:Erekle II
3552:abdicated
3504:in 1717,
3442:Qizilbash
3396:Astrakhan
3284:Armenians
3276:Georgians
3272:Caucasian
3125:Venetians
3077:Hatem Beg
2982:) in the
2970:subjects
2868:Caucasian
2846:pavilion.
2781:tūpchiyān
2701:Qizilbash
2299:Kurdistan
2187:Ismail II
2079:Christian
1917:Nakhjuwan
1794:Tahmasp I
1746:Chaldiran
1734:Tahmasp I
1648:Qizilbash
1598:in 1508,
1594:in 1507,
1582:in 1504,
1574:in 1503,
1562:in 1501,
1450:Qizilbash
1418:Ismā'īl I
1371:Ismā'īl I
1263:ruler of
1176:Qizilbash
1067:Zahediyeh
1059:Safaviyya
1047:Qizilbash
1029:Safaviyya
960:Ilkhanate
898:", their
806:Turkified
749:Ismā'īl I
607:Mar'ashis
479:), Shahi
397:1726–1729
380:invasion
263:Abbas III
204:Religion
70:1501–1736
16871:Category
16764:football
16755:Scouting
16665:Iranians
16655:Folklore
16451:Religion
16363:Georgian
16343:Armenian
16204:shipping
16199:railways
16189:airlines
16155:Industry
16020:Taxation
15834:Councils
15750:Military
15665:Politics
15646:Wildlife
15611:Caucasus
15493:Persians
15420:See also
15244:Iranian
15211:Pahlavi
15124:Safavid
15100:Timurid
15003:977–1432
14983:Ziyarid
14959:Tahirid
14951:Samanid
14943:Abbasid
14935:Umayyad
14920:632–1090
14737:Lullubi
14721:Elamite
14495:Japanese
14458:Scottish
14438:American
14430:Colonial
14359:Imperial
14327:Moroccan
14263:Japanese
14241:Afsharid
14100:Burmese
14086:Austrian
14041:Later Le
14016:Early Le
14001:Venetian
13927:Tiwanaku
13840:Hellenic
13803:Moroccan
13734:Kamakura
13724:Japanese
13707:Saffarid
13660:Georgian
13574:Chalukya
13552:Rashidun
13542:Calakmul
13510:Bruneian
13389:Haryanka
13367:Sasanian
13362:Parthian
13313:Bactrian
13303:Seleucid
13283:Goguryeo
13261:Egyptian
13195:Assyrian
13185:Akkadian
13176:Colonies
12571:(2015).
12395:(1997).
12346:mujtahid
11868:42634581
11794:Moussons
11757:44142611
11601:; p. 24.
11557:(1995).
11510:Archived
11113:(2004).
11083:Archived
11049:Archived
10996:Archived
10935:(2004).
10880:, p. 77.
10826:Archived
10796:(1957).
10637:ProQuest
10443:(1996).
10378:(2001).
10332:(1856).
10225:(2011).
10068:(2011).
9934:Archived
9930:BBC News
9669:(2011).
9617:(2012).
9582:"Čarkas"
9562:15 April
9292:Archived
9256:Archived
9201:(2013).
9171:(1989).
9141:(2014).
9118:Šāhanšāh
9106:Archived
9031:Archived
8899:Archived
8873:New York
8816:Speculum
8462:New York
8405:(eds.).
8335:Archived
8309:New York
8211:(2010).
8109:(2007).
7843:Archived
7840:Safavids
7788:, p. ix.
7470:Timeline
7428:Monarchs
7006:Kakuyids
6996:Annazids
6990:977–1186
6980:959–1095
6970:955–1070
6960:934–1062
6946:Ilyasids
6940:930–1090
6930:919–1062
6900:861–1003
6850:665–1598
6830:651–1349
6816:Dabuyids
6810:750–1258
6469:1500–500
6449:Kassites
6407:2700–539
6397:3100-675
6263:BCE / BC
6227:a series
6225:Part of
6217:See also
6177:Khorasan
6126:Figueroa
6118:Armenian
6110:Georgian
5978:Language
5956:manteaus
5918:cabarets
5862:Thevenot
5854:Avicenna
5801:nor the
5785:copy of
5773:Medicine
5747:Avicenna
5629:(1618),
5622:Palace.
5620:Ali Qapu
5571:and the
5569:Ottomans
5540:world".
5156:Religion
5125:Folklore
5051:a series
5049:Part of
5024:Anatolia
5008:Dai Viet
4988:Thailand
4967:Golconda
4886:rah-dars
4877:Thévenot
4824:Khorasan
4719:Caucasus
4715:Armenian
4707:Georgian
4651:Turkmens
4631:Ismail I
4615:Turcoman
4585:Military
4524:darughah
4461:kalantar
4457:kadkhoda
4373:Armenian
4365:Georgian
4346:Caucasus
4235:Ali Qapu
4181:Muhammad
4142:muqallid
4086:and the
4033:Khorasan
4001:Sabzevar
3981:Religion
3977:others.
3924:ḡolāmāns
3904:Georgian
3900:Caucasus
3873:Karabakh
3627:Caucasus
3576:Ottomans
3556:Russians
3548:besieged
3506:Dagestan
3458:Abbas II
3450:Georgian
3416:Kandahar
3408:Khorasan
3400:Dagestan
3339:Pakistan
3315:Dagestan
3228:Armenian
3119:before,
3092:Khorasan
3053:Simon II
3037:Georgian
2968:Georgian
2911:Murad IV
2886:and the
2866:and the
2856:Ottomans
2759:Georgian
2697:Dagestan
2677:Karabakh
2303:Lorestan
2295:Dagestan
2118:ḡolāmāns
2086:Georgian
2075:Caucasus
2063:Qezelbāš
1991:Kandahar
1962:Georgian
1913:Karabakh
1837:de facto
1817:Khorasan
1762:Caucasus
1682:Anatolia
1608:Khorasan
1564:Erzincan
1552:Dagestan
1434:Georgian
1422:Turkoman
1409:in 1508.
1405:ascetic
1246:Nuqtavis
1204:Ismail I
1153:Komnenos
1141:Ismail I
924:Anatolia
920:Caucasus
865:Pakistan
794:Georgian
790:Turkoman
466:Currency
417:crowned
248:Ismail I
222:Monarchy
195:Armenian
187:Georgian
16814:Ey Iran
16762: (
16722: (
16698:student
16696: (
16692: (
16677: (
16645:Cuisine
16630:Fashion
16618: (
16598: (
16583: (
16569:Culture
16517: (
16481: (
16466: (
16439:Turkmen
16391: (
16382:Peoples
16353:Kurdish
16309:Society
16210:Tourism
16187: (
16177: (
16167: (
16147: (
16140:Defense
16110: (
16100:Sectors
16087: (
16047: (
15952: (
15933:General
15922:Economy
15812: (
15782: (
15752: (
15705: (
15690: (
15676:General
15631:Islands
15567:largest
15557:Borders
15026:Seljuk
15018:Ghurid
14967:Alavid
14777:Median
14769:Urartu
14691:Ancient
14671:History
14562:largest
14557:Empires
14537:Swedish
14532:Spanish
14527:Russian
14490:Italian
14465:Chinese
14453:English
14448:British
14443:Belgian
14418:Vietnam
14408:Tay son
14354:Tsarist
14349:Russian
14344:Ottoman
14310:Dzungar
14305:Khoshut
14278:Mexican
14273:Maratha
14256:Pahlavi
14236:Safavid
14231:Iranian
14158:Haitian
14121:Chinese
14081:Ashanti
14053:Wagadou
13979:Eastern
13974:Western
13957:Timurid
13917:Tibetan
13907:Songhai
13897:Serbian
13818:Almohad
13808:Idrisid
13712:Samanid
13702:Tahirid
13697:Iranian
13675:Kannauj
13655:Genoese
13591:Chinese
13584:Eastern
13579:Western
13567:Fatimid
13562:Abbasid
13557:Umayyad
13530:Burmese
13490:Ayyubid
13485:Angevin
13455:Xianbei
13443:Eastern
13438:Western
13384:Magadha
13347:Iranian
13340:Xiongnu
13325:Hittite
13234:Chinese
13222:Kassite
13171:Ancient
13163:Empires
13020:Culture
12956:Dynasty
12617:4310161
12350:ijtihad
12191:, 2006.
10954:1 April
10921:; p. 65
10896:(2010).
10512:Sīstānī
9596:1 April
9067:Shiʻism
8905:21 June
8341:23 June
8240:, ed.,
7912:Isfahan
7622:Persian
7196:Injuids
6950:932–968
6920:889–929
6890:819–999
6880:821–873
6840:651–760
6820:642–760
6800:661–750
6790:632-661
6778:CE / AD
6738:224–651
6728:125–300
6684:Elymais
6628:–226 AD
6519:720-670
6515:Saparda
6509:750-521
6505:Zikirti
6499:850–616
6495:Mannaea
6489:860–590
6479:911–609
6413:Marhaši
6050:Georgia
6014:Persian
5988:Persian
5838:al-Razi
5823:alchemy
5557:Isfahan
5537:Isfahan
5518:Isfahan
5385:fencing
5381:Archery
5296:Cuisine
5283:Jewelry
5277:Pottery
5222:Gardens
5212:Theater
5201:Dastgah
5097:Symbols
5078:History
5042:Culture
4963:Bijapur
4943:Bahrain
4757:Economy
4696:qurchis
4647:Mongols
4639:Persian
4543:Chardin
4449:futuvva
4401:, 1671.
4361:gholams
4342:eunuchs
4325:gholams
4163:ziyarat
4158:Allamah
4129:ijtihad
4088:seyyeds
4076:futuvva
4037:Öljaitü
4021:Baghdad
4017:Isfahan
3949:ghilman
3928:ghulams
3865:ghilman
3798:sources
3716:Society
3580:Baghdad
3558:led by
3525:Ghilzai
3517:in 1721
3514:Lezgins
3512:by the
3510:Shirvan
3502:Hotakis
3475:Estonia
3469:on the
3446:earlier
3404:Mughals
3388:Muscovy
3349:Decline
3323:Bahrain
3311:Georgia
3303:Armenia
3081:Mahabad
3069:Kurdish
3045:Ketevan
3025:Isfahan
3005:gholams
3000:Imereti
2988:gholams
2956:Georgia
2872:Bahrain
2860:Baghdad
2822:Isfahan
2815:ghulams
2785:ghulāms
2764:ghulāms
2722:mamalik
2693:Kakheti
2685:Georgia
2525:KHANATE
2523:CRIMEAN
2496:KHANATE
2494:BUKHARA
2485:KHANATE
2472:OTTOMAN
2461:SAFAVID
2452:MADURAI
2421:DYNASTY
2410:KHANATE
2379:TSANGPA
2370:KHANATE
2359:KHANATE
2357:YARKENT
2287:Shirvan
2283:Georgia
2122:ghulams
2098:Tbilisi
2035:Ottoman
2010:Bayezid
1986:Humayun
1974:Timurid
1934:taburru
1925:Erzurum
1921:Ardabil
1909:Yerevan
1752:vizier
1726:Ismāʻil
1703:Selim I
1616:Kakheti
1600:Baghdad
1592:Karbala
1572:Hamadan
1568:Erzurum
1560:Armenia
1558:), and
1556:Derbent
1548:Shirvan
1536:Jamshid
1485:as the
1461:Shirvan
1457:invaded
1440:mystic
1426:Kurdish
1385:as the
1379:Twelver
1373:of the
1261:Timurid
1242:Hurufis
1189:History
1147:—was a
1116:Ardabil
841:Georgia
837:Armenia
810:Ardabil
786:sheikhs
783:Kurdish
772:Iranian
759:as the
753:Twelver
730:Iranian
724:or the
473:(incl.
469:Tuman,
413:•
376:•
299:(first)
251:(first)
208:Twelver
177:Persian
158:Isfahan
135:Capital
55:Persian
16881:Portal
16640:Cinema
16622:Nowruz
16519:higher
16393:abroad
16358:Hebrew
16264:Places
16160:Mining
15985:Energy
15562:Cities
15478:Aryans
15197:Modern
15148:Qajar
14991:Buyid
14659:topics
14500:Mongol
14485:German
14480:French
14470:Danish
14413:Dainam
14388:Tongan
14376:Somali
14371:Sokoto
14337:'Alawi
14315:Kalmyk
14295:Mongol
14288:Second
14268:Korean
14219:Mughal
14209:Indian
14192:German
14185:Second
14175:French
14168:Second
14104:Second
14076:Afghan
14068:Modern
13994:Kyrgyz
13989:Uighur
13984:Second
13964:Turkic
13932:Toltec
13868:Epirus
13853:Nicaea
13776:Mongol
13729:Yamato
13665:Huetar
13523:Second
13460:Rouran
13409:Shunga
13404:Maurya
13379:Kushan
13352:Median
13330:Hunnic
13288:Harsha
13114:Abbasi
12826:
12792:
12777:
12758:
12740:
12714:
12681:
12662:
12643:
12615:
12581:
12533:
12514:
12485:
12466:
12445:
12426:
12405:
12312:
12268:
12208:
11916:
11866:
11858:
11755:
11518:Events
11288:
11263:
11238:
11213:
11188:
11163:
11123:
11096:
11067:p. 208
11063:
10945:
10806:
10745:
10720:
10674:
10639:
10600:
10569:
10453:
10388:
10277:
10235:
10207:12 May
10155:14 May
10078:
9679:
9627:
9524:12 May
9236:
9211:
9181:
9151:
9122:Persia
8893:
8883:
8600:
8494:
8484:
8466:London
8435:
8417:Boston
8413:Leiden
8329:
8221:
8176:
8152:
8119:
8089:
8064:
8038:
7965:
7908:Qazvin
7902:
7820:
7771:
7742:
7673:Tārīkh
6582:Sogdia
6485:Urartu
6229:on the
6158:Legacy
6077:'Amili
6057:(1620)
5972:Nowruz
5968:turban
5803:Romans
5688:, and
5656:. His
5647:ghazal
5612:Maidān
5573:Uzbeks
5563:("The
5553:Qazvin
5452:Nizami
5448:Khamsa
5404:Tabriz
5272:Carpet
5217:Cinema
5083:People
5053:on the
5006:, and
5002:, the
4998:, the
4984:Bunnag
4965:, and
4955:Deccan
4927:Venice
4828:Jahrom
4610:ghulāt
4579:karkan
4503:, and
4497:sharia
4477:Karkan
4428:Khassa
4177:sayyid
4123:marjas
4118:Usulis
4113:fatāwā
3749:dowlat
3663:Abdali
3657:, and
3655:Lahore
3647:Ghazni
3595:Persia
3540:Mahmud
3528:Afghan
3365:, and
3343:Turkey
3341:, and
3282:, and
3232:Moscow
3212:, 1628
3196:Caesar
3085:Turkic
2992:Kartli
2952:Kartli
2944:Rostom
2876:Hormuz
2769:ghulām
2621:Qazvin
2580:OIRATS
2474:EMPIRE
2463:EMPIRE
2443:NAGARA
2441:VIJAYA
2432:EMPIRE
2430:MUGHAL
2399:KYRGYZ
2368:TURPAN
2307:Tabriz
2162:Ismail
2102:Kartli
1902:Qazvin
1898:Tabriz
1811:Palace
1764:, and
1699:ghazis
1620:Uzbeks
1612:Kartli
1590:, and
1580:Kerman
1576:Shiraz
1495:tariqa
1465:Tabriz
1432:, and
1328:Sistan
1313:Semnān
1296:, the
1278:Tabrīz
1259:, the
1222:Tabriz
1218:Ismail
1035:, and
957:Mongol
930:, and
926:, the
902:, and
875:, and
857:Turkey
851:, and
849:Russia
822:Buyids
800:, and
705:Court.
471:Abbasi
314:(last)
281:
266:(last)
233:
150:Qazvin
142:Tabriz
129:Empire
125:Status
51:
16775:Music
16760:Sport
16690:Media
16675:Islam
16611:Blogs
16555:Women
16510:Crime
16498:Other
16459:Islam
16429:Kurds
16194:metro
16112:fruit
16070:Setad
15140:Zand
15050:Kart
14550:Lists
14505:Omani
14475:Dutch
14381:Isaaq
14332:Saadi
14300:Oirat
14283:First
14251:Qajar
14180:First
14163:First
14136:China
14109:Third
13969:First
13922:Tikal
13873:Morea
13843:Roman
13761:Latin
13756:Khmer
13751:Kanem
13717:Buyid
13643:Zagwe
13638:Aksum
13628:Chola
13535:First
13518:First
13505:Bornu
13500:Benin
13495:Aztec
13433:Roman
13414:Gupta
13399:Nanda
13335:White
13119:Abazi
12824:S2CID
12613:JSTOR
12266:S2CID
11864:JSTOR
11775:(PDF)
11753:JSTOR
10672:S2CID
10567:S2CID
10202:(PDF)
8492:S2CID
8128:times
8036:S2CID
7849:" in
7540:Notes
6390:Zamua
6000:Attar
5961:henna
5793:, US.
5783:Latin
5207:Dance
5197:Music
4662:vakil
4653:. As
4649:, or
4643:Arabs
4567:Nazir
4528:visir
4416:vakil
4407:Khans
4353:Azeri
4312:Abbas
4285:studs
4266:Nazir
4108:Imams
4068:asnāf
4064:ulama
4052:Qajar
4048:Ulema
4044:Sunni
3937:Harem
3914:, or
3869:Ganja
3768:, or
3651:Kabul
3467:Narva
3410:(now
3208:, by
3202:, in
3185:Sophy
2852:Herat
2730:Gilan
2726:khass
2706:wakīl
2681:Ganja
2663:wakīl
2547:THAYA
2545:AYUT-
2483:KHIVA
2388:CHAM-
2220:Busta
2134:Harem
2126:women
2112:, or
2006:Selim
1982:Hindu
1978:Babur
1976:heir
1852:wakīl
1841:wakīl
1778:vakil
1774:wakīl
1750:Tajik
1678:Sunni
1604:Herat
1588:Najaf
1338:Gilan
1294:Yaṣar
1290:Farro
1265:Herāt
1098:When
938:Names
861:Syria
476:Abazi
378:Hotak
94:]
90:[
16803:Rock
16788:Jazz
16783:Folk
16649:wine
16434:Jews
15764:Navy
15754:Army
15733:LGBT
14657:Iran
14320:Bogd
14246:Zand
14224:Sikh
14131:Qing
14126:Ming
14058:Wari
14026:Tran
14011:Dinh
13781:Yuan
13771:Mali
13680:Pala
13670:Inca
13621:Yuan
13611:Song
13606:Liao
13601:Tang
13374:Kush
13256:Dʿmt
12790:ISBN
12775:ISBN
12756:ISBN
12738:ISBN
12712:ISBN
12679:ISBN
12660:ISBN
12641:ISBN
12579:ISBN
12531:ISBN
12512:ISBN
12483:ISBN
12464:ISBN
12443:ISBN
12424:ISBN
12403:ISBN
12310:ISBN
12206:ISBN
11914:ISBN
11856:ISSN
11286:ISBN
11261:ISBN
11236:ISBN
11211:ISBN
11186:ISBN
11161:ISBN
11121:ISBN
11100:p. 1
11094:ISBN
11061:ISBN
10956:2014
10943:ISBN
10804:ISBN
10763:link
10743:ISBN
10718:ISBN
10618:link
10598:ISBN
10536:help
10518:help
10499:help
10451:ISBN
10386:ISBN
10314:JPEG
10295:link
10275:ISBN
10233:ISBN
10209:2015
10185:help
10157:2021
10076:ISBN
10045:2016
10016:help
9997:help
9973:help
9942:2014
9677:ISBN
9625:ISBN
9598:2014
9564:2014
9526:2015
9234:ISBN
9209:ISBN
9179:ISBN
9149:ISBN
9126:Iran
8907:2022
8891:LCCN
8881:ISBN
8598:ISBN
8482:ISBN
8464:and
8433:ISBN
8415:and
8343:2022
8327:ISSN
8219:ISBN
8174:ISBN
8150:ISBN
8117:ISBN
8087:ISBN
8062:ISBN
7963:ISBN
7900:ISBN
7818:ISBN
7769:ISBN
7740:ISBN
7458:Wars
7423:Name
7393:1979
7383:1979
6403:Elam
6238:Iran
6185:Oxus
6116:and
5844:and
5749:and
5741:and
5718:and
5174:Arts
4917:The
4909:The
4879:and
4713:and
4593:and
4536:qazi
4489:fiqh
4475:The
4371:and
4336:and
4080:vaqf
4019:and
4013:Fars
3999:and
3967:Fars
3871:and
3850:and
3800:but
3299:Iraq
3295:Iran
3055:(or
3029:Grem
2974:and
2923:Iraq
2893:The
2864:Iraq
2749:its
2732:and
2691:and
2611:lala
2578:FOUR
2558:VIET
2536:SEON
2419:MING
2348:1588
2330:1600
2301:and
2285:and
2084:and
2049:and
1915:and
1866:and
1825:amir
1821:ward
1718:Khoy
1646:and
1614:and
1578:and
1566:and
1538:and
1415:Shāh
1368:Shāh
1336:and
1319:Yazd
1274:Khan
1248:and
1170:and
1123:Khan
1071:Sufi
1017:Siam
987:Iran
888:West
886:and
884:East
853:Iraq
829:Iran
776:Sufi
746:Shāh
712:The
435:1630
430:Area
384:1722
360:1301
16793:Pop
16596:Art
16179:TCI
14398:Mac
13835:Oyo
13744:Edo
13616:Jīn
13596:Sui
13249:Jin
13244:Han
13239:Qin
13027:Art
12816:doi
12605:doi
12557:doi
12258:doi
11798:doi
10778:at
10664:doi
10594:330
10559:doi
10254:at
8814:",
8796:at
8656:at
8474:doi
8425:doi
8317:doi
8028:doi
7910:to
7761:doi
7689:doi
7685:137
6053:by
6002:'s
5852:by
5450:by
5391:Art
4571:urf
4505:urf
4467:Law
4031:in
3997:Qom
3704:of
3586:.\
2695:),
2567:LAN
2556:DAI
2534:JO-
1596:Van
1304:Bal
1276:of
770:An
353:by
16898::
14031:Ho
14021:Ly
12910:,
12875:,
12849:,
12822:.
12812:46
12810:.
12736:.
12710:.
12639:.
12635:.
12611:.
12601:28
12599:.
12553:53
12551:.
12510:.
12330:.
12264:.
12254:46
12252:.
12070:,
11862:.
11852:37
11850:.
11846:.
11821:.
11792:.
11749:52
11747:.
11743:.
11698:,
11563:.
11537:^
11481:^
11469:^
11437:^
11410:^
11383:^
11365:,
11355:^
11330:^
11318:^
11159:.
11157:69
11042:;
10917:;
10892:;
10876:,
10866:^
10848:,
10759:}}
10755:{{
10670:.
10660:32
10658:.
10614:}}
10610:{{
10565:.
10555:22
10553:.
10439:;
10291:}}
10287:{{
10148:.
10136:^
10119:^
10102:^
10053:^
10036:.
10024:^
9981:^
9959:^
9932:.
9928:.
9736:^
9606:^
9584:.
9572:^
9546:^
9534:^
9496:^
9447:,
9435:^
9379:^
9348:,
9267:^
8985:.
8974:.
8934:^
8915:^
8897:.
8889:.
8875::
8871:.
8786:^
8678:,
8633:^
8578:.
8567:.
8516:.
8490:.
8480:.
8468::
8431:.
8423:.
8419::
8401:;
8393:;
8389:;
8364:^
8333:.
8325:.
8315:.
8311::
8307:.
8301:.
8284:^
8182:.
8135:^
8125:.
8034:.
8024:46
8022:.
8003:.
7971:.
7957:.
7937:^
7887:^
7871:^
7829:^
7805:^
7767:,
7701:.
7683:.
7677:.
7624::
7608:-/
7605:ɑː
6623:c.
6587:c.
6467:c.
6454:c.
6431:c.
6418:c.
6395:c.
6378:c.
6328:c.
6315:c.
6302:c.
6289:c.
6276:c.
6195::
6145:,
6112:,
5883:A
5848:.
5825:.
5817:,
5781:A
5763::
5753:.
5714:,
5684:,
5680:,
5676:,
5672:,
5602:("
5424:,
5233:,
5010:.
4961:,
4729:).
4709:,
4645:,
4545::
4499:,
4367:,
4332:,
4132:.
4015:,
3723:c.
3653:,
3649:,
3566:,
3477:.
3418:.
3361:,
3357:,
3345:.
3337:,
3333:,
3329:,
3321:,
3317:,
3313:,
3309:,
3305:,
3301:,
3297:,
3278:,
3012:.
2925:.
2757:,
2679:,
2652:,
2629:r.
2569:NA
2390:PA
2309:.
2297:,
2293:,
2202:r.
2179:r.
2045:,
1911:,
1904:.
1786:r.
1768:.
1705:,
1586:,
1543:.
1505:,
1428:,
1424:,
1306:kh
1292:kh
1244:,
1196:r.
1136:.
1031:,
934:.
922:,
918:,
914:,
879:.
871:,
867:,
863:,
859:,
835:,
831:,
796:,
792:,
767:.
720:,
193:,
189:,
115:r.
16766:)
16726:)
16706:)
16700:)
16681:)
16651:)
16647:(
16626:)
16624:)
16602:)
16592:)
16536:)
16485:)
16470:)
16395:)
16206:)
16181:)
16171:)
16151:)
16114:)
16091:)
16051:)
15956:)
15816:)
15786:)
15766:)
15709:)
15694:)
14649:e
14642:t
14635:v
13178:)
13174:(
13155:e
13148:t
13141:v
12941:e
12934:t
12927:v
12830:.
12818::
12796:.
12781:.
12762:.
12746:.
12720:.
12687:.
12668:.
12649:.
12626:)
12622:(
12619:.
12607::
12587:.
12563:.
12559::
12539:.
12520:.
12491:.
12472:.
12451:.
12432:.
12411:.
12272:.
12260::
12212:.
11936:.
11922:.
11870:.
11831:.
11806:.
11800::
11777:.
11759:.
11578:.
11294:.
11269:.
11244:.
11219:.
11194:.
11169:.
11129:.
11002:.
10958:.
10836:.
10812:.
10765:)
10751:.
10726:.
10678:.
10666::
10643:.
10620:)
10606:.
10573:.
10561::
10538:)
10520:)
10501:)
10459:.
10394:.
10316:)
10312:(
10297:)
10283:.
10241:.
10211:.
10187:)
10159:.
10084:.
10047:.
10018:)
9999:)
9975:)
9944:.
9685:.
9633:.
9600:.
9566:.
9528:.
9242:.
9217:.
9187:.
9157:.
9124:/
8909:.
8498:.
8476::
8441:.
8427::
8345:.
8319::
8227:.
8095:.
8070:.
8042:.
8030::
8007:.
7763::
7748:.
7691::
7635:.
7612:)
7602:s
7599:ˈ
7596:,
7593:d
7590:ɪ
7587:v
7584:ə
7581:f
7578:æ
7575:s
7572:ˈ
7569:/
7565:(
7506:e
7499:t
7492:v
7296:)
7292:(
6388:/
6171:(
5513:.
5361:e
5354:t
5347:v
5279:,
5237:)
5229:(
5203:)
5199:(
4863:.
4830:.
4733:(
4487:(
4426:(
4217:(
4074:(
3828:)
3822:(
3817:)
3813:(
3807:.
3432:)
3428:(
3114:.
1833:"
1829:"
1493:(
1475:(
1344:.
947:(
119:)
112:(
92:1
57:)
53:(
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.