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184: – Highly thought of by Galileo who wrote a letter to Prince Leopold in 1640 praising him. This praise seemed to have secured his position as the chair of philosophy at Pisa and membership in the society. He was not liked by the other members because he was a “rotten and mouldy peripatetic” according to Borelli in a letter to Paolo del Buono in 1657. The historian W.E.Knowles Middelton suggests that Marsili was added to the group to act as the simpleton used by Galileo in his work
399:, Mario Biagioli argues that many of Galileo's actions, the most famous Italian scientist of the time, were dictated by the patronage system. This patronage system also influenced the actions and output of the Cimento. The Medici family had long been a supporter of arts and culture within Florentine society and wanted to use the Cimento to project their power and prestige throughout Europe. The members of the society knew this and envisioned the publication of the
174: – Chair of Mathematics at the University of Pisa during the time of the Accademia del Cimento. Borelli is the best known of the members but also known for his intolerance of criticism and quarrelsome disposition. There is speculation his peevish nature caused Leopold’s final dissolution of the Academy. Borelli was also the only member who strenuously objected to merging his work with others of the Academy, and extensively published works under his own name.
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341:
the main members of the society performed the experiments that most interested them with the best instruments currently available from the patrons and then all moved to different pursuits. Borelli, in particular, seemed to tire of having to share his accolades with others and grew tired of the cooperative effort that did not allow for individual recognition. The
Cimento did not disband as much as it just fizzled out.
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148:
eighteenth century by
Giovanni Targioni-Tozzetti, assistant librarian of the Magliabecchi Library, the original manuscripts were lost. The history of the society can only be pieced together through the letters and diaries of the people associated with the operation. The National Library of Florence recently digitized all of these documents and they are available on-line.
425:
Natural
History. Thus, the patronage system the Cimento worked under created the myth that the Cimento was exclusively concerned with experimentation, when reality paints a different picture. It was only when the Cimento decided to publish their work to their European colleagues, that they decided to describe an atheoretical experimental practice.
322:
Aristotle’s idea of the natural state of fire by proving that smoke does not rise in a vacuum. The eighth set discussed magnetism and the ninth discussed amber. The tenth set looked at color while the eleventh investigated the speed of sound. The twelfth set demonstrated falling body laws
Galileo discussed but did not perform experiments to prove.
135:(founded 1666), the Accademia del Cimento never established rules to make it a formal body. There were no formal rules for joining the society, there was no established meeting calendar and the society never set up an organizational structure. Instead the society remained a close knit group of virtuosi under the direction of their patrons,
482:, told Boyle and Oldenburg about the Cimento after he attended a Cimento meeting while traveling in Rome in 1660. Although Oldenburg continually tried to establish consistent contacts with the society they did not come to fruition. However, Lorenzo Magalotti made a special trip to London to present the Royal Society with a copy of the
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340:
The
Cimento never became an institution. It was always dependent upon the rules and orders of its patrons, Leopold and Fernando. Although it has been said that the Pope made the dissolution of the Cimento a prerequisite to Leopold becoming a cardinal, this has not been proven. Instead, it seems as if
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in the field which said snakestones could counteract poison. Kircher poisoned a dog, placed the snakestone on the wound and the dog recovered. Therefore, according to
Kircher, Snakestones worked. Redi, on the other hand conducted many trials using different animals, different poisons and found that
424:
theory. Not only was this experiment never published but all references to the members being motivated by a desire to determine the causes of nature were stricken from published works. The patron’s desire to gain stature in society overshadowed the members desire to be thought of as
Philosophers of
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would "return the applause that is merited by the talent and dilligence of thies gentleman , and first of all by the manganimity of Your
Highness." This prestige could only come about if the society was seen as being at the forefront of the "new" science, which meant emphasis on experiments and not
433:
Experimental procedures pioneered by one of the
Cimento’s members crossed the boundaries between physician-mathematical and medico-anatomical disciplines and can be used as a starting point in the investigation of modern-day experimental methods such as parallel trials. Francesco Redi continuously
293:
had on Prince
Leopoldo. He wrote Magalotti and informed him that the manuscript be sent to Cardinal Ranucci and that "nothing will be printed against his wishes." Leopoldo even sent parts of the manual to the Pope for approval. Boschiero argues that leaving out all astronomical experiments and not
252:
Since the workings of the Academy were not formalized there can be no clear cut answer to the exact date of the founding of the Cimento suggests that the Cimento was the formal organization of meetings held by Prince Leopold in his study, and that the society did not exist, except when Leopold was
288:
were completed within the first two years of the Cimento and the rest of the time the book went through revisions. These revisions were caused by Magalotti’s perfectionism, his growing uninterestedness with the experiments themselves, further compounded by the fact the book was being written by a
391:
described the natural philosophers quest as determining “...the knowledge of causes, and secret motions of things; and the enlarging of the bounds of human empire, to the effecting of all things possible. described a society ruled by nine levels of knowledge creators, and at the very top of the
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epitomized the new way of doing science, concentrating on the experiments themselves, with little or no analysis or explanations of the results of the experiments. Recent studies have cast doubt about society member's acceptance of this new method for acquiring knowledge and determining truth.
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and all the works in the manuscript were published anonymously. This means there are very few actual records of the workings of the society. The lack of historical sources was compounded by the fact that although sixteen volumes of writings of the Accademia del Cimento were copied in the early
321:
on variant air pressure and vacuums. The third set discussed artificial cooling and the fourth set discussed natural cooling. The fifth set looked at the effect of heat and cold on various objects. The sixth set investigated the compressibility of water while the seventh series put a nail in
301:
discussed the highly accurate instruments the Cimento used to perform their experiments. Measurement of physical phenomenon was a new area and this section of the manual laid out what and how physical properties were to be measured for a variety of disciplines, to include heat
177:
Candido and Paolo del Buono – Not much is known of Candido but Paolo was personally invited by Prince Leopold to become a member of the society. He was a contemporary student of Galileo with Viviani. Was in service to the Polish court during much of the existence of the
415:
Giorgio Strano argues that the members of the Cimento, especially Galileo’s students, continued to use a deductive approach using ancient texts to drive their selection of experiments and how the experiments were conducted. In a debate about Galileo’s discovery of the
228:. He took the position of court mathematician offered by Duke Fedinando. Viviani had a reputation for being slow on completing his work. Borelli and Viviani were considered to be the most brilliant of the members of the society, but they could not get along.
374:
functioned within a prestige-conscious society. At the top of the intellectual hierarchy were the philosophers; the people who used their ability to think and reason to determine how the world works. The prestigious chairs at universities were allocated to
231:
Secretary (1657–1660) – Alessandro Segni – Made no ascertainable contribution to the Academy but as Prince Cardinal’s Superintendent of his secretariat, became the owner of the Academy’s papers. His heirs are responsible for the loss of the
122:
means “proving and disproving”, i.e. providing proofs of true facts and confuting false ones, while a literal translation may read "trying and trying again". Unlike many of the other scientific societies formed in the seventeenth century, such as the
458:
the Snakestone did not work all the time. The historian Meli believes that further investigation into the spread of this type of experimentation may show the Cimento and its members as pioneers in the creation of medical experimentation protocols.
253:
present. Middleton agrees that the overall emphasis was on what Leopold and Ferdinand wanted to study but makes the case that the society performed experiments according to each individuals curiosity. Nevertheless they both agree with
208: – A pioneer in anatomy, paleontology, geology and stratigraphy, and crystallography, he made observations and discoveries still recognized today. Brought up as a Lutheran, he converted to Catholicism and later became a bishop.
358:. Using ancient authority and divine revelation as the ultimate source of knowledge was replaced by a belief that knowledge of nature could only be obtained through detailed observations or artificial experiments. If one read the
289:
committee. Recent studies show the adverse impact of the patronage culture and Prince Leopold's desire to be known as a patron of the "new science" on the publication of the document. Other studies show the influence the trial of
474:, the secretary of the Royal Society of London. Oldenburg laid the foundation for the exchange of information and ideas between scientific societies and institutionalized this exchange of ideas with the publication of the
214: – Libertine who was totally undisciplined and no records exist of any input into the experiments of the society exist. Was arrested for scandalous conduct in Rome in 1667 and threw himself out a window and died.
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appeared and Kircher said that the maggots were spontaneously generated. Redi conducted parallel trials where he took meat from the same animal and left some exposed to the air, some exposed to air, but covered so
978:
162: – considered by many to be the founder of the Academy, Prince Leopold was known for his interest in astronomy. When he was made a Cardinal in 1667 and moved to Rome the Accademia del Cimento ceased to exist.
202: – First to lecture on works of Galileo as the chair of Philosophy at Padua. Proposed an experiment on the diffusion of heat which gives him claim to be the discoverer of the convection in air.
168: – Ferdinando was an influential patron of Galileo and supporter of learned men. Ferdinando was known within the society for his interest in experiments concerned with what we now call physics.
466:
From the fifteenth century through the age of enlightenment the intellectuals of Europe formed a network of knowledge exchange through the writing and sharing of letters and pamphlets known as the
284:. This document has been called the laboratory manual of the eighteenth century. The manual was published anonymously and took over 6 years to write. Most of the experiments discussed in the
490:
was sensitive to having his ideas stolen and saw the Cimento as a direct competitor for priority and stature. A chance to have two prestigious societies collaborate was never realized.
243:. Known for his meticulous attention to detail and his growing disinterest in the work of the Academy, both of which contributed to the 5 year process it took to publish the work.
354:
The Accademia del Cimento existed during the period of European history when, arguably, the foundations of modern science were established; a period sometimes referred to as the
329:
is replete with pictures of laboratory instruments and how-to instructions on the use of the instruments. A modern translation of the manual is provided in Middelton’s book,
103:’Saggi di naturali esperienze fatte nell'Accademia del Cimento sotto la protezione del Serenissimo Principe Leopoldo di Toscana e descritte dal segretario di essa Accademia
1153:
Notes on the history of Accademia del Cimento from the Scholarly Societies Project, University of Waterloo Libraries—includes information about the Academy's publications.
145:
Saggi di naturali esperienze fatte nell'Academia del Cimento sotto la protezione del Serenissimo Principe Leopoldo di Toscana e descritte dal segretario di essa Accademia
278:
Saggi di naturali esperienze fatte nell'Academia del Cimento sotto la protezione del Serenissimo Principe Leopoldo di Toscan e descrittedal segretario di essa Accademia
294:
advancing theories of why things happened in nature, just recording what happened when nature is observed was driven by Leopoldo's concern with offending the church.
118:
The Cimento published a manual of experimentation which began the process of standardizing processes, instruments and measurements throughout Europe. Their motto
470:. The scientific societies in the 17th century and their members were important members of this network. One of the most famous contributors to this Republic was
196: – Although letters from Redi to others which state Redi was a member of the Accademia del Cimento there are no corroborating evidence from other members.
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organization were the Interpreters of Nature, who raised the “discoveries by experiments into greater observations, axioms, and aphorisms.”
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The first set of experiments relates to determining air pressure with mercury barometers. The second set reviewed work done by
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From deep sea to laboratory. 3, From Tait's work on the compressibility of seawater to equations-of-state for liquids
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could not land on it and some under a glass cover. Only that meat which was exposed to flies generated maggots.
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Experiment and Natural Philosophy in Seventeenth-Century Tuscany: The History of the Accademia del Cimento
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these members developed an experiment which would demonstrate that Galileo’s discovery was validated by
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143:, both sons of Cosimo II de’ Medici. The society only published one manuscript during its existence,
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Italian society of the seventeenth century was governed through a culture of patronage. In the book
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alone, it would seem that this new experimental science underlay the Cimento's every activity. The
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Science and the Shape of Orthodoxy: Intellectual Change in Late Seventeenth-Century Britain
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Entire correspondence of the Cimento Academicians at the National Library in Florence
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and ceased to exist about a decade later. The foundation of Academy was funded by
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disagreed with Athanasius Kircher in the proper way to conduct experiments.
220: – Famous scholar, and student of Galileo. He was offered positions by
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486:. It is argued that the reason no correspondence was established was that
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The Scientific Revolution and the Origins of Modern Science, 3d Edition
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in 1731. It became the standard laboratory manual in the 18th century.
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In one instance Kircher let meat out in the open. After a few days
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239: – Main author of the only publication of the Academy, the
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The rĂ´le of scientific societies in the seventeenth century
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Stanford University discussion of the Republic of Letters
98:= Proving and proving again (or Trying and Trying again)
1086:
The Experimenters: A Study of The Accademia del Cimento
411:
Saturn Rings: Focus of the Cimento, but never published
331:
The Experimenters: A Study of the Accademia del Cimento
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257:in Florence which gives the starting date of 1657.
76:(about everything, in this early period of science)
1119:The Accademia del Cimento and its European context
1083:
1065:The Accademia del Cimento and its European context
1043:The Accademia del Cimento and its European context
983:The Accademia del Cimento and its European context
942:
449:In another experiment concerning the efficacy of
345:The Societies' Place in the Scientific Revolution
1414:
1212:Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Bologna
1109:. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
187:Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
166:Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany
141:Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany
105:first published in 1666, later translated into
1347:Accademia Nazionale delle Scienze detta dei XL
949:. The Collections of the Library of Congress.
1182:
1143:Online guide to Accademia del Cimento records
1438:Scientific organizations established in 1657
969:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
255:The Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza
850:Aitken, Frédéric; Foulc, Jean-Numa (2019).
849:
276:The main publication of the Cimento is the
1189:
1175:
1090:. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins Press.
1377:Ateneo Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti
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383:, people who thought not mathematicians.
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478:in 1665. Robert Southwell, a friend of
387:’s utopia world, described in his book
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666:Boschiero, p. 192 Letter to Magalotti
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336:Demise of the Accademia del Cimento
24:
1322:Accademia di Agricoltura di Torino
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131:of London (founded 1660), and the
34:(Academy of Experiment), an early
25:
1454:
1136:
1317:Accademia delle Arti del Disegno
1082:Middleton, W.E. Knowles (1971).
453:Kircher used letters from other
1428:Science and technology in Italy
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1372:Associazione Agraria Subalpina
1201:and learned societies in Italy
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370:The intellectual elite of the
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1402:SocietĂ Entomologica Italiana
1117:(2009). Marco Beretta (ed.).
1063:(2009). Marco Beretta (ed.).
1041:(2009). Marco Beretta (ed.).
981:(2009). Marco Beretta (ed.).
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1433:1657 establishments in Italy
871:Baldwin, Martha (Sep 1995).
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133:Academie Royale des Sciences
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1362:Academia Secretorum Naturae
1232:Accademia degli Incamminati
941:Bruno, Leonard, C. (1989).
922:Boschiero, Luciano (2007).
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280:usually referred to as the
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113:
10:
1459:
1443:Learned societies of Italy
1387:Italian Mathematical Union
1332:Accademia di Santa Cecilia
1242:Accademia degli Infiammati
856:. London, UK: ISTE-WILEY.
476:Philosophical Transactions
153:
1297:Accademia dei Risvegliati
1262:Accademia degli Svogliati
1252:Accademia degli Intronati
1237:Accademia degli Incogniti
1207:
1105:Ornstein, Martha (1913).
269:Instruments shown in the
226:John II Casimir of Poland
160:Prince Leopold of Tuscany
137:Prince Leopold of Tuscany
69:of the society included:
1392:Italian Physical Society
1282:Accademia dei Georgofili
1272:Accademia degli Umoristi
1247:Accademia degli Inquieti
1222:Accademia degli Apatisti
1061:Meli, Domenico Bertoloni
1019:Hunter, Michael (1995).
945:The Landmarks of Science
172:Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
79:Avoidance of speculation
63:Ferdinando II de' Medici
48:Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
1382:Dante Alighieri Society
1292:Accademia dei Ricovrati
42:in 1657 by students of
1397:Royal Academy of Italy
1352:Accademia Neoplatonica
1312:Accademia della Crusca
1257:Accademia degli Oziosi
1227:Accademia degli Arcadi
1004:. Palgrave Macmillan.
837:Feingold, pp.239–241.
702:Middleton, pp.327-328.
412:
297:The first part of the
273:
235:Secretary (1660–1667)
224:, King of France, and
84:laboratory instruments
1423:Academies of sciences
1327:Accademia di San Luca
1307:Accademia del Disegno
1302:Accademia del Cimento
1267:Accademia degli Umidi
1121:. Watson Publishing.
1067:. Watson Publishing.
1045:. Watson Publishing.
985:. Watson Publishing.
648:Middleton, pp. 70–77.
630:Middleton, pp. 94-95.
558:Middleton, pp. 17–21.
549:Middleton, pp. 11–12.
540:Middleton, pp. 15–17.
500:Old Fortress, Livorno
429:Early Modern Medicine
410:
356:Scientific Revolution
268:
120:Provando e riprovando
96:Provando e riprovando
32:Accademia del Cimento
18:Accademia del cimento
1357:Accademia Pontaniana
1342:Accademia Galileiana
1337:Accademia Fiorentina
1287:Accademia dei Lincei
1277:Accademia dei Gelati
1147:The Bancroft Library
1000:Henry, John (2008).
127:(founded 1603), the
125:Accademia dei Lincei
1367:Accademia Veneziana
1217:Accademia Cosentina
979:Feingold, Mordechai
468:Republic of Letters
462:Republic of Letters
372:early modern period
27:Academy of sciences
792:Meli, pp. 125–127.
783:Boschiero, p. 184.
774:Strano, pp. 85-90.
422:Christiaan Huygens
413:
274:
182:Alessandro Marsili
36:scientific society
1410:
1409:
1128:978-0-88135-387-7
1074:978-0-88135-387-7
1052:978-0-88135-387-7
1023:. Boydell Press.
1011:978-0-230-57438-0
992:978-0-88135-387-7
933:978-0-85115-594-4
765:Boschiero, p. 22.
756:Boschiero, p. 22.
747:Bacon, pp.573-575
720:Boschiero, p. 18.
675:Boschiero, p. 192
657:Strano pp. 85–90.
621:Middleton, p. 12.
612:Middleton, p. 29.
603:Middleton, p. 37.
594:Middleton, p. 36.
585:Middleton, p. 35.
576:Middleton, p. 34.
522:Bruno, pp. 17–18.
397:Galileo, Courtier
237:Lorenzo Magalotti
38:, was founded in
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