618:, a dam built on river Kaveri during this period, is considered the oldest water-regulation structure in the world. Kaveri, Pennai, Palaru, Vaigai and the Tamaraparani were the major rivers spreading their fertilizing water on the fields of Tamilakam. Water stored in tanks and reservoirs was delivered to the fields through channels. There is a considerable amount of spring channel irrigation in the Palar, Kaveri and Vaigai beds. To raise a second crop, well water was very useful. People of this era knew how to divine the spots where there was flow of underground water and dug wells there. Men and oxen were used to irrigate the lands from well water. When water supply was limited and demand was more, it became the duty of the village authorities to distribute the available water in a proper way. Day and night watchmen were employed to guard the tanks and reservoirs and regulate the water supply. Surface irrigation, sprinkler mechanism and
326:
38:
597:
134:
433:
people undertook the cultivation of fruit trees and crops for cattle. The sugarcane producers even employed mechanical contrivances to extract juices from it. In some plots, rotation of crops was followed – cotton and millet were grown simultaneously on a plot and after that, beans were cultivated on
60:
region was the most fit for cultivation, as it had the most fertile lands. The prosperity of a farmer depended on getting the necessary sunlight, seasonal rains and the fertility of the soil. Among these elements of nature, sunlight was considered indispensable by the ancient Tamils, because if rains
28:
were placed right at the top of the social classification. As they were the producers of food grains, they lived with self-respect. Agriculture during the early stages of Sangam period was primitive, but it progressively got more efficient with improvements in irrigation, ploughing, manuring, storage
604:
During the early phases of the Sangam period, people depended heavily on rains as the primary source of water for agriculture. But, increasing demand stemming from a growing population led to the development of better methods of irrigation. Since the rivers of the region were not perennial, the
484:
and was ploughed with the help of oxen. Ploughed lands were leveled by the peasants using their feet, followed by the planting of the paddy seeds. Once the seeds grew into saplings, they were transplanted and when the crop was mature, it was harvested. Weeds were removed periodically. Paddy was
203:. When lands were given to brahmins and poets, these donees quite often left the donated lands in the hands of tenants or farm laborers. The terms of tenancy in respect of such cultivation are not known. Sometimes independent laborers were engaged for specific purposes and were known as
61:
fail other methods of irrigation could be put to use and if the soil wasn't naturally fertile, artificial manuring would enrich the soil. They differentiated the lands on the basis of fertility and accordingly cultivated the crops that were best suited for the kind of soil. They were
29:
and distribution. The ancient Tamils were aware of the different varieties of soil, the kinds of crops that can be grown on them and the various irrigation schemes suitable for a given region. These were also in Madras, Thanjore (now as
Chennai, Thanjavur respectively).
516:. It consists of a wooden plank to tie the oxen and an iron bar attached to the plank, that tilled the land. This tool helped to bring the low-lying soil to the upper layer and send the top layer to the bottom, thereby aerating the land. For digging earth, a
613:
were used for watering the lands. In order to control the flooding of rivers, sand mounds were raised so that water could be diverted for irrigation. Direct irrigation from canals was possible on the basins of the Kaveri, the
Periyar and the Tamaraparani.
226:. It is believed that one-sixth of the produce was collected as tax. During times of floods and famines, cultivation was much affected and the kings were known to be kind enough to make remissions. Taxes were collected by revenue officials known as
207:. Regardless of the nature of ownership, ranging from great landlords who owned vast stretches of land to an ordinary cultivator who owned a tiny piece of land, there was a feeling of pride in the fact that they were the producers of food.
438:, with paddy and salt being used as the medium of buying and selling. The agricultural surplus produced by the villages is one of the reasons for the growth of urban centers in ancient Tamilakam. According to Dr. Venkata Subramanian, "
434:
the same land. There, generally, was surplus from the produce. Each village was almost self-sufficient and if necessary people bought additional commodities from neighboring villages. Such trade happened under the
442:". The king also depended on this surplus, since the soldiers and workers were paid in kind, i.e. grains. These factors ensured adequate demand for the produce, which in turn accelerated cultivation.
485:
removed from the harvested stalks by beating on the ground or by getting bullocks to tread on them. Cleared paddy was collected, measured and stored in proper containers. Millets were grown on the
148:, schools, hospitals and temples. The bulk of the agriculturists were cultivators of their own plots of land. They were the tillers of the soil and were known by different names -
952:
552:. Protecting the standing crops from stray animals and birds was an important activity and was carried out by young girls and lower-class peasants. While the young girls used
176:, the higher class people subsisted on the produce from the lands they owned whereas the lower-class people had to work on the lands to earn their livelihood. The higher class
983:
605:
primary goal was to procure an adequate and continuous supply of water. Tanks, lakes and dams were important water storage systems that were developed for this purpose.
199:
too. There are various instances in which the kings donated tax-free lands to poets, brahmins, educational institutions and hospitals. Lands given to brahmins was known
588:. The paddy grain was separated by thrashing the sheaths on the ground. Ears of millets were stamped on by farm workers and that of black gram were beaten by a stick.
1219:
532:
refers to the process of removing weeds by means of a toothed implement attached to a plank and drawn by oxen. Farmers used a bullock-propelled contrivance called
1281:
440:
Towns can emerge precisely at the moment when the agriculturists start producing a surplus that can sustain basically 'Non-productive urban residents'
1059:
210:
Land, the immobile property, and its produce were both taxable, as the king was owed a share for being the administrator of the land. Landlords and
1285:
1214:
242:, in public places as well as in the houses of the farmers to store excess grain so that people did not suffer in times of floods or famines. The
480:, emphasizes the need for all of these steps to be undertaken in a careful manner in order to get a good yield. A paddy field was also known as
868:
947:
122:
497:
was followed – for instance, cotton and millets were grown simultaneously on the same plot and after that, beans were cultivated on it.
1049:
1019:
1359:
1176:
249:
For surveys and taxation purposes, various measurements were used to measure the land and its produce. The small land was known as
814:
1354:
1266:
957:
1276:
1271:
1186:
1024:
180:, besides holding the land, held high offices under the king, discharging civil and military duties, and assumed titles of
24:. It was considered a necessity for life, and hence was treated as the foremost among all occupations. The farmers or the
1171:
490:
90:
1364:
1349:
861:
49:
1029:
798:
500:
A wide range of tools needed for agriculture, from ploughing to harvesting, were manufactured. The basic tool was a
1044:
660:
1092:
978:
553:
394:
57:
788:
572:
to drive away elephants and birds. It is said that an accurate shot from the sling could even kill an animal.
1245:
1240:
1087:
1039:
916:
891:
854:
450:
The Tamil people practiced a very systematic method of cultivation during the Sangam age. It was known that
430:
309:
with a broader waist and slightly narrow bottom and top. They were tightened and fixed by metallic bands. A
86:
988:
900:
1339:
1250:
896:
906:
600:
Kallanai, built around 1st century CE, is considered the oldest water-regulation structure in the world
790:
Water
Resources System Operation: Proceedings of the International Conference on Water and Environment
1130:
1102:
921:
1344:
1191:
1067:
926:
1150:
1082:
1009:
931:
429:
plants were grown in front of the houses and flower gardens were laid in between the houses. The
325:
1334:
1014:
144:
The king owned a lot of land, but was not the sole landlord, as he had donated lands to poets,
1034:
609:
and shutters were constructed for regulating water for irrigation. Sometimes, buckets made of
105:
was unfit for cultivation. Some of the types of soil known to the people of this age were the
1224:
1209:
413:
of paddy. The peasants lived under the shady groves beyond the
Marutam land. Each house had
246:(council) of the village took necessary decisions to safeguard the interests of the people.
1181:
1145:
877:
576:
and burning torches were other mechanisms used to keep wild animals away from the fields.
8:
1004:
825:
573:
362:
310:
196:
1308:
794:
53:
817:
This is the oldest stone water-diversion or water-regulator structure in the world
1140:
1072:
619:
467:
1313:
911:
1328:
1155:
962:
662:
Agricultural
Practices as gleaned from the Tamil Literature of the Sangam Age
494:
118:
106:
17:
520:
with wooden handle and a sharp terminal was used. A wooden leveler known as
610:
581:
471:
418:
346:
21:
306:
37:
596:
846:
565:
476:
463:
370:
42:
414:
338:
615:
426:
422:
373:. Paddy was the main crop and different varieties of paddy such as
366:
211:
145:
133:
114:
110:
459:
350:
195:
Apart from the traditional landlords and cultivators, there were
580:
were used for harvesting fully grown paddy and reaping the ripe
20:
age, 500 BCE – 300 CE, agriculture was the main vocation of the
1135:
1110:
606:
577:
537:
501:
455:
451:
435:
358:
342:
168:
which meant ruler of the clouds. Women cultivators were called
138:
470:
need to be followed in a proper way for the yield to be rich.
125:
and they knew what crops could be grown on each type of soil.
1303:
585:
517:
354:
953:
Department of
Agriculture, Co-operation and Farmers' Welfare
333:
The ancient Tamils cultivated a wide range of crops such as
984:
Protection of Plant
Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act, 2001
405:
were the more refined varieties. In a very fertile land, a
334:
723:
721:
699:
697:
695:
645:. South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Pub. Society, Madras.
685:
683:
265:. The produce was measured using cubic-measures such as
156:, because they subsisted through the end of the plough,
786:
718:
692:
160:
because they were considered proprietors of water and
97:
the yield was very good. Dry crops were cultivated on
1282:
Central
Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal
680:
192:
and had matrimonial alliances with the royal family.
711:
709:
544:, for shallow wells. Water bales were also known as
101:, because of the limited irrigation facilities. The
1020:
National
Mission For Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
780:
649:
622:methods were followed to prevent wastage of water.
706:
305:s. The cubic measurements were of the shape of a
289:. Common vessels used for measuring grains were
1326:
1215:All India Kisan Sangharsh Coordination Committee
540:water from deep wells and a manual setup called
1101:
807:
652:Environment and urbanisation in early Tamilakam
93:regions did not yield rich produce, whereas in
948:Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare
862:
234:and they were assisted by accountants called
787:Singh, Vijay P.; Ram Narayan Yadava (2003).
764:
762:
760:
1050:Farmer Income Protection Scheme (PM AASHA)
869:
855:
658:
214:paid the tax - the land tax was known as
876:
757:
643:Educational system of the ancient Tamils
634:Studies in the History of the Sangam Age
631:
595:
324:
132:
36:
1267:Indian Council of Agricultural Research
1035:Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY)
958:Indian Council of Agricultural Research
668:. Indian Journal of History of Science.
445:
1327:
1277:Indian Agricultural Research Institute
640:
32:
1272:Central Institute for Cotton Research
850:
528:was used to level the ploughed land.
1078:Agriculture in ancient Tamil country
13:
1187:2021 Farmers' Republic Day protest
793:. Allied Publishers. p. 508.
650:Venkata Subramanian, T.K. (1988).
222:and the tax on produce was called
14:
1376:
1177:2020–2021 Indian farmers' protest
238:. There were granaries, known as
128:
1172:2017 Tamil Nadu farmers' protest
1360:History of agriculture in India
1355:Economic history of Tamil Nadu
1093:National Commission on Farmers
979:Biological Diversity Act, 2002
771:
748:
739:
730:
654:. Tamil University, Thanjavur.
636:. Kalinga Publications, Delhi.
393:were grown in the wet land of
301:, which was equivalent to two
1:
1241:Minimum support price (India)
1040:Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana
1025:Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY)
625:
591:
989:2020 Indian agriculture acts
489:or the dry lands and in the
281:and weight-measures such as
137:Paddy fields in present-day
41:Paddy fields in present-day
7:
1015:Micro Irrigation Fund (MIF)
736:Venkata Subramanian. p. 37.
689:Venkata Subramanian. p. 26.
50:five geographical divisions
10:
1381:
1246:Farmers' suicides in India
745:Venkata Subramanian. p. 7.
320:
1365:Agriculture in Tamil Nadu
1350:Tamil-language literature
1296:
1259:
1233:
1202:
1164:
1131:Bayer CropScience Limited
1123:
1058:
1045:Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY)
997:
971:
940:
884:
659:Srinivasan, T.M. (2016).
556:to scare birds away, the
1251:Doubling farmers' income
1192:Lakhimpur Kheri violence
673:
52:of the Tamil country in
1220:Kisaan swaraj sangathan
1151:Suminter India Organics
1010:Gramin Bhandaran Yojana
754:Pillay, P.G. pp. 50–51.
261:was equal to a hundred
1260:Education and research
601:
330:
141:
45:
1234:Issues and challenges
1225:All India Kisan Sabha
1210:Bharatiya Kisan Union
641:Pillay, J.K. (1972).
599:
409:of land yielded 1000
328:
136:
40:
1182:Samyukt Kisan Morcha
1146:Reuters Market Light
1088:Women in agriculture
878:Agriculture in India
715:Balambal. pp. 61–62.
632:Balambal, V (1998).
446:Techniques and tools
425:and plantain trees.
768:Pillay, J.K. p. 51.
317:was also in vogue.
33:Land classification
1340:Ancient Tamil Nadu
1030:Kisan Samman Nidhi
1005:Atal Bhujal Yojana
831:on 6 February 2007
602:
349:, various grams,
331:
253:and bigger one as
197:absentee landlords
142:
46:
1322:
1321:
1309:Tractors in India
1119:
1118:
54:Sangam literature
1372:
1103:Green Revolution
1099:
1098:
871:
864:
857:
848:
847:
841:
840:
838:
836:
830:
824:. Archived from
823:
811:
805:
804:
784:
778:
777:Balambal. p. 64.
775:
769:
766:
755:
752:
746:
743:
737:
734:
728:
727:Balambal. p. 67.
725:
716:
713:
704:
703:Balambal. p. 60.
701:
690:
687:
669:
667:
655:
646:
637:
69:(fertile land),
1380:
1379:
1375:
1374:
1373:
1371:
1370:
1369:
1345:Tamil economics
1325:
1324:
1323:
1318:
1292:
1255:
1229:
1198:
1160:
1141:Pantnagar Seeds
1115:
1097:
1073:Operation Flood
1068:Farming systems
1054:
993:
967:
936:
880:
875:
845:
844:
834:
832:
828:
821:
813:
812:
808:
801:
785:
781:
776:
772:
767:
758:
753:
749:
744:
740:
735:
731:
726:
719:
714:
707:
702:
693:
688:
681:
676:
665:
628:
620:drip irrigation
594:
468:crop protection
448:
323:
131:
73:(dry land) and
35:
12:
11:
5:
1378:
1368:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1320:
1319:
1317:
1316:
1314:Krishi Darshan
1311:
1306:
1300:
1298:
1294:
1293:
1291:
1290:
1289:
1288:
1279:
1274:
1263:
1261:
1257:
1256:
1254:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1237:
1235:
1231:
1230:
1228:
1227:
1222:
1217:
1212:
1206:
1204:
1200:
1199:
1197:
1196:
1195:
1194:
1189:
1184:
1174:
1168:
1166:
1162:
1161:
1159:
1158:
1153:
1148:
1143:
1138:
1133:
1127:
1125:
1121:
1120:
1117:
1116:
1114:
1113:
1107:
1105:
1096:
1095:
1090:
1085:
1083:History of tea
1080:
1075:
1070:
1064:
1062:
1056:
1055:
1053:
1052:
1047:
1042:
1037:
1032:
1027:
1022:
1017:
1012:
1007:
1001:
999:
995:
994:
992:
991:
986:
981:
975:
973:
969:
968:
966:
965:
960:
955:
950:
944:
942:
938:
937:
935:
934:
929:
924:
919:
914:
909:
904:
894:
888:
886:
882:
881:
874:
873:
866:
859:
851:
843:
842:
806:
799:
779:
770:
756:
747:
738:
729:
717:
705:
691:
678:
677:
675:
672:
671:
670:
656:
647:
638:
627:
624:
593:
590:
568:device called
504:also known as
447:
444:
322:
319:
130:
129:Land ownership
127:
81:(salty land).
34:
31:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1377:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1335:Tamil history
1333:
1332:
1330:
1315:
1312:
1310:
1307:
1305:
1302:
1301:
1299:
1295:
1287:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1269:
1268:
1265:
1264:
1262:
1258:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1207:
1205:
1201:
1193:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1183:
1180:
1179:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1167:
1163:
1157:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1128:
1126:
1122:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1106:
1104:
1100:
1094:
1091:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1065:
1063:
1061:
1057:
1051:
1048:
1046:
1043:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1021:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1002:
1000:
996:
990:
987:
985:
982:
980:
977:
976:
974:
970:
964:
963:Krishi Bhavan
961:
959:
956:
954:
951:
949:
946:
945:
943:
939:
933:
930:
928:
925:
923:
920:
918:
915:
913:
910:
908:
905:
902:
898:
895:
893:
890:
889:
887:
883:
879:
872:
867:
865:
860:
858:
853:
852:
849:
827:
820:
818:
810:
802:
800:81-7764-548-X
796:
792:
791:
783:
774:
765:
763:
761:
751:
742:
733:
724:
722:
712:
710:
700:
698:
696:
686:
684:
679:
664:
663:
657:
653:
648:
644:
639:
635:
630:
629:
623:
621:
617:
612:
608:
598:
589:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
498:
496:
495:Crop rotation
492:
488:
483:
479:
478:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
453:
443:
441:
437:
436:barter system
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
327:
318:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
247:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
208:
206:
202:
198:
193:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
140:
135:
126:
124:
120:
119:laterite soil
116:
112:
108:
107:alluvial soil
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
59:
55:
51:
44:
39:
30:
27:
23:
19:
1077:
833:. Retrieved
826:the original
816:
809:
789:
782:
773:
750:
741:
732:
661:
651:
642:
633:
603:
569:
561:
557:
549:
545:
541:
533:
530:Palliyadutal
529:
525:
521:
513:
509:
505:
499:
486:
481:
475:
472:Tiruvalluvar
449:
439:
410:
406:
402:
398:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
332:
329:Pearl millet
314:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
248:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
209:
204:
200:
194:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
172:. Among the
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
143:
102:
98:
94:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
65:(hardland),
62:
47:
25:
15:
566:stone-sling
538:bailing out
417:, coconut,
236:Ayakanakkar
154:Yerinvalnar
16:During the
1329:Categories
885:Industries
626:References
592:Irrigation
477:Tirukkural
464:irrigation
371:sandalwood
240:Kalanjiyam
201:Brahmateya
123:sandy soil
115:black soil
103:Kalarnilam
75:Kalarnilam
48:Among the
43:Tamil Nadu
1124:Companies
941:Executive
917:Fenugreek
901:in Kerala
892:Areca nut
474:, in his
452:ploughing
387:Aivananel
339:sugarcane
313:known as
307:wine cask
178:Vellalars
174:Vellalars
150:Ulutunbar
79:Uvarnilam
1165:Protests
616:Kallanai
514:kalappai
493:region.
487:Pinpulam
456:manuring
427:Turmeric
367:tamarind
363:plantain
351:coconuts
315:Tulakkol
303:Marakkal
212:Peasants
170:Ulathiar
158:Vellalar
146:brahmins
111:red soil
99:Pinpulam
95:Menpulam
83:Vanpulam
71:Pinpulam
67:Menpulam
63:Vanpulam
1060:History
998:Schemes
897:Coconut
607:Sluices
578:Sickles
564:used a
562:Kurathi
558:Kuravan
554:rattles
534:Kapilai
510:nanchil
491:Kurinji
460:weeding
403:pudunel
395:Marutam
383:Pudunel
343:millets
321:Produce
311:balance
299:Padakku
291:Ambanam
287:Kalanju
166:Kalamar
162:Karalar
91:Kurinji
58:Marutam
1297:Others
1203:Unions
1136:Mahyco
1111:Jaunti
907:Coffee
835:27 May
797:
574:Bugles
502:plough
431:Mullai
399:Sennel
379:Sennel
375:Vennel
359:cotton
347:pepper
257:. One
244:Manram
232:Kavidi
228:Variya
205:Adiyor
190:Kavidi
139:Kerala
87:Mullai
56:, the
26:Ulavar
18:Sangam
1304:E-NAM
932:Sugar
922:Olive
912:Dairy
829:(PDF)
822:(PDF)
674:Notes
666:(PDF)
611:reeds
570:Kavan
550:kilar
542:Erram
526:maram
522:palli
518:spade
482:Kalam
423:areca
411:Kalam
391:Torai
355:beans
295:Nazhi
283:Tulam
279:Kalam
220:Karai
186:Arasu
22:Tamil
1286:more
1284:and
927:Rice
837:2007
795:ISBN
586:corn
582:ears
560:and
548:and
546:ampi
536:for
512:and
506:meli
466:and
419:palm
415:jack
407:Veli
401:and
389:and
369:and
335:rice
297:and
285:and
277:and
275:Cher
271:Nali
267:Tuni
263:Kuli
259:Veli
255:Veli
230:and
224:Vari
216:Irai
121:and
89:and
1156:UPL
972:Law
584:of
524:or
218:or
182:Vel
164:or
152:or
85:in
77:or
1331::
759:^
720:^
708:^
694:^
682:^
508:,
462:,
458:,
454:,
421:,
397:.
385:,
381:,
377:,
365:,
361:,
357:,
353:,
345:,
341:,
337:,
293:,
273:,
269:,
251:Ma
188:,
184:,
117:,
113:,
109:,
903:)
899:(
870:e
863:t
856:v
839:.
819:"
815:"
803:.
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