659:, and all their goods were seized and placed in the Egyptian treasury. The Sultan ordered the Venetian sailors and merchants to be placed in prisons. This made the Republic of Venice speak officially with the Sultanate of Egypt, and they sent a high-ranking official delegation with a lot of gifts. The delegation, when it met al-Ashraf Khalil, completely denied any relationship linking them to the pirates who kidnapped the Egyptian sailors, and that they did not know anything about this subject. Sultan al-Ashraf Khalil was very mad and was determined and told them that the Venetian prisoners will not be released except when the Egyptian sailors and merchants return. Later they reached an agreement in the end that the Venetians would pay a very large ransom to release their captives, in addition to that they would hand over the pirates to Egypt and return the kidnapped Egyptians. After that, the Venetians asked the
744:. Mongol messengers were sent to watch the soldiers. Most of the people of Cairo and Egypt went out to see the parade of the soldiers. It was a memorable day. The Sultan rode after the noon call to prayer, wearing a qarqal (an iron plate covered with brocade), and a keffiyeh over his head, and a shattaf in his hand. He entered the field, followed by the princes, one by one, with the latest war machines on them, and each of them carrying a spear on their robes. They fought and fled, displaying their war flags, until the afternoon call to prayer came. This was the third military parade he presented during his sultanate. When their matter was over, he came down, took off his clothes, and made himself ready. He summoned the Mongol messengers and said to them:
2064:
2057:
852:
646:, becoming the only Egyptian Sultan who thought about that. It was logical at the time that he would think about invading Venice, as the Egyptian army at that time was considered one of the strongest armies in the world and in less than 3 years, he eliminated the last 8 Crusader states in Palestine and invaded the Armenian kingdom of Cilicia. This also does not prevent the difficulty or near impossibility of invading Venice due to its naval power, its impregnable geographical location, the country's support for the Crusades and its location which is close to the
454:
619:, the treasury of the Kingdom of Makuria has become empty and he will not be able to pay the imposed taxes and royalties. The Egyptian Sultan al-Ashraf Khalil was known for his temper, so he sent a letter full of threats and promises to the Makurian king, a letter that struck terror in Samamoun’s heart to the point that he described his country as being ruled by women. However, these words did not fool Sultan Khalil, who went on to order the movement of the Egyptian army under the leadership of
45:
450:, which controlled the fortress. By 17 June, the Mamluks captured Acre, and a number of its inhabitants fled by sea. Remaining Crusader defenders held out in some of the towers in the city, but after further fighting they surrendered. Al-Ashraf Khalil ordered the execution of the remaining defenders and inhabitants. After abundant amounts of loot were plundered from the city by the Mamluk troops, al-Ashraf Khalil had Acre's fortifications destroyed.
886:
Nation and the
Revitalizer of the Abbasid Caliphate) and al-Sultan al-Malik al-Ashraf Salah al-Donya wa al-Din Qasim Amir al-mu'minin (The Sultan King al-Ashraf reform of temporal world and faith sharer of the Emir of the faithful), "Emir of the faithful" being the title of the Abbasid Caliph. His father Qalawun was also mentioned on Al-Ashraf's coins as: Mawlana al-Sultan al-Malik al-Mansur (Our benefactor the Sultan King al-Mansur).
385:
522:
362:(commander in chief). The frequent exchanging of offices between the Mansuri emirs and their frequent imprisonment and release was a phenomenon that marked al-Ashraf Khalil's three-year reign. According to historian Amir Mazor, "Al-Ashraf Khalil's policy toward the Mansuriyya was totally arbitrary, haphazard and lacked long-term political vision", but he nonetheless did not target the Mansuri
809:, a policy which contributed in the intensification of the rivalry among the Mamluks. After his victories against the Franks, arrogance got hold of al-Ashraf Khalil, he treated the Emirs roughly and began to sign messages and documents with the letter "KH" only. In addition, his Vizier Ibn al-Salus was envied by many Emirs and by the vice-Sultan
675:. The Egyptian Sultan al-Ashraf, who was known for his extreme pride and temper, ordered immediately to prepare and build 100 huge warships to invade all of Cyprus. He preferred to oversee the construction of these ships himself, and every now and then he would visit the ports and repeat the same sentence, with anger in his face:
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unite against Egypt. The Sultan, in light of his thoughts about invading Venice, gave orders to the
Egyptian Navy to arrest any ship belonging to the Republic of Venice that entered the Egyptian coast, even if for the purpose of trade. In fact, the Egyptian Navy arrested Venetian ships that landed in
470:
The news of the conquest of Acre reached
Damascus and Cairo. Al-Ashraf Khalil entered the decorated city of Damascus with Franks chained at the feet and the captured crusader standards which were carried upside-down as a sign of their defeat. After celebrating his victory in Damascus, Khalil left for
936:
Before the arrest of
Baydara he was asked by Baibars, Emir of Jandar, whether other Emirs knew about his plan to kill Al-Ashraf. He answered: "Yes, I killed him according to their advice and under their eyes" then he added the reasons for killing him which included: "He did not respect the Emirs and
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in 1266. During the reign of
Baibars' son Solmish he was the deputy of the Sultan in Damascus. During the reign of Qalawun he proclaimed himself a Sultan while in Damascus, taking the royal name al-Malik al-Kamil. He fought a few battles against Qalawun's Emirs but was pardoned later after he joined
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and heir so that when I go to fight the enemy he replaces me ". As soon as everything was under control the death of Al-Ahraf Khalil was revealed to the public in Egypt and Syria. He was buried in a mausoleum attached to a madrasa that he commissioned and built in 1288 (prior to his accession to the
813:
in particular. Ibn al-Salus who, originally, was neither a Mamluk nor an Emir but a merchant from
Damascus, became the most influential official during the reign of Khalil. While Al-Ashraf was rough on the Emirs, he was very generous towards Ibn al-Salus who did not treat the Emirs with respect. Ibn
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as the new Sultan with
Kitbugha as vice-Sultan and al-Shuja‘i as the new Vizier. But the death of Al-Ashraf Khalil was concealed for some time. While Al-Ashraf was dead, his brother Al-Nasir Muhammad was proclaimed Vice-Sultan and heir. A message from Egypt to the Syrian Emirs said: "I appointed my
796:
Militarily, Al-Ashraf Khalil possessed the vigor and capability of two of his predecessors, Baibars and his father
Qalawun. But many Emirs disliked him. He started his reign by executing and imprisoning a few prominent Emirs of his father, among them the vice-Sultan Turuntay. During the battle for
278:
Qalawun had proclaimed as-Salih Ali as his heir apparent in 1280. From that point on, as-Salih Ali's name was added next to
Qalawun's name in treaties. Khalil's name also began to be added to treaties in the regal style of "al-Malik al-Ashraf" starting in 1285 in the treaty between Qalawun and the
274:
emir of
Qalawun. As-Salih Ali, al-Ashraf Khalil's brother, married Ardukin's sister, and both wives were chosen by Qalawun's second wife because of their Mongol ethnicity, which was considered prestigious by the Mamluks. Khalil had two daughters with Ardukin, who are unnamed in the Mamluk sources.
1903:
1430:
885:
Coins of al-Ashraf Khalil were unique in Mamluk coinage history. New kinds of titles were inscribed on his coins, including: al-Sultan al-Malik al-Ashraf Salah al-Din Nasir al-Milah al-Muhamadiyah Muhyyi al-Dawalah al-Abasiyah (The Sultan King al-Ashraf Salah al-Din the Promoter of the Muhammadan
834:
and called Lajin, Qara Sunqur and other Emirs and together they decided to kill the Sultan. On 14 December, while the Sultan was walking with his friend Emir Shihab ad-Din Ahmad he was attacked and assassinated by Baydara and his followers. The Emirs who struck the Sultan after Baydara were Hosam
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by more than 30 catapults and was captured after 30 days by Khalil, who renamed it Qal'at al-Muslimin (Castle of the Muslims). Khalil left Emir al-Shuja‘i at the castle and returned to Damascus with prisoners. The population of Damascus bid farewell to the victorious Sultan on his way to Cairo at
847:
and his head was sent to Cairo. Ibn al-Salus was arrested in Alexandria and was sent to Cairo where he was mistreated and at last beaten to death. The Emirs who were involved in the assassination of Al-Ashraf Khalil were severely punished and executed. Lajin and Qara Sunqur fled and disappeared.
415:, but died outside of Cairo shortly after. With the siege plans having already been prepared by Qalawun and his lieutenants, al-Ashraf Khalil resumed his father's offensive on 2 March 1291. As he led the Mamluk army of Egypt, he sent orders to the Mamluk emirs of Syria, including the sultanate's
311:
Al-Ashraf Khalil succeeded Qalawun following the latter's death on 9 November 1290. He prevented Qalawun's burial for two months, either as a precaution to ensure his smooth succession or to wait until Qalawun's mausoleum was completed. With his ascendancy, al-Ashraf Khalil absorbed his father's
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from my brother, so if he does not allow that, I rode and conquered it with my troops, ravaged his country, killed his men, took it by force and appointed a representative there. Baghdad is the house of Islam and I wish to return it back to Islam but let him know we will see who enters whose
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the Mamluks of his father. He made Ibn Al-Salus a Vizier. He arrested Izz ad-Din al-Afram and executed Sunqur al-Ashqar and others. He promoted his Mamluks to the rank of Emir". When he was asked whether Kitbugha knew about his plan, he replied: "Yes, he was the first one to suggest it."
748:"Inform my brother Gaykhatu that whoever has such soldiers with him does not stop entering your country or the country of others. I swear on my father's grave, I will enter his place and destroy the homes of all the Mongols and make it an Islamic country until the
610:
agreement. The Makurian king Samamoun thought that the new Egyptian Sultan was weak and young, and this was a great misconception on his part, and after a letter that was completely deceptive to al-Ashraf Khalil in which he said that due to the attacks of the
295:(diploma of investiture) confirming al-Ashraf Khalil's appointment. The reason for Qalawun's apparent hesitance is not clear, but he may have considered al-Ashraf Khalil unsuitable for the sultanate or was wary of the enmity between al-Ashraf Khalil and the
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tried to act but he died in 1292, and the European kings, who became involved in internal conflicts and struggles, became unable to organize new effective crusades. As for the Templars, they were accused of heresy in Europe and badly persecuted by King
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to bring materials and to collect the taxes. Arriving at Alexandria, Ibn Al-Salus found out that the deputies of Baydara had already taken everything. On receiving a message from Ibn Al-Salus with this news, Al-Ashraf summoned Baydara to his
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Al-Ashraf Khalil ruled about three years and two months. He had two daughters. Besides being remembered as the conqueror of Acre, he was remembered by Muslim historians as an intelligent Sultan who was fond of reading and learning.
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In the royal procession following al-Ashraf Khalil's accession to the throne, Turuntay launched an assassination attempt against al-Ashraf Khalil, but it failed. Instead, al-Ashraf Khalil had Turuntay imprisoned in the
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south of Acre, was taken and on 7 August, al-Ashraf Khalil returned to Cairo in triumph as the "final victor in the long struggle with the Crusaders", according to historian Peter Malcolm Holt.
518:
night with thousands of lighted candles. The Sultan entered Cairo through the Victory Gate (Bab al-Nasr) and was greeted by the celebrating population, also with thousands of lighted candles .
914:
Shams ad-Din Sunqur al-Ashqar, was a prominent Emir and one of the most devoted Bahri Emirs since days of Sultan Baibars. He was taken prisoner by the Armenians and was freed in exchange for
474:
Following Acre's capture, al-Ashraf Khalil and his generals proceeded to wrest control of the remaining Crusader-held fortresses along the Syrian coast. Within weeks, the Mamluks conquered
443:(led by Baibars al-Dawadar). There are no reliable figures for the size of the Mamluk army, but it was likely a significantly larger force than that of the Crusader defenders of Acre.
1232:
Pope Nicholas IV was a promoter of the crusaders. After Qalawun recaptured Tripoli in 1289, Nicholas sent twenty galleys, which were armed in Venice, to the aid of the city of Acre.
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against Egypt ended in a complete failure, but the crusaders tried to keep their strongholds on the Syrian coast intact, hoping to be able one day to recapture what they had lost.
814:
al-Salus was involved in the unjustly persecution of the supreme judge of Egypt Ibn Bint al-A'az, as he was involved in provoking the Sultan against Baydara on several occasions.
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to mediate with them in Egypt, and a peace treaty was concluded between the Sultanate of Egypt and the Republic of Venice through the mediation of the Spanish Kingdom of Aragon.
736:
He took them out to where he had dropped them off and immediately wrote to the deputies of the Levant to prepare the accommodation and to get the soldiers ready to cross the
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in 1291. While walking with a friend, Khalil was attacked and assassinated by Baydara (his commander in chief) and his followers, who was then killed under the orders of
338:. After being heavily tortured for three days, Turuntay was put to death in November. He was briefly replaced by Emir ‘Alam al-Din Sanjar al-Shuja‘i al-Mansuri (
471:
Cairo which was also decorated and celebrating. Arriving at Cairo, he ordered the release of Philip Mainebeuf and the men who accompanied him to Cairo earlier.
2056:
283:. When as-Salih Ali died in 1288, Qalawun appointed al-Ashraf Khalil as his co-sultan. While al-Ashraf Khalil's name was read alongside Qalawun's name in the
623:
1908:
1183:
The gate of the San Andreas Church was transported from Acre to Cairo to be used in the Al-Ashraf's Mosque which the Sultan was building. Asili, p. 123
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Also the chronicler Ludolph of Suchem described Al-Ashrafe Khalil as "an exceedingly wise man".Ludolphi, Rectoris Ecclesiæ Parochialis in suchem, p.42
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and proclaimed Baydara the new Sultan. But Baydara was soon arrested by the Sultani Mamluks and Emirs. Baydara was killed by the Sultani Emirs led by
2006:
688:
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ad-Din Lajin and Bahadir Ras Nubah followed by other Emirs. After the assassination of Al-Ashraf Khalil, Baydara and his followers went to the
784:; Constantinople), and Iraq, and we will possess the countries from the setting of the sun to the rising of the sun, and God will support me."
1805:
1726:
From Slave to Sultan: The Career of Al-Manṣūr Qalāwūn and the Consolidation of Mamluk Rule in Egypt and Syria (678-689 A.H./1279-1290 A.D.)
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were given to the Sultan in order to maintain peace. The Armenian kingdom had thus began to diminish much like its allied Crusader states.
683:
This means that Cyprus will be buried, but unfortunately, the Sultan died later and the dream of invading Cyprus died until the era of
946:
Lajin appeared sometime after the assassination of Al-Ashraf Khalil. He was pardoned by al-Nasir Muhammad who became the new Sultan.
2425:
1201:
Abu Al-Fida, p.386/ vol.13. According to Al-Maqrizi, al-Ashraf besieged Qal'at ar-Rum with 20 catapults. Al-Maqrizi, p.233/vol.2
1999:
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234:. He served from 12 November 1290 until his assassination in December 1293. He was well known for conquering the last of the
2430:
1563:
According to Al-Maqrizi this letter was sent according to the instruction given by Emir al-Shuja‘i. Al-Maqrizi, p.249/vol.2
626:, who moved from Cairo and arrived in Makuria and won a decisive victory over the Makurian forces. He entered the capital,
606:
as ordered by Qalawun, and it annually sent the taxes and royalties imposed on it by Egypt in accordance with the ancient
589:
After the death of the Sultan of Egypt, Qalawun, and the ascension of his son, Sultan Khalil, to the throne of Egypt, the
2200:
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Then he sent them back, and wrote urging the deputies, but his death was soon before he reached his hope following that.
2333:
2212:
1891:
1825:
1785:
1764:
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1648:
1591:
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780:"I am the king of the world and the sultan of the earth. God willing, we will conquer the East (Persia), the Rums (
612:
630:, and plundered it completely. King Samamoun fled from Makuria as he had fled before in the campaigns of Qalawun.
2158:
2363:
2321:
1865:. Translated by Aubrey Stewart. London: Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, 1895. Reprinted in James Brundage,
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and invade Baghdad. He presented to the princes and soldiers of Egypt to put on the war machine and come to
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and Ahmad, and two sisters. In 1284, Khalil married Ardukin, the daughter of Sayf ad-Din Nukih ibn Bayan, a
923:
534:
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2309:
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The Rise and Fall of a Muslim Regiment: The Mansuriyya in the First Mamluk Sultanate, 678/1279–741/1341
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Ludolphi, Rectoris Ecclesiæ Parochialis in suchem, de itinere Terræ Sanctæ, University of Michigan 1851
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my brother the Khan agreed to what was in my mind and I talked about it with my princes that I request
446:
In May 1291, al-Ashraf Khalil's army launched the assault against Acre. Heavy fighting ensued with the
642:. This act angered al-Ashraf Khalil’s to the point that he began to actually think about invading the
509:(Castle of the Romans) and was known as Hromgla in Armenian. Qal'at ar-Rum, which was the seat of the
2387:
919:
303:
of Egypt), Emir Husam ad-Din Turuntay, who had been a strong advocate for as-Salih Ali's accession.
266:(r. 1279–1290) and his mother was a woman named Qutqutiya. Khalil had three brothers, as-Salih Ali,
2297:
2019:
1930:
870:
603:
103:
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The Armenian Kingdom and the Mamluks: War and Diplomacy During the Reigns of Hetʻum II (1289-1307)
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In December 1293, Al-Ashraf Khalil, accompanied by Ibn al-Salus, Baydara and other Emirs went to
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when the Cypriots attacked the ship of the Egyptian merchant Ahmad bin al-Hameem, and Egypt was
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2261:
2015:
1966:
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State Formation and the Structure of Politics in Mamluk Syro-Egypt, 648-741 A.H./1250-1340 C.E.
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One of these conflicts was the war that broke out between England and France in 1293. see also
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and insulted and threatened him in the presence of other Emirs. The distressed Baydar left the
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55:
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of Cairo, is partly ruined today, though the domed structure over his tomb remains standing.
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in northern Egypt on a bird-hunting expedition. He sent Ibn Al-Salus to the nearby city of
538:
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389:
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243:
258:
Khalil's exact year of birth is not known, although according to the Mamluk-era historian
8:
2369:
2170:
1255:
1240:
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After the death of Al-Ashraf Khalil, the Emirs decided to install his 9-year-old brother
741:
574:
116:
2375:
2345:
2315:
2146:
1495:
1411:
Al-Maqrizi, pp.221–222 and 251/vol.2. Ibn Taghri, p.45/vol.8. Abu Al-Fida, p.395/vol.13
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Acre he arrested Hosam ad-Din Lajin and later after he returned to Cairo he executed
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sent his messengers with a threatening letter to the Sultan al-Ashraf Khalil saying:
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The Islamic World from Classical to Modern Times: Essays in Honor of Bernard Lewis
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Translated by Abu L-Mahasin ibn Taghri Birdi, University of California Press 1954
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and head toward Acre. The other Syrian Mamluk armies were from Damascus (led by
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sermon) and the emirs swore their allegiance to him, Qalawun did not sign the
2409:
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1922:
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350:ʿAlam ad-Dīn Sanǧar aš-Šuǧāʿī al-Manṣūrī) until the latter was dispatched to
335:
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224:
176:
20:
2393:
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arrived in Damascus and then travelled via Aleppo to besiege the castle of
461:, the last Crusader outpost in Syria conquered by al-Ashraf Khalil's forces
408:
1984:
1810:. (The historian Abu al-Fida took part in the sieges of Tripoli and Acre.)
715:
by his sword, if you do not allow that, then he will cross to the Levant."
638:
In 1292, Venetian pirates kidnapped Egyptian sailors and merchants in the
44:
2381:
1801:
806:
712:
651:
494:. In August, the last Crusader outpost in Syria, the Templar fortress of
319:
1640:
The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517
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Holt, P. M. (1973). "The sultanate of al-Mansūr Lāchīn (696–8/1296–9)".
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as a faction and did not replace Mansuri officeholders with his Ashrafi
2351:
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1813:
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844:
822:
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Al-Ashraf Khalil immediately responded to them, while smiling and said:
656:
1542:
Baibars al-Jashnikir (Baibars II) became Sultan of Egypt in 1308. See
330:
regiment in the sultanate and al-Ashraf Khalil sought to co-opt them.
801:, and a few Emirs. Khalil continued his father's policy of replacing
737:
537:, but an Armenian embassy in Damascus had made terms with him first.
400:
262:, he died "in his thirties or less". He was the second son of Sultan
259:
1909:
A letter from Egyptian Sultan Al-Ashraf Khalil to William of Beaujeu
2092:
1886:, Published by Crawford, P., Ashgate Publishing. Ltd, Cyprus 2003.
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700:
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351:
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The crusaders' kingdom of Jerusalem had already been destroyed by
384:
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2080:
1708:. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Unipress and Bonn University Press.
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1323:الألطاف الخفية من السيرة الشريفة السلطانية الأشرفية الجزء الثالث
1303:الألطاف الخفية من السيرة الشريفة السلطانية الأشرفية الجزء الثالث
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The Sultan returned to Damascus and assembled an army to invade
2249:
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Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture
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corps, the Ashrafiyya. The Mansuriyya were the most powerful
204:
99:
1774:
Clifford, Winslow William (2013). Conermann, Stephan (ed.).
1586:. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 142–143.
971:"A Mamluk Amir's Mamluk History: Baybars al-Mansuri and the
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and reside in it, it belongs to the conquests of his father
354:
and replaced by Emir Baydara. Al-Ashraf Khalil made Baydara
341:عَلَمُ الدِّينِ سَنْجَرُ الشُّجَاعِيُّ المَنْصُورِيُّ
773:
769:
764:
Al-Ashraf Khalil once stated that he has plans of invading
607:
595:
420:
1223:
moved to Sis after al-Ashraf Khalil captured Qal'at ar-Rum
671:
In late 1292, Cypriots kidnapped Egyptian sailors in the
1818:
Al-Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi Dhikr al-Khitat wa al-'athar
1663:
Mamalik Misr wa Alsham (Mamluks of Egypt and the Levant)
791:
465:
1480:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
855:
Mausoleum of al-Ashraf Khalil in Cairo, built in 1288
223:; c. 1260s – 14 December 1293) was the eighth Turkic
501:
In 1292, Al-Ashraf Khalil accompanied by his vizier
399:
in 1289 and made clear his determination to end the
1863:
Description of the Holy Land and of the Way Thither
1846:
Description Topographique et Historique de l'Egypte
1554:
Ibn Taghri, p.40/ vol.8. Al-Maqrizi, p.255/ vol.2 .
1266:
1383:. General Egyptian Book Organisation. p. 239.
979:The Historiography of Islamic Egypt: (c. 950–1800)
602:, Izz al-Din Aidmar and Sanjar al-Masrouri in the
213:Al-Malik Al-Ashraf Salāh ad-Dīn Khalil ibn Qalawūn
150:Al-Malik al-Ashraf Salah ad-Din Khalil ibn Qalawun
788:But unfortunately he dies before achieving them.
2407:
1869:, Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press 1962
1856:al-Nujum al-Zahirah Fi Milook Misr wa al-Qahirah
1630:Al-Zahir Baibars and the End of the Old Crusades
1581:
634:Threatening the Republic of Venice with invasion
1285:
615:on his kingdom during the reign of Qalawun and
1841:, Chronicles of the Crusades, AMS Press, 1969.
1393:Al-Maqrizi, p.51, 121, 127, 131–133, 145/vol.2
1126:
1124:
869:throne). His funerary complex, located in the
407:. In November 1290, he began his march toward
2000:
1530:Kitbugha became Sultan of Egypt in 1295. See
1290:. Anglo-Egyptian Bookshop. pp. 154, 155.
1028:
1026:
1016:
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1004:
1002:
1000:
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1839:The Road to Knowledge of the Return of Kings
1444:Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1 January 1989).
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922:who was captured during the invasion of the
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2014:
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525:The Kingdom of Cilician Armenia, 1199–1375.
113:14 December 1293 (age early 30s or younger)
2007:
1993:
1381:عقد الجمان في تاريخ أهل الزمان الجزء الأول
1161:
1159:
1157:
1155:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1147:
1145:
1023:
1011:
995:
650:, which will make the entire European and
43:
1320:
1300:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1099:
1080:
1078:
1076:
1066:
1064:
959:
864:brother al-Malik al-Nasir Muhammad as my
1773:
1743:
1722:
1669:
1443:
1363:: دار الغرب الإسلامي. pp. 803, 804.
968:
850:
520:
452:
383:
16:Sultan of Egypt and Syria (r. 1290–1293)
1752:
1378:
1142:
2408:
1832:Al-Selouk Leme'refatt Dewall al-Melouk
1350:
1096:
1087:
1073:
1061:
221:الملك الأشرف صلاح الدين خليل بن قلاوون
1988:
1701:
1665:(in Arabic). Beirut: Aldar Alarabiya.
1660:
1627:
1374:
1372:
1370:
1346:
1344:
1342:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1332:
1316:
1314:
1312:
1035:
1636:
1477:
792:Domestic conflicts and assassination
466:Capture of other Crusader fortresses
1867:The Crusades: A Documentary History
1746:A History of the Crusades, Volume 3
1267:Abdel Fattah Ashour, Saeed (1972).
927:Qalawun's army against the Mongols.
759:
679:"Cyprus... Cyprus... to the grave"
457:Remains of the Templar fortress of
373:
340:
220:
65:12 November 1290 – 14 December 1293
13:
1795:
1643:. Addison Wesley Longman Limited.
1367:
1329:
1309:
1041:
584:
318:into his own 1,200-strong, mostly
14:
2457:
1897:
1402:In Arabic "Kh" is one letter (خ).
1286:Muhammad Musaad, Mostafa (1960).
2135:Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Jashnakir
2062:
2055:
1884:, Chronicle (Getes des Chiprois)
1582:Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2007).
1288:الإسلام والنوبة في العصور الوسطى
1275:: Dar al-Nahda. pp. 94, 95.
694:
593:which had been conquered by the
1874:History of Egypt, 1382–1469 AD.
1820:, Matabat Aladab, Cairo, 1996,
1807:The Concise History of Humanity
1621:
1609:
1600:
1575:
1566:
1557:
1548:
1536:
1524:
1515:
1506:
1471:
1423:
1414:
1405:
1396:
1387:
1294:
1279:
1260:
1248:
1226:
1213:
1204:
1195:
1186:
1177:
1168:
1133:
1112:
940:
930:
908:
388:An 1840 painting depicting the
2426:13th-century murdered monarchs
2165:Imad al-Din Abu'l Fida Isma'il
1971:November 1290 – December 1293
1844:(In French) Bouriant, Urbain,
230:sultan, succeeding his father
1:
1753:Stewart, Angus Donal (2001).
1450:. Darwin Press. p. 143.
1379:al-Ayni, Badr al-Din (1992).
1269:العصر المماليكي في مصر والشام
977:. In Kennedy, Hugh N. (ed.).
953:
253:
1858:, Dar al-Kotob, Beirut, 1992
1673:Syria & Lebanon Handbook
1637:Holt, Peter Malcolm (1986).
1572:Al-Maqrizi, pp.249–250/vol.2
1271:(in Arabic) (2nd ed.).
1044:"The Qalawunids: A Pedigree"
969:Richards, Donald S. (2001).
7:
2431:13th-century Mamluk sultans
1321:بن عبد الظاهر, محيي الدين.
1301:بن عبد الظاهر, محيي الدين.
1139:Northrup 1998, pp. 157–158.
924:Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
889:
535:Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
49:Coinage of al-Ashraf Khalil
10:
2462:
2310:Al-Aziz Jamal al-Din Yusuf
1353:المقفي الكبير الجزء الثالث
880:
707:"The Khan wishes to enter
667:Incomplete Cyprus invasion
395:Qalawun had conquered the
377:
18:
2228:
2071:
2053:
2026:
1973:
1967:Sultan of Egypt and Syria
1964:
1956:
1951:
1916:
1744:Runciman, Steven (1987).
1512:Ibn Taghri, p. 18/ vol.8.
1492:10.1017/S0041977X00119834
1351:al-Maqrizi, Taqi al-Din.
312:roughly 6,000 Mansuriyya
200:
192:
182:
170:
158:
149:
144:
140:
130:
122:
109:
93:
89:
79:
69:
61:
56:Sultan of Egypt and Syria
54:
42:
35:
30:
2298:Al-Nasir al-Din Muhammad
1729:. Franz Steiner Verlag.
1723:Northrup, Linda (1998).
1521:Al-Maqrizi, p.247/ vol2.
1210:al-Maqrizi, p.234/ vol.2
901:
752:, unless my time comes!"
604:Fourth battle of Dongola
306:
19:Not to be confused with
2441:Muslims of the Crusades
1872:William Popper, Yusef,
1780:Bonn University Press.
1678:Footprint Travel Guides
1670:Mannheim, Ivan (2001).
1632:. Beirut: Dar Alnafaes.
1049:. University of Chicago
2340:Sayf al-Din Khushqadam
2262:Izz al-Din Abd al-Aziz
1661:Mahdi, Shafik (2008).
1192:Ibn Taghri, p.9/ vol.8
1130:Northrup 1998, p. 157.
1109:Mazor 2015, pp. 75–76.
1032:Northrup 1998, p. 117.
1020:Northrup 1998, p. 158.
1008:Northrup 1998, p. 143.
856:
786:
754:
734:
717:
699:In 1293, Mongol ruler
681:
526:
462:
425:al-Muzaffar III Mahmud
392:
2201:Salah al-Din Muhammad
2141:Nasir al-Din Muhammad
2129:Nasir al-Din Muhammad
2111:Nasir al-Din Muhammad
1834:, Dar al-Kotob, 1997.
981:. Brill. p. 37.
854:
778:
746:
721:
705:
677:
600:Izz al-Din al-Kawrani
533:, the capital of the
524:
456:
411:, the capital of the
387:
2382:Sayf al-Din Tumanbay
2358:Sayf al-Din Qa'itbay
2147:Sayf al-Din Abu Bakr
2117:Zayn al-Din Kitbugha
2093:Badr al-Din Salamish
2087:Nasir al-Din Barakah
1928:Cadet branch of the
1702:Mazor, Amir (2015).
845:Baibars al-Jashnikir
511:Patriarch of Armenia
439:(led by Bilban) and
427:, to assemble their
413:Kingdom of Jerusalem
380:Siege of Acre (1291)
2334:Shihab al-Din Ahmad
2322:Fakhr al-Din Uthman
2304:Sayf al-Din Barsbay
2207:Zayn al-Din Sha'ban
2171:Sayf al-Din Sha'ban
2159:Shihab al-Din Ahmad
2105:Salah al-Din Khalil
2099:Sayf al-Din Qalawun
2081:Rukn al-Din Baybars
1861:Ludolph of Suchem,
1256:Philip IV of France
1241:Gestes des Chiprois
750:Day of Resurrection
742:Salah al-Din Square
624:Izz al-Din al-Afram
575:Philip IV of France
2376:Al-Ashraf Janbalat
2346:Sayf al-Din Bilbay
2316:Sayf al-Din Jaqmaq
2280:Al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh
2274:Al-Musta'in Billah
2268:Nasir al-Din Faraj
2256:Nasir al-Din Faraj
2250:Sayf al-Din Barquq
2238:Sayf al-Din Barquq
2219:Salah al-Din Hajji
2189:Salah al-Din Salih
2153:Ala'a al-Din Kujuk
2123:Husam al-Din Lajin
1628:Asili, B. (1992).
1165:Holt 1986, p. 104.
1118:Mazor 2015, p. 78.
1093:Holt 1986, p. 106.
1084:Mazor 2015, p. 75.
1070:Holt 1986, p. 103.
1042:Bauden, Frédéric.
857:
689:fed up with Cyprus
644:Republic of Venice
591:Kingdom of Makuria
527:
463:
393:
390:1291 Siege of Acre
37:Al-Malik al-Ashraf
2446:Qalawunid dynasty
2403:
2402:
2364:An-Nasir Muhammad
2292:Sayf al-Din Tatar
2286:Al-Muzaffar Ahmad
2195:Badr al-Din Hasan
2183:Badr al-Din Hasan
2177:Sayf al-Din Hajji
2046:Sayf al-Din Qutuz
1983:
1982:
1977:An-Nasir Muhammad
1974:Succeeded by
1960:Al-Mansur Qalawun
1918:Al-Ashraf Khalil
1904:Map of Kom Turuga
1687:978-1-900949-90-3
871:Southern Cemetery
861:Al-Nasir Muhammad
732:country's first."
685:al-Ashraf Barsbay
673:Mediterranean Sea
661:Kingdom of Aragon
640:Mediterranean Sea
560:and Qalawun, and
397:County of Tripoli
349:
268:an-Nasir Muhammad
210:
209:
187:Al-Mansur Qalawun
165:Qalawunid dynasty
154:
153:
84:An-Nasir Muhammad
74:Al-Mansur Qalawun
2453:
2388:Qansuh al-Ghawri
2370:Abu Sa'id Qansuh
2328:Sayf al-Din Inal
2213:Ala'a al-Din Ali
2066:
2059:
2034:Izz al-Din Aybak
2009:
2002:
1995:
1986:
1985:
1957:Preceded by
1947:
1946:14 December 1293
1940:
1931:Mamluk Sultanate
1914:
1913:
1837:Bohn, Henry G.,
1791:
1770:
1749:
1748:. Penguin Books.
1740:
1719:
1698:
1696:
1694:
1666:
1654:
1633:
1616:
1613:
1607:
1604:
1598:
1597:
1579:
1573:
1570:
1564:
1561:
1555:
1552:
1546:
1540:
1534:
1532:al-Adil Kitbugha
1528:
1522:
1519:
1513:
1510:
1504:
1503:
1475:
1469:
1468:
1466:
1464:
1441:
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1252:
1246:
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1230:
1224:
1217:
1211:
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1202:
1199:
1193:
1190:
1184:
1181:
1175:
1172:
1166:
1163:
1140:
1137:
1131:
1128:
1119:
1116:
1110:
1107:
1094:
1091:
1085:
1082:
1071:
1068:
1059:
1058:
1056:
1054:
1048:
1039:
1033:
1030:
1021:
1018:
1009:
1006:
993:
992:
966:
947:
944:
938:
934:
928:
918:the son of King
912:
799:Sunqur al-Ashqar
760:Future ambitions
570:Pope Nicholas IV
374:Conquest of Acre
360:atabeg al-asakir
356:na'ib as-saltana
345:
343:
342:
297:na'ib as-saltana
222:
142:
141:
104:Mamluk Sultanate
47:
28:
27:
2461:
2460:
2456:
2455:
2454:
2452:
2451:
2450:
2406:
2405:
2404:
2399:
2224:
2067:
2061:
2060:
2051:
2022:
2013:
1979:
1970:
1962:
1941:
1935:
1934:
1926:
1919:
1900:
1882:Templar of Tyre
1798:
1796:Primary sources
1788:
1767:
1737:
1716:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1651:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1610:
1605:
1601:
1594:
1580:
1576:
1571:
1567:
1562:
1558:
1553:
1549:
1541:
1537:
1529:
1525:
1520:
1516:
1511:
1507:
1476:
1472:
1462:
1460:
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1442:
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1429:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1415:
1410:
1406:
1401:
1397:
1392:
1388:
1377:
1368:
1349:
1330:
1319:
1310:
1299:
1295:
1284:
1280:
1265:
1261:
1253:
1249:
1244:, P.101/ part 3
1236:Templar of Tyre
1233:
1231:
1227:
1218:
1214:
1209:
1205:
1200:
1196:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1178:
1173:
1169:
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1143:
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1129:
1122:
1117:
1113:
1108:
1097:
1092:
1088:
1083:
1074:
1069:
1062:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1040:
1036:
1031:
1024:
1019:
1012:
1007:
996:
989:
973:Zubdat al-Fikra
967:
960:
956:
951:
950:
945:
941:
935:
931:
913:
909:
904:
892:
883:
794:
762:
738:Euphrates River
697:
669:
652:Christian world
636:
587:
585:Sack of Dongola
566:Seventh Crusade
468:
448:Knights Templar
382:
376:
309:
256:
236:Crusader states
114:
98:
50:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2459:
2449:
2448:
2443:
2438:
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2428:
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2398:
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2373:
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2355:
2349:
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2325:
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2313:
2307:
2301:
2295:
2289:
2283:
2277:
2271:
2265:
2259:
2253:
2247:
2244:As-Salih Hajji
2241:
2234:
2232:
2226:
2225:
2223:
2222:
2216:
2210:
2204:
2198:
2192:
2186:
2180:
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2168:
2162:
2156:
2150:
2144:
2138:
2132:
2126:
2120:
2114:
2108:
2102:
2096:
2090:
2084:
2077:
2075:
2069:
2068:
2054:
2052:
2050:
2049:
2043:
2040:Nur al-Din Ali
2037:
2030:
2028:
2027:Salihi Mamluks
2024:
2023:
2016:Mamluk sultans
2012:
2011:
2004:
1997:
1989:
1981:
1980:
1975:
1972:
1963:
1958:
1954:
1953:
1952:Regnal titles
1949:
1948:
1927:
1920:
1917:
1912:
1911:
1906:
1899:
1898:External links
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579:Pope Clement V
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1923:Bahri dynasty
1915:
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1892:1-84014-618-4
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1885:
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1848:, Paris, 1895
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1826:977-241-175-X
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1457:9780878500666
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1431:"Google Maps"
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1325:. p. 40.
1324:
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1305:. p. 44.
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2416:1260s births
2104:
1965:
1943:
1936:
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1622:Bibliography
1615:Mahdi, p. 97
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2421:1293 deaths
2396:(1516–1517)
2394:Tumanbay II
2390:(1501–1516)
2378:(1500–1501)
2372:(1498–1500)
2366:(1496–1498)
2360:(1468–1496)
2354:(1467–1468)
2342:(1461–1467)
2330:(1453–1461)
2318:(1438–1453)
2306:(1422–1438)
2300:(1421–1422)
2282:(1412–1421)
2270:(1405–1412)
2258:(1399–1405)
2252:(1390–1399)
2246:(1389–1390)
2240:(1382–1389)
2221:(1381–1382)
2215:(1377–1381)
2209:(1363–1377)
2203:(1361–1363)
2197:(1354–1361)
2191:(1351–1354)
2185:(1347–1351)
2179:(1346–1347)
2173:(1345–1346)
2167:(1342–1345)
2155:(1341–1342)
2143:(1310–1341)
2137:(1309–1310)
2131:(1299–1309)
2125:(1296–1299)
2119:(1294–1296)
2113:(1293–1294)
2107:(1290–1293)
2101:(1279–1290)
2089:(1277–1279)
2083:(1260–1277)
2048:(1259–1260)
2042:(1257–1259)
2036:(1250–1257)
1802:Abu al-Fida
1463:15 December
1053:25 February
807:Circassians
713:Hulagu Khan
419:vassals in
70:Predecessor
2410:Categories
2352:Timurbugha
1852:Ibn Taghri
1814:Al-Maqrizi
1544:Baibars II
1486:(3): 521.
954:References
866:Vicegerent
823:Alexandria
782:Byzantines
657:Alexandria
539:Til Hemdun
347:romanised:
320:Circassian
254:Early life
242:after the
1759:. Brill.
1500:162537370
429:mangonels
260:al-Safadi
240:Palestine
196:Qutqutiya
80:Successor
1693:17 March
1221:Holy See
920:Hethum I
896:Kipchaks
890:See also
841:Kitbugha
701:Gaykhatu
562:Louis IX
441:al-Karak
401:Crusader
352:Damascus
279:king of
248:Kitbugha
201:Religion
115:Turuja,
97:c. 1260s
1361:Lebanon
881:Coinage
811:Baydara
803:Turkish
729:Baghdad
648:Vatican
628:Dongola
617:Baybars
558:Baibars
554:Saladin
547:Behesni
437:Tripoli
417:Ayyubid
368:mamluks
364:mamluks
315:mamluks
301:viceroy
285:khutbah
264:Qalawun
232:Qalawun
172:Dynasty
126:Ardukin
123:Consort
117:Buhayra
2384:(1501)
2348:(1467)
2336:(1461)
2324:(1453)
2312:(1438)
2294:(1421)
2288:(1421)
2276:(1412)
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2149:(1341)
2095:(1279)
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1939:c.1260
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828:Dihlis
770:Persia
709:Aleppo
543:Marash
492:Tartus
484:Beirut
423:under
328:mamluk
324:mamluk
272:Mongol
228:Mamluk
217:Arabic
193:Mother
183:Father
31:Khalil
2020:Cairo
1944:Died:
1937:Born:
1496:S2CID
1273:Cairo
1047:(PDF)
902:Notes
819:Turug
596:emirs
496:Atlit
488:Haifa
480:Sidon
459:Atlit
433:Lajin
405:Syria
307:Reign
225:Bahri
205:Islam
177:Bahri
160:House
145:Names
132:Issue
100:Cairo
62:Reign
1888:ISBN
1880:The
1822:ISBN
1782:ISBN
1761:ISBN
1731:ISBN
1710:ISBN
1695:2008
1682:ISBN
1645:ISBN
1588:ISBN
1465:2017
1452:ISBN
1219:The
1055:2016
983:ISBN
843:and
774:Iraq
772:and
621:emir
608:Baqt
577:and
545:and
490:and
476:Tyre
421:Hama
409:Acre
358:and
110:Died
94:Born
2018:of
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916:Leo
564:'s
531:Sis
435:),
293:ahd
238:in
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