Alternatives to animal testing

994:$ 3B per year), time-consuming, low-throughput and often provide results of limited predictive value for human health effects. The low-throughput of current toxicity testing approaches (which are largely the same for industrial chemicals, pesticides and drugs) has led to a backlog of more than 80,000 chemicals to which humans are potentially exposed whose potential toxicity remains largely unknown. In 2007, the National Research Council (NRC) released the report "Toxicity Testing in the 21st Century: A Vision and a Strategy", that charted a long-range strategic plan for transforming toxicity testing. The major components of the plan include the use of predictive, high-throughput cell-based assays (of human origin) to evaluate perturbations in key toxicity pathways, and to conduct targeted testing against those pathways. This approach will greatly accelerate our ability to test the vast "storehouses" of chemical compounds using a rational, risk-based approach to chemical prioritization, and provide test results that are hopefully far more predictive of human toxicity than current methods. Although a number of toxicity pathways have already been identified, most are only partially known and no common annotation exists. Mapping the entirety of these pathways (i.e. the Human Toxome) will be a large-scale effort, perhaps on the order of the 1747:(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) is a forum for discussion where governments express their points of view, share their experiences, and search for common ground, as opposed to a supranational organization. OECD is a forum where alternative test methods also undergo validation and are therereafter accepted for regulatory purposes in more than 35 member countries worldwide. NGOs are represented at the technical level at the OECD, under the ICOPA International Council on Animal Protection in OECD program. The testing of chemicals is labor-intensive and expensive. Often the same chemical is tested in several countries simultaneously, which means that redundant animal tests are performed. To relieve some of this burden, the OECD Council adopted a decision in 1981, stating that data generated in a member country, in accordance with OECD Test Guidelines and Principles of Good Laboratory Practice (GLP), shall be accepted in other member countries for assessment purposes and other uses relating to the protection of human health and the environment. This principle is referred to using the acronym MAD, for the Mutual Acceptance of Data. 1246:(REACH EC 1907/2006) came into force, relating to chemicals and their safe use. The aim of REACH is to improve the protection of human health and the environment through the better and earlier identification of the intrinsic properties of chemical substances. It promotes the use of alternative methods for animal testing, but does not oblige the test performer to do so; "Article 25.1 - In order to avoid animal testing, testing on vertebrate animals for the purposes of this Regulation shall be undertaken only as a last resort. It is also necessary to take measures limiting duplication of other tests." 870: 1265:, and food flavourings and ingredients intended for human consumption is that none should be put on the market unless they are included on a published Community list of authorised substances, in accordance with the conditions laid down in relevant food law. This approach is intended to bring food producers into compliance with the provisions of Regulation (EC) 1334/2008 that pertain to the safety of food flavourings. As part of the approval process, the EC will require full disclosure of study data, safety issues, and toxicological findings for all such additives. 604: 1381:: "An estimated 12.1 million animals – including dogs, rabbits and even our closest genetic relatives, primates – are used in laboratory research throughout Europe every year. Eurogroup focusses on ensuring their protection and works with legislators, experts and industry with the aim of ultimately replacing all animal experiments with viable alternatives. We continue to actively promote the replacement, reduction and refinement of animal tests and do all we can to improve the lives of those animals currently used for research." 1072: 1054:(FP7) Health Theme. The European Commission is currently funding a number of research consortia to develop new 3Rs (replacement, reduction and refinement) test methods and strategies as potential alternatives to the use of animals in safety testing. Monitoring of these 3Rs activities at pan-European, national, and international levels is vital to facilitate swift progress. AXLR8 aims to fulfil this growing need by providing a focal point for dialogue and collaboration. 8047: 1316:(ESTIV) focuses on New Non-animal Approaches(NAMs) in Toxicology, including in vitro, in silico, and in chemico technologies and promotes science based on the AOPs knowledge. It organises bi-annual conferences in Europe and an annual ESTIV Applied in Toxicology Course, recognised by EUROTOX for obtaining ERT certification. It was established in 1994 and is one of the oldest professional associations in the in vitro and in-silico toxicology in the EU. 1708:(ICATM): On April 27, 2009, the United States, Canada, Japan and EU signed a memorandum of cooperation that could reduce the number of animals required for consumer product safety testing worldwide. The agreement will yield globally coordinated scientific recommendations on alternative toxicity testing methods that should speed their adoption in each of these countries, thus reducing the number of animals needed for product safety testing. 951:, which are just 2 cm (0.79 in) wide, can be engraved into a series of small chambers, each containing a sample of tissue from a different part of the body. A substitute of blood flows through micro-channels where the compartments of chips linked. When injected, the test drug circulates around the device, mimicking what goes in the body on a micro scale. Sensors in the chip transfer information for computer analysis. 1489:"Tierschutz macht Schule" - the Association for Animal Welfare Education - was founded in the course of the implementation of Austria's nationwide animal welfare law. The animal welfare education association aims to improve the living conditions of pets, farm animals, laboratory animals and wild animals through providing knowledge about their needs and behaviour to children, youth and the public. The association offers a 1513:

proposes a modular program ranging from demonstration of these methods to full theoretical and practical laboratory training leading to certification. Based on long-term partnerships with institutional partners in different countries, this program in education allows hands-on training to the methods but also to the scientific and regulatory knowledge important for their implementation and acceptance.

31: 1738:: The International Cooperation on Cosmetics Regulation (ICCR) is an international group of cosmetic regulatory authorities from the United States (FDA), Japan (Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare), the EU (EC, DG Enterprise), and Canada (Health Canada). This multilateral framework maintains the highest level of global consumer protection, while minimizing barriers to international trade. 1416:(HSI) in the US and UK: "Today, scientific and government authorities worldwide are acknowledging the deficiencies of "animal models" and calling for a new approach to safety testing and health research using state-of-the-art techniques. Advances in biology, genetics, computer science and robotics have given scientists new tools to help identify the root causes of human toxicity and disease." 1410:(NEAVS) (United States): "Recognition of the inadequacy of animal toxicity testing has resulted in the development of better techniques ... NEAVS and its programs will help hasten the inevitable and necessary transition away from animal-based experimentation, testing, and teaching, toward science and science education governed by progressive scientific thought and compassionate ethics." 962:(PDMS). However, due to lack of facilities for mass production and drug clearance issue, the use of PDMS is still being speculated, even though it has great properties as microfluidic chip. Also, the biological process involved in proliferation and metabolism might be modified when compared to larger scales, because the materials have micro-structured scales comparable in size to cells. 836:(MIMIC) uses human cells to create a model of the human immune system on which the efficacy of new vaccines and other compounds may be tested, replacing some steps of the vaccine development process that would otherwise be performed on animals. This process is faster and more flexible than previous methods but critics worry that it may be too simple to be useful on a large scale. 1436:"Go cruelty free" The launch of the global "Go Cruelty-Free" campaign occurred in 2012 and every year since the launch there have been more and more contributions from around the globe to help put a stop to using animals for lab testing. The most recent contribution is from Australia in 2019, they banned the use of newly derived animal test data for cosmetics. 1024:(FP7) research initiative and was created through a call for proposals by the European Commission (EC) that was published in June 2009. The Cosmetics Europe industry offered to match the EC's funds to make a total of EUR 50 million available to try to fill current gaps in scientific knowledge and accelerate the development of non-animal test methods. 1337:. Previously known as the Social Housing Symposium, the symposium has occurred annually (except for 2015) since 2013 with past symposia archived on video on the AWIC website. Videos of the most recent symposium, "7th Annual 3Rs Symposium: Practical Solutions and Success Stories", held in June 2020, may also be found on the AWIC website. 1352:: "We do not test finished products on animals unless demanded by the regulatory authorities in the few countries where this is the law. In such cases, we try to convince the local authorities to change the law. Where some testing of ingredients is required by law or currently unavoidable, we aim to minimise the number of animals used." 895:, complete with internal sensors and video, have replaced live animal trauma testing for automobile crash testing. The first of these was "Sierra Sam" built in 1949 by Alderson Research Labs (ARL) Sierra Engineering. These dummies continue to be refined. Prior to this, live pigs were used as test subjects for crash testing. 985:(US) intends to develop in-vitro organs for drug screening and thereby eliminate the use of animals for this type of testing. One model is the "lung-on-a-chip". This combines microfabrication techniques with modern tissue engineering and mimics the complicated mechanical and biochemical behaviours of a human lung. 1358:: "Systematic screening investigations provide information about important toxicological properties of substances at an early stage of development. ... We replace animal experiments whenever an alternative method is available that complies with an OECD Test Guideline and is recognized by the authorities." 955:

apart from basic cell cultures analysed in a Petri dish. The effectiveness of these systems is constantly being increased with various new materials that can be used to make it. An ideal material would be gas permeable but still be able to absorb molecules that would be expected to be found in various drugs

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Schäfer-Korting M, Bock U, Diembeck W, Düsing HJ, Gamer A, Haltner-Ukomadu E, Hoffmann C, Kaca M, Kamp H, Kersen S, Kietzmann M, Korting HC, Krächter HU, Lehr CM, Liebsch M, Mehling A, Müller-Goymann C, Netzlaff F, Niedorf F, Rübbelke MK, Schäfer U, Schmidt E, Schreiber S, Spielmann H, Vuia A, Weimer

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The Lush Prize: "The Lush Prize is a major initiative which will use resources to bring forward the day when safety testing takes place without the use of animals. The Lush Prize will focus pressure on toxicity testing for consumer products and ingredients in a way which complements the many projects

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In July 2013, the commission announced the creation of NETVAL (European Union Network of Laboratories for the Validation of Alternative Methods). EU-NETVAL's primary role is to provide support for EURL ECVAM validation projects, including aspects of training and dissemination, and the identification

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used for the assessment of human safety. SEURAT-1 is composed of six research projects, which started on January 1, 2011 and will run for five years. These projects will closely cooperate with a common goal and combine the research efforts of over 70 European universities, public research institutes

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and mimic the structure and function of different organs such as the brain, liver, lung, kidney, and intestine. Organoids have been developed to study infectious disease. Scientists at Johns Hopkins University have developed mini-brain organoids to model how COVID-19 can affect the brain. Researchers

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Other alternatives include the use of humans for skin irritancy tests and donated human blood for pyrogenicity studies. Another alternative is microdosing, in which the basic behaviour of drugs is assessed using human volunteers receiving doses well below those expected to produce whole-body effects.

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The Animal Welfare Information Center at the National Agricultural Library (USDA) holds a workshop several times a year called "Meeting the Information Requirements of the Animal Welfare Act". In the workshop, researchers and other stakeholders learn how to perform literature searches for animal use

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Euroecotox is a European network for alternative testing strategies in ecotoxicology. It was funded by the Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) of the European Commission Environment Programme. The main objectives of the Euroecotox network are: To contribute to the advancement of alternative methods of

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Toxicity testing typically involves studying adverse health outcomes in animals subjected to high doses of toxicants with subsequent extrapolation to expected human responses at lower doses. The system relies on the use of a 40+year-old patchwork of animal tests that are expensive (costing more than

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for just 10 seconds. However, due to limitations in computing power, the simulation could only be run at one-tenth the speed of an actual mouse brain. Although this was an advance in science, its representative power as a model was limited and the researchers were quoted as saying that "although the

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Skin irritation and skin corrosion refer to localized toxic effects resulting from a topical exposure of the skin to a substance. Human skin equivalent tests can be used to replace animal-based corrosive and irritative studies. EpiDerm from Mattek and EpiSkin and SkinEthic RHE model are derived from

1592:(AFAAR): "Over the years, AFAAR has funded alternatives worldwide, including more than 200 human tissue culture tests to replace toxicity and other testing on animals ... Today, AFAAR funds a wide and encompassing range of research involving the use, development, or validation of alternatives." 1238:

purposes. It establishes prohibitions against (a) testing finished cosmetic products and cosmetic ingredients on animals (testing ban), and (b) marketing in the EU finished cosmetic products and ingredients included in cosmetic products which were tested on animals for cosmetics purposes (marketing

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Laboratory animals are not restricted to rats, mice, dogs, and rabbits, but also include fish, frogs and birds. Research into alternatives to replace these species is often neglected, although fish are the third most widely used laboratory animal used for scientific purposes in the EU. This is also

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are the development and implementation of test methods that avoid the use of live animals. There is widespread agreement that a reduction in the number of animals used and the refinement of testing to reduce suffering should be important goals for the industries involved. Two major alternatives to

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The ALEXANDRA Association (Monaco): "... aims at stimulating research and development (R&D) in the area of alternative methods to animal experimentation by providing political, technical and educational support to researchers and entrepreneurs worldwide. In particular alternative methods

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studies are included in PART B; "The European Union is committed to promoting the development and validation of alternative techniques which can provide the same level of information as current animal tests, but which use fewer animals, cause less suffering or avoid the use of animals completely.

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Another name for this chip is the microfluidic chip is cell-bio chips. With the capacity to "perform perfusion culture" and reproduce "physiological conditions such three-dimensional architectures, circulatory flowrate and zonation and multi cellular co-cultures", the biochips have set themselves

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methods may reduce the number of experiments performed on intact animals, the maintenance of cells in culture normally requires the use of animal-derived serum. Although exact figures are difficult to obtain, some have estimated that one million foetal cows are sacrificed each year to obtain the

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NORINA is a database containing details of products which may be used as alternatives or supplements to the use of animals in education and training. NORINA's search engine is linked to those of two other databases: TextBase, which provides information on textbooks and other written material of

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disrupts foetal brain development. Tumoroids—3D cell cultures derived from cells biopsied from human patients—can be used in studying the genomics and drug resistance of tumours in different organs. Organoids are also used in modelling genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis, neurodegenerative

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EPISKIN Academy is an initiative of the industry to propose training and courses to facilitate the deployment of validated alternative methods to animal testing in toxicology and to prepare next generations of scientists and toxicologists to use these methods. Created in 2012, EPISKIN Academy

1680:(ROCAM) promotes the application of alternative methods in industry and their acceptance by regulators in Romania and also the development of new methods and approaches. ROCAM was established in June 2015 with the main goal to support and promote the 3Rs principles in Romania and regionally. 1387:

Antidote (France) "When it is about assessing drug safety, humans are not 70kg rats! It is about time to move on from the actual paradigm on assessing drug safety. The first step would be to eliminate all the regulatory requirements for animal testing and replace these tests by 21st century

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testing in Europe. To promote the validation and regulatory acceptance of new alternative ecotoxicity methods. To facilitate the networking of research groups working in the field of alternative ecotoxicology. To provide a gathering point for all stakeholders involved in the development,

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SEURAT-1 is a long-term strategic target for "Safety Evaluation Ultimately Replacing Animal Testing". It is called "SEURAT-1" to indicate that more steps have to be taken before the final goal will be reached. SEURAT-1 will develop knowledge and technology building blocks required for the

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relevance to laboratory animal science and alternatives, and 3R Guide which gives details of guidelines, information centres, databases, journals and email lists within the field of replacement, reduction and refinement of animal experimentation. The three databases are hosted by Norecopa.

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and companies. The collaboration between these six research projects, the dissemination of results, the cooperation with other international research teams, and the continuous updating on research priorities will be facilitated by the coordination and support action project "COACH".

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cell growth and development. This can be generalized as the growth of cells outside of the body and tested on without causing harm or pain on the test subject. Much of the time this method of cosmetic testing is less time-consuming and less expensive than alternative choices.

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Computer models have been constructed to model human metabolism, to study plaque build-up and cardiovascular risk, and to evaluate toxicity of drugs, tasks for which animals are also used. In 2007, US researchers using the world's fastest computer at the time,

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Petition to the European Parliament for the abolition of vivisection as a European Citizen Initiative. The threshold of 1 million signatures was reached for the deadline (1 November 2013). The European Commission is currently checking the authenticity of each

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Under the Framework Programmes 6 and 7, the EC funded a significant number of large integrated research projects aiming to develop alternatives to animal testing for about EUR 330 million based on the Review of REACH from February 2013 (the European Chemical

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The European Commission's role in promoting the development, validation and uptake of alternative approaches to animal testing started in 1991, with the launch of ECVAM (European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods), hosted by the

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about research animals and animal tests suitable for secondary schools and college, which can be ordered on their website. It aims at explaining alternatives to animal testing in a youth appropriate language and can be used in lessons straight

749:) or in a culture medium. Organoids are derived from three kinds of human or animal stem cells—embryonic pluripotent stem cells (ESCs), adult somatic stem cells (ASCs), and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). These organoids are grown 3154:"Sixth Report from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on the Statistics on the number of animals used for experimental and other scientific purposes in the member states of the European Union COM(2010) 511/final 2" 5184:, Animal Welfare Information Center, National Agricultural Library. Provides tips on searching bibliographic databases for animal use alternatives. Also has information on alternatives literature search training, including the workshop 1713: 1705: 1453:

The international NC3Rs 3Rs Prize is awarded to highlight an outstanding original contribution to scientific and technological advances in the 3Rs in medical, biological or veterinary sciences published within the last three

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On January 1, 2013, EU Directive 2010/63/EU "on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes" entered into force for the EU member states (MS), repealing Directive 86/609/EEC. Because it is a directive, it allows

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EPAA (European Partnership for Alternative Approaches to Animal Testing) will grant a €3000 prize to a laboratory technician involved in implementing and raising awareness of Replacement, Reduction and Refinement of animal

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is a rash, swelling, or inflammation, like a severe sunburn, caused by exposure to light following exposure to a chemical. The 3T3 Neutral Red Uptake (NRU) Phototoxicity Test, approved by the OECD, detects the viability of

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Examples of computer simulations available include models of asthma, though potential new medicines identified using these techniques are currently still required to be verified in animal and human tests before licensing.

713:. These bacteria are the ideal model for genetic and molecular studies. Fungi is also used as an alternative for animal testing. Certain fungi can be used for genetic studies or circadian rhythms studies. This may include 1486:

InterNICHE is the International Network for Humane Education. It has been developed to meet the needs of teachers and trainers, students, ethics committees, alternatives producers and campaigners internationally.

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Pyrogens are most often pharmaceutical products or intravenous drugs that may cause inflammation or fever when they interact with immune system cells. This interaction can be quickly and accurately tested

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Such methods, as they become available, must be considered wherever possible for hazard characterisation and consequent classification and labeling for intrinsic hazards and chemical safety assessment."

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The 1st Latino-Americano Congress on Alternative to Animal Testing took place in 2012. Colama (I Congresso Latino-Americano De Metodos Alternativos Ao Uso De Animais No Ensino, Pesquisa E Industria).

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or mini-organs, have replaced animal models for some types of research. In recent years, scientists have produced organoids that can be used to model disease and test new drugs. Organoids grow

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human skin cells which have been cultured to produce a model of human skin. These methods are currently accepted replacements in Canada and the European Union (EU). In August 2010, the

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the field where until now only two alternative tests exist worldwide: One guideline, OECD TG 236, and one guidance (OECD series on testing and assessment 126) are so far available.

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Another synthetic replacement uses a protein membrane to simulate a skin barrier and is approved as a partial replacement by the US Department of Transportation and European Union.

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The Alternatives Research and Development Foundation (ARDF) provides grants to advance the use of non-animal methods in the fields of biomedical testing, research, and education.

3792: 1490: 1051: 1021: 540:; however, some claim they are not true alternatives because simulations use data from prior animal experiments and cell cultures often require animal derived products, such as 1146:

certain flexibility in transposition of national rules. The status of the implementation of the new directive in the EU is described by the EC General Environment Directorate.

3384:"EU-NETVAL (European Union Network of Laboratories for the Validation of Alternative Methods) — Institute for Health and Consumer Protection – (JRC-IHCP), European Commission" 1589: 1458: 3714: 544:

or cells. Others say that they cannot replace animals completely as they are unlikely to ever provide enough information about the complex interactions of living systems.

5198:. Provides an overview of databases, bibliographies and guidelines that provide useful information on alternative methods when planning research that may involve animals. 623:

world's supply of foetal bovine serum, used to grow cultured cells. The testing of cosmetic products directly onto an animal can be minimized or eliminated by the use of

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Stobbe JL, Drake KD, Maier KJ (2003). "Comparison of in vivo (Draize method) and in vitro (Corrositex assay) dermal corrosion values for selected industrial chemicals".

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of methods that have a potential to reduce, refine or replace animals used for scientific purposes. Currently there are thirteen test facilities in nine member states:

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A skinpatch test has been designed and is used in Canada to measure development of rashes, inflammation, swelling or abnormal tissue growth on human volunteers. Unlike

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refers to methods that enable researchers to obtain comparable levels of information from fewer animals, or to obtain more information from the same number of animals.

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FRANCOPA is the French platform dedicated to development, validation, and dissemination of alternative methods in animal testing. It was created on November 16, 2007.

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XCellR8's mission is to support, develop and implement the use of scientifically advanced and ethically sound alternatives to animal testing. They are an exclusively

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validation, regulatory acceptance and final use of alternative ecotoxicity testing strategies. To act as the one voice for alternative ecotoxicity testing in Europe.

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based on 'Open Source' concepts i.e. non-patent protected core technologies for human tissue reconstruction and cell culture technologies will be actively promoted."

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R E Hester R M Harrison et al. Alternatives To Animal Testing (Issues in Environmental Science and Technology) Royal Society of Chemistry; 1 edition (June 7, 2006)

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The World Congress on Alternatives and Animal Use in the Life Sciences takes place every three years. The next conference (10th) will be held in September 2017 in

215: 3358: 2276: 1955: 1181:: Member states shall assist the commission in identifying and nominating suitable specialised and qualified laboratories to carry out such validation studies. 638: 7446: 2994:

Prot Jean, Leclerc Eric (2012). "The Current Status of Alternatives to Animal Testing and Predictive Toxicology Methods Using Liver Microfluidic Biochips".

4881: 982: 1422:(PETA) in the US and UK: "We teamed up with CeeTox, Inc. to fund work on a new humane skin test that could replace painful tests on mice and guinea pigs." 908:

simulation shared some similarities with a mouse's mental make-up in terms of nerves and connections it lacked the structures seen in real mice brains."

296: 1404:(BUAV): "For over 100 years the BUAV has been campaigning peacefully to create a world where nobody wants or believes we need to experiment on animals." 719:, otherwise known as a type of red mould. Invertebrates are another ideal candidate for testing. One of the most common invertebrates tested on include 4405: 4306: 1762: 1580: 291: 2959:

Jellali, Rachid; Paullier, Patrick; Fleury, Marie-José; Leclerc, Eric (2016). "Liver and kidney cells cultures in a new perfluoropolyether biochip".

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Hezari, M.; Davis, P. J. (1993). "Microbial models of mammalian metabolism. Furosemide glucoside formation using the fungus Cunninghamella elegans".

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Mahatma Gandhi-Doerenkamp Center for Alternatives to Use of Animals in Life Science, Bharathidasan university, Trichy, Tamil Nadu, India Education

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Russell and Burch writing six decades ago could not have anticipated some of the technologies that have emerged today. One of these technologies,

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after exposure to a chemical in the presence or absence of light. The 3T3 cell line was developed in 1962 and is derived from mouse embryonic

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is the Norwegian consensus platform for the replacement, reduction and refinement of animal experiments. It was founded on October 10, 2007.

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Health Canada, which does not have a formal validation centre, but coordinates health related test method validation and acceptance issues

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ban). The same provisions are contained in Cosmetics Regulation EU 1223/2009, which replaces the Cosmetics Directive as of July 11, 2013.

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Within the EU animal welfare law (2010/63/EU), the principles of the 3Rs are invoked whenever toxicological test methods are necessary.

6944: 4991: 799:, and are used to measure skin irritation and dermal corrosion. This method has been accepted by the EU and is intended to replace the 3796: 7357: 1604: 1535: 1330: 958:

The choice of the material for chips is still challenging. One of the major materials that can be possibly used in chips is known as

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refers to methods that alleviate or minimize potential pain, suffering, or distress, and enhance animal welfare for the animals used.

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Cosmetics Europe: Represents the interests of more than 4000 companies in the cosmetic, toiletry and perfumery industry since 1962.

618:; prior to this, production required animals to undergo a procedure likely to cause pain and distress. However, even though cell or 7713: 7478: 5730: 5281: 4638:"Framework for International Cooperation on Alternative Test Methods (ICATM) - Consumer and Personal Care Products - Health Canada" 3744: 3179: 1945: 761:

diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's, infectious diseases such as MERS-CoV and norovirus, and parasitic infections such as

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Reduction of suffering and stress of laboratory animals by better breeding, keeping, test planning and other accompanying measures

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refers to the preferred use of non-animal methods over animal methods whenever it is possible to achieve the same scientific aim.

575:(3Rs) first described by Russell and Burch in 1959. These principles are now followed in many testing establishments worldwide. 3718: 2480:

A. Jaworski; L. Sedlaczek; J. Dlugoński; Ewa Zajaczkowska (1985). "Inducible nature of the steroid 11-hydroxylases in spores of

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IIVS: The Institute for In Vitro Sciences, Inc. is a non-profit research and testing laboratory dedicated to the advancement of

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AXLR8 is a coordination action funded by the European Commission Directorate General for Research & Innovation under the 7

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In parallel to the adoption of REACH, the EC published standardised and accepted methods for testing hazardous properties of

4807: 2734: 1728:: The International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use 7345: 6884: 5627: 4737: 4611: 1407: 341: 124: 3692: 3405: 2282: 2154: 614:

Cell culture can be an alternative to animal use in some cases. For example, cultured cells have been developed to create

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National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs) (United Kingdom), since 2004

1334: 1094: 4511: 2133:"News - Congress - Workshops - SkinEthic Laboratories - SkinEthic Reconstructed Human Epidermis RHE validated in Europe" 656:

Several tissue culture methods that measure the rate of chemical absorption by the skin have been approved by the OECD.

7894: 7237: 7147: 3472: 3450: 3428: 3290: 1757: 326: 1972: 1461:(AFAAR) funds a wide and encompassing range of research involving the use, development, or validation of alternatives. 1333:(CAAT) co-organizes an annual symposium on the 3Rs with the USDA's Animal Welfare Information Center (AWIC) and NIH's 7962: 7438: 7398: 7321: 7278: 7132: 7057: 6531: 5286: 5276: 4167: 2637: 2307: 2202: 1940: 1733:: The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development has a Test Guideline program that deals with chemicals. 1112: 916: 336: 3936: 1952: 1665:

was created in 2017. It is an interuniversity center dedicated to the promotion of the 3Rs in teaching and research.

1475:(non-animal) methods worldwide. Founded in 1997, IIVS has worked with industry and government agencies to implement 767:. Human- and animal-cell-derived organoids are also used extensively in pharmacological and toxicological research. 7606: 7257: 7087: 6914: 5984: 5979: 5409: 5067: 3037: 2380: 1910:

FRAME (2005). "Human microdosing reduces the number of animals required for pre-clinical pharmaceutical research".

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testing strategies that limit animal use while supplying key information for product safety and efficacy decisions.

7574: 7327: 7212: 6421: 6007: 5902: 5181: 1575: 114: 4859: 4711: 4258: 3311: 1712: 7550: 5912: 5291: 371: 306: 4664:"NTP Interagency Center for the Evaluation of Alternative Toxicological Methods - National Toxicology Program" 3153: 7187: 7072: 5892: 5424: 5362: 3333: 2486: 1372: 381: 200: 4310: 2832: 1810:

Lipinski, Christopher; Hopkins, A (16 December 2004). "Navigating chemical space for biology and medicine".

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company, with commitment to promoting non-animal testing strategies at the core of all of their activities.

1413: 1055: 492: 86: 4663: 4564:"The need for the establishment of a Brazilian Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (BraCVAM)" 1862: 1668:

Zentralstelle zur Erfassung und Bewertung von Ersatz- und Ergänzungsmethoden (ZEBET) (Germany), since 1989

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Another approach has been the development of test methods that use cultured human cells. Human epidermal

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The Use of Databases, Information Centers and Guidelines When Planning Research that May Involve Animals

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Committee on Toxicity Testing and Assessment of Environmental Agents, National Research Council (2007).

1631:(EURL ECVAM). EURL ECVAM hosts an online database of toxicological, non-animal alternative test methods 1090: 7987: 7859: 7654: 7590: 7526: 7177: 7137: 7107: 6235: 6230: 5632: 2656:"The use of reconstructed human epidermis for skin absorption testing: Results of the validation study" 1565:

BraCVAM as the Brazilian Center for the Validation of Alternatives Methods. It was established in 2011.

1506: 572: 316: 245: 66: 56: 4485: 3910: 3715:"Developing alternative approaches to animal testing | Sustainable living | Unilever Global" 3105: 1649:

The European Consensus Platform for Alternatives (ECOPA) coordinates efforts amongst EU member states.

7971: 7809: 7646: 7082: 6376: 6295: 6155: 5735: 2789:"Using test dummy experiments to investigate pediatric injury risk in simulated short-distance falls" 1539: 1305:

Experts' guidance and referees' opinion for public and private organizations, companies, universities

697:

Prokaryotes are often used as an alternative to animal testing. Prokaryotes include bacteria such as

134: 129: 76: 61: 5092: 3770: 2247: 1998:

Brunner D.; Frank Jürgen; App Helmut; Schöffl Harald; Pfaller Walter; Gstraunthaler Gerhard (2010).

1253:. These were written into the "Test Methods Regulation". All the alternative test methods among the 7940: 7901: 7887: 7753: 7729: 7518: 7142: 6546: 6491: 5948: 5667: 5652: 5637: 5594: 5559: 5296: 3237: 2905:

Wootton Robert C. R., Demello Andrew J. (2012). "Microfluidics: Analog-to-digital Drug Screening".

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The European Society for Alternatives to Animal Testing (EUSAAT) organises an annual conference in

259: 7873: 4926:"Norwegian consensus platform for the replacement, reduction and refinement of animal experiments" 3263: 1865:. National Center for the Replacement, Refinement, and Reduction of Animals in Research ( NC3R ). 8022: 7793: 7697: 7510: 7486: 7363: 7242: 7197: 7092: 6979: 6788: 5464: 5382: 2712: 1888: 1173:: The directive refers directly to the 3Rs: "Principle of replacement, reduction and refinement". 1136: 721: 485: 472: 462: 356: 301: 119: 4833: 4537: 1012:

development of solutions for the replacement of current repeated dose systemic toxicity testing

8050: 7995: 7542: 7117: 7077: 7031: 6949: 6904: 6773: 6426: 6411: 6065: 5642: 5261: 5209: 4436:"Mahatma Gandhi-Doerenkamp Center for Alternatives to Use of Animals in Life Science Education" 4146:"Alternatives Research Grants | Alternatives Research & Development Foundation (ARDF)" 2242: 686: 467: 172: 7801: 7622: 7582: 7494: 7454: 7375: 7369: 7182: 6466: 6366: 6331: 5917: 5816: 5725: 5564: 5454: 5419: 4690:"Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing - Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health" 3383: 3288: 1767: 1624: 1439:

HSI's report "Advancing Safety Science and Health Research with Innovative, Non-Animal Tools"

1378: 930:(QSAR) models can be used to predict the physicochemical and hazard properties of chemicals. 615: 210: 6451: 4998: 3643:"Social Housing: Selected Presentations: Symposiums on Social Housing of Laboratory Animals" 2416: 1299:

Reduction of the use of animals for tests in the field of education and continuing education

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Institutes and organizations that research or fund alternatives to animal testing include:

995: 959: 376: 6693: 4760:"European Partnership for Alternatives Approaches to Animal Testing - European Commission" 869: 8: 7919: 7866: 7283: 6894: 6506: 6501: 6381: 6356: 6075: 5932: 5821: 5715: 5710: 5185: 4714:. Evcam Database Service on Alternative methods to Animal Experimentation. Archived from 4400:

A Guide to the Alternatives of Animal Experimentation (2009; revised edition 2010). Eds.

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Sharma, KK; Mehta, T; Joshi, V; Mehta, N; Rathor, AK; Mediratta, KD; Sharma, PK (2011).

2440: 1943: 1823: 7880: 7817: 7638: 7470: 7462: 7339: 7315: 7227: 6853: 6260: 5753: 5705: 5695: 5506: 5414: 4593: 4462: 4435: 3617: 3132:"SEURAT-1 - Towards the Replacement of in vivo Repeated Dose Systemic Toxicity Testing" 3019: 2938: 2685: 2576: 2549: 2503: 2268: 2208: 2061: 2040: 1843: 829: 568: 240: 91: 7933: 4882:"ZEBET database on alternatives to animal experiments on the Internet (AnimAlt-ZEBET)" 4196: 2369: 8003: 7777: 7737: 7689: 7681: 7566: 7333: 7232: 7207: 7172: 6929: 6919: 6828: 6768: 6683: 6270: 6135: 6110: 6100: 6080: 5806: 5690: 5599: 5434: 4585: 4467: 4417: 4401: 4123: 3195: 3078: 3011: 2976: 2942: 2930: 2810: 2677: 2633: 2581: 2530: 2462: 2457: 2418: 2399: 2303: 2260: 2212: 2198: 2066: 2021: 1936: 1835: 1794: 763: 715: 709: 444: 5161:

National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research

4597: 2879: 2689: 2507: 2448: 603: 7947: 7673: 7222: 6889: 6793: 6753: 6743: 6673: 6536: 6476: 6431: 6396: 6255: 6195: 5969: 5927: 5887: 5857: 5847: 5842: 5781: 5584: 5347: 5316: 4763: 4575: 4457: 4447: 3506: 3070: 3023: 3003: 2968: 2922: 2800: 2667: 2571: 2561: 2495: 2479: 2452: 2444: 2389: 2272: 2252: 2190: 2056: 2048: 2011: 1962:

available for free on the website of the Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing.

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and to predict the time-dependent distribution of chemicals in the organism, while

892: 796: 699: 553: 549: 321: 254: 221: 195: 152: 6300: 6145: 2764: 2323: 7761: 6869: 6823: 6818: 6668: 6633: 6618: 6556: 6446: 6391: 6371: 6310: 6220: 6130: 6070: 6045: 5700: 5574: 5168:: Tracks news stories about scientific developments in alternatives to animal use 4811: 3570: 3451:"Acts adopted under the EC Treaty/Euratom Treaty whose publication is obligatory" 3064: 2550:"Substitute of animals in drug research: An approach towards fulfillment of 4R's" 2183:

Test No. 439: In Vitro Skin Irritation: Reconstructed Human Epidermis Test Method

1959: 1949: 1683: 1191: 976: 854: 845: 734: 414: 409: 5114: 4615: 4006: 1555:

The Korean Center for the Validation of Alternative Methods (KOCVAM), since 2009

7705: 7502: 7102: 7004: 6934: 6924: 6848: 6778: 6763: 6703: 6628: 6603: 6551: 6496: 6456: 6361: 6351: 6326: 6240: 6170: 6095: 6035: 5907: 5837: 5682: 5657: 5614: 5589: 5579: 5554: 5514: 5469: 5377: 4903: 4580: 4563: 4538:"BRA : Brazilian Center for Validation of Alternative Methods established" 4079: 3962: 3642: 3040:. Hansjorg Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering. Archived from 2805: 2788: 2672: 2655: 2158: 2052: 1534:

Alternatives to Animal Experimentation Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology,

1203: 1143: 857:

is able to demonstrate to researchers both how drugs are metabolised by use of

694:

of mammalian drug metabolism thereby reducing the need for laboratory animals.

691: 619: 434: 429: 366: 205: 162: 46: 22: 4354: 4054: 3741:"Alternative Methods in Use - BASF - The Chemical Company - Corporate Website" 3429:"Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH)" 3007: 2972: 1997: 1552:

Japanese Center for the Validation of Alternative Methods (JACVAM), since 2005

641:(OECD) published the Test Guideline 439 which describes the new procedure for 564:

that despite the use of microdosing, "animal studies will still be required".

8069: 7979: 7097: 6964: 6939: 6874: 6843: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6783: 6663: 6638: 6608: 6511: 6481: 6336: 6290: 6285: 6250: 6245: 6200: 6185: 6165: 6140: 6105: 6085: 6050: 5953: 5786: 5529: 5489: 5387: 5357: 5232: 4515: 3511: 3494: 2980: 2194: 2016: 1999: 1368: 1153:: The new EU directive applies to the following animals: (a) live non-human 948: 943: 939: 664: 419: 404: 273: 157: 6748: 4452: 3406:"Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council" 2566: 2499: 2324:"Background - 3T3 Neutral Red Uptake Phototoxicity Assay - MB Research Labs" 2132: 1234:

provides the regulatory framework for the phasing out of animal testing for

873:

Crash test dummies have been used to replace live animals in impact testing.

7157: 6999: 6989: 6838: 6813: 6718: 6713: 6698: 6658: 6648: 6521: 6441: 6436: 6416: 6406: 6401: 6341: 6280: 6275: 6225: 6215: 6205: 6115: 6040: 5897: 5852: 5811: 5773: 5758: 5720: 5539: 5519: 5439: 4589: 4471: 4171: 3015: 2934: 2814: 2681: 2585: 2466: 2417:

Joanna D. Moody; Donglu Zhang; Thomas M. Heinze; Carl E. Cerniglia (2000).

2403: 2394: 2371: 2264: 2256: 2084: 2070: 2025: 2000:"Serum-free Cell Culture: The Serum-free Media Interactive Online Database" 1976: 1839: 1596:

Interagency Coordinating Committee on the Validation of Alternative Methods

792: 541: 528: 439: 424: 3334:"Animals used for scientific purposes - Environment - European Commission" 2534: 7721: 7167: 6994: 6984: 6969: 6909: 6738: 6643: 6613: 6588: 6526: 6516: 6305: 6190: 6175: 6160: 6125: 6120: 6090: 6060: 6055: 5867: 5801: 5672: 5647: 5544: 5449: 5444: 3940: 2787:

Bertocci GE, Pierce MC, Deemer E, Aguel F, Janosky JE, Vogeley E (2003).

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and its amendments, showing how the legislation regulates animal welfare.

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The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union (2010).

1165:

from the last third of their normal development; (b) live cephalopods.

7926: 7785: 7381: 7152: 6758: 6623: 6598: 6486: 6265: 6210: 5862: 5662: 5569: 5549: 5524: 5459: 2607:. Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, Johns Hopkins University 2370:

Kristian Björnstad; Anders Helander; Peter Hultén; Olof Beck (2009).

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Dissemination and validation of alternative methods to animal testing

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Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals

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Johns Hopkins University Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing

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Johns Hopkins University Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing

3427:

European Parliament and the Council of the European Union (2006).

3216:"Short Guidance On the Threshold Approach for Acute Fish Toxicity" 5791: 5745: 5404: 4409: 2652: 2189:. OECD Guidelines for the Testing of Chemicals, Section 4. OECD. 1975:. Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. Archived from 1644:

European Partnership for Alternative Approaches to Animal Testing

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Animal Welfare Information Center, National Agricultural Library

4032: 3888: 3844: 3672:

Animal Welfare Information Center, National Agricultural Library

3647:

Animal Welfare Information Center, National Agricultural Library

3595: 5342: 5244: 4667: 4191: 4189: 3914: 3218:. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 1632: 1262: 1219: 1211: 1162: 5186:

Meeting the Information Requirements of the Animal Welfare Act

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Toxicity testing in the 21st century: A vision and a strategy

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International Cooperation on Alternative Test Methods (ICATM)

1215: 1195: 1158: 679: 30: 5160: 4947:"Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Experiments" 4186: 3241: 2958: 1809: 7192: 4968: 4946: 4332: 3180:"Comparing the LAL Method with the Pyrogen Test on Rabbits" 3109: 2372:"Bioanalytical investigation of asarone in connection with 2157:. Neaves Humane Science is Superior Science. Archived from 1744: 1662: 1355: 1282: 912: 5176: 4434:

Akbarsha, MA; Pereira, Shiranee (November–December 2010).

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Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Experiments

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Finnish Center for Alternative Methods (FICAM), since 2008

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EU Reference Laboratory for Alternatives to Animal Testing

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already addressing the use of animals in medical testing."

562:

Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Experiments

5068:"International Cooperation on Cosmetic Regulation (ICCR)" 4925: 4689: 3526: 2786: 1505:

alternatives as well as the history and evolution of the

5923:

University of California, Riverside 1985 laboratory raid

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on scaffolds (biological or synthetic hydrogels such as

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While microdosing produces important information about

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Institutes and national or international organizations

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Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

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Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes

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Doke, Sonali K.; Dhawale, Shashikant C. (July 2015).

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International Cooperation on Alternative Test Methods

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Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering

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Elsevier BV: 396–407. 2793:Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2195:10.1787/9789264242845-en 2085:"EpiDermTM Tissue Model" 2017:10.14573/altex.2010.1.53 1602:Johns Hopkins University 1045: 784:, substances defined as 260:Huntingdon Life Sciences 216:UCR 1985 laboratory raid 8023:Holocaust on your Plate 7794:An Apology to Elephants 7575:Do Animals Have Rights? 7511:Animals, Men and Morals 7487:Better-World Philosophy 7364:Italian Animalist Party 7243:United Poultry Concerns 7198:Last Chance for Animals 7093:Animal Liberation Front 6980:Maud Ingersoll Probasco 5465:Replaceability argument 5383:Animal-free agriculture 4453:10.4103/0976-500X.72353 4404:and Mohd Tariq Salman, 4197:"About Us | AFAAR" 3364:. Ihcp.jrc.ec.europa.eu 2777:(from Internet Archive) 2567:10.4103/0250-474X.89750 2500:10.1002/jobm.3620250703 1137:EU Directive 2010/63/EU 1131:EU Directive 2010/63/EU 722:Drosophila melanogaster 357:Primate Freedom Project 265:UK lab animal suppliers 7996:Salvation of Innocents 7543:Zoos and Animal Rights 7118:Beauty Without Cruelty 7078:Animal Justice Project 6412:John Zephaniah Holwell 6066:Stephen St. C. Bostock 5643:Great ape research ban 5262:Animal rights movement 5115:"Members and partners" 5093:"Testing of chemicals" 5046:"Testing of chemicals" 3891:. AlexandraProject.org 3743:. BASF. Archived from 3571:"World Congress flyer" 2601:"Mini-brain Organoids" 2482:Cunninghamella elegans 2421:Cunninghamella elegans 2257:10.1080/10915810305094 1739: 1466:Education and training 874: 687:Cunninghamella elegans 611: 173:Great ape research ban 8015:Fairs and exhibitions 7902:The Animals' Defender 7874:Cahiers antispécistes 7802:Speciesism: The Movie 7623:Animal (De)liberation 7583:Striking at the Roots 7495:The Universal Kinship 7455:The Rights of Animals 7376:People Animals Nature 7370:Party for the Animals 7183:In Defense of Animals 6945:Nina Douglas-Hamilton 6332:David Renaud Boullier 5918:Silver Spring monkeys 5817:Wild animal suffering 5726:Pain in invertebrates 5565:Intensive pig farming 5455:Opposition to hunting 5420:Ethics of eating meat 4810:. zet. Archived from 4009:. stopvivisezione.net 4007:"stopvivisezione.net" 2180:OECD (26 June 2020). 1768:Humane Research Trust 1715: 1625:Joint Research Centre 1379:Eurogroup for Animals 1367:Further information: 1277:Scientific congresses 1052:Framework Programme 7 1022:Framework Programme 7 938:Further information: 872: 844:Further information: 616:monoclonal antibodies 606: 211:Silver Spring monkeys 7631:Sentientist Politics 7559:The Lives of Animals 7310:Animal Justice Party 7123:Born Free Foundation 6960:Lizzy Lind af Hageby 6834:Wendy Turner-Webster 6542:Adam Gottlieb Weigen 5764:Recreational fishing 5605:Ventilation shutdown 5373:Animal protectionism 5353:Animal consciousness 2395:10.1093/jat/33.9.604 2087:. MatTek Corporation 1091:improve this section 1002:Research initiatives 996:Human Genome Project 960:polydimethylsiloxane 377:Speaking of Research 8055:( 139 ) 7881:Etica & Animali 7867:Between the Species 7591:An American Trilogy 7284:Humanitarian League 6895:Frances Power Cobbe 6507:Arthur Schopenhauer 6502:Henry Stephens Salt 6382:Edward Payson Evans 6076:Stephen R. L. Clark 5933:War of the currents 5822:Wildlife management 5716:Pain in crustaceans 5711:Pain in cephalopods 5024:"Official web site" 4860:"FRANCOPA: Accueil" 4840:on 1 September 2014 4618:on 11 December 2013 3943:on 23 February 2014 3847:. Tierschutzbund.de 3475:. Eur-lex.europa.eu 3408:. Eur-lex.europa.eu 2919:2012Natur.483...43W 2835:on 26 February 2014 2441:2000ApEnM..66.3646M 1935:, Methuen, London. 1832:10.1038/nature03193 1824:2004Natur.432..855L 1232:Cosmetics Directive 966:Future alternatives 865:Computer simulation 609:tissue culture dish 538:computer simulation 522:animal testing are 7818:Unlocking the Cage 7639:Wild Animal Ethics 7463:The Ethics of Diet 7340:Animalist Movement 7316:Animal Politics EU 7228:Sentience Politics 6854:That Vegan Teacher 6467:Siobhan O'Sullivan 6452:José Ferrater Mora 6261:Steve F. Sapontzis 5754:Commercial fishing 5706:Pain in amphibians 5696:Cruelty to animals 5668:Operation Backfire 5507:Animal agriculture 5415:Emotion in animals 5137:"Welcome to ICAPO" 4834:"FICAM front page" 4766:on 1 November 2013 4718:on 6 December 2006 4670:on 9 December 2013 4644:on 8 February 2014 4313:on 3 December 2013 4174:on 3 December 2013 3917:on 8 February 2014 3825:on 7 February 2014 3799:on 3 December 2013 3721:on 1 February 2014 3598:on 2 February 2014 3270:on 2 February 2014 3264:"Home| AXLR8" 3178:20 February 2015. 3112:on 2 February 2014 3044:on 2 February 2014 2376:oil intoxications" 1958:2022-12-01 at the 1948:2011-09-27 at the 1740: 949:Microfluidic chips 934:Microfluidic chips 903:, modelled half a 893:crash test dummies 887:Computer operated 875: 612: 569:animals in testing 241:Jackson Laboratory 92:Toxicology testing 8063: 8062: 8056: 8037: 8036: 8033: 8032: 8004:Onward to Freedom 7972:Animal Liberation 7957: 7956: 7778:Forks Over Knives 7730:Peaceable Kingdom 7690:Shores of Silence 7682:A Cow at My Table 7567:Eternal Treblinka 7519:Animal Liberation 7411: 7410: 7407: 7406: 7298: 7297: 7233:Uncaged Campaigns 7208:Mercy for Animals 7173:Great Ape Project 7088:Animal Liberation 7034:(groups, parties) 7021: 7020: 7017: 7016: 7013: 7012: 6920:Elizabeth Farians 6829:Christine Townend 6769:Heather Nicholson 6694:Brigitte Gothière 6684:Antoine Goetschel 6570: 6569: 6231:Charles Patterson 6136:Gary L. Francione 6111:Josephine Donovan 6101:Daniel Dombrowski 6081:Alasdair Cochrane 5997: 5996: 5993: 5992: 5876: 5875: 5807:Predation problem 5691:Animal euthanasia 5600:Foam depopulation 5435:Insects in ethics 4422:978-81-906070-4-9 4402:Syed Ziaur Rahman 4241:"NORINA database" 4148:. Ardf-online.org 3819:"Antidote Europe" 3747:on 19 August 2013 3244:on 1 January 2014 3084:978-0-309-15173-3 2350:NIH 3T3 Cell Line 1979:on 20 August 2007 1799:978-0-85404-211-1 1491:teaching magazine 1226:Other regulations 1123: 1122: 1115: 764:Toxoplasma gondii 716:Neurospora crassa 710:Bacillus subtilis 510: 509: 445:Syed Ziaur Rahman 391:Writers/activists 8083: 8054: 8049: 8048: 7860:Animal Sentience 7849: 7848: 7714:Legally Blonde 2 7674:The Animals Film 7428: 7427: 7417: 7416: 7223:Rise for Animals 7048: 7047: 7041: 7040: 7027: 7026: 6890:Edith Carrington 6794:Craig Rosebraugh 6754:Virginia McKenna 6744:Jo-Anne McArthur 6674:Juliet Gellatley 6579: 6578: 6537:Mary Anne Warren 6477:Humphrey Primatt 6462:Edward Nicholson 6432:Charles R. Magel 6397:Thomas G. Gentry 6256:Richard D. Ryder 6196:Thomas Lepeltier 6026: 6025: 6017: 6016: 6003: 6002: 5970:World Animal Day 5928:Unnecessary Fuss 5888:Brown Dog affair 5858:Animals in sport 5848:Animal slaughter 5843:Animal sacrifice 5782:Culling wildlife 5585:Wildlife farming 5503: 5502: 5348:Animal cognition 5317:Total liberation 5252: 5251: 5241: 5240: 5226: 5219: 5212: 5203: 5202: 5149: 5148: 5146: 5144: 5133: 5127: 5126: 5124: 5122: 5111: 5105: 5104: 5102: 5100: 5089: 5080: 5079: 5077: 5075: 5064: 5058: 5057: 5055: 5053: 5042: 5036: 5035: 5033: 5031: 5020: 5014: 5013: 5011: 5009: 5003: 4997:. Archived from 4996: 4987: 4981: 4980: 4978: 4976: 4965: 4959: 4958: 4956: 4954: 4943: 4937: 4936: 4934: 4932: 4922: 4916: 4915: 4913: 4911: 4900: 4894: 4893: 4891: 4889: 4878: 4872: 4871: 4869: 4867: 4856: 4850: 4849: 4847: 4845: 4830: 4824: 4823: 4821: 4819: 4804: 4798: 4797: 4795: 4793: 4782: 4776: 4775: 4773: 4771: 4756: 4750: 4749: 4747: 4745: 4734: 4728: 4727: 4725: 4723: 4708: 4702: 4701: 4699: 4697: 4692:. Caat.jhsph.edu 4686: 4680: 4679: 4677: 4675: 4660: 4654: 4653: 4651: 4649: 4634: 4628: 4627: 4625: 4623: 4608: 4602: 4601: 4583: 4559: 4553: 4552: 4550: 4548: 4542: 4534: 4528: 4527: 4525: 4523: 4518:on 13 April 2014 4508: 4502: 4501: 4499: 4497: 4482: 4476: 4475: 4465: 4455: 4431: 4425: 4398: 4392: 4391: 4389: 4387: 4376: 4370: 4369: 4367: 4365: 4351: 4345: 4344: 4342: 4340: 4329: 4323: 4322: 4320: 4318: 4303: 4297: 4296: 4294: 4292: 4281: 4275: 4274: 4272: 4270: 4265:on 24 March 2016 4255: 4249: 4248: 4237: 4231: 4230: 4228: 4226: 4215: 4209: 4208: 4206: 4204: 4193: 4184: 4183: 4181: 4179: 4168:"3Rs Prize 2013" 4164: 4158: 4157: 4155: 4153: 4142: 4136: 4135: 4133: 4131: 4120: 4114: 4113: 4111: 4109: 4098: 4092: 4091: 4089: 4087: 4076: 4070: 4069: 4067: 4065: 4051: 4045: 4044: 4042: 4040: 4025: 4019: 4018: 4016: 4014: 4003: 3997: 3996: 3994: 3992: 3981: 3975: 3974: 3972: 3970: 3959: 3953: 3952: 3950: 3948: 3933: 3927: 3926: 3924: 3922: 3907: 3901: 3900: 3898: 3896: 3885: 3879: 3878: 3876: 3874: 3863: 3857: 3856: 3854: 3852: 3845:"Tierschutzbund" 3841: 3835: 3834: 3832: 3830: 3815: 3809: 3808: 3806: 3804: 3789: 3783: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3773:on 25 March 2014 3763: 3757: 3756: 3754: 3752: 3737: 3731: 3730: 3728: 3726: 3711: 3705: 3704: 3702: 3700: 3689: 3683: 3682: 3680: 3678: 3664: 3658: 3657: 3655: 3653: 3639: 3633: 3632: 3630: 3628: 3618:"CAAT Workshops" 3614: 3608: 3607: 3605: 3603: 3588: 3582: 3581: 3575: 3567: 3561: 3560: 3558: 3556: 3545: 3539: 3538: 3536: 3534: 3523: 3517: 3516: 3514: 3491: 3485: 3484: 3482: 3480: 3469: 3463: 3462: 3460: 3458: 3446: 3440: 3439: 3437: 3435: 3424: 3418: 3417: 3415: 3413: 3402: 3396: 3395: 3393: 3391: 3380: 3374: 3373: 3371: 3369: 3363: 3355: 3346: 3345: 3343: 3341: 3330: 3324: 3323: 3321: 3319: 3308: 3302: 3301: 3299: 3297: 3286: 3280: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3260: 3254: 3253: 3251: 3249: 3234: 3228: 3227: 3225: 3223: 3212: 3206: 3205: 3199: 3191: 3189: 3187: 3175: 3169: 3168: 3166: 3164: 3158: 3150: 3144: 3143: 3141: 3139: 3128: 3122: 3121: 3119: 3117: 3102: 3096: 3095: 3093: 3091: 3060: 3054: 3053: 3051: 3049: 3038:"Lung-on-a-chip" 3034: 3028: 3027: 2991: 2985: 2984: 2956: 2947: 2946: 2902: 2896: 2895: 2893: 2891: 2876: 2867: 2866: 2864: 2862: 2855:"Game of Hearts" 2851: 2845: 2844: 2842: 2840: 2825: 2819: 2818: 2808: 2784: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2767:on 15 April 2005 2757: 2751: 2750: 2748: 2746: 2731: 2725: 2724: 2722: 2720: 2715:on 30 March 2008 2711:. 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Howard Moore 6392:John Galsworthy 6372:Wilhelm Dietler 6315: 6311:Corey Lee Wrenn 6221:Martha Nussbaum 6131:Lawrence Finsen 6071:Paola Cavalieri 6046:Kristin Andrews 6021: 6011: 5989: 5958: 5937: 5872: 5826: 5768: 5740: 5701:Pain in animals 5677: 5609: 5575:Poultry farming 5494: 5326: 5246: 5235: 5230: 5157: 5152: 5142: 5140: 5135: 5134: 5130: 5120: 5118: 5113: 5112: 5108: 5098: 5096: 5091: 5090: 5083: 5073: 5071: 5066: 5065: 5061: 5051: 5049: 5044: 5043: 5039: 5029: 5027: 5022: 5021: 5017: 5007: 5005: 5004:on 27 June 2013 5001: 4994: 4988: 4984: 4974: 4972: 4967: 4966: 4962: 4952: 4950: 4945: 4944: 4940: 4930: 4928: 4924: 4923: 4919: 4909: 4907: 4902: 4901: 4897: 4887: 4885: 4880: 4879: 4875: 4865: 4863: 4858: 4857: 4853: 4843: 4841: 4832: 4831: 4827: 4817: 4815: 4814:on 2 March 2014 4806: 4805: 4801: 4791: 4789: 4784: 4783: 4779: 4769: 4767: 4758: 4757: 4753: 4743: 4741: 4736: 4735: 4731: 4721: 4719: 4710: 4709: 4705: 4695: 4693: 4688: 4687: 4683: 4673: 4671: 4662: 4661: 4657: 4647: 4645: 4636: 4635: 4631: 4621: 4619: 4610: 4609: 4605: 4560: 4556: 4546: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4535: 4531: 4521: 4519: 4510: 4509: 4505: 4495: 4493: 4492:on 2 March 2014 4484: 4483: 4479: 4432: 4428: 4399: 4395: 4385: 4383: 4378: 4377: 4373: 4363: 4361: 4353: 4352: 4348: 4338: 4336: 4331: 4330: 4326: 4316: 4314: 4305: 4304: 4300: 4290: 4288: 4283: 4282: 4278: 4268: 4266: 4257: 4256: 4252: 4239: 4238: 4234: 4224: 4222: 4217: 4216: 4212: 4202: 4200: 4195: 4194: 4187: 4177: 4175: 4166: 4165: 4161: 4151: 4149: 4144: 4143: 4139: 4129: 4127: 4122: 4121: 4117: 4107: 4105: 4104:. Lushprize.org 4100: 4099: 4095: 4085: 4083: 4078: 4077: 4073: 4063: 4061: 4053: 4052: 4048: 4038: 4036: 4027: 4026: 4022: 4012: 4010: 4005: 4004: 4000: 3990: 3988: 3983: 3982: 3978: 3968: 3966: 3961: 3960: 3956: 3946: 3944: 3935: 3934: 3930: 3920: 3918: 3909: 3908: 3904: 3894: 3892: 3887: 3886: 3882: 3872: 3870: 3865: 3864: 3860: 3850: 3848: 3843: 3842: 3838: 3828: 3826: 3817: 3816: 3812: 3802: 3800: 3791: 3790: 3786: 3776: 3774: 3765: 3764: 3760: 3750: 3748: 3739: 3738: 3734: 3724: 3722: 3713: 3712: 3708: 3698: 3696: 3691: 3690: 3686: 3676: 3674: 3666: 3665: 3661: 3651: 3649: 3641: 3640: 3636: 3626: 3624: 3616: 3615: 3611: 3601: 3599: 3590: 3589: 3585: 3573: 3569: 3568: 3564: 3554: 3552: 3547: 3546: 3542: 3532: 3530: 3525: 3524: 3520: 3493: 3492: 3488: 3478: 3476: 3471: 3470: 3466: 3456: 3454: 3447: 3443: 3433: 3431: 3425: 3421: 3411: 3409: 3404: 3403: 3399: 3389: 3387: 3382: 3381: 3377: 3367: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3356: 3349: 3339: 3337: 3332: 3331: 3327: 3317: 3315: 3310: 3309: 3305: 3295: 3293: 3287: 3283: 3273: 3271: 3262: 3261: 3257: 3247: 3245: 3238:"euroecotox.eu" 3236: 3235: 3231: 3221: 3219: 3214: 3213: 3209: 3193: 3192: 3185: 3183: 3182:. Wako Pyrostar 3176: 3172: 3162: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3151: 3147: 3137: 3135: 3130: 3129: 3125: 3115: 3113: 3104: 3103: 3099: 3089: 3087: 3085: 3061: 3057: 3047: 3045: 3036: 3035: 3031: 3002:(6): 1228–243. 2992: 2988: 2957: 2950: 2927:10.1038/483043a 2913:(7387): 43–44. 2903: 2899: 2889: 2887: 2886:. 27 April 2007 2878: 2877: 2870: 2860: 2858: 2853: 2852: 2848: 2838: 2836: 2827: 2826: 2822: 2785: 2781: 2770: 2768: 2759: 2758: 2754: 2744: 2742: 2733: 2732: 2728: 2718: 2716: 2701: 2697: 2660:Altern Lab Anim 2651: 2647: 2640: 2624: 2620: 2610: 2608: 2597: 2593: 2546: 2542: 2519: 2515: 2478: 2474: 2415: 2411: 2368: 2364: 2354: 2352: 2344: 2343: 2339: 2329: 2327: 2322: 2321: 2317: 2310: 2294: 2290: 2279: 2248:10.1.1.816.8092 2231: 2227: 2217: 2215: 2205: 2186: 2178: 2174: 2164: 2162: 2153: 2152: 2148: 2138: 2136: 2131: 2130: 2126: 2116: 2114: 2105: 2104: 2100: 2090: 2088: 2083: 2082: 2078: 2037: 2033: 1996: 1992: 1982: 1980: 1971: 1970: 1966: 1960:Wayback Machine 1950:Wayback Machine 1930: 1923: 1908: 1904: 1894: 1892: 1889:"Alternatives?" 1887: 1886: 1882: 1872: 1870: 1859: 1855: 1808: 1804: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1754: 1734: 1729: 1724: 1719: 1702: 1684:Dr Hadwen Trust 1619: 1612:(United States) 1572: 1562: 1528: 1520: 1468: 1429: 1375: 1365: 1343: 1279: 1274: 1228: 1192:the Netherlands 1139: 1133: 1128: 1119: 1108: 1102: 1099: 1088: 1075: 1071: 1064: 1048: 1030: 1009: 1004: 991: 979: 977:Organ-on-a-chip 973: 968: 946: 936: 881: 867: 855:Medical imaging 852: 846:Medical imaging 842: 840:Medical imaging 830:modular immune 826: 820:Modular immune 809: 778: 776:Skin irritation 773: 731: 682: 662: 654: 652:Skin absorption 634: 601: 531:techniques and 506: 477: 449: 415:Colin Blakemore 410:Neal D. Barnard 386: 278: 227: 182: 139: 101: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8089: 8079: 8078: 8061: 8060: 8058: 8057: 8042: 8039: 8038: 8035: 8034: 8031: 8030: 8028: 8027: 8018: 8016: 8012: 8011: 8009: 8008: 8000: 7992: 7984: 7976: 7967: 7965: 7959: 7958: 7955: 7954: 7952: 7951: 7944: 7937: 7930: 7923: 7915: 7913: 7909: 7908: 7906: 7905: 7898: 7891: 7884: 7877: 7870: 7863: 7855: 7853: 7846: 7842: 7841: 7839: 7838: 7830: 7822: 7814: 7806: 7798: 7790: 7782: 7774: 7766: 7758: 7750: 7742: 7734: 7726: 7718: 7710: 7706:Meet Your Meat 7702: 7694: 7686: 7678: 7669: 7667: 7663: 7662: 7660: 7659: 7651: 7643: 7635: 7627: 7619: 7611: 7603: 7595: 7587: 7579: 7571: 7563: 7555: 7547: 7539: 7531: 7523: 7515: 7507: 7503:The New Ethics 7499: 7491: 7483: 7475: 7467: 7459: 7451: 7443: 7434: 7432: 7424: 7423: 7413: 7412: 7409: 7408: 7405: 7404: 7402: 7401: 7395: 7393: 7389: 7388: 7386: 7385: 7379: 7373: 7367: 7361: 7355: 7349: 7343: 7337: 7334:Animals' Party 7331: 7325: 7319: 7313: 7306: 7304: 7300: 7299: 7296: 7295: 7293: 7292: 7287: 7281: 7276: 7270: 7268: 7264: 7263: 7261: 7260: 7255: 7250: 7245: 7240: 7235: 7230: 7225: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7200: 7195: 7190: 7185: 7180: 7175: 7170: 7165: 7160: 7155: 7150: 7145: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7120: 7115: 7110: 7105: 7103:AnimaNaturalis 7100: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7080: 7075: 7073:Animal Justice 7070: 7065: 7060: 7054: 7052: 7045: 7037: 7036: 7023: 7022: 7019: 7018: 7015: 7014: 7011: 7010: 7008: 7007: 7005:Gretchen Wyler 7002: 6997: 6992: 6987: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6967: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6935:Lewis Gompertz 6932: 6927: 6925:Emarel Freshel 6922: 6917: 6915:Muriel Dowding 6912: 6907: 6902: 6897: 6892: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6872: 6866: 6864: 6860: 6859: 6857: 6856: 6851: 6849:Gary Yourofsky 6846: 6841: 6836: 6831: 6826: 6821: 6816: 6811: 6806: 6801: 6796: 6791: 6786: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6766: 6764:Ingrid Newkirk 6761: 6756: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6731: 6726: 6721: 6716: 6711: 6706: 6704:Charlotte Laws 6701: 6696: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6666: 6661: 6656: 6651: 6646: 6641: 6636: 6631: 6629:Yves Bonnardel 6626: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6604:Martin Balluch 6601: 6596: 6591: 6585: 6583: 6576: 6572: 6571: 6568: 6567: 6565: 6564: 6559: 6554: 6552:Steven M. Wise 6549: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6514: 6509: 6504: 6499: 6497:Bernard Rollin 6494: 6489: 6484: 6479: 6474: 6469: 6464: 6459: 6457:Leonard Nelson 6454: 6449: 6444: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6404: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6362:Herman Daggett 6359: 6354: 6352:Priscilla Cohn 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6327:Jeremy Bentham 6323: 6321: 6317: 6316: 6314: 6313: 6308: 6303: 6298: 6293: 6288: 6283: 6278: 6273: 6268: 6263: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6241:Jessica Pierce 6238: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6171:Kyle Johannsen 6168: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6138: 6133: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6096:David DeGrazia 6093: 6088: 6083: 6078: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6053: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6036:Carol J. Adams 6032: 6030: 6023: 6013: 6012: 5999: 5998: 5995: 5994: 5991: 5990: 5988: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5966: 5964: 5960: 5959: 5957: 5956: 5951: 5945: 5943: 5939: 5938: 5936: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5915: 5910: 5908:Pit of despair 5905: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5884: 5882: 5878: 5877: 5874: 5873: 5871: 5870: 5865: 5860: 5855: 5850: 5845: 5840: 5838:Abandoned pets 5834: 5832: 5828: 5827: 5825: 5824: 5819: 5814: 5809: 5804: 5799: 5794: 5789: 5784: 5778: 5776: 5770: 5769: 5767: 5766: 5761: 5756: 5750: 5748: 5742: 5741: 5739: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5693: 5687: 5685: 5683:Animal welfare 5679: 5678: 5676: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5658:Model organism 5655: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5619: 5617: 5615:Animal testing 5611: 5610: 5608: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5590:Working animal 5587: 5582: 5580:Slaughterhouse 5577: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5555:Insect farming 5552: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5515:Animal product 5511: 5509: 5500: 5496: 5495: 5493: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5470:Sentiocentrism 5467: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5395: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5378:Animal welfare 5375: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5334: 5332: 5328: 5327: 5325: 5324: 5319: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5299: 5294: 5289: 5284: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5258: 5256: 5248: 5247: 5237: 5236: 5229: 5228: 5221: 5214: 5206: 5200: 5199: 5189: 5179: 5174: 5169: 5163: 5156: 5155:External links 5153: 5151: 5150: 5128: 5106: 5081: 5059: 5037: 5015: 4982: 4971:. Nc3rs.org.uk 4960: 4949:. Frame.org.uk 4938: 4917: 4895: 4873: 4851: 4825: 4799: 4777: 4751: 4729: 4703: 4681: 4655: 4629: 4603: 4554: 4529: 4503: 4477: 4426: 4393: 4371: 4346: 4324: 4298: 4276: 4250: 4232: 4210: 4185: 4159: 4137: 4115: 4093: 4071: 4046: 4035:on 6 June 2007 4020: 3998: 3976: 3954: 3928: 3902: 3880: 3858: 3836: 3810: 3784: 3758: 3732: 3706: 3684: 3659: 3634: 3609: 3583: 3562: 3540: 3518: 3486: 3464: 3441: 3419: 3397: 3375: 3359:"EURL ECVAM's" 3347: 3325: 3303: 3281: 3255: 3229: 3207: 3170: 3145: 3123: 3097: 3083: 3075:10.17226/11970 3055: 3029: 2986: 2948: 2897: 2868: 2846: 2820: 2779: 2752: 2726: 2695: 2645: 2638: 2618: 2591: 2540: 2529:(2): 259–267. 2513: 2494:(7): 423–427. 2472: 2409: 2388:(9): 604–609. 2374:Acorus calamus 2362: 2337: 2315: 2308: 2288: 2225: 2203: 2172: 2161:on 8 July 2015 2146: 2124: 2098: 2076: 2031: 1990: 1964: 1921: 1902: 1880: 1853: 1802: 1785: 1783: 1780: 1779: 1778: 1770: 1765: 1760: 1753: 1750: 1749: 1748: 1710: 1709: 1701: 1698: 1697: 1696: 1693: 1687: 1681: 1675: 1669: 1666: 1659: 1656: 1653: 1650: 1647: 1640: 1636: 1618: 1615: 1614: 1613: 1607: 1599: 1593: 1587: 1584: 1578: 1571: 1568: 1567: 1566: 1561: 1558: 1557: 1556: 1553: 1550: 1547: 1532: 1527: 1526:Asia - Oceania 1524: 1519: 1516: 1515: 1514: 1510: 1502: 1495: 1487: 1484: 1480: 1467: 1464: 1463: 1462: 1455: 1451: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1437: 1434: 1428: 1425: 1424: 1423: 1417: 1411: 1405: 1399: 1395: 1392: 1389: 1385: 1382: 1364: 1361: 1360: 1359: 1353: 1347: 1342: 1339: 1310: 1309: 1306: 1303: 1300: 1297: 1294: 1278: 1275: 1273: 1270: 1227: 1224: 1204:Czech Republic 1183: 1182: 1175: 1174: 1167: 1166: 1135:Main article: 1132: 1129: 1127: 1126:European Union 1124: 1121: 1120: 1085:of the subject 1083:worldwide view 1078: 1076: 1069: 1063: 1060: 1047: 1044: 1029: 1026: 1008: 1005: 1003: 1000: 990: 987: 975:Main article: 972: 969: 967: 964: 935: 932: 866: 863: 841: 838: 825: 818: 808: 805: 777: 774: 772: 769: 730: 727: 681: 678: 661: 658: 653: 650: 633: 630: 620:tissue culture 600: 597: 596: 595: 589: 583: 508: 507: 505: 504: 497: 490: 482: 479: 478: 476: 475: 473:Animal welfare 470: 465: 463:Animal testing 459: 456: 455: 451: 450: 448: 447: 442: 437: 435:Bernard Rollin 432: 430:Ingrid Newkirk 427: 422: 417: 412: 407: 402: 396: 393: 392: 388: 387: 385: 384: 379: 374: 369: 367:SPEAK campaign 364: 359: 354: 349: 344: 339: 334: 329: 324: 319: 314: 309: 304: 299: 294: 288: 285: 284: 280: 279: 277: 276: 267: 262: 257: 248: 243: 237: 234: 233: 229: 228: 226: 225: 218: 213: 208: 206:Pit of despair 203: 198: 192: 189: 188: 184: 183: 181: 180: 175: 170: 165: 163:Animal welfare 160: 155: 149: 146: 145: 141: 140: 138: 137: 132: 127: 122: 117: 111: 108: 107: 103: 102: 100: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 54: 49: 47:Animal testing 43: 40: 39: 35: 34: 26: 25: 23:Animal testing 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8088: 8077: 8074: 8073: 8071: 8052: 8044: 8043: 8040: 8025: 8024: 8020: 8019: 8017: 8013: 8006: 8005: 8001: 7998: 7997: 7993: 7990: 7989: 7985: 7982: 7981: 7980:Tame Yourself 7977: 7974: 7973: 7969: 7968: 7966: 7964: 7960: 7950: 7949: 7945: 7943: 7942: 7941:No Compromise 7938: 7936: 7935: 7931: 7929: 7928: 7924: 7922: 7921: 7917: 7916: 7914: 7910: 7904: 7903: 7899: 7897: 7896: 7892: 7890: 7889: 7885: 7883: 7882: 7878: 7876: 7875: 7871: 7869: 7868: 7864: 7862: 7861: 7857: 7856: 7854: 7850: 7847: 7843: 7836: 7835: 7831: 7828: 7827: 7823: 7820: 7819: 7815: 7812: 7811: 7807: 7804: 7803: 7799: 7796: 7795: 7791: 7788: 7787: 7783: 7780: 7779: 7775: 7772: 7771: 7767: 7764: 7763: 7759: 7756: 7755: 7751: 7748: 7747: 7743: 7740: 7739: 7735: 7732: 7731: 7727: 7724: 7723: 7719: 7716: 7715: 7711: 7708: 7707: 7703: 7700: 7699: 7695: 7692: 7691: 7687: 7684: 7683: 7679: 7676: 7675: 7671: 7670: 7668: 7664: 7657: 7656: 7652: 7649: 7648: 7644: 7641: 7640: 7636: 7633: 7632: 7628: 7625: 7624: 7620: 7617: 7616: 7612: 7609: 7608: 7604: 7601: 7600: 7596: 7593: 7592: 7588: 7585: 7584: 7580: 7577: 7576: 7572: 7569: 7568: 7564: 7561: 7560: 7556: 7553: 7552: 7548: 7545: 7544: 7540: 7537: 7536: 7532: 7529: 7528: 7524: 7521: 7520: 7516: 7513: 7512: 7508: 7505: 7504: 7500: 7497: 7496: 7492: 7489: 7488: 7484: 7481: 7480: 7476: 7473: 7472: 7468: 7465: 7464: 7460: 7457: 7456: 7452: 7449: 7448: 7444: 7442:(3rd century) 7441: 7440: 7436: 7435: 7433: 7429: 7425: 7418: 7414: 7400: 7397: 7396: 7394: 7390: 7383: 7380: 7377: 7374: 7372:(Netherlands) 7371: 7368: 7365: 7362: 7359: 7356: 7353: 7350: 7347: 7344: 7341: 7338: 7335: 7332: 7329: 7326: 7323: 7320: 7317: 7314: 7311: 7308: 7307: 7305: 7301: 7291: 7288: 7285: 7282: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7271: 7269: 7265: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7231: 7229: 7226: 7224: 7221: 7219: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7191: 7189: 7186: 7184: 7181: 7179: 7176: 7174: 7171: 7169: 7166: 7164: 7161: 7159: 7156: 7154: 7151: 7149: 7146: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7106: 7104: 7101: 7099: 7098:Animal Rising 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7068:Animal Ethics 7066: 7064: 7061: 7059: 7056: 7055: 7053: 7049: 7046: 7042: 7038: 7033: 7028: 7024: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6965:Jessie Mackay 6963: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6941: 6940:James Granger 6938: 6936: 6933: 6931: 6928: 6926: 6923: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6896: 6893: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6875:Henry B. Amos 6873: 6871: 6868: 6867: 6865: 6861: 6855: 6852: 6850: 6847: 6845: 6844:Louise Wallis 6842: 6840: 6837: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6827: 6825: 6822: 6820: 6817: 6815: 6812: 6810: 6809:Kim Stallwood 6807: 6805: 6804:Jasmin Singer 6802: 6800: 6799:Nathan Runkle 6797: 6795: 6792: 6790: 6787: 6785: 6784:David Olivier 6782: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6727: 6725: 6722: 6720: 6717: 6715: 6712: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6702: 6700: 6697: 6695: 6692: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6672: 6670: 6667: 6665: 6664:John Feldmann 6662: 6660: 6657: 6655: 6652: 6650: 6647: 6645: 6642: 6640: 6639:Aymeric Caron 6637: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6609:Carole Baskin 6607: 6605: 6602: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6587: 6586: 6584: 6580: 6577: 6573: 6563: 6560: 6558: 6555: 6553: 6550: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6512:Laurids Smith 6510: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6488: 6485: 6483: 6482:James Rachels 6480: 6478: 6475: 6473: 6470: 6468: 6465: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6427:John Lawrence 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6337:Brigid Brophy 6335: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6324: 6322: 6318: 6312: 6309: 6307: 6304: 6302: 6301:Tatjana Višak 6299: 6297: 6294: 6292: 6291:David Sztybel 6289: 6287: 6286:Cass Sunstein 6284: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6274: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6251:Mark Rowlands 6249: 6247: 6246:Evelyn Pluhar 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6201:Andrew Linzey 6199: 6197: 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6186:Will Kymlicka 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6166:Dale Jamieson 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6146:Valéry Giroux 6144: 6142: 6141:Robert Garner 6139: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6129: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6106:Sue Donaldson 6104: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6086:J. M. Coetzee 6084: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6051:Tom Beauchamp 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6033: 6031: 6027: 6024: 6018: 6014: 6009: 6004: 6000: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5967: 5965: 5961: 5955: 5954:Hunt sabotage 5952: 5950: 5947: 5946: 5944: 5942:Methodologies 5940: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5885: 5883: 5879: 5869: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5835: 5833: 5829: 5823: 5820: 5818: 5815: 5813: 5810: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5787:Hare coursing 5785: 5783: 5780: 5779: 5777: 5775: 5771: 5765: 5762: 5760: 5757: 5755: 5752: 5751: 5749: 5747: 5743: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5697: 5694: 5692: 5689: 5688: 5686: 5684: 5680: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5620: 5618: 5616: 5612: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5530:Chick culling 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5512: 5510: 5508: 5504: 5501: 5497: 5491: 5490:Vegetarianism 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5400: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5388:Anthrozoology 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5358:Animal ethics 5356: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5335: 5333: 5329: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5283: 5280: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5259: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5233:Animal rights 5227: 5222: 5220: 5215: 5213: 5208: 5207: 5204: 5197: 5193: 5190: 5187: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5158: 5138: 5132: 5116: 5110: 5094: 5088: 5086: 5069: 5063: 5047: 5041: 5025: 5019: 5000: 4993: 4986: 4970: 4964: 4948: 4942: 4927: 4921: 4905: 4899: 4883: 4877: 4862:. 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