248:. As lava flows downhill, the atmosphere and cooler surfaces come in contact with the exterior of the flow, causing it to solidify and create a conduit through which the interior liquid lava continues flowing. If the solid conduit empties of liquid lava, the result is a lava tube. Lava tubes flow towards lower elevations and typically stop upon reaching the ocean; however, lava tubes can extend along the seafloor or form from submarine eruptions creating anchialine habitats. Saltwater intruded into many coastal lava tubes during the marine transgression after the last glacial maximum creating many volcanic anchialine pools observed today. Volcanic anchialine systems typically can develop more rapidly than karst systems; on the order of thousands to tens of thousands of years due to their rapid formation at or near the Earth's surface, making them vulnerable to
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only few species dominate a given habitat at a time. Systems closer to the coastline tend to have more influence from marine phytoplankton and zooplankton as they are advected in through the groundwater. Systems further inland are more dominated by freshwater algae and terrestrial deposits but exhibit increasingly restricted diversity within algal communities. Due to the ephemeral nature of many anchialine systems and their limited distribution across the planet, many of their inhabitants are either well adapted to tolerate a broad range of salinity and hypoxic conditions or are introduced through tides from neighboring marine habitats. Species that occupy these habitats are generalists or opportunistic as they exploit conditions intolerable for most other species.
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the most threatened habitats in the archipelago. Pollution from tourism has led to endangered crustaceans in Sipun cave in Cavat. Some anchialine systems are exploited for limestone for use in construction. This mining results in the collapse and destruction of anchialine caves. Ha Long Bay marine lakes have been exploited by residents in surrounding boat villages for fisheries and aquaculture. Anchialine pools are also intentionally filled for development purposes. Tidal currents have been shown to sweep in trash into unexplored areas of Blue Holes in the
Bahamas. Some caves in Bermuda, the Canary Islands, and Mallorca are used as wishing wells which increases concentration of copper and is thought to have caused the decline of the squat lobster,
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the overall sedimentation of a pool. Generally, anchialine pools tend to be deeper and saltier the closer they are to shoreline. There is also a high degree of endemism associated with these environments with over 400 endemic species being described in the last 25 years. Thus, when these habitats are degraded or destroyed, it often leads to the extinction of multiple species. Porosity of the substratum can speed up or slow down this process with more porous substratum reducing sedimentation due to increased hydrologic connectivity with the water table which can exhibit a large control on the species that can survive in anchialine pools.
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160:, a weak acid. The acidic water reacts with the soluble sedimentary rock causing the rock to dissolve and create voids. Over time, these voids widen and deepen, resulting in caves, sinkholes, subterranean pools, and springs. The processes to form these karst morphological features occur on long geological timescales; caverns can be several hundred thousand to millions of years old. Since the caverns which house karst anchialine systems form through the dissolution of bedrock via water percolation, current karst anchialine systems developed around the
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species also pose a significant threat to the ecological health of anchialine systems. These species could be introduced intentionally for the purpose of harvest or recreation or unintentionally from equipment on recreational divers. In
Vietnam, green sea turtles were introduced into anchialine pools for practices related to
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enter pools during flood tides to feed and retreat to cover with ebb tides. There are a range of fish species that can be found in anchialine pools and their presence usually indicates lower populations of hypogeal shrimp and an absence of epigeal shrimp. In Hawaii, the pools are home to the ʻōpaeʻula (Hawaiian shrimp,
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pools are sensitive to water quality changes, however they may be more threatened by the increase of pool exploitation for recreational purposes due to increased accessibility from tourism development. There are also conservation efforts in Maui and the Sinai peninsula to protect anchialine habitats in those areas.
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However, tourism and direct exploitation of anchialine systems has resulted in degradation of their environmental health. Approximately 90% of Hawaii's anchialine habitat have been degraded or lost due to development and introduction of exotic species. Hawaii's anchialine systems are currently one of
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species, while primary producers in these systems are typically algae and bacteria. In pools found in
Western Hawaii cyanobacterial mats are dominant, these are common feature among shallow anchialine pools. Found on the substratum, these yellow-orange mats may precipitate minerals that contribute to
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is an anchialine pool created by an earthquake in 1968 from the uplift of a fossil reef. The earthquake resulted in a fault opening approximately 150 meters from the coastline, which filled with saline groundwater creating an anchialine pool with water depths of up to 14 meters. Deep anchialine pools
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There has been policy and management action to protect the health of these environments. In Hawaii the
Waikoloa anchialine Preservation Area Program (WAPPA) monitors the water quality of coastal environments including anchialine pools. There has been little evidence yet to suggest the fauna of these
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The diversity of unusual and rare species found in anchialine has attracted tourists and recreational divers from across the globe. Tourism generated from the anchialine systems in
Bermuda play an important role in the economy. The Palau lakes are famous for their jellyfish populations and have even
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Anchialine systems have a highly specialized collection of organisms with distinctive adaptations. The species that occupy a given system are strongly determined by the presence or absence of light (pools or caves). A broad diversity of algae and bacteria can be found in anchialine systems, however
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processes can describe how the water moves between the pool and the surrounding environment. Collectively, these processes change the salinity and the vertical density profile, which sets the conditions for the ecological communities to develop. Although each anchialine system is unique, a box model
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in coastal areas is a less common formation process for anchialine systems. In volcanic and seismically activity areas, faults in coastal environments can be intruded by saline groundwater resulting in anchialine systems. Submerged coastal tectonic faults caused by volcanic activity are observed in
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Highly stratified anchialine systems, by definition, have little turbid mixing from wind or water movements. Instead it is suggested that advection of nutrients back into the surface water is caused by the rain of particulate matter below the chemocline displacing water upwards and by the vertical
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The complicated geometry of anchialine systems limits the understanding of hydrologic processes involved, requiring many studies to estimate or model the processes thought to be contributing to the physical and chemical properties of the system. More recent studies look at categorizing changes in
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Evaporative pumping by the pool brine (EP): The pumping effect buffers evaporation. Under extreme evaporation, the salinity is much higher than water in mud. The salinity difference reverses the osmotic pressure and releases the low salinity water (freshwater or seawater) into the brine. Thus, it
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sources above the intruded saltwater or the vertical displacement of freshwater from intruding saltwater. Horizontal white “bathtub ring” stains are observed in submerged sections of Green Bay Cave, Bermuda, indicating paleo-transition zones between freshwater and saltwater at a lower sea level.
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Due to the high endemism in these environments and limited global distribution, many species in anchialine systems are at risk of extinction. 25 species are ICUN red list in
Bermuda and other species are on the Mexican list of threatened and endangered species in the Yucatán. Alien or introduced
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shrimps have been observed to have high population densities in anchialine ponds upwards of hundreds of individuals per square meter. Many of the shrimp species present in these systems migrate into and out of pools with the tide through the connection at the water table. It is hypothesized they
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The box model gives an estimate of the saline environment but does not imply the strength of the halocline. The depth of the seawater intake should be considered for the vertical salinity structure. In a pool containing fresh or brackish water, if the denser seawater flushes near the surface, it
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in an anchialine system. These cycles are affected by the hydrological processes of anchialine systems which vary based on the type, size, and relative inputs of marine and freshwater into the system. Deeper anchialine systems, such as larger pool that resemble lakes, may become highly salinity
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Evaporation (E): Evaporation removes water from the pool, increasing the salinity. The salinity may be higher than the ocean water under solid evaporation. In a shallow pool without significant seawater flushing, weather events, like a hurricane passing through, cause a significant salinity
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Outside of light availability, there are a wide variety of geochemical parameters that affect the biology and ecology within these systems. Possibly the most notable and universal in these systems is the strong halocline. While some anchialine systems are entirely salt water (i.e.
835:. Another adaptation from the lack of solar radiation is that many of these organisms have no eyes, a very energy intensive organelle they no longer need. Stygofauna are however quite different than deep sea organisms, most of which have kept their eyes and specialized them to see
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bacteria reduce nitrate or sulfate for respiration. The productivity in the surface and chemocline layer creates turbid water, below which both oxygen and light levels are low but dissolved inorganic nutrient levels are high creating communities of other reducing microorganisms.
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The seawater seepage into the pool (SE): The barrier between a pool and the ocean controls how much seawater intrudes into a pool. If there are many caves in the barrier or the soil has high porosity, the pool is easier to exchange with the seawater. For example, pools near
947:. Using highly specialized techniques, divers navigate the sprawling overhead environment to form detailed maps of the underground aquifers, collect a variety of biologic, geologic, or chemical samples, and track hydrologic flow. Advances in cave diving technology, such as
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biodiversity and physical characteristics of anchialine systems under changing climate conditions. It is currently an area of active research to predict how climate change induced sea level rise may affect the formation and health of anchialine systems in the near future.
718:(most common in Blue Holes), which thrive in moderate flow systems where the structure acts in a way to compress the water and make particulate organic matter less dilute, improving filter feeding efficacy. This is often seen in the hydrodynamic 'pumping' of Blue Holes by
859:) often have a freshwater lens that can extend hundreds of feet deep or for miles underground until they meet the ocean interface. The halocline not only acts as a physical barrier in density but as a niche partitioning factor that segregates these systems into
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organisms with the latter having the competitive advantage of being able to move between these two niches. In many low-latitude locations where the majority of these systems are found, the temperature of the intruding seawater is much warmer than the
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reduces stratification. However, in the same scenario in a polyhaline pool, the seawater forms a freshwater lens at the top, reinforcing the stratification and potentially creating a hypoxic environment depending on oxygen reaction rates.
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Surface-to-depth relation of the pool water body (S/D): The relationship describes a ratio of evaporation and total water volume. Evaporation is in proportion to the surface area. In a vast and shallow pool, evaporation concentrates brine
831:. Anchialine systems are classically restricted in terms of fluxes (water, nutrients, organisms) in and out of the system. Many of the organisms in anchialine caves lack pigmentation; they have evolved to save energy by not developing
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because the dominant input of organic matter is from sources outside the system. In other words, the cave systems ultimately rely on solar radiation for most of their organic matter, but it is formed elsewhere. New research into the
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To predict mean salinity of an anchialine pool, the pool can be treated as a well-mixed box. Various sources (sinks) add (remove) water and alter the salinity. Below lists several important saline sources and sinks of the pool.
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freshwater. Because of discrepancy between warmer seawater and cooler groundwater, temperatures of the anchialine system may also increase with depth and penetration, which has implications for growth and respiration rates.
72:. Depending on its formation, these systems can exist in one of two primary forms: pools or caves. The primary differentiating characteristics between pools and caves is the availability of light; cave systems are generally
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1204:"Caridean Shrimps found in Land-Locked Saltwater Pools at four Indo-West Pacific Localities (Sinai Peninsula, Funafuti Atoll, Maui and Hawaii Islands), with the description of one new genus and four new species"
88:, and saline water intruding from the coast at depth. Depending on the site, it is sometimes possible to access the deeper saline water directly in the anchialine pool, or sometimes it may be accessible by
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Pool water reflux into the substrate (RE): The reflux is similar to the seawater seepage but in a different direction. The substrate soaks up the dense bottom water and reduces the total salt in the pool.
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to intrude into karst caverns resulting in anchialine systems. In some anchialine systems, lenses of freshwater overlay the saltwater environment. This is caused by the accumulation of freshwater from
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of caves however may be changing this paradigm with a greater dependence on sulfate-reducing microbes and methanogens. In both cases, the accumulation of particulate matter is largely found at the
635:(Eh), meaning there are oxidizing conditions for aerobic respiration. The chemocline layer has a negative Eh (reducing conditions) and low nutrient availability from the respiration above, so
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Water chemistry of anchialine systems are directly related to the amount of connectivity to the adjacent marine and freshwater inputs, and evaporative losses. Major nutrient compositions (
783:, while the diversity and productivity are often influenced by geological age and connectivity to the sea. Ecological studies of anchialine pools frequently identify regionally rare and
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movement of mobile organisms. Introduction of nutrients and organic matter from terrestrial runoff into the surface waters also adds to the nutrient cycling in anchialine systems.
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to feed on otherwise inaccessible prey. Additionally, cave diving can negatively alter water chemistry in normally hypoxic cave environments by introducing oxygen.
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Brock, Richard E.; Norris, James E.; Ziemann, David A.; Lee, Michael T. (1987). "Characteristics of Water
Quality in Anchialine Ponds of Kona, Hawaii Coast".
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Veni, George; DuChene, Harvey; Crawford, Nicholas C.; Groves, Christopher G.; Huppert, George N.; Kastning, Ernst H.; Olson, Rick; Wheeler, Betty J. (2001).
1551:"One new genus and three new species of caridean shrimps (Crustacea: Decapoda) from the Upper Jurassic Solnhofen Lithographic Limestones (Southern Germany)"
816:. The concentration of organic particles is also seen at saline boundaries in other estuarine systems as well with elevated concentrations of particles at
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Brock, R. E., & Kam, A. K. (1997). Biological and water quality characteristics of anchialine resources in Kaloko-Honokohau
National Historical Park.
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coastlines where the geology and aquifer systems are relatively young, and there is minimal soil development. Such conditions occur notably where the
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Deep within anchialine cave systems the lack of energy from solar radiation prevents photosynthesis. These dark cave systems are often classified as
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Iceland and in the
Galapagos Islands, where they are known as “grietas,” which translates to “cracks.” Faulted anchialine systems can also form from
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are the primary mechanism that creates anchialine systems in these volcanic environments. Lava tubes occur during eruptions of fluid-flowing
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that combines elements from brackish surface water bodies, subterranean systems, and terrestrial landscapes and are usually wet lit. Algal
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For example, when the evaporation (E or S/D) removes freshwater faster than the influx, the salinity get higher than the ambient ocean. If
80:. The difference in light availability has a large influence on the biology of a given system. Anchialine systems are a feature of coastal
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1512:"Phytoplankton of cenotes and anchialine caves along a distance gradient from the northeastern coast of Quintana Roo, Yucatán Peninsula"
1242:"The physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of a stratified, saline, sulfide lake in Palau1: Sulfide lake characteristics"
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and groundwater. For example, after considerable rain, lots of freshwater on the surface flows into the pool and dilutes salt water.
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Becking, Leontine E.; Renema, Willem; Santodomingo, Nadiezhda k.; Hoeksema, Bert W.; Tuti, Yosephine; de Vongd, Nicole J. (2011).
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2200:"Assessing the spatial–temporal response of groundwater-fed anchialine ecosystems to sea-level rise for coastal zone management"
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2004:
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Por, Francis D. (1985). "Anchialine Pools — Comparative
Hydrobiology". In Friedman, Gerald M.; Krumbein, Wolfgang E. (eds.).
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1432:"Physico-chemical profile and energy fixation in Bundera Sinkhole, an anchialine remiped habitat in north-western Australia"
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Custodia MR, Lobo-Hajdu G, Hajdu e, Muricy G, Porifera Research: Biodiversity Innovation and Sustainability. Rio de Janeiro
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Marrack, Lisa; Wiggins, Chad; Marra, John J.; Genz, Ayesha; Most, Rebecca; Falinski, Kim; Conklin, Eric (April 2021).
2153:"Modeling Potential Shifts in Hawaiian Anchialine Pool Habitat and Introduced Fish Distribution due to Sea Level Rise"
164:, approximately 20,000 years ago when the sea level was ~120 meters lower than today. Evidence of this can be seen in
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rites and consumption. Exotic species introduction is a primary driver for anchialine habitat degradation in Hawaii.
1617:"Biological and water quality characteristics of anchialine resources in Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park"
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Cave divers also have unintended negative impacts on these habitats by using flashlights that enable fish such as
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of anchialine caves typically exhibit adaptations associated with low light and food, and are often classified as
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1818:"Methane- and dissolved organic carbon-fueled microbial loop supports a tropical subterranean estuary ecosystem"
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with depth which can support a variety of stratified communities of micro-organisms and biogeochemical cycles.
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A volcanic anchialine pool in the 'Ahihi-Kina'u Natural Area Reserve on the southwestern coast of Maui, Hawaii.
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Martínez, Alejandro; Gonzalez, Brett C. (2018), Moldovan, Oana Teodora; Kováč, Ľubomír; Halse, Stuart (eds.),
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The primary way in which people study and explore the subterranean sections of anchialine systems is through
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2032:"Rocks and clocks: linking geologic history and rates of genetic differentiation in anchialine organisms"
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2104:"Recently discovered landlocked basins in Indonesia reveal high habitat diversity in anchialine systems"
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In deeper stratified systems water below the chemocline can be associated with an increase in dissolved
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Azzini, Francesca; Calcinai, Barbara; Cerrano, Carlo; Bevestrello, Giorgio; Pansini, Maurizio (2007).
1673:"Worldwide diving discoveries of living fossil animals from the depths of anchialine and marine caves"
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Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Department of Botany
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2079:"Sponges of the marine karst lakes and of the coast of the islands of Ha Long Bay (North Vietnam)"
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stratified with depth. The surface consists of brackish oxygen-rich waters followed by a distinct
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1094:"Development of anchialine cave habitats and karst subterranean estuaries since the last ice age"
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Cave diver in a karst anchialine system. Sidemount tanks on each side allow further exploration.
485:, salinity is close to open ocean salinity because the salt inflow balances the evaporation. If
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van Hengstum, Peter J.; Cresswell, Jacque N.; Milne, Glenn A.; Iliffe, Thomas M. (2019-08-15).
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Crystal Cave, Bermuda is an anchialine cave formed by chemical dissolution of soluble bedrock.
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created by faulting from the uplift of a reef limestone block are also seen on the island of
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1460:"A stable isotope study of organic cycling and the ecology of an anchialine cave ecosystem"
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726:(snails and other mollusks). There are also other smaller non-crustacean inverts including
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are by far the most abundant taxa in anchialine systems. Crustacean biodiversity includes
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176:), a terrestrial cave formation observed at 24 meters water depth in anchialine pools in
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Mexican tetra, blind cave fish. One of the few vertebrates deep within anchialine caves
1726:"Ostracoda (Myodocopina, Cladocopina, Halocypridina) from Anchialine Caves in Bermuda"
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68:, "near the sea") is a landlocked body of water with a subterranean connection to the
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Farrant, Andrew; Woods, Mark; Burt, Elaine; Pilkington, Sharon; Knight, John (2022).
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1280:. Ecological Studies. Vol. 53. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 136–144.
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Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS); Adaptations to life in marine caves
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Dominant non-crustacean invertebrates groups within anchialine systems include
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1875:"Spatial Variability of Suspended Sediments in San Francisco Bay, California"
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1347:"Variable hydrology and salinity of salt ponds in the British Virgin Islands"
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Conference: Proceedings of the Third Symposium on the Geology of the Bahamas
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The ratio between the evaporation and water exchange with the surrounding,
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which are density stratified, with water near the surface being fresh or
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in their otherwise dark environments. There are no known bioluminescent
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447:{\displaystyle PS={\frac {1}{F}}+{\frac {E}{SE+EP-RE}}+{\frac {S}{D}}.}
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to date, despite this adaptation's popularity in other dark systems.
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Thomas, Martin L. H; Eakins, Kathleen E.; Logan, Alan (1991-01-01).
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Anchialine systems are extremely common worldwide especially along
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had an IMAX feature film made about them called 'The Living Sea'.
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188:. The marine transgression after the last glacial maximum caused
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81:
73:
2076:
1091:
3793:
3753:
3671:
3525:
3520:
3055:
3035:
2990:
2975:
2833:
2552:
2534:
2278:
856:
711:
575:
277:
242:
234:
185:
16:
Landlocked body of water with underground connection to the sea
3596:
1983:
Dawson, Mike N.; Martin, Laura E.; Penland, Lolita K. (2001),
3810:
3763:
3705:
3406:
3369:
3128:
3030:
2980:
2965:
2955:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2858:
2853:
2803:
2572:
1406:"Physical Characteristics of the Anchialine Ponds of Bermuda"
1168:, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 399–414,
996:"Observations on the biology and geology of anchialine caves"
930:
702:
276:
processes in coastal regions. The Ras Muhammad Crack area in
230:
218:
153:
111:. Many anchialine systems are found on the coastlines of the
69:
1555:
Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie - Abhandlungen
297:
simplifies the hydrology processes included in each system.
3627:
3540:
3530:
3505:
3015:
2945:
2893:
2888:
2735:
2309:
2286:
2274:
282:
245:
108:
50:
44:
41:
35:
1047:
3990:
3020:
2823:
1017:
32:
364:, implies if the box reach an equilibrium state or not.
2197:
590:) from the ocean and groundwater sources determine the
2204:
Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems
1457:
1078:. Oxford, UK: UNESCO, Eolss Publishers. pp. 1–26.
264:
Las Grietas, isla Santa Cruz, islas Galápagos, Ecuador
217:
Anchialine systems are also commonly found in coastal
1991:, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 131–144,
1308:
530:
491:
462:
372:
347:
329:
The influx of freshwater (F): The freshwater is from
53:
38:
1989:
Jellyfish Blooms: Ecological and Societal Importance
1240:
Hamner, W. M.; Gilmer, R. W.; Hamner, P. P. (1982).
47:
2030:Santos, Scott R.; Weese, David A. (November 2011).
1982:
1087:
1085:
29:
1985:"Jellyfish swarms, tourists, and the Christ-child"
1239:
706:Filter feeding barrel sponges on reef in Blue Hole
545:
512:
477:
446:
356:
1815:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1436:Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia
1425:
1423:
1403:
4120:
1677:Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences
1159:
1082:
876:
2097:
2095:
1724:Kornicker, Louis S.; Iliffe, Thomas M. (1989).
1723:
1666:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1505:
1503:
1458:Pohlman, Jw; Iliffe, Tm; Cifuentes, La (1997).
1453:
1451:
1449:
1340:
1338:
1155:
1153:
697:
2025:
2023:
2021:
1712:
1656:
1654:
1652:
1650:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1642:
1640:
1638:
1509:
1420:
255:
3612:
2762:
2273:
2259:
1766:
1610:
1608:
1606:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1598:
1596:
1594:
1592:
1344:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1069:
1067:
1065:
1063:
1061:
1059:
989:
987:
985:
983:
981:
979:
977:
2092:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1872:
1500:
1446:
1345:Jarecki, Lianna; Walkey, Mike (2006-02-27).
1335:
1150:
1073:
643:
139:
2029:
2018:
1635:
1615:Brock, Richard E.; Kam, Alan K. H. (1997).
1510:Sanchéz, Malinali; Alcocer, Javier (2002).
1162:"Volcanic Anchialine Habitats of Lanzarote"
1013:
1011:
1009:
3619:
3605:
2769:
2755:
2266:
2252:
1913:
1589:
1271:
1269:
1218:
1056:
974:
885:Jellyfish in anchialine lake in Micronesia
2215:
2119:
1924:
1898:
1849:
1816:Brankovitz, David; Pohlman, John (2017).
1483:
1429:
1380:
1362:
1318:
1278:Hypersaline Ecosystems: The Gavish Sabkha
1257:
1133:
1757:
1755:
1614:
1201:
1074:Iliffe, Thomas M; Bishop, Renee (2007).
1006:
929:
904:
880:
745:
732:
701:
259:
208:
143:
131:, and other karst and volcanic systems.
2150:
1914:Mobley, Curtis; Boss, Emmanuel (2021).
1796:
1548:
1266:
315:'s coast are saltier than inland pools.
4121:
1670:
1021:Living with Karst a Fragile Foundation
993:
823:Fauna that reside strictly within the
3600:
2776:
2750:
2247:
1752:
1693:
204:
1935:
1873:Taylor, Niky; Kudela, Raphe (2021).
1799:"Anchialine Caves and Their Ecology"
1730:Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology
909:Protected anchialine pools in Hawaii
288:
1275:
925:
791:
767:Anchialine pools are considered an
741:
614:
13:
3465:Integrated coastal zone management
1938:"The ecology of anchihaline caves"
855:) other more inland systems (i.e.
569:
221:volcanic environments such as the
14:
4145:
3638:Glossary of caving and speleology
1942:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1027:. American Geological Institute.
1002:: 73–80 – via ResearchGate.
994:Iliffe, Thomas M (January 1987).
958:
560:
3581:
3580:
3118:
3111:
2453:
180:and 122 meters water depth in a
152:Anchialine systems may occur in
25:
4027:Nok and Mamproug Cave Dwellings
3626:
2191:
2144:
2070:
1976:
1907:
1866:
1809:
1797:Sawicki, Thomas (5 July 2012).
1790:
1687:
1549:Winkler, Norbert (2021-01-29).
1542:
1397:
1302:
326:slows the rate of salinization.
3563:Region of freshwater influence
1464:Marine Ecology Progress Series
1195:
1041:
938:
666:
1:
4134:Coastal and oceanic landforms
3325:Large-scale coastal behaviour
3157:Beaches in estuaries and bays
967:
877:Exploitation and conservation
4080:List of UK caving fatalities
2151:Marrack, Lisa (2016-05-01).
1997:10.1007/978-94-010-0722-1_12
1954:10.1016/0169-5347(96)20031-x
1920:. Curtis Mobley. p. 90.
1174:10.1007/978-3-319-98852-8_19
1052:. British Geological Survey.
698:Non-crustacean invertebrates
513:{\displaystyle 2>PS>1}
300:
107:or recently formed volcanic
7:
1286:10.1007/978-3-642-70290-7_9
818:estuarine turbidity maximum
256:Tectonic faulting formation
10:
4150:
1842:10.1038/s41467-017-01776-x
1538:– via Springer Link.
1410:Bulletin of Marine Science
1246:Limnology and Oceanography
1208:Zoologische Verhandelingen
1118:10.1038/s41598-019-48058-8
812:interface between 2 and 0
657:
652:
134:
4103:
4072:
4040:
3999:
3884:
3729:
3644:
3635:
3576:
3478:
3445:
3250:
3210:
3127:
3109:
2784:
2637:
2609:
2571:
2533:
2462:
2451:
2285:
2169:10.1007/s12237-015-0025-5
2121:10.1007/s10750-011-0742-0
2048:10.1007/s10750-010-0588-x
1259:10.4319/lo.1982.27.5.0896
730:(voracious zooplankton).
644:Physical nutrient cycling
140:Karst landscape formation
4056:Cave of Forgotten Dreams
3270:Coastal biogeomorphology
2445:Waste stabilization pond
1936:Sket, Boris (May 1996).
1698:. Princeton Paperbacks.
1430:Humphreys, W.F. (1999).
478:{\displaystyle PS\sim 1}
285:in the Central Pacific.
4049:Diving into the Unknown
1774:"The Amazing Creature!"
1738:10.5479/si.00810282.475
1671:Iliffe, Thomas (2009).
1567:10.1127/njgpa/2021/0954
1528:10.1023/A:1014936714964
1202:Holthuis, L.B. (1973).
750:Cyanobacteria algal mat
546:{\displaystyle PS>2}
4095:Tham Luang cave rescue
4090:Riesending cave rescue
3167:Coastal morphodynamics
1694:Vogel, Steven (1996).
935:
910:
896:Munidopsis polymorpha.
886:
751:
738:
707:
547:
514:
479:
448:
358:
265:
214:
149:
4063:The Underground Eiger
3558:Physical oceanography
2400:Salt evaporation pond
1822:Nature Communications
1696:Life in Moving Fluids
1364:10.1186/1746-1448-2-2
933:
908:
884:
749:
736:
705:
592:biogeochemical cycles
548:
515:
480:
449:
359:
263:
212:
147:
3387:Submergent coastline
3340:Marine transgression
3295:Discordant coastline
3280:Concordant coastline
2655:Big fish–little pond
2624:Freshwater ecosystem
2558:Puddles on a surface
2157:Estuaries and Coasts
528:
489:
460:
370:
345:
162:last glacial maximum
4085:Alpazat cave rescue
3730:Types and formation
3491:Coastal engineering
2665:Constructed wetland
1891:2021RemS...13.4625T
1834:2017NatCo...8.1835B
1476:1997MEPS..155...17P
1110:2019NatSR...911907V
841:Cherenkov radiation
690:, and a variety of
633:reduction potential
250:erosional processes
4012:Cave-dwelling Jews
3759:Estavelle/Inversac
3460:Coastal management
3300:Emergent coastline
2971:Intertidal wetland
2874:Continental margin
2548:Coffee ring effect
2355:Infiltration basin
2335:Facultative lagoon
1900:10.3390/rs13224625
1778:www.fukubonsai.com
1485:10.3354/meps155017
1098:Scientific Reports
936:
911:
900:Astyanax fasciatus
887:
761:Halocaridina rubra
752:
739:
708:
543:
510:
475:
444:
357:{\displaystyle PS}
354:
266:
215:
205:Volcanic formation
190:saline groundwater
150:
4116:
4115:
3894:(Cave formations)
3657:Cave conservation
3594:
3593:
3422:Wave-cut platform
3335:Marine regression
2879:Continental shelf
2869:Coastal waterfall
2778:Coastal geography
2744:
2743:
2685:Pond of Abundance
2619:Aquatic ecosystem
2006:978-94-010-3835-5
1295:978-3-642-70290-7
1183:978-3-319-98852-8
773:primary producers
722:(flatworms), and
439:
426:
390:
289:Hydrology process
269:Tectonic faulting
227:Galapagos Islands
117:Yucatán Peninsula
21:anchialine system
4141:
3739:Anchihaline cave
3721:Caves by country
3621:
3614:
3607:
3598:
3597:
3584:
3583:
3345:Raised shoreline
3320:Ingression coast
3315:Graded shoreline
3290:Cuspate foreland
3122:
3115:
3066:Submarine canyon
2926:Freshwater marsh
2771:
2764:
2757:
2748:
2747:
2457:
2330:Evaporation pond
2268:
2261:
2254:
2245:
2244:
2238:
2237:
2219:
2217:10.1002/aqc.3493
2195:
2189:
2188:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2123:
2099:
2090:
2089:
2083:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2027:
2016:
2015:
2014:
2013:
1980:
1974:
1973:
1933:
1922:
1921:
1911:
1905:
1904:
1902:
1870:
1864:
1863:
1853:
1813:
1807:
1806:
1794:
1788:
1787:
1785:
1784:
1770:
1764:
1759:
1750:
1749:
1721:
1710:
1709:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1668:
1633:
1632:
1612:
1587:
1586:
1546:
1540:
1539:
1507:
1498:
1497:
1487:
1455:
1444:
1443:
1427:
1418:
1417:
1401:
1395:
1394:
1384:
1366:
1342:
1333:
1332:
1322:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1273:
1264:
1263:
1261:
1237:
1216:
1215:
1199:
1193:
1192:
1191:
1190:
1157:
1148:
1147:
1137:
1089:
1080:
1079:
1071:
1054:
1053:
1050:"How caves form"
1045:
1039:
1038:
1026:
1015:
1004:
1003:
991:
926:Ongoing research
792:Anchialine caves
742:Anchialine pools
621:hydrogen sulfide
615:Redox conditions
552:
550:
549:
544:
519:
517:
516:
511:
484:
482:
481:
476:
453:
451:
450:
445:
440:
432:
427:
425:
396:
391:
383:
363:
361:
360:
355:
154:karst landscapes
129:Christmas Island
113:island of Hawaii
76:while pools are
60:
59:
56:
55:
52:
49:
46:
43:
40:
37:
34:
31:
4149:
4148:
4144:
4143:
4142:
4140:
4139:
4138:
4129:Bodies of water
4119:
4118:
4117:
4112:
4099:
4068:
4041:Popular culture
4036:
3995:
3893:
3888:
3880:
3826:Solutional cave
3731:
3725:
3640:
3631:
3625:
3595:
3590:
3572:
3548:Intertidal zone
3474:
3441:
3330:Longshore drift
3275:Coastal erosion
3246:
3206:
3142:Beach evolution
3123:
3117:
3116:
3107:
2794:Anchialine pool
2780:
2775:
2745:
2740:
2633:
2605:
2567:
2529:
2505:Spent fuel pool
2500:Reflecting pool
2470:Anchialine pool
2458:
2449:
2281:
2272:
2242:
2241:
2196:
2192:
2149:
2145:
2100:
2093:
2081:
2075:
2071:
2028:
2019:
2011:
2009:
2007:
1981:
1977:
1934:
1925:
1912:
1908:
1871:
1867:
1814:
1810:
1795:
1791:
1782:
1780:
1772:
1771:
1767:
1760:
1753:
1722:
1713:
1706:
1692:
1688:
1669:
1636:
1613:
1590:
1547:
1543:
1508:
1501:
1456:
1447:
1428:
1421:
1402:
1398:
1343:
1336:
1311:Pacific Science
1307:
1303:
1296:
1274:
1267:
1238:
1219:
1200:
1196:
1188:
1186:
1184:
1158:
1151:
1090:
1083:
1072:
1057:
1046:
1042:
1035:
1024:
1016:
1007:
992:
975:
970:
961:
941:
928:
879:
837:bioluminescence
806:chemoautotrophy
794:
744:
700:
669:
660:
655:
646:
617:
609:redox gradients
572:
570:Biogeochemistry
563:
529:
526:
525:
490:
487:
486:
461:
458:
457:
431:
400:
395:
382:
371:
368:
367:
346:
343:
342:
303:
291:
274:tectonic uplift
258:
207:
142:
137:
121:South Australia
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4147:
4137:
4136:
4131:
4114:
4113:
4111:
4110:
4104:
4101:
4100:
4098:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4076:
4074:
4070:
4069:
4067:
4066:
4059:
4052:
4044:
4042:
4038:
4037:
4035:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4017:Cave monastery
4014:
4009:
4003:
4001:
3997:
3996:
3994:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3971:Speleoseismite
3968:
3963:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3897:
3895:
3882:
3881:
3879:
3878:
3877:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3802:
3801:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3744:Breathing cave
3741:
3735:
3733:
3727:
3726:
3724:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3702:
3701:
3696:
3686:
3685:
3684:
3679:
3669:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3648:
3646:
3642:
3641:
3636:
3633:
3632:
3624:
3623:
3616:
3609:
3601:
3592:
3591:
3589:
3588:
3577:
3574:
3573:
3571:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3544:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3493:
3488:
3482:
3480:
3476:
3475:
3473:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3451:
3449:
3443:
3442:
3440:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3378:
3377:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3256:
3254:
3248:
3247:
3245:
3244:
3243:
3242:
3237:
3227:
3222:
3216:
3214:
3208:
3207:
3205:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3133:
3131:
3125:
3124:
3110:
3108:
3106:
3105:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2902:
2901:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2839:Brackish marsh
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2819:Barrier island
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2790:
2788:
2782:
2781:
2774:
2773:
2766:
2759:
2751:
2742:
2741:
2739:
2738:
2733:
2725:
2720:
2718:Water aeration
2715:
2710:
2705:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2645:Aerated lagoon
2641:
2639:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2631:
2629:Lake ecosystem
2626:
2621:
2615:
2613:
2607:
2606:
2604:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2577:
2575:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2539:
2537:
2531:
2530:
2528:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2466:
2464:
2460:
2459:
2452:
2450:
2448:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2390:Retention pond
2387:
2382:
2380:Polishing pond
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2350:Immersion pond
2347:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2320:Detention pond
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2300:Balancing lake
2297:
2291:
2289:
2283:
2282:
2271:
2270:
2263:
2256:
2248:
2240:
2239:
2210:(4): 853–869.
2190:
2163:(3): 781–797.
2143:
2091:
2069:
2017:
2005:
1975:
1948:(5): 221–225.
1923:
1906:
1879:Remote Sensing
1865:
1808:
1789:
1765:
1751:
1711:
1704:
1686:
1634:
1588:
1541:
1499:
1445:
1419:
1396:
1351:Saline Systems
1334:
1301:
1294:
1265:
1252:(5): 896–909.
1217:
1194:
1182:
1149:
1081:
1055:
1040:
1033:
1005:
972:
971:
969:
966:
960:
959:Climate change
957:
940:
937:
927:
924:
878:
875:
833:chromatophores
793:
790:
743:
740:
716:filter feeders
699:
696:
668:
665:
659:
656:
654:
651:
645:
642:
637:chemosynthetic
616:
613:
571:
568:
562:
561:Stratification
559:
553:, the pool is
542:
539:
536:
533:
524:(~40 psu). If
520:, the pool is
509:
506:
503:
500:
497:
494:
474:
471:
468:
465:
443:
438:
435:
430:
424:
421:
418:
415:
412:
409:
406:
403:
399:
394:
389:
386:
381:
378:
375:
353:
350:
339:
338:
334:
331:surface runoff
327:
323:
320:
316:
302:
299:
290:
287:
257:
254:
223:Canary Islands
206:
203:
141:
138:
136:
133:
125:Canary Islands
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4146:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4126:
4124:
4109:
4106:
4105:
4102:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4077:
4075:
4071:
4065:
4064:
4060:
4058:
4057:
4053:
4051:
4050:
4046:
4045:
4043:
4039:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4004:
4002:
3998:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3926:Dogtooth spar
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3911:Calcite rafts
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3898:
3896:
3892:
3887:
3883:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3861:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3800:
3797:
3796:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3736:
3734:
3728:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3711:Speleogenesis
3709:
3707:
3704:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3691:
3690:
3687:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3674:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3662:Cave painting
3660:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3652:Biospeleology
3650:
3649:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3622:
3617:
3615:
3610:
3608:
3603:
3602:
3599:
3587:
3579:
3578:
3575:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3553:Littoral zone
3551:
3549:
3546:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3498:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3486:Bulkhead line
3484:
3483:
3481:
3477:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3452:
3450:
3448:
3444:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3427:Wave shoaling
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3402:Surge channel
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3376:
3373:
3372:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3265:Cliffed coast
3263:
3261:
3258:
3257:
3255:
3253:
3249:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3232:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3217:
3215:
3213:
3209:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3192:Shingle beach
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3134:
3132:
3130:
3126:
3121:
3114:
3104:
3103:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2864:Coastal plain
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2791:
2789:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2772:
2767:
2765:
2760:
2758:
2753:
2752:
2749:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2730:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2713:Swimming hole
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2702:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2660:Body of water
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2642:
2640:
2636:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2612:
2608:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2596:Goldfish pond
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2570:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2540:
2538:
2536:
2532:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2515:Swimming pool
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2480:Infinity pool
2478:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2467:
2465:
2461:
2456:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2410:Settling pond
2408:
2406:
2405:Sediment pond
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2292:
2290:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2277:, pools, and
2276:
2269:
2264:
2262:
2257:
2255:
2250:
2249:
2246:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2194:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2147:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2114:(1): 89–105.
2113:
2109:
2108:Hydrobiologia
2105:
2098:
2096:
2087:
2080:
2073:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2036:Hydrobiologia
2033:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2008:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1979:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1919:
1918:
1910:
1901:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1869:
1861:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1812:
1804:
1800:
1793:
1779:
1775:
1769:
1763:
1758:
1756:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1732:(475): 1–88.
1731:
1727:
1720:
1718:
1716:
1707:
1701:
1697:
1690:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1667:
1665:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1639:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1611:
1609:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1545:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1516:Hydrobiologia
1513:
1506:
1504:
1495:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1426:
1424:
1416:(1): 125–136.
1415:
1411:
1407:
1400:
1392:
1388:
1383:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1341:
1339:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1312:
1305:
1297:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1272:
1270:
1260:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1236:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1228:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1198:
1185:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1156:
1154:
1145:
1141:
1136:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1088:
1086:
1077:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1064:
1062:
1060:
1051:
1044:
1036:
1034:0-922152-58-6
1030:
1023:
1022:
1014:
1012:
1010:
1001:
997:
990:
988:
986:
984:
982:
980:
978:
973:
965:
956:
954:
950:
946:
932:
923:
919:
917:
907:
903:
901:
897:
891:
883:
874:
871:
866:
862:
858:
854:
848:
846:
842:
839:and possibly
838:
834:
830:
826:
821:
819:
815:
811:
807:
802:
799:
798:allochthonous
789:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
765:
763:
762:
756:
748:
735:
731:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
704:
695:
693:
689:
688:Ascothoracida
685:
681:
677:
673:
664:
650:
641:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
612:
610:
606:
602:
598:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
567:
558:
557:(60~80 psu).
556:
540:
537:
534:
531:
523:
507:
504:
501:
498:
495:
492:
472:
469:
466:
463:
454:
441:
436:
433:
428:
422:
419:
416:
413:
410:
407:
404:
401:
397:
392:
387:
384:
379:
376:
373:
365:
351:
348:
335:
332:
328:
324:
321:
317:
314:
309:
308:
307:
298:
295:
286:
284:
279:
275:
270:
262:
253:
251:
247:
246:pahoehoe lava
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
211:
202:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
158:carbonic acid
155:
146:
132:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
93:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
64:
58:
22:
4061:
4054:
4047:
4007:Cave dweller
3921:Cave popcorn
3860:Underground
3779:Karst spring
3769:Glacier cave
3738:
3417:Volcanic arc
3305:Feeder bluff
3212:River mouths
3177:Raised beach
3172:Pocket beach
3100:
3071:Tidal island
3061:Strand plain
3006:Natural arch
2793:
2729:Water Lilies
2728:
2723:Water garden
2703:(M C Escher)
2700:
2650:Bakki shower
2485:Natural pool
2469:
2385:Raceway pond
2315:Cooling pond
2305:Ballast pond
2207:
2203:
2193:
2160:
2156:
2146:
2111:
2107:
2085:
2072:
2042:(1): 53–64.
2039:
2035:
2010:, retrieved
1988:
1978:
1945:
1941:
1917:Ocean Optics
1916:
1909:
1885:(22): 4625.
1882:
1878:
1868:
1825:
1821:
1811:
1802:
1792:
1781:. Retrieved
1777:
1768:
1729:
1695:
1689:
1680:
1676:
1620:
1561:(1): 49–70.
1558:
1554:
1544:
1519:
1515:
1467:
1463:
1439:
1435:
1413:
1409:
1399:
1354:
1350:
1310:
1304:
1277:
1249:
1245:
1211:
1207:
1197:
1187:, retrieved
1166:Cave Ecology
1165:
1104:(1): 11907.
1101:
1097:
1075:
1043:
1020:
999:
962:
942:
920:
912:
899:
895:
892:
888:
849:
825:aphotic zone
822:
795:
777:water column
775:inhabit the
766:
759:
753:
728:chaetognaths
709:
670:
661:
647:
618:
573:
564:
455:
366:
340:
319:fluctuation.
304:
294:Hydrological
292:
267:
216:
151:
94:
65:
20:
18:
3886:Speleothems
3799:Exploration
3699:Troglofauna
3667:Cave survey
3645:Main topics
3568:River plume
3382:Steep coast
3355:Rocky shore
3350:Rip current
3230:River delta
3202:Wash margin
3197:Storm beach
3187:Shell beach
3152:Beach wrack
3147:Beach ridge
3137:Beach cusps
3086:Tied island
3076:Tidal marsh
2799:Archipelago
2675:Hydric soil
2563:Seep puddle
2525:Vernal pool
2510:Stream pool
2495:Plunge pool
2360:Kettle pond
2340:Garden pond
1828:(1): 1835.
953:rebreathers
945:cave diving
939:Cave diving
861:stenohaline
692:water fleas
672:Crustaceans
667:Crustaceans
555:hypersaline
174:stalagmites
170:stalactites
166:speleothems
97:neotropical
90:cave diving
4123:Categories
4022:Kome Caves
3986:Stalagnate
3981:Stalagmite
3976:Stalactite
3966:Soda straw
3956:Shelfstone
3916:Cave pearl
3891:Speleogens
3856:Talus cave
3789:Ley tunnel
3716:Speleology
3694:Stygofauna
3496:Grain size
3470:Submersion
3447:Management
3432:Wind fetch
3392:Surf break
3310:Flat coast
3240:regressive
3026:Salt marsh
2884:Coral reef
2690:Pond liner
2680:Phytotelma
2611:Ecosystems
2581:Beaver dam
2490:Ocean pool
2475:Brine pool
2440:Waste pond
2415:Solar pond
2088:: 157–164.
2012:2022-11-16
1783:2023-02-25
1705:0691026165
1683:: 269–280.
1629:10125/7396
1320:10125/1034
1214:(1): 1–48.
1189:2022-11-30
968:References
865:euryhaline
853:blue holes
845:stygobites
829:stygofauna
724:Gastropoda
720:Tubellaria
714:and other
601:chemocline
597:pycnocline
522:metahaline
239:Lava tubes
4073:Incidents
4000:Dwellings
3941:Helictite
3936:Frostwork
3931:Flowstone
3901:Anthodite
3874:Waterfall
3846:Suffosion
3831:Show cave
3816:Salt cave
3784:Lava cave
3732:processes
3682:Equipment
3455:Accretion
3437:Wind wave
3397:Surf zone
3252:Processes
3225:Mouth bar
3182:Recession
3162:Beachrock
3081:Tide pool
3011:Peninsula
2899:cliff-top
2786:Landforms
2670:Full pond
2591:Fish pond
2586:Duck pond
2543:Bird bath
2520:Tide pool
2425:Stew pond
2375:Mill pond
2370:Melt pond
2234:234009634
2226:1052-7613
2177:1559-2731
2130:1573-5117
2056:0018-8158
1962:0169-5347
1746:0081-0282
1583:234095653
1575:0077-7749
1522:: 79–89.
1494:0171-8630
1470:: 17–27.
1373:1746-1448
1329:0030-8870
1126:2045-2322
916:animistic
810:halocline
769:ecosystem
680:Amphipoda
625:phosphate
584:phosphate
470:∼
417:−
301:Box model
182:blue hole
105:limestone
66:ankhialos
4108:Category
3961:Snottite
3951:Rimstone
3946:Moonmilk
3836:Sinkhole
3821:Sea cave
3806:Pit cave
3774:Ice cave
3586:Category
3412:Undertow
3365:Sea foam
3360:Sea cave
3260:Blowhole
3102:Windwatt
2961:Headland
2809:Avulsion
2601:Koi pond
2430:Tailings
2420:Stepwell
2395:Sag pond
2365:Log pond
2345:Ice pond
2325:Dew pond
2295:Ash pond
2185:83464551
2138:20943545
2064:45696859
1970:21237818
1860:29180666
1442:: 89–98.
1391:16504156
1357:(1): 2.
1144:31417111
870:phreatic
801:detritus
755:Hypogeal
684:Decapoda
676:Copepoda
629:ammonium
588:silicate
243:basaltic
198:phreatic
194:meteoric
86:brackish
82:aquifers
78:euphotic
4032:Yaodong
3906:Boxwork
3749:Cave-in
3536:shingle
3516:granule
3501:boulder
3479:Related
3375:peresyp
3285:Current
3220:Debouch
3129:Beaches
3096:Waituna
3091:Tombolo
3001:Mudflat
2996:Machair
2986:Isthmus
2906:Estuary
2849:Channel
2731:(Monet)
2695:Ponding
2638:Related
2535:Puddles
2279:puddles
1887:Bibcode
1851:5703975
1830:Bibcode
1536:7058377
1472:Bibcode
1382:1413541
1135:6695480
1106:Bibcode
857:cenotes
785:endemic
781:benthos
712:sponges
658:Ecology
653:Biology
580:nitrate
337:faster.
178:Bermuda
135:Geology
101:bedrock
74:aphotic
61:, from
3841:Spring
3754:Cenote
3677:Diving
3672:Caving
3630:topics
3526:pebble
3521:gravel
3511:cobble
3056:Strait
3036:Skerry
2991:Lagoon
2976:Island
2931:Fundus
2834:Bodden
2708:Spring
2701:Puddle
2553:Puddle
2232:
2224:
2183:
2175:
2136:
2128:
2062:
2054:
2003:
1968:
1960:
1858:
1848:
1744:
1702:
1581:
1573:
1534:
1492:
1389:
1379:
1371:
1327:
1292:
1180:
1142:
1132:
1124:
1031:
627:, and
605:anoxic
586:, and
576:carbon
278:Israel
235:Hawaii
233:, and
186:Belize
123:, the
115:, the
3869:River
3811:Ponor
3764:Foiba
3706:Karst
3689:Fauna
3407:Swash
3370:Shoal
3051:Stack
3041:Sound
3031:Shoal
2981:Islet
2966:Inlet
2956:Hapua
2921:Fjord
2916:Fjard
2911:Firth
2859:Coast
2854:Cliff
2829:Bight
2804:Atoll
2573:Biome
2463:Pools
2287:Ponds
2275:Ponds
2230:S2CID
2181:S2CID
2134:S2CID
2082:(PDF)
2060:S2CID
1579:S2CID
1532:S2CID
1025:(PDF)
231:Samoa
219:mafic
70:ocean
63:Greek
3889:and
3864:Lake
3851:Sump
3794:Mine
3628:Cave
3541:silt
3531:sand
3506:clay
3235:mega
3046:Spit
3016:Reef
2946:Gulf
2894:Dune
2889:Cove
2844:Cape
2814:Ayre
2736:Well
2435:Tarn
2310:Beel
2222:ISSN
2173:ISSN
2126:ISSN
2052:ISSN
2001:ISBN
1966:PMID
1958:ISSN
1856:PMID
1742:ISSN
1700:ISBN
1571:ISSN
1490:ISSN
1387:PMID
1369:ISSN
1325:ISSN
1290:ISBN
1178:ISBN
1140:PMID
1122:ISSN
1029:ISBN
951:and
949:DPVs
863:and
779:and
599:and
538:>
505:>
496:>
313:Kona
283:Niue
172:and
109:lava
3991:Vug
3021:Ria
2951:Gut
2941:Geo
2936:Gat
2824:Bay
2212:doi
2165:doi
2116:doi
2112:677
2044:doi
2040:677
1993:doi
1950:doi
1895:doi
1846:PMC
1838:doi
1803:GUE
1734:doi
1625:hdl
1563:doi
1559:299
1524:doi
1520:467
1480:doi
1468:155
1377:PMC
1359:doi
1315:hdl
1282:doi
1254:doi
1212:128
1170:doi
1130:PMC
1114:doi
814:PSU
764:).
196:or
184:in
103:is
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