529:. It entailed the extremely broadened diagnostics of sluggish (neurosis-like, psychopathy-like) schizophrenia. Despite a number of its controversial premises and in line with the traditions of then Soviet science, Snezhnevsky's hypothesis has immediately acquired the status of dogma which was later overcome in other disciplines but firmly stuck in psychiatry. Snezhnevsky's concept, with its dogmatism, proved to be psychologically comfortable for many psychiatrists, relieving them from doubt when making a diagnosis. That carried a great danger: any deviation from a norm evaluated by a doctor could be regarded as an early phase of schizophrenia, with all ensuing consequences. It resulted in the broad opportunity for voluntary and involuntary abuses of psychiatry. But Snezhnevsky did not take civil and scientific courage to reconsider his concept which clearly reached a deadlock.
407:, believes his teacher was honest in his diagnosing dissenters. In 2011, Tiganov said it was rumored that Snezhnevsky took pity on dissenters and gave them a diagnosis required for placing in a special hospital to save them from a prison, but it was not true, he honestly did his medical duty. The same ideas are voiced in the 2014 interview by Anatoly Smulevich, a pupil of Snezhnevsky, full member of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences; he says what was attributed to Snesnevsky was that he recognized the healthy as the ill, it did not happen and is pure slander, it is completely ruled out for him to give a diagnosis to a healthy person.
337:"soft" schizophrenia but later promoted the same idea under a different title: "slow-flowing", or "sluggish." The term "sluggish schizophrenia" was invented by Snezhnevsky and became widespread by the 1960s. The prevalence of Snezhnevsky's theories directly led to a broadening of the boundaries of disease such that even the mildest behavioral change could be interpreted as indication of mental disorder. Despite his power and virtual monopolies on textbooks and conferences, some prominent Soviet doctors were unwilling to accept Snezhnevsky's methods, such as Iosif Polishchuk in
399:, thousands of social and political reformers—Soviet "dissidents"—were incarcerated in mental hospitals after being labelled with diagnoses of "sluggish schizophrenia", a disease fabricated by Snezhnevsky and "Moscow school" of psychiatry. The belief that career development depended on loyalty to the Party and that the Party and its interests were cardinal can partly explain why Snezhnevsky, who earnestly defended the rights of his patients at the frontline hospital during the massive destruction of
499:, the so-called "nosological" approach in the Moscow psychiatric school established by Snezhnevsky boiled down to the ability to make a single diagnosis, schizophrenia. Such psychiatry, said Danilin, is not science but a system of opinions to which people by the thousands fell victim. Millions of lives were disabled by virtue of the concept "sluggish schizophrenia" introduced by Snezhnevsky, whom Danilin called a state criminal. However, the founder of the
22:
1225:"Спорные и малоизученные вопросы практического использования антипсихотической фармакотерапии у больных шизофренией (анализ результатов интерактивного опроса врачей) [Controversial and poorly understood issues of the practical use of antipsychotic drug therapy in patients with schizophrenia (analysis of the results of the online survey of physicians)]"
476:
Snezhnevsky worked together with
Smulevich every day for 20 years. In the Soviet Union, Snezhnevsky's school alone had the exclusive right to truth and held key positions in psychiatry. Doctors who wished to gain more knowledge were unable to do so, because all textbooks and handbooks on psychiatry described only the views of Snezhnevsky's school.
551:. He asserted that Snezhnevsky was wrongly condemned by critics and argued that it was time for psychiatry in the Western countries to reconsider the accounts of political abuse of psychiatry in the USSR in the hope of discovering that Soviet psychiatrists were more deserving of sympathy than condemnation.
484:
According to the psychiatrist Marina
Voikhanskaya, Academician Snezhnevsky and his "school" have debased, reduced Russian psychiatry to a semi-amateur level and single doctrine about schizophrenia, in the terms of which alcoholic psychoses and alcoholism are considered schizophrenia; congenial idiocy
431:
The Royal
College has taken a very dubious function of intervening into the inner affairs of national psychiatric associations and using mentally-ill patients for political purposes. I sincerely hope that none of the members… seriously believes that in the Soviet Union mentally-healthy people could
419:
in 1978, charged
Snezhnevsky with involvement in the abuse and recommended that Snezhnevsky, who had been honoured as a Corresponding Fellow of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, be invited to attend the college's Court of Electors to answer criticisms because he was responsible for the compulsory
336:
At the height of his power, Snezhnevsky dominated the whole of Soviet psychiatry. He forced the psychiatric community in the USSR and in many of its
Eastern European satellites to adopt the diagnosis of sluggish schizophrenia as dogma. Starting in the early 1950s, Snezhnevsky opposed the concept of
524:
notes that the concept of
Snezhnevsky's school allowed psychiatrists to consider, for example, schizoid psychopathy and even schizoid character traits as early, delayed in their development, stages of the inevitable progredient process, rather than as personality traits inherent to the individual,
1491:
Abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union: hearing before the
Subcommittee on Human Rights and International Organizations of the Committee on Foreign Affairs and the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, House of Representatives, Ninety-eighth Congress, first session, September 20,
475:
Snezhnevsky created his own school in psychiatry. The disciples of his school are Ruben
Nadzharov, Taksiarkhis Papadopulos, Gregory Rotstein, Moisey Vrono, Marat Vartanyan, Nikolay Zharikov, Anatoly Anufriev, Nikolay Shumsky, Alexander Tiganov, Irina Shakhmatova-Pavlova, Anatoly Smulevich.
554:
Helen
Lavretsky supposes that a totalitarian regime, the lack of a democratic tradition in Russia, and oppression and "extermination" of the best psychiatrists during the 1930–50 period prepared the ground for the abuse of psychiatry and Russian-Soviet concept of schizophrenia.
488:
As reported by the psychiatrist Boris Zoubok, who worked at the
Kashchenko hospital under Snezhnevsky and afterwards settled in the US, Snezhnevsky and his colleagues genuinely believed in their concept of dissent as mental disease and in the method of diagnosis.
376:
363:. He was charged with cynically developing a system of diagnosis which could be bent for political purposes and, in dozens of cases, he personally signed a commission decision on legal insanity of mentally healthy dissidents including
322:(1950–1951), the director of the Institute of Psychiatry of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences (1962–1987), and the director of the All-Union Mental Health Research Center of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences (1982–1987).
461:. The concept came to be increasingly used in schizophrenia research and classification since the 1970s, citing his colleague I.F. Ovchinnikov that the symptoms appear to exist "as if on two levels".
1253:
Snezhnevsky AV. The symptomatology, clinical forms and nosology of schizophrenia, in Modern perspectives in World Psychiatry. Edited by Howells JG. Edinburgh, Oliver and Boyd, 1968, pp 425–447
403:, also employed his scientific regalia and academic title to legitimate the psychiatric confinement of dissenters. However, Alexander Tiganov, a pupil of Snezhnevsky and full member of the
198:
383:. Some of Snezhnevsky's employees say that one day in a selected auditorium, when discussing the situation in the country, he also gave the diagnosis of sluggish schizophrenia to
391:
with the same disease and concluded that he was "not a valuable person at all". As Oleh Wolansky noted, professor Snezhnevsky did not hesitate to act against principles of the
311:, the inventor of the term "sluggish schizophrenia", an embodier of history of repressive psychiatry, and a direct participant in psychiatric repression against dissidents.
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The evidence is now sufficient to conclude that Professor Snezhnevsky has acted unethically and no longer warrants a place of honour in the Royal College of Psychiatrists.
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has the opinion that Snezhnevsky did not willingly participate in the political abuse of psychiatry, and that the real criminal was Georgy Morozov, the director of the
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Having learnt of his diagnosis of lung cancer and facing his death within a few years, Snezhnevsky started lamenting over his making a lot of blunders at the
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548:
360:
354:
186:
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Adler, Nancy; Gluzman, Semyon (December 1993). "Soviet special psychiatric hospitals. Where the system was criminal and the inmates were sane".
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According to Moscow psychiatrist Mikhail Buyanov, Snezhnevsky discovered nothing; he muddled everything he attempted, could not find anything.
1299:
299:
7 May] 1904 – 12 July 1987) was a Soviet psychiatrist whose name was lent to the unbridled broadening of the diagnostic borders of
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in 1970 honored Snezhnevsky by naming him a "distinguished fellow" for his "outstanding contribution to psychiatry and related sciences."
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in the children of alcoholics is considered premature schizophrenia; and dissent is considered schizophrenia with delusions of reform.
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1360:[From the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics to independent countries: what will be the former Soviet psychiatry?].
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and departed from his indisputable tone as to his own concept. He died on 12 July 1987 in Moscow and was buried in the
1512:"On the Psychiatric Abuse of Falun Gong and Other Dissenters in China: A Reply to Stone, Hickling, Kleinman, and Lee"
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734:
Korolenko, Caesar; Kensin, Dennis (2002). "Reflections on the past and present state of Russian psychiatry".
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296:
206:
97:
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On dissidents and madness: from the Soviet Union of Leonid Brezhnev to the "Soviet Union" of Vladimir Putin
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the dynamics of which might depend on various external factors. The same also applied to a number of other
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See in Russian: "Снежневский ничего не открыл; все, за что он брался – запутывал, найти ничего не смог".
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and the later avowal of Soviet psychiatrists themselves and instead claimed that there were no
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46:
8:
1171:
Levine, Sidney (May 1981). "The Special Committee on the Political Abuse of Psychiatry".
823:
697:
Probes, Lawrence; Kouznetsov, Vladimir; Verbitski, Vladimir; Molodyi, Vadim (June 1992).
250:
246:
1316:
Polubinskaya, Svetlana (January 2000). "Reform in psychiatry in post-Soviet countries".
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In 1980, the Special Committee on the Political Abuse of Psychiatry, established by the
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of schizophrenia, a concept long attributed to Snezhnevky but in fact introduced by
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1636:
1612:
1357:От Союза ССР – к независимым государствам: Какой будет бывшая советская психиатрия?
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1385:] (in Russian). Moscow: Российское общество медиков-литераторов . p. 132.
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Healey, Dan (June 2011). "Book Review: Robert van Voren, Cold War in Psychiatry".
698:
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Szasz, Thomas (2 January 1978). "Soviet psychiatry: its supporters in the West".
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267:, All-Union Mental Health Research Center of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences
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1670:[Doctor Pi memorized 30 billion numbers to make his crony come back].
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42:
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908:
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665:Структура психических расстройств [The Structure of Mental Disorders]
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517:
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1644:"Снежневский Андрей Владимирович [Snezhnevsky Andrei Vladimirovich]"
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755:
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1548:"Psychiatrists on the side of the angels: the Falun Gong and Soviet Jewry"
1200:
Negative schizophrenic symptoms: pathophysiology and clinical implications
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Russia's political hospitals: The abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union
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and found him mentally healthy in 1979, disregarded the findings of the
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Russian/Soviet and Western psychiatry: a contemporary comparative study
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1184:
197:; no less active participation in persistent counteractions to stop
1747:'s wife, wrote to Sneshnevsky on 14 February 1973 and published in
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427:
Snezhevsky wrote the letter to the president of the Royal College:
342:
202:
140:
103:
1667:"Доктор Пи" запомнил 30 млн. цифр, чтобы вернуть близкого человека
1599:"The Russian Concept of Schizophrenia: A Review of the Literature"
199:
struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union
1110:
436:
The college's Committee on Abuse passed the following judgment:
796:(in Russian) (6). The Ukrainian Psychiatric Association: 79–80.
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125:
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The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law
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The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law
1115:[Psychiatry cannot be invented in mind or textbooks]
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Snezhnevsky was long attacked in the West as an exemplar of
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1104:
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Soviet psychiatric abuse: The shadow over world psychiatry
511:
396:
1288:[Andrei Vladimirovich Snezhnevsky – Centenary].
539:, who as a member of team had examined Soviet dissident
449:
In 1968, Snezhnevsky wrote of a distinction between the
1113:"Психиатрию нельзя выдумать из головы или из учебников"
1101:
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as a child, was kind to him and presented him the book
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1315:
845:
843:
813:
811:
809:
807:
805:
803:
424:. Instead Snezhnevsky chose to resign his Fellowship.
1286:"Андрей Владимирович Снежневский – 100-летний юбилей"
1820:
Academicians of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences
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1080:
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840:
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1396:
1332:10.1111/j.0902-4441.2000.007s020[dash]24.x
915:Law, Psychiatry, and Morality: Essays and Analysis
912:
549:political abuses of psychiatry in the Soviet Union
532:In his article of 2002, a former president of the
1830:Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union
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1364:(in Russian) (2). Ассоциация психиатров Украины .
1306:
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621:Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union
410:
361:political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union
355:Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union
187:political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union
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1755:. Амстердам: Фонд им. Герцена. pp. 124–127.
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611:used by Slyusarchuk to be taught in the field.
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1202:. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
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1825:Fellows of the Royal College of Psychiatrists
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1462:Dangerous Thoughts. Memoirs of a Russian Life
1432:Dangerous Thoughts. Memoirs of a Russian Life
1300:Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia
1262:
1222:
968:
699:"Trends in Soviet and Post-Soviet Psychiatry"
307:, the key architect of the Soviet concept of
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1509:
1229:Современная терапия психических расстройств
948:Brintlinger, Angela; Vinitsky, Ilya (2007).
661:
387:in absentia. Also in absentia, he diagnosed
189:by developing and applying the diagnosis of
1860:Deaths from lung cancer in the Soviet Union
1795:Communist Party of the Soviet Union members
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1453:
1427:
1111:Smulevich, Anatoly; Morozov, Pyotr (2014).
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954:. University of Toronto Press. p. 92.
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671:(in Russian). Kyiv: Сфера. pp. 17–18.
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205:against the USSR at the Congresses of the
45:. Please do not remove this message until
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320:Serbsky Institute for Forensic Psychiatry
261:Serbsky Institute for Forensic Psychiatry
65:Learn how and when to remove this message
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1123:(in Russian). No. 1. pp. 1–4.
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41:Relevant discussion may be found on the
1273:
1198:Tandon, Rajiv; Greden, John F. (1991).
1081:Vyzhutovich, Valeri (3 November 2011).
877:
875:
850:Bloch, Sidney; Reddaway, Peter (1985).
818:Bloch, Sidney; Reddaway, Peter (1977).
1762:
1362:Вестник Ассоциации психиатров Украины
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1161:
1093:(in Russian). Week number 5624 (248).
951:Madness and the mad in Russian culture
794:Вестник Ассоциации психиатров Украины
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692:
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432:be forcibly put into mental hospitals.
1618:10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a033348
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1291:Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal
1097:from the original on 2 November 2011.
881:
290:
1646:(in Russian). Проект "Герои страны"
1457:Опасные мысли: Мемуары из рус. жизни
1397:Danilin, Alexander (28 March 2008).
872:
598:
15:
1130:from the original on 28 April 2014.
975:Wolansky, Oleh (27 February 1983).
685:
563:He was honored with the title of a
420:detention of celebrated dissident,
405:Russian Academy of Medical Sciences
201:by attributing the struggle to the
13:
1855:Recipients of the USSR State Prize
1692:"Behavior: the children of Pavlov"
283:Андре́й Влади́мирович Снежне́вский
14:
1881:
1865:Deaths from lung cancer in Russia
1705:Reich, Walter (30 January 1983).
1684:
1036:The British Journal of Psychiatry
882:Reich, Walter (30 January 1983).
495:According to Moscow psychiatrist
445:Other contributions to psychiatry
263:, Institute of Psychiatry of the
1850:Recipients of the Order of Lenin
1707:"The World of Soviet Psychiatry"
977:"The World of Soviet Psychiatry"
884:"The world of Soviet psychiatry"
534:American Psychiatric Association
520:academic psychiatrist professor
466:American Psychiatric Association
316:USSR Academy of Medical Sciences
265:USSR Academy of Medical Sciences
93:Andrei Vladimirovich Snezhnevsky
20:
1815:Kazan Federal University alumni
1658:
1503:
1497:U.S. Government Printing Office
1482:
1368:
1354:Polubinskaya, Svetlana (2013).
1256:
1216:
1087:[When the soul hurts].
1026:
989:
1840:Russian people of World War II
1726:. Amsterdam—New York: Rodopi.
1319:Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica
901:
479:
468:at its annual meeting held in
451:positive and negative symptoms
417:Royal College of Psychiatrists
411:Discredit at the Royal College
395:. On the covert orders of the
1:
1835:Soviet people of World War II
1790:People from Kostromskoy Uyezd
1752:История болезни Леонида Плюща
631:
545:World Psychiatric Association
349:Political abuse of psychiatry
314:He was an academician of the
207:World Psychiatric Association
1870:Burials at Kuntsevo Cemetery
1785:Writers from Kostroma Oblast
1749:Ходорович Т.С., ed. (1974).
1676:(in Russian). 14 March 2009.
1464:] (in Russian). Moscow:
1012:10.1177/0957154X110220020802
510:, who collaborated with the
181:his active participation in
7:
1712:The New York Times Magazine
982:The New York Times Magazine
736:Anthropology & Medicine
614:
47:conditions to do so are met
10:
1886:
1845:Heroes of Socialist Labour
1720:Voren, Robert van (2009).
1436:. William Morrow. p.
352:
329:
292:[sʲnʲɪˈʐnʲefskʲɪj]
1810:Schizophrenia researchers
1597:Lavretsky, Helen (1998).
1375:Buyanov, Mikhail (1993).
748:10.1080/13648470220130017
558:
514:since his students days.
341:, and Fyodor Detengof in
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921:American Psychiatric Pub
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786:Gluzman, Semyon (2013).
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565:Hero of Socialist Labour
218:Hero of Socialist Labour
172:Kazan Federal University
1141:Calloway, Paul (1993).
792:[Snezhnevsky].
1604:Schizophrenia Bulletin
1378:Между Богом и дьяволом
1223:Mosolov, S.N. (2006).
1147:. Wiley. p. 223.
573:Orders of the Red Star
455:John Hughlings Jackson
442:
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332:Sluggish schizophrenia
326:Sluggish schizophrenia
318:, the director of the
309:sluggish schizophrenia
226:Orders of the Red Star
191:sluggish schizophrenia
1805:Russian psychiatrists
1510:Munro, Robin (2002).
1383:Between God and devil
1049:10.1192/bjp.163.6.713
999:History of Psychiatry
662:Nuller, Yuri (2008).
527:personality disorders
501:Moscow Helsinki Group
459:John Russell Reynolds
438:
429:
369:Natalya Gorbanevskaya
1800:Soviet psychiatrists
1780:People from Kostroma
1743:Tatiana Zhitnikova,
1578:on 28 September 2011
1546:Stone, Alan (2002).
1495:. Washington, D.C.:
1454:Orlov, Yuri (1992).
1428:Orlov, Yuri (1991).
1403:[Deadlock].
1173:Psychiatric Bulletin
195:political dissidents
100:7 May] 1904
1499:. 1984. p. 74.
1231:(1). Archived from
824:Victor Gollancz Ltd
609:Your Abilities, Man
603:Sneznesky examined
295:; 20 May [
251:clinical psychiatry
247:forensic psychiatry
34:of this article is
1121:Дневник психиатра
1090:Rossiyskaya Gazeta
888:The New York Times
626:Andriy Slyusarchuk
605:Andriy Slyusarchuk
377:Mikola Plakhotnyuk
278:Andrei Snezhnevsky
83:Andrei Snezhnevsky
1733:978-90-420-2585-1
1466:Argumenty i Fakty
1185:10.1192/pb.5.5.94
961:978-0-8020-9140-6
706:The PSR Quarterly
678:978-966-8782-44-2
599:Interesting facts
593:Kuntsevo Cemetery
589:Pavlovian session
508:Serbsky Institute
497:Alexander Danilin
365:Vladimir Bukovsky
275:
274:
237:Scientific career
183:Pavlovian session
96:20 May [
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1571:. Archived from
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1326:(399): 106–108.
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1235:on 14 March 2019
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1084:Когда болит душа
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1770:1904 births
909:Stone, Alan
789:Снежневский
522:Yuri Nuller
480:Estimations
147:Citizenship
137:Nationality
1764:Categories
1741:The letter
1650:2 February
1582:7 February
1475:585272002X
1447:0688104711
923:. p.
632:References
575:, and the
504:Yuri Orlov
32:neutrality
1020:161921664
893:1 January
718:1051-2438
43:talk page
1673:Segodnya
1569:11931357
1533:12108564
1413:21 April
1348:11085399
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1125:Archived
1095:Archived
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911:(1985).
764:34122656
756:26953493
615:See also
343:Dushanbe
203:Cold War
104:Kostroma
36:disputed
1627:9853788
1302:. 2004.
1266:Inquiry
1057:8306112
571:, four
303:in the
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141:Russian
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220:, two
213:Awards
126:Moscow
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1061:S2CID
1016:S2CID
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702:(PDF)
669:(PDF)
583:Death
1728:ISBN
1697:Time
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1529:PMID
1492:1983
1470:ISBN
1442:ISBN
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1336:PMID
1241:2013
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956:ISBN
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860:ISBN
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752:PMID
714:ISSN
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464:The
457:and
339:Kiev
297:O.S.
288:IPA:
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115:Died
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29:The
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