989:. When a distasteful animal comes to resemble a more common distasteful animal, natural selection favours individuals that even very slightly better resemble the target. For example, many species of stinging wasp and bee are similarly coloured black and yellow. MĆ¼ller's explanation of the mechanism for this was one of the first uses of mathematics in biology. He argued that a predator, such as a young bird, must attack at least one insect, say a wasp, to learn that the black and yellow colours mean a stinging insect. If bees were differently coloured, the young bird would have to attack one of them also. But when bees and wasps resemble each other, the young bird need only attack one from the whole group to learn to avoid all of them. So, fewer bees are attacked if they mimic wasps; the same applies to wasps that mimic bees. The result is mutual resemblance for mutual protection.
323:
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387:
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29:
800:
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979:. When an edible prey animal comes to resemble, even slightly, a distasteful animal, natural selection favours those individuals that even very slightly better resemble the distasteful species. This is because even a small degree of protection reduces predation and increases the chance that an individual mimic will survive and reproduce. For example, many species of hoverfly are coloured black and yellow like bees, and are in consequence avoided by birds (and people).
998:
506:
681:
6508:
758:. Once the females begin to select males according to any particular characteristic, such as a long tail or a coloured crest, that characteristic is emphasized more and more in the males. Eventually all the males will have the characteristics that the females are sexually selecting for, as only those males can reproduce. This mechanism is powerful enough to create features that are strongly disadvantageous to the males in other ways. For example, some male
61:
732:
6518:
5882:
1065:, during a chase. The bold stripes of a herd of running zebra have been claimed make it difficult for predators to estimate the prey's speed and direction accurately, or to identify individual animals, giving the prey an improved chance of escape. Since dazzle patterns (such as the zebra's stripes) make animals harder to catch when moving, but easier to detect when stationary, there is an evolutionary trade-off between dazzle and
1378:
775:
1622:
910:
1202:
291:
eyesight to their prey, so much so, that on parts of the
Continent persons are warned not to keep white pigeons, as being the most liable to destruction. Hence I can see no reason to doubt that natural selection might be most effective in giving the proper colour to each kind of grouse, and in keeping that colour, when once acquired, true and constant.
796:
observes, "Human warning signs employ the same colours ā red, yellow, black, and white ā that nature uses to advertise dangerous creatures." Warning colours work by being associated by potential predators with something that makes the warning coloured animal unpleasant or dangerous. This can be achieved in several ways, by being any combination of:
631:, a pioneer in the theory of animal coloration. Thayer observed that whereas a painter takes a flat canvas and uses coloured paint to create the illusion of solidity by painting in shadows, animals such as deer are often darkest on their backs, becoming lighter towards the belly, creating (as zoologist
1348:
that may change their size, but more often retain their original size but allow the pigment within them to become redistributed, thus varying the colour and pattern of the animal. Chromatophores may respond to hormonal and/or neurobal control mechanisms, but direst responses to stimulation by visible
1311:
pigments synthesized by plants. In the case of the flamingo, the bird eats pink shrimps, which are themselves unable to synthesize carotenoids. The shrimps derive their body colour from microscopic red algae, which like most plants are able to create their own pigments, including both carotenoids and
451:
1940, systematically described the principles of camouflage and mimicry. The book contains hundreds of examples, over a hundred photographs and Cott's own accurate and artistic drawings, and 27 pages of references. Cott focussed especially on "maximum disruptive contrast", the kind of patterning used
241:
shells, do not onely reflect a very brisk light, but tinge that light in a most curious manner; and by means of various positions, in respect of the light, they reflect back now one colour, and then another, and those most vividly. Now, that these colours are onely fantastical ones, that is, such as
1685:
are bioluminescent, creating blue and green light, especially when stressed; when disturbed, they secrete an ink which luminesces in the same colours. Since comb jellies are not very sensitive to light, their bioluminescence is unlikely to be used to signal to other members of the same species (e.g.
156:
control. For fishes it has been demonstrated that chromatophores may respond directly to environmental stimuli like visible light, UV-radiation, temperature, pH, chemicals, etc. colour change helps individuals in becoming more or less visible and is important in agonistic displays and in camouflage.
1399:
and cuttlefish find themselves against a light background, they contract many of their chromatophores, concentrating the pigment into a smaller area, resulting in a pattern of tiny, dense, but widely spaced dots, appearing light. When they enter a darker environment, they allow their chromatophores
1044:
or patches of bright and contrasting colours, so as to scare off or momentarily distract a predator. This gives the prey animal an opportunity to escape. The behaviour is deimatic (startling) rather than aposematic as these insects are palatable to predators, so the warning colours are a bluff, not
762:
have wing or tail streamers that are so long that they impede flight, while their brilliant colours may make the males more vulnerable to predators. In the extreme, sexual selection may drive species to extinction, as has been argued for the enormous horns of the male Irish elk, which may have made
234:
The parts of the
Feathers of this glorious Bird appear, through the Microscope, no less gaudy then do the whole Feathers; for, as to the naked eye 'tis evident that the stem or quill of each Feather in the tail sends out multitudes of Lateral branches, ... so each of those threads in the Microscope
795:
Warning coloration (aposematism) is effectively the "opposite" of camouflage, and a special case of advertising. Its function is to make the animal, for example a wasp or a coral snake, highly conspicuous to potential predators, so that it is noticed, remembered, and then avoided. As Peter Forbes
290:
that of peaty earth, we must believe that these tints are of service to these birds and insects in preserving them from danger. Grouse, if not destroyed at some period of their lives, would increase in countless numbers; they are known to suffer largely from birds of prey; and hawks are guided by
1450:
While many animals are unable to synthesize carotenoid pigments to create red and yellow surfaces, the green and blue colours of bird feathers and insect carapaces are usually not produced by pigments at all, but by structural coloration. Structural coloration means the production of colour by
124:
predators. Zebras may possibly use motion dazzle, confusing a predator's attack by moving a bold pattern rapidly. Some animals are coloured for physical protection, with pigments in the skin to protect against sunburn, while some frogs can lighten or darken their skin for
930:
something to work on. Once a species has a slight, chance, resemblance to a warning coloured species, natural selection can drive its colours and patterns towards more perfect mimicry. There are numerous possible mechanisms, of which the best known are:
501:
classified the forms of protective coloration, in a way which is still helpful. He described: protective resemblance; aggressive resemblance; adventitious protection; and variable protective resemblance. These are covered in turn below.
925:
Mimicry means that one species of animal resembles another species closely enough to deceive predators. To evolve, the mimicked species must have warning coloration, because appearing to be bitter-tasting or dangerous gives
635:
observed) the illusion of flatness, and against a matching background, of invisibility. Thayer's observation "Animals are painted by Nature, darkest on those parts which tend to be most lighted by the sky's light, and
612:, using colour and pattern to break up the animal's outline, which relates mainly to general resemblance; mimesis, resembling other objects of no special interest to the observer, which relates to special resemblance;
242:
arise immediately from the refractions of the light, I found by this, that water wetting these colour'd parts, destroy'd their colours, which seem'd to proceed from the alteration of the reflection and refraction.
310:
describes his extensive studies of the insects in the Amazon basin, and especially the butterflies. He discovered that apparently similar butterflies often belonged to different families, with a harmless species
460:
the effect of a disruptive pattern is to break up what is really a continuous surface into what appears to be a number of discontinuous surfaces... which contradict the shape of the body on which they are
1291:, are unable to synthesize most of the pigments that colour their fur or feathers, other than the brown or black melanins that give many mammals their earth tones. For example, the bright yellow of an
423:
for the first time. However, the
Thayers spoilt their case by arguing that camouflage was the sole purpose of animal coloration, which led them to claim that even the brilliant pink plumage of the
383:, acknowledged that natural selection existed but examined its application to camouflage, mimicry and sexual selection very critically. The book was in turn roundly criticised by Poulton.
351:
argued the case for three aspects of animal coloration that are broadly accepted today but were controversial or wholly new at the time. It strongly supported Darwin's theory of
523:, where the whole animal looks like some other object, for example when a caterpillar resembles a twig or a bird dropping. In general protective resemblance, now called
1459:
tail feathers are pigmented brown, but their structure makes them appear blue, turquoise and green. Structural coloration can produce the most brilliant colours, often
1349:
light, UV-radiation, temperature, pH-changes, chemicals, etc. have also been documented. The voluntary control of chromatophores is known as metachrosis. For example,
671:
warning, to signal that an animal is harmful, for example can sting, is poisonous or is bitter-tasting. Warning signals may be mimicked truthfully or untruthfully.
2929:"Fluorescent proteināmediated colour polymorphism in reef corals: multicopy genes extend the adaptation/acclimatization potential to variable light environments"
2577:
875:) on the part of potential predators, or through a learned avoidance. Either can lead to various forms of mimicry. Experiments show that avoidance is learned in
713:. Signals, which often combine colour and movement, may be understood by many different species; for example, the cleaning stations of the banded coral shrimp
237:... their upper sides seem to me to consist of a multitude of thin plated bodies, which are exceeding thin, and lie very close together, and thereby, like
3131:
6134:
668:
sexual selection, where members of one sex choose to mate with suitably coloured members of the other sex, thus driving the development of such colours
359:
were selected by the females, pointing out that bright male plumage was found only in species "which court by day". The book introduced the concept of
363:, as when edible mimics are less frequent than the distasteful models whose colours and patterns they copy. In the book, Poulton also coined the term
1151:, which basks in sunlight, lighten their skin colour when hot (and darkens when cold), making their skin reflect more heat and so avoid overheating.
1366:
The octopus ... seeks its prey by so changing its colour as to render it like the colour of the stones adjacent to it; it does so also when alarmed.
1853:
3375:
1009:
or threat pose displays conspicuous patches of colour to startle potential predators. This is not warning coloration as the insect is palatable.
264:
by providing individual animals with a reproductive advantage. For example, individuals with slightly better camouflage than others of the same
4687:
3940:
435:
as having "pushed to such a fantastic extreme and to include such wild absurdities as to call for the application of common sense thereto."
148:
which are pigment-containing cells such as hair follicles. The distribution of the pigment particles in the chromatophores can change under
48:) pick parasites from its skin. The spotted tail and fin pattern of the sweetlips signals sexual maturity; the behaviour and pattern of the
3482:
165:, sometimes of different colours. Animals often use two or more of these mechanisms together to produce the colours and effects they need.
140:
Animals produce colour in both direct and indirect ways. Direct production occurs through the presence of visible coloured cells known as
4831:
3564:
2079:
574:
For adventitious protection, an animal uses materials such as twigs, sand, or pieces of shell to conceal its outline, for example when a
411:
4901:
161:
in scales, bristles or feathers which give them brilliant iridescent colours. Other animals including squid and some deep-sea fish can
1821:
3329:
471:
188:
4473:
6285:
4438:
559:. In special aggressive resemblance, the animal looks like something else, luring the prey or host to approach, for example when a
3337:
1181:
that live in caves may be largely colorless as colour has no function in that environment, but they show some red because of the
658:
Colour is widely used for signalling in animals as diverse as birds and shrimps. Signalling encompasses at least three purposes:
315:
a poisonous or bitter-tasting species to reduce its chance of being attacked by a predator, in the process now called after him,
2030:"Book Review: Animal Coloration: an Account of the Principal Facts and Theories relating to the Colours and Markings of Animals"
6275:
6139:
5504:
4911:
4639:
3243:
Seashore Life of the
Northern Pacific Coast: Illustrated Guide to Northern California, Oregon, Washington and British Columbia
3748:
2393:
2354:
2221:
2190:
1814:
3037:"Tribute to R. G. Boutilier: skin colour and body temperature changes in basking Bokermannohyla alvarengai (Bokermann 1956)"
1404:
such as frogs have three kinds of star-shaped chromatophore cells in separate layers of their skin. The top layer contains '
1271:
has a white coat in winter (containing little pigment), and a brown coat in summer (containing more pigment), an example of
4916:
1479:
are created by structural coloration. Animals use several methods to produce structural colour, as described in the table.
960:, where two or more distasteful or dangerous animal species resemble each other. This is most common among insects such as
2512:
Bowers, M. Deane; Brown, Irene L.; Wheye, Darryl (1985). "Bird
Predation as a Selective Agent in a Butterfly Population".
705:
Advertising coloration can signal the services an animal offers to other animals. These may be of the same species, as in
604:
The main mechanisms to create the resemblances described by
Poulton ā whether in nature or in military applications ā are
6351:
5104:
2683:
Stevens, Martin (2005). "The role of eyespots as anti-predator mechanisms, principally demonstrated in the
Lepidoptera".
1894:
527:, the animal's texture blends with the background, for example when a moth's colour and pattern blend in with tree bark.
306:
3639:
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1177:
Some animals are coloured purely incidentally because their blood contains pigments. For example, amphibians like the
322:
4193:
3312:
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to attract mates or repel rivals); more likely, the light helps to distract predators or parasites. Some species of
766:
Different forms of sexual selection are possible, including rivalry among males, and selection of females by males.
431:
was crypticāagainst the momentarily pink sky at dawn or dusk. As a result, the book was mocked by critics including
6296:
3814:
1340:
Fish and frog melanophores are cells that can change colour by dispersing or aggregating pigment-containing bodies.
4654:
519:
Protective resemblance is used by prey to avoid predation. It includes special protective resemblance, now called
144:
which are particles of coloured material such as freckles. Indirect production occurs by virtue of cells known as
81:
from its surfaces. Some animals are brightly coloured, while others are hard to see. In some species, such as the
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4936:
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1989:
Animal
Coloration, An Account of the Principal Facts and Theories Relating to the Colours and Markings of Animals
749:
Darwin observed that the males of some species, such as birds-of-paradise, were very different from the females.
3376:"Bioluminescence spectra of shallow and deep-sea gelatinous zooplankton: ctenophores, medusae and siphonophores"
2604:"Reactions of hand-reared and wild-caught predators toward warningly coloured, gregarious, and conspicuous prey"
617:
567:. In general aggressive resemblance, the predator or parasite blends in with the background, for example when a
6356:
6291:
6280:
5321:
5194:
3491:
3473:
3138:
940:, where an edible species resembles a distasteful or dangerous species. This is most common in insects such as
608:, blending into the background so as to become hard to see (this covers both special and general resemblance);
443:
6553:
5367:
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for warning coloration, which he identified in widely differing animal groups including mammals (such as the
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4453:
1621:
6159:
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4799:
736:
616:, using graded colour to create the illusion of flatness, which relates mainly to general resemblance; and
2927:
Gittins, John R.; D'Angelo, Cecilia; Oswald, Franz; Edwards, Richard J.; Wiedenmann, Jƶrg (January 2015).
1069:. There is evidence that the zebra's stripes could provide some protection from flies and biting insects.
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5593:
5156:
4047:
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1745:
1316:. Animals that eat green plants do not become green, however, as chlorophyll does not survive digestion.
453:
1934:
Allen, J. A.; Clarke, B. C. (September 1984). "Frequency dependent selection: homage to E. B. Poulton".
1725:
1440:
Butterfly wing at different magnifications reveals microstructured chitin acting as diffraction grating.
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1988:
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20:
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pigment in their red blood cells, needed to carry oxygen. They also have a little orange coloured
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2884:
Hill, H. Z. (January 1992). "The function of melanin or six blind people examine an elephant".
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1970:
1965:
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are marked with high-contrast patterns which possibly help to confuse their predators, such as
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126:
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1805:. IX, 622a: 2ā10. Cited in Borrelli, Luciana; Gherardi, Francesca; Fiorito, Graziano (2006).
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823:
609:
227:
158:
2839:
IARC Monographs on the
Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Volume 55, November 1997.
2603:
2578:"Black, White and Stinky: Explaining Coloration in Skunks and Other Boldly coloured Animals"
2182:
Darwinism - An
Exposition of the Theory of Natural Selection - With Some of Its Applications
1698:
camouflage, preventing the animal from appearing as a dark shape when seen from below. Some
1259:
in a flamingo's plumage comes from its diet of shrimps, which get it from microscopic algae.
1251:
752:
Darwin explained such male-female differences in his theory of sexual selection in his book
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1971:
The Colours of Animals, their meaning and use, especially considered in the case of insects
1735:
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720:
348:
The Colours of Animals, their meaning and use, especially considered in the case of insects
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8:
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to expand, creating a pattern of larger dark spots, and making their bodies appear dark.
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have inborn avoidance of certain colours and patterns such as black and yellow stripes.
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pigment needed to carry oxygen is red. Animals coloured in these ways can have striking
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129:. Finally, animals can be coloured incidentally. For example, blood is red because the
121:
101:
53:
33:
2986:"Rhizostomins: A Novel Pigment Family From Rhizostome Jellyfish (Cnidaria, Scyphozoa)"
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Animal coloration provided important early evidence for evolution by natural selection
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665:, to signal a capability or service to other animals, whether within a species or not
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have bitter-tasting chemicals in their blood. One monarch contains more than enough
415:, completed by his son Gerald H. Thayer, argued correctly for the widespread use of
213:
was able to change its coloration to match its background, and when it was alarmed.
77:
is the general appearance of an animal resulting from the reflection or emission of
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bacteria in the 'bait' on their 'fishing rods'. These emit light to attract prey.
1694:) scattered all over their undersides that create a sparkling glow. This provides
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University of British Columbia: Sexual Selection (a lecture for Zoology students)
3504:
Theme issue 'Animal coloration: production, perception, function and application'
2984:
Lawley, Jonathan W.; Carroll, Anthony R.; McDougall, Carmel (24 September 2021).
2752:
Stevens, Martin; Searle, William T. L.; Seymour, Jenny E.; Marshall, Kate L. A.;
1825:
1755:
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1384:
chromatophores appear as black, brown, reddish and pink areas in this micrograph.
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1226:
805:
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cells to resemble whatever background it is currently resting on (as well as for
511:
355:, arguing that the obvious differences between male and female birds such as the
235:
appears a large long body, consisting of a multitude of bright reflecting parts.
162:
3622:
2003:
1357:
can rapidly change their appearance, both for camouflage and for signalling, as
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The brilliant iridescent colours of the peacock's tail feathers are created by
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1877:, Ch. 4. John Murray, London. Reprinted 1985, Penguin Classics, Harmondsworth.
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6542:
6396:
6194:
5976:
5968:
5901:
5769:
5709:
5633:
5616:
5522:
5457:
4433:
4407:
4364:
4354:
4309:
4276:
4168:
4002:
3957:
3784:
3703:
3681:
3656:
3627:
3617:
3579:
3345:
3021:
2952:
2753:
2564:
1750:
1720:
1452:
1046:
815:
731:
693:
594:
560:
202:
145:
1818:
1412:' with a silvery light-reflecting pigment; while the bottom layer contains '
530:
120:
of another species. Some animals use flashes of colour to divert attacks by
6368:
6231:
6187:
6003:
5998:
5993:
5909:
5862:
5831:
5764:
5608:
5442:
5427:
5084:
5054:
4999:
4882:
4847:
4724:
4223:
3715:
3661:
3468:
3062:
2970:
2897:
2793:
2774:
2704:
2541:
2285:
2266:
2237:
1908:
1844:
1839:
1424:
1413:
1405:
1120:
849:
287:
223:
218:
177:
49:
41:
3394:
3109:
2905:
2870:
278:
When we see leaf-eating insects green, and bark-feeders mottled-grey; the
173:
6226:
6049:
5953:
5797:
5702:
5660:
5655:
5598:
5564:
4734:
4281:
4243:
4218:
4208:
4173:
4120:
4100:
3892:
3774:
3693:
3587:
3076:
Istenic, L.; Ziegler, I. (1974). "Riboflavin as "pigment" in the skin of
1554:
1476:
1460:
1409:
1313:
1276:
1104:
1033:
997:
965:
941:
864:
790:
782:
680:
632:
505:
398:
tried to show that even the bright pink of these conspicuous birds had a
364:
117:
3012:
2849:
Proctor, P. H.; McGinness, J. E. (May 1986). "The function of melanin".
2808:
2445:
2411:"Hawksbill turtles visit moustached barbers: Cleaning symbiosis between
6378:
6221:
5941:
5697:
5638:
5447:
5024:
4989:
4629:
4581:
4526:
4496:
4402:
4319:
4263:
4140:
4090:
3882:
3779:
3449:
3101:
2533:
2479:
The Mating Mind: How sexual choice shaped the evolution of human nature
1786:; editors Kapoor BG & Hara TJ; Science Publishers Enfield (NH), USA
1699:
1691:
1678:
1674:
1666:, releases energy derived from the chemical energy of food. A pigment,
1663:
1651:
1629:
1389:
1350:
1308:
1268:
1186:
945:
803:
The black and yellow warning colours of the cinnabar moth caterpillar,
719:
are visited by different species of fish, and even by reptiles such as
575:
488:
283:
93:
86:
3053:
3036:
2944:
620:, producing light to match the background, notably in some species of
60:
6238:
6211:
6206:
5715:
5352:
5306:
5034:
4478:
4448:
4248:
4203:
4178:
4115:
4105:
4080:
4072:
4017:
3948:
3897:
3730:
3686:
3666:
3454:
Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals
3035:
Tattersall, G. J.; Eterovick, P. C.; de Andrade, D. V. (April 2006).
2053:
1703:
1667:
1572:
1401:
1358:
1354:
1288:
1206:
1193:
and people with fair skin have a similar colour for the same reason.
1116:
892:
888:
827:
586:
552:
261:
206:
92:
There are several separate reasons why animals have evolved colours.
3542:
3273:
2525:
2109:
2096:(1911). "Revealing and concealing coloration in birds and mammals".
2029:
96:
enables an animal to remain hidden from view. Animals use colour to
6493:
6216:
5824:
5407:
5336:
4867:
4695:
4374:
4286:
4233:
4188:
3764:
1655:
1408:' with orange, red, or yellow pigments; the middle layer contains '
1392:
1304:
1123:
have also been hypothesized to protect against ultraviolet damage.
921:, giving the cuckoo time to lay eggs in a songbird's nest unnoticed
872:
556:
424:
194:
5881:
1451:
microscopically-structured surfaces fine enough to interfere with
1213:(dark spots) respond to 24 hours in dark (above) or light (below).
6265:
5547:
5397:
5204:
5074:
5069:
4696:
4644:
4304:
3949:
3826:
3799:
1659:
1472:
1456:
1377:
1264:
1100:
1084:
904:
884:
774:
605:
590:
568:
524:
416:
399:
312:
265:
210:
198:
149:
141:
113:
82:
5482:
3525:
Nature's Palette: How animals, including humans, produce colours
3179:
Nature's Palette: How Animals, Including Humans, Produce Colours
2926:
1702:
of the deep sea, where it is too dark to hunt by sight, contain
909:
871:
Warning coloration can succeed either through inborn behaviour (
6488:
6091:
6081:
2762:
Motion Dazzle and Camouflage as Distinct Anti-predator Defenses
1671:
1280:
1190:
1029:
880:
814:
distasteful, for example caterpillars, pupae and adults of the
685:
564:
2336:
1507:
Iridescent colours of butterfly wing scales, peacock feathers
1201:
6116:
6111:
6101:
6071:
5542:
5513:
3852:
3034:
2602:
Lindstrƶm, Leena; Alatalo, Rauno V.; Mappes, Johanna (1999).
1687:
1647:
1468:
1396:
1381:
1196:
1135:
This frog changes its skin colour to control its temperature.
1112:
1058:
961:
842:
831:
779:
621:
477:
368:
327:
238:
78:
1107:
light). Another example of photoprotective pigments are the
6106:
6086:
6066:
5936:
5853:
1850:
Of Peacoks, Ducks, and Other Feathers of Changeable Colours
1464:
1284:
1182:
1088:
1062:
1025:
949:
876:
856:
130:
85:, the male has strong patterns, conspicuous colours and is
1217:
Animal coloration may be the result of any combination of
627:
Countershading was first described by the American artist
6182:
6076:
5841:
3648:
3534:
1178:
1164:
1096:
1092:
845:
can eject a liquid with a long-lasting and powerful odour
419:
among animals, and in particular described and explained
157:
Some animals, including many butterflies and birds, have
2747:
2745:
2409:
Sazima, Ivan; Grossman, Alice; Sazima, Cristina (2004).
2242:"Mimicry: An interface between psychology and evolution"
2147:
Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory
1319:
585:
In variable protective resemblance, an animal such as a
497:
One of the pioneers of research into animal coloration,
1780:
Fish chromatophores as sensors of environmental stimuli
1455:, sometimes in combination with pigments: for example,
474:, at a time when little direct evidence was available.
2983:
2601:
1483:
Mechanisms of structural colour production in animals
1463:. For example, the blue/green gloss on the plumage of
2742:
2178:
582:
decorates its back with seaweed, sponges and stones.
2408:
944:. A familiar example is the resemblance of harmless
785:
uses bright colours to warn off potential predators.
3510:
NatureWorks: Coloration (for children and teachers)
1772:
1770:
859:can deliver a painful sting, while snakes like the
193:Animal coloration has been a topic of interest and
6135:Linguistic relativity and the colour naming debate
3075:
2580:. University of Massachusetts Amberst. 27 May 2011
2098:Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History
1974:. Kegan Paul, Trench, TrĆ¼bner. London. pp. 331ā334
848:aggressive and able to defend itself, for example
593:changes its skin pattern and colour using special
563:resembles a particular kind of flower, such as an
230:, not pigment) colours of the Peacock's feathers:
3439:. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History.
3370:
2813:Zebra stripes evolved to keep biting flies at bay
985:was first described by the pioneering naturalist
975:was first described by the pioneering naturalist
64:Bright coloration of orange elephant ear sponge,
6540:
3304:Bioluminescence: chemical principles and methods
3300:
2848:
2511:
1767:
1601:reflectin proteins controlled by electric charge
1471:, and the purple/blue/green/red colours of many
763:it difficult for mature males to move and feed.
268:would, on average, leave more offspring. In his
3294:
3245:. University of Washington Press. 2nd edition.
2835:, International Agency for Research on Cancer
2205:
1344:Chromatophores are special pigment-containing
19:For the 1892 book by Frank Evers Beddard, see
5498:
4681:
3934:
3558:
3206:
3204:
3202:
3200:
1807:A catalogue of body patterning in Cephalopoda
1531:micron-sized dimples lined with chitin layers
834:to kill a cat, while a monarch extract makes
371:), bees and wasps, beetles, and butterflies.
112:to other members of the same species; and in
3483:Dazzled and Deceived: Mimicry and Camouflage
2597:
2595:
2321:
1776:
456:. Indeed, Cott describes such applications:
2883:
2489:
2487:
2305:
2303:
2301:
2299:
2297:
2295:
2199:
2080:Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom
1933:
1797:
1795:
412:Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom
6517:
5505:
5491:
4902:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
4688:
4674:
3941:
3927:
3565:
3551:
3515:HowStuffWorks: How Animal Camouflage Works
3197:
3132:"colour Variations in Light and Dark Skin"
2377:Seashore Life of Florida and the Caribbean
2230:
2216:. Cambridge University Press. p. 50.
2213:Animal Camouflage: Mechanisms and Function
1197:Mechanisms of colour production in animals
1040:, such as suddenly displaying conspicuous
478:Evolutionary reasons for animal coloration
3165:
3163:
3161:
3159:
3052:
3011:
3001:
2960:
2800:
2783:
2773:
2622:
2592:
2557:
2444:
2434:
2337:Brian Morton; John Edward Morton (1983).
2275:
2265:
2092:
2086:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1936:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
1583:random nanochannels in spongelike keratin
1263:Pigments are coloured chemicals (such as
1236:
1126:
578:larva builds a decorated case, or when a
509:A camouflaged orange oak leaf butterfly,
189:Coloration evidence for natural selection
6286:International Commission on Illumination
4800:Predatorāprey (LotkaāVolterra) equations
4439:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
3327:
2719:
2484:
2292:
1864:
1862:
1852:.'). J. Martyn and J. Allestry, London.
1792:
1620:
1435:
1423:
1419:
1376:
1335:
1250:
1200:
1158:
1154:
1130:
1083:Many animals have dark pigments such as
996:
908:
798:
773:
730:
679:
529:
504:
385:
321:
172:
89:, while the female is far less visible.
59:
27:
4832:Random generalized LotkaāVolterra model
3424:
3338:National Parks Conservation Association
3267:
3265:
3263:
3261:
3259:
3257:
3255:
3253:
3251:
2725:
2682:
2172:
2024:
1885:
1883:
1835:
1833:
1677:to react with oxygen, releasing light.
1662:. Bioluminescence, like other forms of
675:
6541:
6276:Color Association of the United States
4640:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
3210:
3169:
3156:
2236:
2140:
1954:
1361:first noted over 2000 years ago:
1267:) in animal tissues. For example, the
1072:
1036:, have a repertoire of threatening or
5486:
4669:
3922:
3749:Evolution of color vision in primates
3572:
3546:
3535:Articles related to Animal coloration
3533:
3137:. Prentice-Hall. 2007. Archived from
1901:
1859:
1646:Bioluminescence is the production of
1565:hexagonal arrays of hollow nanofibres
1320:Variable coloration by chromatophores
1295:, the startling orange of a juvenile
70:signals its bitter taste to predators
4655:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
3271:
3248:
2863:10.1001/archderm.1986.01660170031013
2806:
2369:
2312:
2206:Cuthill, I. C.; SzƩkely, A. (2011).
1880:
1830:
1654:of marine animals, and the tails of
1103:(damage to living tissues caused by
515:(centre) has protective resemblance.
5105:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
3185:(2). Bioscience-explained.org: 1ā12
1895:The Naturalist on the River Amazons
726:
307:The Naturalist on the River Amazons
40:) waits while two boldly-patterned
13:
6140:Blueāgreen distinction in language
4858:Ecological effects of biodiversity
3430:
2807:Gill, Victoria (9 February 2012).
2343:The Sea Shore Ecology of Hong Kong
1948:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1984.tb00802.x
1907:
1616:
14:
6580:
5512:
4194:Generalist and specialist species
3497:
3433:"Midwater Squid, Abralia veranyi"
2837:"Solar and ultraviolet radiation"
2493:Forbes, 2009. p. 52 and plate 24.
709:, or of different species, as in
6516:
6507:
6506:
6297:International Colour Association
5880:
4917:Occupancyāabundance relationship
3638:
2001:
1052:
345:'s strongly Darwinian 1890 book
104:to animals of other species; to
6292:International Colour Consortium
4937:Relative abundance distribution
4650:Plant defense against herbivory
4517:Competitive exclusion principle
4229:Mesopredator release hypothesis
3443:
3364:
3328:Kirkwood, Scott (Spring 2005).
3321:
3235:
3124:
3069:
3041:Journal of Experimental Biology
3028:
2977:
2920:
2877:
2842:
2826:
2676:
2667:
2658:
2649:
2640:
2631:
2570:
2548:
2505:
2496:
2471:
2453:
2436:10.1590/S1676-06032004000100011
2402:
2363:
2330:
2179:Alfred Russel Wallace (2015) .
2134:
2125:
2116:
2068:
2018:
1995:
1784:Sensory Biology of Jawed Fishes
1586:Diffuse non-iridescent blue of
1066:
841:foul-smelling, for example the
452:in military camouflage such as
286:the colour of heather, and the
16:General appearance of an animal
6357:List of Crayola crayon colours
6281:International Colour Authority
4522:Consumerāresource interactions
3486:. Yale, New Haven and London.
3474:Adaptive Coloration in Animals
3223:(4). Hilton Pond Center: 10ā15
2077:and Thayer, Gerald H. (1909).
1977:
1927:
1167:'s blood makes it appear pink.
1099:to protect themselves against
992:
891:, but that some birds such as
824:variable checkerspot butterfly
571:is hard to see in long grass.
444:Adaptive Coloration in Animals
260:, features such as coloration
52:signal their availability for
1:
5368:Biological data visualization
5195:Environmental niche modelling
4922:Population viability analysis
1761:
1726:Dog coat colours and patterns
1690:have light-producing organs (
1332:Animals that can change color
647:
482:
361:frequency-dependent selection
226:describes the "fantastical" (
6160:Traditional colours of Japan
5937:Achromatic colours (Neutral)
5820:Multi-primary colour display
4853:Density-dependent inhibition
2758:"BMC Biology: Motion dazzle"
2006:. Kirkwood Community College
1992:. Swan Sonnenschein, London.
1809:. Firenze University Press.
1515:tree-shaped arrays of chitin
809:, are avoided by some birds.
7:
5594:Spectral power distribution
5322:Liebig's law of the minimum
5157:Resource selection function
4048:Metabolic theory of ecology
3677:Simple eye in invertebrates
3374:; Case, J.F. (April 1999).
3330:"Park Mysteries: Deep Blue"
2990:Frontiers in Marine Science
2563:Cott, 1940, p. 241, citing
2185:. Read Books. p. 180.
1915:. University College London
1746:Equine coat colour genetics
1709:
1279:). Many animals, including
454:disruptive pattern material
10:
6585:
6020:Colour realism (art style)
5678:Evolution of colour vision
5222:Niche apportionment models
4942:Relative species abundance
4146:Primary nutritional groups
4043:List of feeding behaviours
3873:Infrared sensing in snakes
3462:
3301:Shimomura, Osamu (2012) .
3241:Kozloff, Eugene N. (1983)
3170:Wallin, Margareta (2002).
2382:Courier Dover Publications
2347:Hong Kong University Press
2210:; Merilaita, Sami (eds.).
1848:. Ch. 36 ('Observ. XXXVI.
1639:
1551:arrays of nano-sized holes
1443:
1329:
1323:
1240:
1170:
1138:
1076:
1057:Some prey animals such as
1024:Some animals such as many
1017:
1013:
902:
898:
788:
769:
742:
698:
651:
493:List of camouflage methods
486:
326:Warning coloration of the
186:
168:
116:, taking advantage of the
18:
6502:
6474:
6387:
6337:List of colours (compact)
6312:
6305:
6256:
6175:
6155:Colour in Chinese culture
6125:
6057:
6048:
5967:
5900:
5889:
5878:
5778:
5725:
5607:
5530:
5521:
5471:
5403:Ecosystem based fisheries
5345:
5245:
5170:
5043:
5015:Interspecific competition
4980:
4907:Minimum viable population
4840:
4765:Maximum sustainable yield
4750:Intraspecific competition
4745:Effective population size
4708:
4625:Anti-predator adaptations
4610:
4489:
4416:
4373:
4295:
4262:
4159:
4136:Photosynthetic efficiency
4071:
3965:
3845:
3757:
3744:Evolution of color vision
3729:
3647:
3636:
3578:
3540:
3272:Ball, Philip (May 2012).
3213:"South Carolina Wildlife"
3003:10.3389/fmars.2021.752949
2833:World Health Organization
2726:Edmunds, Malcolm (2012).
2697:10.1017/S1464793105006810
2370:Voss, Gilbert L. (2002).
1777:Meyer-Rochow, VB (2001).
1148:Bokermannohyla alvarengai
948:(which have no sting) to
867:can deliver a fatal bite.
737:Goldie's bird-of-paradise
6342:List of colours by shade
5805:Digital image processing
5538:Electromagnetic spectrum
5393:Ecological stoichiometry
5358:Alternative stable state
3456:. Greenwood Press, 2007.
3274:"Nature's colour Tricks"
2664:Cott, 1940. pp. 279ā289.
2646:Cott, 1940. pp. 275ā276.
2637:Cott, 1940. pp. 277ā278.
2339:"The coral sub-littoral"
2075:Thayer, Abbott Handerson
1874:On the Origin of Species
1504:layers of chitin and air
855:venomous, for example a
21:Animal Coloration (book)
6347:List of colour palettes
5237:Ontogenetic niche shift
5100:Ideal free distribution
5010:Ecological facilitation
4760:Malthusian growth model
4730:Consumer-resource model
4587:Paradox of the plankton
4552:Energy systems language
4272:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
4239:Optimal foraging theory
4214:Heterotrophic nutrition
3334:National Parks Magazine
3211:Hilton, B. Jr. (1996).
2851:Archives of Dermatology
2673:Forbes, 2009. pp. 39ā42
2624:10.1093/beheco/10.3.317
2327:Forbes, 2009. pp. 72ā73
2309:Forbes, 2009. pp. 50ā51
2026:Poulton, Edward Bagnall
1966:Poulton, Edward Bagnall
1824:6 February 2018 at the
1801:Aristotle (c. 350 BC).
1111:-like proteins in some
629:Abbott Handerson Thayer
407:Abbott Handerson Thayer
396:Abbott Handerson Thayer
38:Plectorhinchus vittatus
32:A brilliantly-coloured
5570:Structural colouration
5383:Ecological forecasting
5327:Marginal value theorem
5125:Landscape epidemiology
5060:Cross-boundary subsidy
4995:Biological interaction
4345:Microbial intelligence
4033:Green world hypothesis
3480:Forbes, Peter (2009).
2898:10.1002/bies.950140111
2775:10.1186/1741-7007-9-81
2477:Miller, G. F. (2000).
2413:Eretmochelys imbricata
2267:10.1073/pnas.171326298
2104:(Article 8): 119ā231.
1898:. John Murray, London.
1637:
1557:butterfly wing scales
1541:butterfly wing scales
1523:butterfly wing scales
1441:
1433:
1385:
1375:
1341:
1260:
1237:Coloration by pigments
1214:
1168:
1141:Temperature regulation
1136:
1127:Temperature regulation
1010:
922:
917:resembles a predatory
810:
786:
740:
701:Advertising in biology
696:
549:Aggressive resemblance
545:
516:
499:Edward Bagnall Poulton
469:
403:
343:Edward Bagnall Poulton
339:
336:The Colours of Animals
332:Edward Bagnall Poulton
299:
250:
201:for centuries. In the
184:
159:microscopic structures
127:temperature regulation
71:
57:
6352:List of colour spaces
6271:Color Marketing Group
6026:On Vision and Colours
5959:Tinctures in heraldry
5942:Polychromatic colours
5927:Complementary colours
5915:Monochromatic colours
5388:Ecological humanities
5287:Ecological energetics
5232:Niche differentiation
5095:Habitat fragmentation
4863:Ecological extinction
4810:Small population size
4562:Feed conversion ratio
4542:Ecological succession
4474:San Francisco Estuary
4388:Ecological efficiency
4330:Microbial cooperation
3878:Monocular deprivation
3837:Underwater camouflage
3832:Structural coloration
3810:Disruptive coloration
3395:10.1007/s002270050497
3047:(Part 7): 1185ā1196.
2768:. BMC Biology: 9:81.
2554:Forbes, 2008. p. 200.
1913:"E.B. Poulton (1890)"
1624:
1592:blue-and-yellow macaw
1446:Structural coloration
1439:
1430:Structural coloration
1427:
1420:Structural coloration
1416:' with dark melanin.
1380:
1363:
1339:
1330:Further information:
1254:
1227:structural coloration
1204:
1189:in their skin. Human
1171:Further information:
1162:
1155:Incidental coloration
1139:Further information:
1134:
1077:Further information:
1000:
912:
802:
777:
734:
721:hawksbill sea turtles
683:
652:Further information:
610:disruptive patterning
589:, flatfish, squid or
533:
508:
458:
389:
325:
282:white in winter, the
276:
232:
187:Further information:
176:
63:
56:, rather than as prey
31:
6554:Evolution of animals
6332:List of colours: NāZ
6327:List of colours: GāM
6322:List of colours: AāF
6244:Tint, shade and tone
6127:Cultural differences
5413:Evolutionary ecology
5378:Ecological footprint
5373:Ecological economics
5297:Ecological threshold
5292:Ecological indicator
5162:Sourceāsink dynamics
5115:Land change modeling
5110:Insular biogeography
4962:Species distribution
4701:Modelling ecosystems
4360:Microbial metabolism
4199:Intraguild predation
3988:Biogeochemical cycle
3954:Modelling ecosystems
3858:Blindness in animals
3790:Counter-illumination
3739:Evolution of the eye
3307:. World Scientific.
2756:(25 November 2011).
2481:. Heinemann, London.
2468:. Heinemann, London.
2349:. pp. 253ā300.
1984:Beddard, Frank Evers
1736:Deception in animals
1696:counter-illumination
1670:is catalysed by the
1604:Iridophore cells in
1307:are all produced by
1299:, the deep red of a
739:displays to a female
694:big eye squirrelfish
676:Advertising services
46:Labroides dimidiatus
6379:List of web colours
6374:List of RAL colours
5780:Colour reproduction
5745:LĆ¼scher colour test
5582:Colour of chemicals
5463:Theoretical ecology
5438:Natural environment
5302:Ecosystem diversity
5272:Ecological collapse
5262:Bateman's principle
5217:Limiting similarity
5130:Landscape limnology
4952:Species homogeneity
4790:Population modeling
4785:Population dynamics
4602:Trophic state index
3279:Scientific American
3094:1974NW.....61..686I
3082:Naturwissenschaften
2728:"Deimatic Behavior"
2655:Cott, 1940. p. 278.
2502:Cott, 1940. p. 250.
2258:2001PNAS...98.8928M
2094:Roosevelt, Theodore
2046:1892Natur..46..533P
1890:Bates, Henry Walter
1788:. pp. 317ā334.
1716:Albinism in biology
1607:Doryteuthis pealeii
1598:Reversible proteins
1539:emerald swallowtail
1512:Diffraction grating
1500:Diffraction grating
1484:
1273:seasonal camouflage
1247:Seasonal camouflage
1145:Some frogs such as
1073:Physical protection
1038:startling behaviour
618:counterillumination
537:Hymenopus coronatus
375:Frank Evers Beddard
6564:Warning coloration
5788:Colour photography
5740:Colour preferences
5683:Impossible colours
5673:Colour vision test
5668:Colour temperature
5646:Colour calibration
5575:Animal colouration
5474:Outline of ecology
5423:Industrial ecology
5418:Functional ecology
5282:Ecological deficit
5227:Niche construction
5190:Ecosystem engineer
4967:Speciesāarea curve
4888:Introduced species
4703:: Other components
4635:Deimatic behaviour
4537:Ecological network
4469:North Pacific Gyre
4454:hydrothermal vents
4393:Ecological pyramid
4340:Microbial food web
4151:Primary production
4096:Foundation species
3805:Deimatic behaviour
3477:. Methuen, London.
3469:Cott, Hugh Bamford
3340:. pp. 20ā21.
3172:"Nature's Palette"
3102:10.1007/bf00606524
2685:Biological Reviews
2611:Behavioral Ecology
2465:The Descent of Man
2028:(6 October 1892).
2004:"Poulton: Colours"
2002:Yost, Robinson M.
1803:Historia Animalium
1741:Equine coat colour
1638:
1482:
1442:
1434:
1386:
1342:
1303:and the pink of a
1293:American goldfinch
1261:
1243:Biological pigment
1215:
1173:Biological pigment
1169:
1137:
1079:Biological pigment
1020:Deimatic behaviour
1011:
923:
811:
787:
755:The Descent of Man
741:
711:cleaning symbiosis
697:
546:
542:Aggressive mimicry
517:
433:Theodore Roosevelt
404:
392:Roseate Spoonbills
340:
302:Henry Walter Bates
256:'s 1859 theory of
209:recorded that the
185:
118:warning coloration
75:Animal colouration
72:
58:
34:oriental sweetlips
6536:
6535:
6530:
6529:
6470:
6469:
6252:
6251:
6176:Colour dimensions
6165:Human skin colour
6044:
6043:
6034:Theory of Colours
5932:Analogous colours
5876:
5875:
5810:Colour management
5727:Colour psychology
5609:Colour perception
5480:
5479:
5363:Balance of nature
5120:Landscape ecology
5005:Community ecology
4947:Species diversity
4883:Indicator species
4878:Gradient analysis
4755:Logistic function
4663:
4662:
4620:Animal coloration
4597:Trophic mutualism
4335:Microbial ecology
4126:Photoheterotrophs
4111:Myco-heterotrophy
4023:Ecosystem ecology
4008:Carrying capacity
3973:Abiotic component
3916:
3915:
3908:Visual perception
3903:Underwater vision
3868:Feature detection
3863:Eyespot apparatus
3822:Eyespot (mimicry)
3770:Animal coloration
3573:Vision in animals
3437:Smithsonian Ocean
3054:10.1242/jeb.02038
2945:10.1111/mec.13041
2933:Molecular Ecology
2754:Ruxton, Graeme D.
2417:Stenopus hispidus
2395:978-0-486-42068-4
2372:"The crustaceans"
2356:978-962-209-027-9
2252:(16): 8928ā8930.
2223:978-1-139-49623-0
2192:978-1-4733-7510-9
2142:Larson, Edward J.
2131:Cott, 1940. p. 51
2040:(1197): 533ā537.
1815:978-88-8453-377-7
1731:Cat coat genetics
1650:, such as by the
1614:
1613:
1580:Deformed matrices
1547:Photonic crystals
1535:Papilio palinurus
1528:Selective mirrors
983:MĆ¼llerian mimicry
957:MĆ¼llerian mimicry
928:natural selection
760:birds-of-paradise
716:Stenopus hispidus
690:cleaning services
654:Signalling theory
534:A flower mantis,
441:'s 500-page book
439:Hugh Bamford Cott
429:roseate spoonbill
380:Animal Coloration
271:Origin of Species
258:natural selection
216:In his 1665 book
100:services such as
67:Agelas clathrodes
6576:
6520:
6519:
6510:
6509:
6310:
6309:
6055:
6054:
5987:Secondary colour
5898:
5897:
5884:
5760:National colours
5755:Political colour
5735:Colour symbolism
5693:Opponent process
5651:Colour constancy
5629:Colour blindness
5560:Spectral colours
5528:
5527:
5507:
5500:
5493:
5484:
5483:
5180:Ecological niche
5152:selection theory
4972:Umbrella species
4957:Species richness
4893:Invasive species
4873:Flagship species
4780:Population cycle
4775:Overexploitation
4740:Ecological yield
4690:
4683:
4676:
4667:
4666:
4572:Mesotrophic soil
4512:Climax community
4444:Marine food webs
4383:Biomagnification
4184:Chemoorganotroph
4038:Keystone species
3998:Biotic component
3943:
3936:
3929:
3920:
3919:
3888:Palpebral (bone)
3721:Schizochroal eye
3642:
3567:
3560:
3553:
3544:
3543:
3531:
3530:
3457:
3447:
3441:
3440:
3428:
3422:
3421:
3419:
3417:
3411:
3405:. Archived from
3380:
3368:
3362:
3361:
3359:
3357:
3348:. Archived from
3325:
3319:
3318:
3298:
3292:
3291:
3289:
3287:
3282:. pp. 60ā65
3269:
3246:
3239:
3233:
3232:
3230:
3228:
3208:
3195:
3194:
3192:
3190:
3176:
3167:
3154:
3153:
3151:
3149:
3143:
3136:
3128:
3122:
3121:
3078:Proteus anguinus
3073:
3067:
3066:
3056:
3032:
3026:
3025:
3015:
3005:
2981:
2975:
2974:
2964:
2924:
2918:
2917:
2881:
2875:
2874:
2846:
2840:
2830:
2824:
2823:
2821:
2819:
2804:
2798:
2797:
2787:
2777:
2749:
2740:
2739:
2737:
2735:
2723:
2717:
2716:
2680:
2674:
2671:
2665:
2662:
2656:
2653:
2647:
2644:
2638:
2635:
2629:
2628:
2626:
2608:
2599:
2590:
2589:
2587:
2585:
2574:
2568:
2561:
2555:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2509:
2503:
2500:
2494:
2491:
2482:
2475:
2469:
2457:
2451:
2450:
2448:
2438:
2423:Biota Neotropica
2406:
2400:
2399:
2367:
2361:
2360:
2334:
2328:
2325:
2319:
2318:Cott, H. B. 1940
2316:
2310:
2307:
2290:
2289:
2279:
2269:
2234:
2228:
2227:
2203:
2197:
2196:
2176:
2170:
2169:
2156:121ā123, 152ā157
2138:
2132:
2129:
2123:
2120:
2114:
2113:
2090:
2084:
2072:
2066:
2065:
2054:10.1038/046533a0
2022:
2016:
2015:
2013:
2011:
1999:
1993:
1981:
1975:
1963:
1952:
1951:
1931:
1925:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1905:
1899:
1887:
1878:
1866:
1857:
1837:
1828:
1799:
1790:
1789:
1774:
1485:
1481:
1373:
1297:red-spotted newt
973:Batesian mimicry
937:Batesian mimicry
745:Sexual selection
727:Sexual selection
707:sexual selection
467:
353:sexual selection
317:Batesian mimicry
297:
280:alpine ptarmigan
274:, Darwin wrote:
248:
135:natural patterns
54:cleaning service
6584:
6583:
6579:
6578:
6577:
6575:
6574:
6573:
6539:
6538:
6537:
6532:
6531:
6526:
6498:
6466:
6383:
6301:
6258:
6248:
6171:
6150:Blue in culture
6146:Colour history
6121:
6040:
6014:Colour analysis
6009:Colour triangle
5963:
5920:black-and-white
5892:
5885:
5872:
5815:Colour printing
5774:
5721:
5603:
5517:
5511:
5481:
5476:
5467:
5453:Systems ecology
5341:
5312:Extinction debt
5277:Ecological debt
5267:Bioluminescence
5248:
5241:
5210:marine habitats
5185:Ecological trap
5166:
5046:
5039:
4982:
4976:
4932:Rapoport's rule
4927:Priority effect
4868:Endemic species
4836:
4795:Population size
4711:
4704:
4694:
4664:
4659:
4612:
4606:
4592:Trophic cascade
4502:Bioaccumulation
4485:
4412:
4369:
4291:
4258:
4155:
4067:
4028:Ecosystem model
3961:
3947:
3917:
3912:
3841:
3753:
3725:
3643:
3634:
3574:
3571:
3536:
3506:(Royal Society)
3500:
3465:
3460:
3448:
3444:
3429:
3425:
3415:
3413:
3409:
3378:
3372:Haddock, S.H.D.
3369:
3365:
3355:
3353:
3352:on 14 July 2009
3326:
3322:
3315:
3299:
3295:
3285:
3283:
3270:
3249:
3240:
3236:
3226:
3224:
3209:
3198:
3188:
3186:
3174:
3168:
3157:
3147:
3145:
3144:on 4 March 2016
3141:
3134:
3130:
3129:
3125:
3088:(12): 686ā687.
3074:
3070:
3033:
3029:
2982:
2978:
2925:
2921:
2882:
2878:
2847:
2843:
2831:
2827:
2817:
2815:
2805:
2801:
2750:
2743:
2733:
2731:
2724:
2720:
2681:
2677:
2672:
2668:
2663:
2659:
2654:
2650:
2645:
2641:
2636:
2632:
2606:
2600:
2593:
2583:
2581:
2576:
2575:
2571:
2562:
2558:
2553:
2549:
2526:10.2307/2408519
2510:
2506:
2501:
2497:
2492:
2485:
2476:
2472:
2460:Darwin, Charles
2458:
2454:
2415:and the shrimp
2407:
2403:
2396:
2368:
2364:
2357:
2335:
2331:
2326:
2322:
2317:
2313:
2308:
2293:
2235:
2231:
2224:
2208:Stevens, Martin
2204:
2200:
2193:
2177:
2173:
2166:
2139:
2135:
2130:
2126:
2121:
2117:
2091:
2087:
2073:
2069:
2023:
2019:
2009:
2007:
2000:
1996:
1982:
1978:
1964:
1955:
1932:
1928:
1918:
1916:
1906:
1902:
1888:
1881:
1869:Darwin, Charles
1867:
1860:
1838:
1831:
1826:Wayback Machine
1800:
1793:
1775:
1768:
1764:
1756:Fish coloration
1712:
1644:
1642:Bioluminescence
1619:
1617:Bioluminescence
1448:
1422:
1374:
1371:
1334:
1328:
1322:
1249:
1241:Main articles:
1239:
1231:bioluminescence
1199:
1175:
1157:
1143:
1129:
1081:
1075:
1055:
1022:
1016:
995:
907:
901:
806:Tyria jacobaeae
793:
772:
747:
729:
703:
678:
656:
650:
540:, uses special
512:Kallima inachus
495:
487:Main articles:
485:
480:
468:
465:
447:, published in
298:
295:
249:
246:
239:mother of Pearl
236:
191:
171:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6582:
6572:
6571:
6566:
6561:
6556:
6551:
6534:
6533:
6528:
6527:
6525:
6524:
6514:
6503:
6500:
6499:
6497:
6496:
6491:
6486:
6480:
6478:
6472:
6471:
6468:
6467:
6465:
6464:
6459:
6454:
6449:
6444:
6439:
6434:
6429:
6424:
6419:
6414:
6409:
6404:
6399:
6393:
6391:
6385:
6384:
6382:
6381:
6376:
6371:
6366:
6365:
6364:
6354:
6349:
6344:
6339:
6334:
6329:
6324:
6318:
6316:
6307:
6303:
6302:
6300:
6299:
6294:
6289:
6283:
6278:
6273:
6268:
6262:
6260:
6254:
6253:
6250:
6249:
6247:
6246:
6241:
6236:
6235:
6234:
6229:
6224:
6219:
6214:
6204:
6203:
6202:
6200:Pastel colours
6192:
6191:
6190:
6179:
6177:
6173:
6172:
6170:
6169:
6168:
6167:
6162:
6157:
6152:
6144:
6143:
6142:
6131:
6129:
6123:
6122:
6120:
6119:
6114:
6109:
6104:
6099:
6094:
6089:
6084:
6079:
6074:
6069:
6063:
6061:
6052:
6046:
6045:
6042:
6041:
6039:
6038:
6030:
6029:(Schopenhauer)
6022:
6017:
6011:
6006:
6001:
5996:
5991:
5990:
5989:
5984:
5982:Primary colour
5973:
5971:
5965:
5964:
5962:
5961:
5956:
5951:
5946:
5945:
5944:
5939:
5934:
5929:
5924:
5923:
5922:
5906:
5904:
5895:
5887:
5886:
5879:
5877:
5874:
5873:
5871:
5870:
5868:Colour mapping
5865:
5860:
5859:
5858:
5857:
5856:
5846:
5845:
5844:
5829:
5828:
5827:
5822:
5812:
5807:
5802:
5801:
5800:
5795:
5793:Colour balance
5784:
5782:
5776:
5775:
5773:
5772:
5767:
5762:
5757:
5752:
5750:Kruithof curve
5747:
5742:
5737:
5731:
5729:
5723:
5722:
5720:
5719:
5712:
5707:
5706:
5705:
5700:
5690:
5685:
5680:
5675:
5670:
5665:
5664:
5663:
5653:
5648:
5643:
5642:
5641:
5636:
5626:
5625:
5624:
5622:Sonochromatism
5613:
5611:
5605:
5604:
5602:
5601:
5596:
5591:
5590:
5589:
5579:
5578:
5577:
5572:
5562:
5557:
5556:
5555:
5550:
5545:
5534:
5532:
5531:Colour physics
5525:
5523:Colour science
5519:
5518:
5510:
5509:
5502:
5495:
5487:
5478:
5477:
5472:
5469:
5468:
5466:
5465:
5460:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5435:
5433:Microecosystem
5430:
5425:
5420:
5415:
5410:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5370:
5365:
5360:
5355:
5349:
5347:
5343:
5342:
5340:
5339:
5334:
5332:Thorson's rule
5329:
5324:
5319:
5314:
5309:
5304:
5299:
5294:
5289:
5284:
5279:
5274:
5269:
5264:
5259:
5257:Assembly rules
5253:
5251:
5243:
5242:
5240:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5213:
5212:
5202:
5197:
5192:
5187:
5182:
5176:
5174:
5168:
5167:
5165:
5164:
5159:
5154:
5142:
5140:Patch dynamics
5137:
5135:Metapopulation
5132:
5127:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5107:
5102:
5097:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5057:
5051:
5049:
5041:
5040:
5038:
5037:
5032:
5030:Storage effect
5027:
5022:
5017:
5012:
5007:
5002:
4997:
4992:
4986:
4984:
4978:
4977:
4975:
4974:
4969:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4944:
4939:
4934:
4929:
4924:
4919:
4914:
4912:Neutral theory
4909:
4904:
4899:
4897:Native species
4890:
4885:
4880:
4875:
4870:
4865:
4860:
4855:
4850:
4844:
4842:
4838:
4837:
4835:
4834:
4829:
4828:
4827:
4822:
4812:
4807:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4787:
4782:
4777:
4772:
4770:Overpopulation
4767:
4762:
4757:
4752:
4747:
4742:
4737:
4732:
4727:
4722:
4716:
4714:
4706:
4705:
4693:
4692:
4685:
4678:
4670:
4661:
4660:
4658:
4657:
4652:
4647:
4642:
4637:
4632:
4627:
4622:
4616:
4614:
4608:
4607:
4605:
4604:
4599:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4577:Nutrient cycle
4574:
4569:
4567:Feeding frenzy
4564:
4559:
4554:
4549:
4547:Energy quality
4544:
4539:
4534:
4529:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4509:
4507:Cascade effect
4504:
4499:
4493:
4491:
4487:
4486:
4484:
4483:
4482:
4481:
4476:
4471:
4466:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4420:
4418:
4414:
4413:
4411:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4385:
4379:
4377:
4371:
4370:
4368:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4350:Microbial loop
4347:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4315:Lithoautotroph
4312:
4307:
4301:
4299:
4297:Microorganisms
4293:
4292:
4290:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4268:
4266:
4260:
4259:
4257:
4256:
4254:Prey switching
4251:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4165:
4163:
4157:
4156:
4154:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4131:Photosynthesis
4128:
4123:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4088:
4086:Chemosynthesis
4083:
4077:
4075:
4069:
4068:
4066:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3978:Abiotic stress
3975:
3969:
3967:
3963:
3962:
3946:
3945:
3938:
3931:
3923:
3914:
3913:
3911:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3849:
3847:
3846:Related topics
3843:
3842:
3840:
3839:
3834:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3818:
3817:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3795:Countershading
3792:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3761:
3759:
3755:
3754:
3752:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3735:
3733:
3727:
3726:
3724:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3711:Holochroal eye
3708:
3707:
3706:
3701:
3691:
3690:
3689:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3659:
3653:
3651:
3645:
3644:
3637:
3635:
3633:
3632:
3631:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3584:
3582:
3576:
3575:
3570:
3569:
3562:
3555:
3547:
3541:
3538:
3537:
3528:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3499:
3498:External links
3496:
3495:
3494:
3478:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3458:
3442:
3423:
3412:on 16 May 2008
3389:(3): 571ā582.
3383:Marine Biology
3363:
3320:
3313:
3293:
3247:
3234:
3217:Animal Colours
3196:
3155:
3123:
3068:
3027:
2976:
2939:(2): 453ā465.
2919:
2876:
2857:(5): 507ā508.
2841:
2825:
2799:
2741:
2718:
2691:(4): 573ā588.
2675:
2666:
2657:
2648:
2639:
2630:
2617:(3): 317ā322.
2591:
2569:
2556:
2547:
2504:
2495:
2483:
2470:
2452:
2401:
2394:
2362:
2355:
2329:
2320:
2311:
2291:
2229:
2222:
2198:
2191:
2171:
2164:
2152:Modern Library
2133:
2124:
2115:
2085:
2067:
2017:
1994:
1976:
1953:
1926:
1900:
1879:
1858:
1829:
1791:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1759:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1711:
1708:
1640:Main article:
1634:bioluminescent
1618:
1615:
1612:
1611:
1602:
1599:
1595:
1594:
1584:
1581:
1577:
1576:
1566:
1563:
1562:Crystal fibres
1559:
1558:
1552:
1549:
1543:
1542:
1532:
1529:
1525:
1524:
1516:
1513:
1509:
1508:
1505:
1502:
1496:
1495:
1492:
1489:
1444:Main article:
1421:
1418:
1369:
1326:Chromatophores
1324:Main article:
1321:
1318:
1238:
1235:
1223:chromatophores
1211:chromatophores
1198:
1195:
1156:
1153:
1128:
1125:
1074:
1071:
1054:
1051:
1018:Main article:
1015:
1012:
1003:praying mantis
994:
991:
977:Henry W. Bates
970:
969:
953:
903:Main article:
900:
897:
869:
868:
853:
846:
839:
789:Main article:
771:
768:
743:Main article:
728:
725:
699:Main article:
677:
674:
673:
672:
669:
666:
649:
646:
614:countershading
580:decorator crab
484:
481:
479:
476:
463:
421:countershading
377:'s 1892 book,
357:argus pheasant
296:Charles Darwin
293:
254:Charles Darwin
244:
170:
167:
146:chromatophores
42:cleaner wrasse
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6581:
6570:
6567:
6565:
6562:
6560:
6557:
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6430:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6405:
6403:
6400:
6398:
6395:
6394:
6392:
6390:
6386:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6372:
6370:
6367:
6363:
6360:
6359:
6358:
6355:
6353:
6350:
6348:
6345:
6343:
6340:
6338:
6335:
6333:
6330:
6328:
6325:
6323:
6320:
6319:
6317:
6315:
6311:
6308:
6304:
6298:
6295:
6293:
6290:
6287:
6284:
6282:
6279:
6277:
6274:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6263:
6261:
6259:organisations
6255:
6245:
6242:
6240:
6237:
6233:
6230:
6228:
6225:
6223:
6220:
6218:
6215:
6213:
6210:
6209:
6208:
6205:
6201:
6198:
6197:
6196:
6195:Colourfulness
6193:
6189:
6186:
6185:
6184:
6181:
6180:
6178:
6174:
6166:
6163:
6161:
6158:
6156:
6153:
6151:
6148:
6147:
6145:
6141:
6138:
6137:
6136:
6133:
6132:
6130:
6128:
6124:
6118:
6115:
6113:
6110:
6108:
6105:
6103:
6100:
6098:
6095:
6093:
6090:
6088:
6085:
6083:
6080:
6078:
6075:
6073:
6070:
6068:
6065:
6064:
6062:
6060:
6056:
6053:
6051:
6047:
6036:
6035:
6031:
6028:
6027:
6023:
6021:
6018:
6015:
6012:
6010:
6007:
6005:
6002:
6000:
5997:
5995:
5992:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5979:
5978:
5977:Colour mixing
5975:
5974:
5972:
5970:
5969:Colour theory
5966:
5960:
5957:
5955:
5952:
5950:
5949:Light-on-dark
5947:
5943:
5940:
5938:
5935:
5933:
5930:
5928:
5925:
5921:
5918:
5917:
5916:
5913:
5912:
5911:
5908:
5907:
5905:
5903:
5902:Colour scheme
5899:
5896:
5894:
5888:
5883:
5869:
5866:
5864:
5861:
5855:
5852:
5851:
5850:
5847:
5843:
5840:
5839:
5838:
5835:
5834:
5833:
5830:
5826:
5823:
5821:
5818:
5817:
5816:
5813:
5811:
5808:
5806:
5803:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5791:
5790:
5789:
5786:
5785:
5783:
5781:
5777:
5771:
5770:Chromotherapy
5768:
5766:
5763:
5761:
5758:
5756:
5753:
5751:
5748:
5746:
5743:
5741:
5738:
5736:
5733:
5732:
5730:
5728:
5724:
5718:
5717:
5713:
5711:
5710:Tetrachromacy
5708:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5696:
5695:
5694:
5691:
5689:
5686:
5684:
5681:
5679:
5676:
5674:
5671:
5669:
5666:
5662:
5659:
5658:
5657:
5654:
5652:
5649:
5647:
5644:
5640:
5637:
5635:
5634:Achromatopsia
5632:
5631:
5630:
5627:
5623:
5620:
5619:
5618:
5617:Chromesthesia
5615:
5614:
5612:
5610:
5606:
5600:
5597:
5595:
5592:
5588:
5585:
5584:
5583:
5580:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5568:
5567:
5566:
5563:
5561:
5558:
5554:
5551:
5549:
5546:
5544:
5541:
5540:
5539:
5536:
5535:
5533:
5529:
5526:
5524:
5520:
5515:
5508:
5503:
5501:
5496:
5494:
5489:
5488:
5485:
5475:
5470:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5458:Urban ecology
5456:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5436:
5434:
5431:
5429:
5426:
5424:
5421:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5376:
5374:
5371:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5359:
5356:
5354:
5351:
5350:
5348:
5344:
5338:
5335:
5333:
5330:
5328:
5325:
5323:
5320:
5318:
5317:Kleiber's law
5315:
5313:
5310:
5308:
5305:
5303:
5300:
5298:
5295:
5293:
5290:
5288:
5285:
5283:
5280:
5278:
5275:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5263:
5260:
5258:
5255:
5254:
5252:
5250:
5244:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5211:
5208:
5207:
5206:
5203:
5201:
5198:
5196:
5193:
5191:
5188:
5186:
5183:
5181:
5178:
5177:
5175:
5173:
5169:
5163:
5160:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5151:
5147:
5143:
5141:
5138:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5090:Foster's rule
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5052:
5050:
5048:
5042:
5036:
5033:
5031:
5028:
5026:
5023:
5021:
5018:
5016:
5013:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4987:
4985:
4979:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4874:
4871:
4869:
4866:
4864:
4861:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4845:
4843:
4839:
4833:
4830:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4817:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4788:
4786:
4783:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4746:
4743:
4741:
4738:
4736:
4733:
4731:
4728:
4726:
4723:
4721:
4718:
4717:
4715:
4713:
4707:
4702:
4698:
4691:
4686:
4684:
4679:
4677:
4672:
4671:
4668:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4648:
4646:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4636:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4617:
4615:
4609:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4494:
4492:
4488:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4446:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4421:
4419:
4415:
4409:
4408:Trophic level
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4380:
4378:
4376:
4372:
4366:
4365:Phage ecology
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4355:Microbial mat
4353:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4338:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4310:Bacteriophage
4308:
4306:
4303:
4302:
4300:
4298:
4294:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4277:Decomposition
4275:
4273:
4270:
4269:
4267:
4265:
4261:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4224:Mesopredators
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4169:Apex predator
4167:
4166:
4164:
4162:
4158:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4078:
4076:
4074:
4070:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4003:Biotic stress
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3970:
3968:
3964:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3944:
3939:
3937:
3932:
3930:
3925:
3924:
3921:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3853:Animal senses
3851:
3850:
3848:
3844:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3816:
3813:
3812:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3785:Chromatophore
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3762:
3760:
3756:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3736:
3734:
3732:
3728:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3696:
3695:
3692:
3688:
3685:
3684:
3683:
3682:Mammalian eye
3680:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3657:Arthropod eye
3655:
3654:
3652:
3650:
3646:
3641:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3615:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3585:
3583:
3581:
3577:
3568:
3563:
3561:
3556:
3554:
3549:
3548:
3545:
3539:
3532:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3505:
3502:
3501:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3484:
3479:
3476:
3475:
3470:
3467:
3466:
3455:
3451:
3446:
3438:
3434:
3427:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3377:
3373:
3367:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3324:
3316:
3314:9789812568014
3310:
3306:
3305:
3297:
3281:
3280:
3275:
3268:
3266:
3264:
3262:
3260:
3258:
3256:
3254:
3252:
3244:
3238:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3207:
3205:
3203:
3201:
3184:
3180:
3173:
3166:
3164:
3162:
3160:
3140:
3133:
3127:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3072:
3064:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3031:
3023:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2980:
2972:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2923:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2880:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2845:
2838:
2834:
2829:
2814:
2810:
2803:
2795:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2748:
2746:
2729:
2722:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2679:
2670:
2661:
2652:
2643:
2634:
2625:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2605:
2598:
2596:
2579:
2573:
2566:
2565:Gilbert White
2560:
2551:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2520:(1): 93ā103.
2519:
2515:
2508:
2499:
2490:
2488:
2480:
2474:
2467:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2418:
2414:
2405:
2397:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2378:
2373:
2366:
2358:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2333:
2324:
2315:
2306:
2304:
2302:
2300:
2298:
2296:
2287:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2240:(July 2001).
2239:
2238:Mallet, James
2233:
2225:
2219:
2215:
2214:
2209:
2202:
2194:
2188:
2184:
2183:
2175:
2167:
2165:0-679-64288-9
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2148:
2143:
2137:
2128:
2119:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2089:
2082:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2021:
2005:
1998:
1991:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1973:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1960:
1958:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1930:
1914:
1910:
1909:Mallet, James
1904:
1897:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1884:
1876:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1863:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1846:
1841:
1840:Hooke, Robert
1836:
1834:
1827:
1823:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1798:
1796:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1773:
1771:
1766:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1751:Roan (colour)
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1721:Chromatophore
1719:
1717:
1714:
1713:
1707:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1643:
1635:
1631:
1628:
1623:
1609:
1608:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1596:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1567:
1564:
1561:
1560:
1556:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1533:
1530:
1527:
1526:
1522:
1521:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1510:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1497:
1493:
1490:
1487:
1486:
1480:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1453:visible light
1447:
1438:
1431:
1426:
1417:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1394:
1391:
1383:
1379:
1368:
1367:
1362:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1347:
1338:
1333:
1327:
1317:
1315:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1244:
1234:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1212:
1208:
1203:
1194:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1174:
1166:
1161:
1152:
1150:
1149:
1142:
1133:
1124:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1080:
1070:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1053:Motion dazzle
1050:
1048:
1047:honest signal
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1021:
1008:
1004:
999:
990:
988:
984:
980:
978:
974:
967:
963:
959:
958:
954:
951:
947:
943:
939:
938:
934:
933:
932:
929:
920:
916:
911:
906:
896:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
866:
862:
858:
854:
851:
850:honey badgers
847:
844:
840:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
816:cinnabar moth
813:
812:
808:
807:
801:
797:
792:
784:
781:
776:
767:
764:
761:
757:
756:
750:
746:
738:
733:
724:
722:
718:
717:
712:
708:
702:
695:
691:
687:
682:
670:
667:
664:
661:
660:
659:
655:
645:
643:
639:
634:
630:
625:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
602:
600:
596:
595:chromatophore
592:
588:
583:
581:
577:
572:
570:
566:
562:
561:flower mantis
558:
554:
550:
543:
539:
538:
532:
528:
526:
522:
514:
513:
507:
503:
500:
494:
490:
475:
473:
462:
461:superimposed.
457:
455:
450:
446:
445:
440:
436:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
413:
409:'s 1909 book
408:
401:
397:
393:
388:
384:
382:
381:
376:
372:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
349:
344:
337:
333:
329:
324:
320:
318:
314:
309:
308:
304:'s 1863 book
303:
292:
289:
285:
281:
275:
273:
272:
267:
263:
259:
255:
252:According to
243:
240:
231:
229:
225:
221:
220:
214:
212:
208:
204:
203:classical era
200:
196:
190:
183:
179:
175:
166:
164:
163:produce light
160:
155:
151:
147:
143:
138:
136:
132:
128:
123:
119:
115:
111:
110:sexual status
107:
103:
99:
95:
90:
88:
84:
80:
76:
69:
68:
62:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
35:
30:
26:
22:
6369:Colour chart
6232:Fluorescence
6188:Dichromatism
6050:Colour terms
6032:
6024:
6004:Colour wheel
5999:Colour solid
5994:Chromaticity
5863:Colour space
5832:Colour model
5765:Chromophobia
5714:
5443:Regime shift
5428:Macroecology
5149:
5145:
5085:Edge effects
5055:Biogeography
5000:Commensalism
4848:Biodiversity
4725:Allee effect
4619:
4464:kelp forests
4417:Example webs
4282:Detritivores
4121:Organotrophs
4101:Kinetotrophs
4053:Productivity
3769:
3716:Parietal eye
3662:Compound eye
3481:
3472:
3453:
3445:
3436:
3426:
3414:. Retrieved
3407:the original
3386:
3382:
3366:
3354:. Retrieved
3350:the original
3333:
3323:
3303:
3296:
3284:. Retrieved
3277:
3242:
3237:
3225:. Retrieved
3220:
3216:
3187:. Retrieved
3182:
3178:
3146:. Retrieved
3139:the original
3126:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3071:
3044:
3040:
3030:
3013:10072/409365
2993:
2989:
2979:
2936:
2932:
2922:
2892:(1): 49ā56.
2889:
2885:
2879:
2854:
2850:
2844:
2828:
2816:. Retrieved
2812:
2809:"BBC nature"
2802:
2765:
2761:
2732:. Retrieved
2721:
2688:
2684:
2678:
2669:
2660:
2651:
2642:
2633:
2614:
2610:
2582:. Retrieved
2572:
2559:
2550:
2517:
2513:
2507:
2498:
2478:
2473:
2463:
2455:
2446:11449/211785
2426:
2422:
2416:
2412:
2404:
2376:
2365:
2342:
2332:
2323:
2314:
2249:
2245:
2232:
2212:
2201:
2181:
2174:
2150:. New York:
2146:
2136:
2127:
2118:
2101:
2097:
2088:
2078:
2070:
2037:
2033:
2020:
2008:. Retrieved
1997:
1987:
1979:
1969:
1942:(1): 15ā18.
1939:
1935:
1929:
1917:. Retrieved
1903:
1893:
1872:
1849:
1845:Micrographia
1843:
1806:
1802:
1785:
1781:
1778:
1682:
1679:Comb jellies
1645:
1626:
1605:
1588:Ara ararauna
1587:
1568:
1534:
1518:
1449:
1414:melanophores
1406:xanthophores
1387:
1365:
1364:
1343:
1262:
1216:
1176:
1146:
1144:
1121:rhizostomins
1082:
1056:
1034:grasshoppers
1023:
987:Fritz MĆ¼ller
982:
981:
972:
971:
955:
935:
924:
870:
804:
794:
765:
753:
751:
748:
714:
704:
688:signals its
657:
642:Thayer's Law
641:
640:" is called
637:
626:
603:
584:
573:
547:
535:
518:
510:
496:
470:
459:
442:
437:
410:
405:
391:
378:
373:
346:
341:
335:
305:
300:
288:black-grouse
277:
269:
251:
247:Robert Hooke
233:
224:Robert Hooke
219:Micrographia
217:
215:
192:
182:Micrographia
181:
178:Robert Hooke
139:
91:
74:
73:
65:
50:cleaner fish
45:
37:
25:
6227:Iridescence
6059:Basic terms
5954:Web colours
5910:Colour tool
5849:subtractive
5798:Colour cast
5703:Unique hues
5661:Colour code
5656:Colour task
5599:Colorimetry
5565:Chromophore
5080:Disturbance
4983:interaction
4805:Recruitment
4735:Depensation
4527:Copiotrophs
4398:Energy flow
4320:Lithotrophy
4264:Decomposers
4244:Planktivore
4219:Insectivore
4209:Heterotroph
4174:Bacterivore
4141:Phototrophs
4091:Chemotrophs
4063:Restoration
4013:Competition
3893:Pseudopupil
3775:Aposematism
3694:Mollusc eye
3450:Piper, Ross
3431:Widder, E.
3416:25 November
3356:26 November
3227:26 November
3189:17 November
3148:27 November
2734:31 December
2384:. pp.
2154:. pp.
2122:Cott, 1940.
2083:. New York.
1919:23 November
1692:photophores
1652:photophores
1610:squid skin
1555:Cattleheart
1477:butterflies
1410:iridophores
1314:chlorophyll
1277:polyphenism
1105:ultraviolet
993:Distraction
966:hymenoptera
942:butterflies
915:hawk-cuckoo
865:coral snake
791:Aposematism
783:coral snake
663:advertising
551:is used by
394:1905ā1909,
365:aposematism
6569:Camouflage
6543:Categories
6389:Shades of:
6222:Brightness
5893:philosophy
5698:Afterimage
5688:Metamerism
5639:Dichromacy
5448:Sexecology
5025:Parasitism
4990:Antibiosis
4825:Resistance
4820:Resilience
4710:Population
4630:Camouflage
4582:Oligotroph
4497:Ascendency
4459:intertidal
4449:cold seeps
4403:Food chain
4204:Herbivores
4179:Carnivores
4106:Mixotrophs
4081:Autotrophs
3960:components
3883:Ommatidium
3815:coincident
3780:Camouflage
3758:Coloration
3699:cephalopod
3593:Chameleons
3492:0300178964
2996:: 752949.
2730:. Springer
2010:5 February
1762:References
1700:anglerfish
1683:Euplokamis
1675:luciferase
1664:metabolism
1656:glow-worms
1630:comb jelly
1627:Euplokamis
1461:iridescent
1402:Amphibians
1390:cephalopod
1355:chameleons
1351:cuttlefish
1309:carotenoid
1289:amphibians
1269:Arctic fox
1209:shows how
1187:riboflavin
1115:. In some
1067:camouflage
964:and bees (
946:hoverflies
893:great tits
889:amphibians
648:Signalling
638:vice versa
599:signalling
576:caddis fly
489:Camouflage
483:Camouflage
284:red-grouse
228:structural
94:Camouflage
87:iridescent
6239:Grayscale
6212:Lightness
6207:Luminance
6016:(fashion)
5716:The dress
5353:Allometry
5307:Emergence
5035:Symbiosis
5020:Mutualism
4815:Stability
4720:Abundance
4532:Dominance
4490:Processes
4479:tide pool
4375:Food webs
4249:Predation
4234:Omnivores
4161:Consumers
4116:Mycotroph
4073:Producers
4018:Ecosystem
3983:Behaviour
3898:Rhopalium
3731:Evolution
3704:gastropod
3672:Eye shine
3667:Eagle eye
3598:Dinosaurs
3346:0276-8186
3022:2296-7745
2953:0962-1083
2886:BioEssays
2514:Evolution
1854:Full text
1704:symbiotic
1668:luciferin
1660:fireflies
1573:sea mouse
1569:Aphrodita
1491:Structure
1488:Mechanism
1372:Aristotle
1359:Aristotle
1207:zebrafish
1117:jellyfish
1087:in their
836:starlings
828:digitalis
633:Hugh Cott
587:chameleon
557:parasites
553:predators
466:Hugh Cott
402:function.
313:mimicking
207:Aristotle
122:startling
98:advertise
6512:Category
6494:Lighting
6217:Darkness
6037:(Goethe)
5837:additive
5825:Quattron
5408:Endolith
5337:Xerosere
5249:networks
5065:Ecocline
4611:Defense,
4287:Detritus
4189:Foraging
4058:Resource
3765:Albinism
3471:(1940).
3403:14523078
3286:23 April
3118:28710659
3063:16547291
2971:25496144
2914:36665467
2818:30 April
2794:22117898
2713:24868603
2705:16221330
2584:21 March
2542:28563638
2462:(1874).
2286:11481461
2144:(2004).
2110:2246/470
1986:(1892).
1968:(1890).
1892:(1863).
1871:(1859).
1822:Archived
1819:Abstract
1710:See also
1681:such as
1494:Example
1467:such as
1393:molluscs
1370:ā
1312:(green)
1305:flamingo
1301:cardinal
1255:The red
1219:pigments
1205:Side of
1042:eyespots
1030:mantises
1007:deimatic
873:instinct
822:and the
780:venomous
684:Cleaner
464:ā
425:flamingo
294:ā
245:ā
195:research
154:neuronal
150:hormonal
102:cleaning
6559:Mimicry
6549:Zoology
6476:Related
6437:Magenta
6362:history
6266:Pantone
5553:Visible
5548:Rainbow
5398:Ecopath
5205:Habitat
5075:Ecotype
5070:Ecotone
5047:ecology
5045:Spatial
4981:Species
4841:Species
4712:ecology
4697:Ecology
4645:Mimicry
4613:counter
4557:f-ratio
4305:Archaea
3993:Biomass
3966:General
3958:Trophic
3950:Ecology
3827:Mimicry
3800:Crypsis
3613:Mammals
3463:Sources
3110:4449576
3090:Bibcode
2962:4949654
2906:1546980
2871:3707165
2785:3257203
2534:2408519
2429:: 1ā6.
2254:Bibcode
2062:3983153
2042:Bibcode
1842:(1665)
1782:- Book=
1575:spines
1473:beetles
1457:peacock
1281:mammals
1265:melanin
1257:pigment
1191:albinos
1101:sunburn
1085:melanin
1014:Startle
905:Mimicry
899:Mimicry
885:lizards
881:mammals
820:monarch
770:Warning
606:crypsis
591:octopus
569:leopard
525:crypsis
521:mimesis
449:wartime
427:or the
417:crypsis
400:cryptic
266:species
262:evolved
211:octopus
199:biology
169:History
142:pigment
114:mimicry
83:peafowl
6489:Qualia
6484:Vision
6432:Purple
6427:Violet
6407:Yellow
6402:Orange
6257:Colour
6097:Orange
6092:Purple
6082:Yellow
5891:Colour
5516:topics
5514:Colour
4429:Rivers
4325:Marine
3618:horses
3580:Vision
3490:
3401:
3344:
3311:
3116:
3108:
3061:
3020:
2969:
2959:
2951:
2912:
2904:
2869:
2792:
2782:
2711:
2703:
2540:
2532:
2392:
2386:78ā123
2353:
2284:
2274:
2220:
2189:
2162:
2060:
2034:Nature
1813:
1672:enzyme
1520:Morpho
1287:, and
1113:corals
919:shikra
887:, and
838:vomit.
830:-like
818:, the
686:wrasse
565:orchid
338:, 1890
108:their
106:signal
36:fish (
6522:Index
6462:Black
6452:White
6447:Brown
6412:Green
6314:Lists
6306:Names
6288:(CIE)
6117:Brown
6112:White
6102:Black
6072:Green
5587:Water
5543:Light
5346:Other
5247:Other
5200:Guild
5172:Niche
4424:Lakes
3687:human
3608:Toads
3588:Birds
3410:(PDF)
3399:S2CID
3379:(PDF)
3175:(PDF)
3142:(PDF)
3135:(PDF)
3114:S2CID
3080:L.".
2910:S2CID
2709:S2CID
2607:(PDF)
2530:JSTOR
2277:55348
2058:S2CID
1688:squid
1648:light
1469:ducks
1465:birds
1397:squid
1395:like
1388:When
1382:Squid
1346:cells
1285:birds
1063:lions
1059:zebra
1026:moths
962:wasps
877:birds
861:viper
843:skunk
832:toxin
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