Assyria - Knowledge

3434: 2242:, either a completely new city or a new name applied to Nineveh, which by this point already rivalled Assur in scale and political importance. The capital was transferred under Tukulti-Ninurta II's son Ashurnasirpal II to Nimrud in 879 BC. An architectural detail separating Nimrud and the other Neo-Assyrian capitals from Assur is that they were designed in a way that emphasized royal power: the royal palaces in Assur were smaller than the temples but the situation was reversed in the new capitals. Sargon II transferred the capital in 706 BC to the city Dur-Sharrukin, which he built himself. Since the location of Dur-Sharrukin had no obvious practical or political merit, this move was probably an ideological statement. Immediately after Sargon II's death in 705 BC, his son Sennacherib transferred the capital to Nineveh, a far more natural seat of power. Though it was not meant as a permanent royal residence, Ashur-uballit II chose Harran as his seat of power after the fall of Nineveh in 612 BC. Harran is typically seen as the short-lived final Assyrian capital. No building projects were conducted during this time, but Harran had been long-established as a major religious center, dedicated to the god 2372: 2057:

administered by Ashur through his human agents. In their ideology, the outer realm outside of Assyria was characterized by chaos and the people there were uncivilized, with unfamiliar cultural practices and strange languages. The mere existence of the "outer realm" was regarded as a threat to the cosmic order within Assyria and as such, it was the king's duty to expand the realm of Ashur and incorporate these strange lands, converting chaos to civilization. Texts describing the coronation of Middle and Neo-Assyrian kings at times include Ashur commanding the king to "broaden the land of Ashur" or "extend the land at his feet". As such, expansion was cast as a moral and necessary duty. Because the rule and actions of the Assyrian king were seen as divinely sanctioned, resistance to Assyrian sovereignty in times of war was regarded to be resistance against divine will, which deserved punishment. Peoples and polities who revolted against Assyria were seen as criminals against the divine world order. Since Ashur was the king of the gods, all other gods were subjected to him and thus the people who followed those gods should be subjected to the representative of Ashur, the Assyrian king.

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literary tradition and claims of descent from ancient Assyrian royalty were forwarded both for figures in folklore and by actual living high-ranking members of society in northern Mesopotamia. Visits by missionaries from various western churches to the Assyrian heartland in the 18th century likely contributed to the Assyrian people more strongly relating their self-designation and identity to ancient Assyria; in the context of interactions with westerners who connected them to the ancient Assyrians, and due to an increasing number of atrocities and massacres directed against them, the Assyrian people experienced a cultural "awakening" or "renaissance" toward the end of the 19th century, which led to the development of a national ideology more strongly rooted in their descent from ancient Assyria and a re-adoption of self-designations such as

3546: 2888: 2424:) who was responsible for handling local order, public safety and economy. Governors also stored and distributed the goods produced in their province, which were inspected and collected by royal representatives once a year. Through these inspections, the central government could keep track of current stocks and production throughout the country. Governors had to pay both taxes and offer gifts to the god Ashur, though such gifts were usually small and mainly symbolic. The channeling of taxes and gifts were not only a method of collecting profit but also served to connect the elite of the entire empire to the Assyrian heartland. In the Neo-Assyrian period, an extensive hierarchy within the provincial administration is attested. At the bottom of this hierarchy were lower officials, such as village managers ( 2330:(commander-in-chief), which at times continued to be occupied by royal family members. Some of the magnates also acted as governors of important provinces and all of them were deeply involved with the Assyrian military, controlling significant forces. They also owned large tax-free estates, scattered throughout the empire. In the late Neo-Assyrian Empire, there was a growing disconnect between the traditional Assyrian elite and the kings due to eunuchs growing unprecedently powerful. The highest offices both in the civil administration and the army began to be occupied by eunuchs with deliberately obscure and lowly origins since this ensured that they would be loyal to the king. Eunuchs were trusted since they were believed to not be able to have any dynastic aspirations of their own. 2767:. Among these laws were punishments for various crimes, often sexual or marital ones. Although they did not deprive women of all their rights and they were not significantly different from other ancient Near Eastern laws of their time, the Middle Assyrian Laws effectively made women second-class citizens. However, it is not clear how strongly these laws were enforced. These laws gave men the right to punish their wives as they wished. Among the harshest punishments written into these laws, for a crime not even committed by the woman, was that a raped woman would be forcibly married to her rapist. These laws also specified that certain women were obliged to wear veils while out on the street, marital status being the determining factor. Some women, such as slave women and 2061:

of Ashur-resh-ishi I onward, the religious and cultic duties of the king were pushed somewhat into the background, though they were still prominently mentioned in accounts of building and restoring temples. Assyrian titles and epithets in inscriptions from then on generally emphasized the kings as powerful warriors. Developing from their role in the Old Assyrian period, the Middle and Neo-Assyrian kings were the supreme judicial authority in the empire, though they generally appear to have been less concerned with their role as judges than their predecessors in the Old Assyrian period were. The kings were expected to ensure the welfare and prosperity of the Assyria and its people, indicated by multiple inscriptions referring to the kings as "shepherds" (

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number of signs used, Old Assyrian is relatively easier to decipher for modern researchers than later forms of the language, though the limited number of signs also means that there are in cases several possible alternative phonetic values and readings. This means that while it is easy to decipher the signs, many researchers remain uncomfortable with the language itself. Though it was a more archaic variant of the later Assyrian language, Old Assyrian also contains several words that are not attested in later periods, some being peculiar early forms of words and others being names for commercial terms or various textile and food products from Anatolia.

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Old Assyrian period, and due to the city's religious importance, Assur was the administrative center of Assyria through most of its history. Though the royal administration at times moved elsewhere, the ideological status of Assur was never fully superseded and it remained a ceremonial center in the empire even when it was governed from elsewhere. The transfer of the royal seat of power to other cities was ideologically possible since the king was Ashur's representative on Earth. The king, like the deity embodied Assyria itself, and so the capital of Assyria was in a sense wherever the king happened to have his residence.

2691:, formerly free men and women who had been unable to pay off their debts. In some cases, Assyrian children were seized by authorities due to the debts of their parents and sold off into slavery when their parents were unable to pay. Children born to slave women automatically became slaves themselves, unless some other arrangement had been agreed to. Though Old Babylonian texts frequently mention the geographical and ethnic origin of slaves, there is only a single known such reference in Old Assyrian texts (whereas there are many describing slaves in a general sense), a slave girl explicitly being referred to as 3378:

very similar to the seals of the kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur. In the Middle Assyrian period, from Ashur-uballit I onward, seals looked quite different and appear to emphasize royal power, rather than the theological and cosmic sources of the king's right to rule. Among non-royal seals of the Middle Assyrian period a wide assortment of different motifs are known, including both religious scenes and peaceful scenes of animals and trees. From the time of Tukulti-Ninurta I onward, seals also sometimes featured contests and struggles between humans, various animals, and mythological creatures.

2958: 2992:, believers in the old religion are known from as late as the 18th century. Individuals with names harkening back to ancient Mesopotamia are also attested at Assur until it was sacked for the last time in AD 240 and at other sites as late as the 13th century. Though many foreign states ruled over Assyria in the millennia following the empire's fall, there is no evidence of any large scale influx of immigrants that replaced the original population, which instead continued to make up a significant portion of the region's people until the Mongol and Timurid massacres in the late 14th century. 3386:

step of its base a relief image which is the earliest known narrative image in Assyrian art history. This relief, which is not very well-preserved, appears to depict rows of prisoners before the Assyrian king. The earliest known Assyrian wall paintings are also from the time of Tukulti-Ninurta I, from his palace in Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta. Motifs included plant-based patterns (rosettes and palmettes), trees and bird-headed genies. The colors used to paint the walls included black, red, blue, and white. An unusual limestone statue of a nude woman is known from Nineveh from the time of

3616: 11651: 105: 1958:, with sole power, but rather acted as stewards on behalf of the god Ashur and presided over the meetings of the city assembly, the main Assyrian administrative body during this time. The composition of the city assembly is not known, but it is generally believed to have been made up of members of the most powerful families of the city, many of whom were merchants. The king acted as the main executive officer and chairman of this group of influential individuals and also contributed with legal knowledge and expertise. The Old Assyrian kings were styled as 784: 769: 65: 50: 774: 55: 3490: 3789: 2498: 3767: 3941: 3868:

resources, chiefly in the form of land holdings, and their own hierarchically organized personnel. In later times, temples became increasingly dependent on royal benefits, in the shape of specific taxes, offerings and donations of booty and tribute. The head of a temple was titled as the "chief administrator" and was responsible to the Assyrian king since the king was regarded to be Ashur's representative in the mortal world. Records from temples showcase that divination in the form of astrology and

11640: 3778: 2116: 2660:). The unfree men had given up their freedom and entered the services of others on their own accord, and were in turn provided with clothes and rations. Many of them probably originated as foreigners. Though similar to slavery, it was possible for an unfree person to regain their freedom by providing a replacement and they were during their service considered the property of the government rather than their employers. Other lower classes of the Middle Assyrian period included the 1018:" and Mesopotamia "Assyria", even though the local population, both at that time and well into the later Christian period, used both terms interchangeably to refer to the entire region. It is not known whether the Greeks began referring to Mesopotamia as "Assyria" because they equated the region with the Assyrian Empire, long fallen by the time the term is first attested, or because they named the region after the people who lived there, the Assyrians. Because the term is so " 1216: 3230:

Middle Assyrian period, this lack of linguistic policies facilitated the spread of the Aramaic language. As the most widely spoken and mutually understandable of the Semitic languages (the language group containing many of the languages spoken through the empire), Aramaic grew in importance throughout the Neo-Assyrian period and increasingly replaced the Neo-Assyrian language even within the Assyrian heartland itself. From the 9th century BC onward, Aramaic became the

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and thoroughly altered. Possibly originating as a reaction to the period of suzerainty under the Mittani kingdom, Middle Assyrian theology presented Ashur as a god of war, who bestowed the Assyrian kings not only with divine legitimacy, something retained from the Old Assyrian period, but also commanded the kings to enlarge Assyria ("the land of Ashur") with Ashur's "just scepter", i.e. expand the Assyrian Empire through military conquest.

10455: 3683:, which included more than 30,000 documents. Libraries were built in the Neo-Assyrian period to preserve knowledge of the past and maintain scribal culture. Neo-Assyrian texts fall into a wide array of genres, including divinatory texts, divination reports, treatments for the sick (either medical or magical), ritual texts, incantations, prayers and hymns, school texts and literary texts. An innovation of the Neo-Assyrian period were the 12564: 3595: 1406: 12614: 13754: 2721: 3214: 2947: 13764: 10203: 2123: 12552: 2760:. The wife was allowed to choose that slave and the slave never gained the status of a second wife. Husbands who were away on long trading journeys were allowed to take a second wife in one of the trading colonies, although with strict rules that must be followed: the second wife was not allowed to accompany him back to Assur and both wives had to be provided with a home to live in, food, and wood. 2171: 2187: 2203: 2155: 2139: 3415:

walls were at times decorated with glazed and painted tiles or bricks. The most extensive known surviving sets of wall reliefs are from the reign of Sennacherib. In terms of Neo-Assyrian artwork, modern scholars have paid particular attention to the reliefs produced under Ashurbanipal, which have been described as possessing a distinct "epic quality" unlike the art under his predecessors.

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combination with resettlements and deportations, changed the ethno-cultural make-up of the Assyrian heartland, there is no evidence to suggest that the more ancient Assyrian inhabitants of the land ever disappeared or became restricted to a small elite, nor that the ethnic and cultural identity of the new settlers was anything other than "Assyrian" after one or two generations.

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up the social ladder; in some cases stellar work conducted by a single individual enhanced the status of their family for generations to come. In many cases, Assyrian family groups, or "clans", formed large population groups within the empire referred to as tribes. Such tribes lived together in villages and other settlements near or adjacent to their agricultural lands.

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known from the Old Assyrian period, it is evident that women were free to learn how to read and write. Both men and women paid the same fines, could inherit property, participated in trade, bought, owned, and sold houses and slaves, made their own last wills, and were allowed to divorce their partners. Records of Old Assyrian marriages confirm that the

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ancient Assyrian Empire. Though the ancient Akkadian language and cuneiform script did not survive for long in Assyria after the empire was destroyed in 609 BC, Assyrian culture clearly did; the old Assyrian religion continued to be practised at Assur until the 3rd century AD, and at other sites for centuries thereafter, gradually losing ground to

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Standard Babylonian was a highly codified version of ancient Babylonian, as used around 1500 BC, and was used as a language of high culture, for nearly all scholarly documents, literature, poetry and royal inscriptions. The culture of the Assyrian elite was strongly influenced by Babylonia in the south; in a vein similar to how

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Assyrians continued to venerate Ashur and the rest of the pantheon, though without the Assyrian state, religious beliefs in many parts of the Assyrian heartland diverged and developed in different directions. From the time of Seleucid rule over the region (4th to 2nd century BC) onward, there was a strong influence of the

3255:). Though it has little in common with the Assyrian dialect of the Akkadian language, it is a modern version of the ancient Mesopotamian Aramaic. The language retains some influence of ancient Akkadian, particularly in the form of loanwords. Modern Assyrian varieties of Aramaic are often referred to by scholars as 2914:

distinct cultural group. A wider Assyrian identity appears to have spread across northern Mesopotamia under the Middle Assyrian Empire, since later writings concerning the reconquests of the early Neo-Assyrian kings refer to some of their wars as liberating the Assyrian people of the cities they reconquered.

3169:, spoken in southern Mesopotamia. Both Assyrian and Babylonian are generally regarded by modern scholars to be dialects of the Akkadian language. This is a modern convention since contemporary ancient authors considered Assyrian and Babylonian to be two separate languages. Only Babylonian was referred to as 2109:, also named after a king. It seems that Tukulti-Ninurta I intended to go further than the Kassites and also establish Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta as the new Assyrian cult center. The city was however not maintained as capital after Tukulti-Ninurta I's death, with subsequent kings once more ruling from Assur. 1853:

between the stelae by the local rulers and those of the ancient Assyrian kings, they may have seen themselves as the restorers and continuators of the old royal line. The ancient Ashur temple was restored in the 2nd century AD. This last cultural golden age came to an end with the sack of Assur by the

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of Osroene in the mid-1st century AD. From the 3rd century AD onward, it is clear that Christianity was becoming the major religion of the region, with Christ replacing the old Mesopotamian deities. Assyrians had by this time already intellectually contributed to Christian thought; in the 1st century

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This militarization of Ashur might also have derived from the Amorite conqueror Shamshi-Adad I equating Ashur with the southern Enlil during his rule over northern Mesopotamia in the 18th and 17th centuries BC. In the Middle Assyrian period, Ashur is attested with the title "king of the gods", a role

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Ashur's role as the chief deity was flexible and changed with the changing culture and politics of the Assyrians themselves. In the Old Assyrian period, Ashur was mainly regarded as a god of death and revival, related to agriculture. Under the Middle and Neo-Assyrian Empire, Ashur's role was expanded

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in Assur, four cult pedestals (or "altars") from the time of Tukulti-Ninurta I have been discovered. These altars were decorated with various motifs, common inclusions being the king (sometimes multiple times) and protective divine figures and standards. One of the pedestals preserves along the lower

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The artwork known from the Old Assyrian period, other than a few objects such as a partial stone statue perhaps depicting Erishum I, is largely limited to seals and impressions of seals on cuneiform documents. Royal seals from the Puzur-Ashur dynasty of kings, prior to the rise of Shamshi-Adad I, are

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From the time of Shalmaneser III, in the 9th century BC, Aramaic was used in state-related contexts alongside Akkadian and by the time of Tiglath-Pileser III, the kings employed both Akkadian and Aramaic-language royal scribes, confirming the rise of Aramaic to a position of an official language used

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In the Old Assyrian period, a major portion of Assur's population was involved in the city's international trade. As can be gathered from hiring contracts and other records, the trade involved people of many different occupations, including porters, guides, donkey drivers, agents, traders, bakers and

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their mothers, taught to spin, weave, and help with daily tasks and boys were taught trades by masters, later often following their fathers on trade expeditions. Sometimes the eldest daughter of a family was consecrated as a priestess. She was not allowed to marry and became economically independent.

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to the bride belonged to her, not the husband, and it was inherited by her children after her death. Although they were equal legally, men and women in the Old Assyrian period were raised and socialized differently and had different social expectations and obligations. Typically, girls were raised by

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The kings also had religious and judicial duties. Kings were responsible for performing various rituals in support of the cult of Ashur and the Assyrian priesthood. They were expected, together with the Assyrian people, to provide offerings to not only Ashur but also all the other gods. From the time

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The kings of the Middle and Neo-Assyrian periods continued to present themselves, and be viewed by their subjects, as the intermediaries between Ashur and mankind. This position and role was used to justify imperial expansion: the Assyrians saw their empire as being the part of the world overseen and

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The triumph of ancient Assyria can be attributed not only to its vigorous warrior-monarchs but also to its adeptness in efficiently assimilating and governing conquered territories using inventive and advanced administrative mechanisms. The developments in warfare and governance introduced by ancient

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Wall paintings such as those made under Tukulti-Ninurta I in the Middle Assyrian period also continued to be used, sometimes to supplement wall reliefs and sometimes instead of them. Interior walls could be decorated by covering the mudbrick used in construction with painted mud plaster and exterior

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Compared to other periods, a larger amount of artwork survives from the Neo-Assyrian period, particularly monumental art made under the patronage of the kings. The most well-known form of Neo-Assyrian monumental art are wall reliefs, carved stone artwork that lined the internal and external walls of

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Because of the multilingual nature of the vast empire, many loan words are attested as entering the Assyrian language during the Neo-Assyrian period. The number of surviving documents written in cuneiform grow considerably fewer in the late reign of Ashurbanipal, which suggests that the language was

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1950–1836 BC, twenty-five tons of Anatolian silver was transported to Assur, and that approximately one hundred tons of tin and 100,000 textiles were transported to Anatolia in return. The Assyrians also sold livestock, processed goods and reed products. In many cases, the materials sold by Assyrian

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The success of Assyria was not only due to energetic kings who expanded its borders but more importantly due to its ability to efficiently incorporate and govern conquered lands. From the rise of Assyria as a territorial state at the beginning of the Middle Assyrian period onward, Assyrian territory

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conquered the region in the 2nd century BC, the recovery of Assyria continued, culminating in an unprecedented return to prosperity and revival in the 1st to 3rd centuries AD. The region was resettled and restored so intensely that the population and settlement density reached heights not seen since

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2600 BC. During this time, the surrounding region was already relatively urbanized. There is no evidence that early Assur was an independent settlement, and it might not have been called Assur at all initially, but rather Baltil or Baltila, used in later times to refer to the city's oldest portion.

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Assyrian religion, referred to as "Ashurism" by some modern Assyrians, is mostly limited to state cults given that little can be ascertained of the personal religious beliefs and practices of the common people of ancient Assyria. The Assyrians worshipped the same pantheon of gods as the Babylonians

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The clear majority of surviving ancient Assyrian literature is from the Neo-Assyrian period. The kings of the Neo-Assyrian Empire began to see preserving knowledge as one of their responsibilities, and not, as previous kings had, a responsibility of private individuals and temples. This development

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There are three surviving forms of primary evidence for the architecture of ancient Assyria. The most important form is the surviving buildings themselves, found through archaeological excavations, but important evidence can also be gathered from both contemporary documentation, such as letters and

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declining since it is probably attributable to an increased use of Aramaic, often written on perishable materials such as leather scrolls or papyrus. The ancient Assyrian language did not disappear completely until around the end of the 6th century BC, well into the subsequent post-imperial period.

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The signs used in Old Assyrian texts are for the most part less complex than those used during the succeeding Middle and Neo-Assyrian periods and they were fewer in number, amounting to no more than 150–200 unique signs, most of which were syllabic signs (representing syllables). Due to the limited

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Surviving evidence suggests that the ancient Assyrians had a relatively open definition of what it meant to be Assyrian. Modern ideas such as a person's ethnic background, or the Roman idea of legal citizenship, do not appear to have been reflected in ancient Assyria. Although Assyrian accounts and

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After international trade declined in the 19th century BC, the Assyrian economy became increasingly oriented toward the state. In the Neo-Assyrian period, the wealth generated through private investments was dwarfed by the wealth of the state, which was by far the largest employer in the empire and

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The Middle Assyrian structure of society by and large endured through the subsequent Neo-Assyrian period. Below the higher classes of Neo-Assyrian society were free citizens, semi-free laborers and slaves. It was possible through steady service to the Assyrian state bureaucracy for a family to move

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Because of the nature of source preservation, more information about the upper classes of ancient Assyria survives than for the lower ones. At the top of Middle and Neo-Assyrian society were members of long-established and large families called "houses". Members of this aristocracy tended to occupy

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continued to be used at times, the Middle Assyrian kings were autocrats, in terms of power having little in common with the rulers of the Old Assyrian period. As the Assyrian Empire grew, the kings began to employ an increasingly sophisticated array of royal titles. Ashur-uballit I was the first to

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The Assyrian heartland remained safe since it was protected by its geographical remoteness. Since Assyria was not the only state to undergo decline during these centuries, and the lands surrounding the Assyrian heartland were also significantly fragmented, it would ultimately be relatively easy for

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These kings campaigned in all directions and incorporated a significant amount of territory into the growing Assyrian Empire. Under Shalmaneser I, the last remnants of the Mitanni kingdom were formally annexed into Assyria. The most successful of the Middle Assyrian kings was Tukulti-Ninurta I, who

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In the Middle and Neo-Assyrian empires, the later versions of the Assyrian language were not the only versions of Akkadian used. Though Assyrian was typically used in letters, legal documents, administrative documents, and as a vernacular, Standard Babylonian was also used in an official capacity.

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Given the vast timespan covered by ancient Assyria, the Assyrian language developed and evolved over time. Modern scholars broadly categorize it into three different periods, roughly (though far from precisely) corresponding to the periods used to divide Assyrian history: the Old Assyrian language

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in ancient Assyria. What mattered for a person to be seen by others as Assyrian was mainly fulfillment of obligations (such as military service), being affiliated with the Assyrian Empire politically and maintaining loyalty to the Assyrian king. One of the inscriptions that attest to this view, as

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The main evidence concerning the lives of ordinary women in ancient Assyria is in administrative documents and law codes. There was no legal distinction between men and women in the Old Assyrian period and they had more or less the same rights in society. Since several letters written by women are

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to the Assyrian heartland, a distance of 700 kilometers (430 miles) over a stretch of lands featuring many rivers without any bridges, could take less than five days to arrive. Such communication speed was unprecedented before the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and was not surpassed in the Middle

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No word for the idea of a capital city existed in Akkadian, the nearest being the idea of a "city of kingship", i.e. an administrative center used by the king, but there are several examples of kingdoms having multiple "cities of kingship". Due to Assyria growing out of the Assur city-state of the

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Royal encouragement of trade led to Assur quickly establishing itself as a prominent trading city in northern Mesopotamia and soon thereafter establishing an extensive long-distance trade network, the first notable impression Assyria left in the historical record. Among the evidence left from this

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Assyrian religion was centered in temples, monumental structures that included a central shrine which housed the cult statue of the temple's god, and several subordinate chapels with space for statues of other deities. Temples were typically self-contained communities; they had their own economic

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A distinct Assyrian scholarship tradition, though still drawing on Babylonian tradition, is conventionally placed as beginning around the time of the beginning of the Middle Assyrian period. The rising status of scholarship at this time might be connected to the kings beginning to regard amassing

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has historically been the target of misunderstanding and controversy, both politically and academically, Assyrian continuity is generally scholarly accepted based on both historical and genetic evidence in the sense that the modern Assyrians are regarded to be descendants of the population of the

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are largely based in self-perception and self-designation. A distinct Assyrian identity seems to have formed already in the Old Assyrian period, when distinctly Assyrian burial practices, foods and dress codes are attested and Assyrian documents appear to consider the inhabitants of Assur to be a

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Some regions of the Assyrian Empire were not incorporated into the provincial system but were still subjected to the rule of the Assyrian kings. Such vassal states could be ruled indirectly through allowing established local lines of kings to continue ruling in exchange for tribute or through the

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669–631 BC), the Neo-Assyrian Empire swiftly collapsed. One of the primary reasons was the inability of the Neo-Assyrian kings to resolve the "Babylonian problem"; despite many attempts to appease Babylonia in the south, revolts were frequent all throughout the Sargonid period. The revolt of

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Urartians as stockier, Urartians with larger noses, and Arabs with long straight hair (in contrast to the curly hair of the Assyrians). Inscriptions and annals from Ashurbanipal's time however offer no evidence that foreigners were seen as racially or ethnically different in terms of biology or

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Because the Assyrians never imposed their language on foreign peoples whose lands they conquered outside of the Assyrian heartland, there were no mechanisms in place to stop the spread of languages other than Akkadian. Beginning with the migrations of Arameans into Assyrian territory during the

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The Assyrian army was throughout its history mostly composed of levies, mobilized only when they were needed (such as in the time of campaigns). Through regulations, obligations and sophisticated government systems, large amounts of soldiers could be recruited and mobilized already in the early

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Assur itself flourished under Parthian rule. From around or shortly after the end of the 2nd century BC, the city may have become the capital of its own small semi-autonomous Assyrian realm, either under the suzerainty of Hatra, or under direct Parthian suzerainty. On account of the resemblance

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Although the text clearly differentiates the new settlers from those that had been "born Assyrians", the aim of Sargon's policy was also clearly to transform the new settlers into Assyrians through appointing supervisors and guides to teach them. Though the expansion of the Assyrian Empire, in

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The only example of ancient Assyrian art depicting foreigners with different physical features than the Assyrians themselves is the reliefs made in the reign of Ashurbanipal. Possibly influenced by Egyptian art, which did depict foreigners differently, Ashurbanipal's reliefs show Elamites and

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Unlike many other ancient empires, the Neo-Assyrian Empire did at its height not impose its culture and religion on conquered regions; there were no significant temples built for Ashur outside of northern Mesopotamia. In the post-imperial period, after the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the

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The ancient Assyrians accomplished several technologically complex construction projects, including constructions of whole new capital cities, which indicates sophisticated technical knowledge. Though in large part following previous Mesopotamian architecture, there are several characteristic

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Despite the complex issue of self-designations, pre-modern Syriac-language sources at times identified positively with the ancient Assyrians and drew connections between the ancient empire and themselves. Most prominently, ancient Assyrian kings and figures long appeared in local folklore and

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Subjects of (all) four (parts of the world), of foreign tongues, with different languages without similarity, people from mountainous regions and plains, so many (different people) as the light of the gods, lord above all, supervises, I let dwell inside on the command of Ashur my lord . Born

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859–824 BC) also went on wide-ranging wars of conquest, expanding the empire in all directions. After Shalmaneser III's death, the Neo-Assyrian Empire entered into a period of stagnation dubbed the "age of the magnates", when powerful officials and generals were the principal wielders of

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Assur was under the Puzur-Ashur dynasty home to less than 10,000 people and likely held very limited military power; no military institutions at all are known from this time and no political influence was exerted on neighboring cities. The city was still influential in other ways; under

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on agriculture, manufacturing and exploitation of minerals. The imperial economy advantaged mainly the elite, since it was structured in a way that ensured that surplus wealth flowed to the government and was then used for the maintenance of the state throughout the empire. Though all

4250:

The precise number is far from certain since the massacres were poorly documented by the Ottoman government. The Assyrian population prior to the genocide amounted to about 500,000–600,000 people and the generally accepted estimate is that about 50 % of the Assyrian people were

3815:

in southern Mesopotamia. The chief Assyrian deity was the national deity Ashur. Though the deity and the ancient capital city are commonly distinguished by modern historians through calling the god Ashur and the city Assur, both were inscribed in the exact same way in ancient times (

3601:

The ivory tusks that provided the raw material for these objects were almost certainly from African elephants, imported from lands south of Egypt, although elephants did inhabit several river valleys in Syria until they were hunted to extinction by the end of the eighth century B.C.

1512:

1207 BC was followed by inter-dynastic conflict and a significant drop in Assyrian power. Tukulti-Ninurta I's successors were unable to maintain Assyrian power and Assyria became increasingly restricted to just the Assyrian heartland, a period of decline broadly coinciding with the

3899:

empires, Assyria was likely highly religiously complex and diverse. Under Parthian rule, both old and new gods were worshipped at Assur. As late as the time of the city's second destruction in the 3rd century AD, the most important deity was still Ashur, known during this time as

2290:), superior to the ordinary viziers, who at times governed their own lands as appointees of the kings. At least in the Middle Assyrian period, the grand viziers were typically members of the royal family and the position was at this time, as were many other offices, hereditary. 3411:), that were placed at the gates of temples, palaces and cities. The earliest known examples of both wall reliefs and colossi are from the reign of Ashurnasirpal II, who might have been inspired by the Hittite monumental art that he saw on his campaigns to the Mediterranean. 1655:

745–727 BC), who reduced the power of the magnates, consolidated and centralized the holdings of the empire, and through his military campaigns and conquests more than doubled the extent of Assyrian territory. The most significant conquests were the vassalization of the

998:

derive from the name of the Assyrian national deity Ashur. Ashur probably originated in the Early Assyrian period as a deified personification of Assur itself. In the Old Assyrian period the deity was considered the formal king of Assur; the actual rulers only used the style

2784:

appear to have been poor, there were noteworthy exceptions. The term appears with negative connotations in several texts. Their mere existence makes it clear that it was possible for women to live independent lives, despite their lesser social standing during that period.

3350:

A relatively large number of statues and figurines have been recovered from the ruins of temples in Assur dating to the Early Assyrian period. Most of the surviving artwork from this time was clearly influenced by the artwork of foreign powers. For instance, a set of 87

1825:). The organization into a single large province, the lack of interference of the Achaemenid rulers in local affairs, and the return of the cult statue of Ashur to Assur soon after the Achaemenids conquered Babylon facilitated the survival of Assyrian culture. Under the 3374:, which would indicate trade between early Assur and the early tribes and states of Iran. Among other artwork known from the early period are a handful of large stone statues of rulers (governors and foreign kings), figures of animals, and stone statues of naked women. 4043: 3185:(2000–1500 BC), Middle Assyrian language (1500–1000 BC) and Neo-Assyrian language (1000–500 BC). Because the record of Assyrian tablets and documents is still somewhat spotty, many of the stages of the language remain poorly known and documented. 3970:, Arbela became the seat of a bishop already in AD 100, but the reliability of this document is questioned among scholars. It is however known that both Arbela and Kirkuk later served as important Christian centers in the Sasanian and later Islamic periods. 3433: 1264:

As trade declined, perhaps due to increased warfare and conflict between the growing states of the Near East, Assur was frequently threatened by larger foreign states and kingdoms. The original Assur city-state, and the Puzur-Ashur dynasty, came to an end

2788:

During the Neo-Assyrian period that followed, royal and upper-class women experienced increased influence. Women attached to the Neo-Assyrian royal court sent and received letters, were independently wealthy, and could buy and own lands of their own. The

3301:

administrative documents that describe buildings that might not have been preserved, as well as documentation by later kings concerning the building works of previous kings. Assyrian buildings and construction works were almost always constructed out of

2572:

techniques. At the height of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the Assyrian army was the strongest army yet assembled in world history. The number of soldiers in the Neo-Assyrian army was likely several hundred thousand. The Neo-Assyrian army was subdivided into

3856:

previous civilizations in both northern and southern Mesopotamia ascribed to Enlil. The development of equating Ashur with Enlil, or at least transferring Enlil's role to Ashur, was paralleled in Babylon, where the previously unimportant local god

4059: 938:

Assyria continued to be employed by subsequent empires and states for centuries. Ancient Assyria also left a legacy of great cultural significance, particularly through the Neo-Assyrian Empire making a prominent impression in later Assyrian,

2793:

are better attested historically than queens of preceding periods of the culture. Under the Sargonid dynasty, they were granted their own military units, sometimes they are known to have partaken alongside other units in military campaigns.

4083:

determined that the text could be considered valid in Catholicism as well, despite the absence of the words. Some efforts have also been made to approach reunification of the Assyrian and Chaldean churches. In 1996, Dinkha IV and Patriarch

3240:

by the imperial administration. During the time after the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the old Assyrian language was completely abandoned in Mesopotamia in favor of Aramaic. By 500 BC, Akkadian was probably no longer a spoken language.

1625:, collecting tribute from various kingdoms on the way. A significant development during Ashurnasirpal II's reign was the second attempt to transfer the Assyrian capital away from Assur. Ashurnasirpal restored the ancient and ruined town of 1871:

continued to survive for centuries. Despite the loss of political power, the Assyrians continued to constitute a significant portion of the population in northern Mesopotamia until religiously motivated suppression and massacres under the

1440:. Assyria's rise was intertwined with the decline and fall of the Mitanni kingdom, its former suzerain, which allowed the early Middle Assyrian kings to expand and consolidate territories in northern Mesopotamia. Under the warrior-kings 3819:). In documents from the preceding Old Assyrian period, the city and god are often not clearly differentiated, which suggests that Ashur originated sometime in the Early Assyrian period as a deified personification of the city itself. 3687:, a genre of texts recording the events of the reigns of a king, particularly military exploits. Annals were disseminated throughout the empire and probably served propagandistic purposes, supporting the legitimacy of the king's rule. 3320:. Floors in locations that were exposed to the elements, such as outside on terraces or in courtyards, were paved with stone slabs or backed bricks. Roofs, particularly in larger rooms, were supported through the use of wooden beams. 1697:

in 706 BC and the year after, Sennacherib transferred the capital to Nineveh, which he ambitiously expanded and renovated, and might even have built the hanging gardens there, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The 671 BC

2293:

The elite of the Neo-Assyrian Empire was expanded and included several different offices. The Neo-Assyrian inner elite is typically divided by modern scholars into the "magnates", a set of high-ranking offices, and the "scholars"

2278:

the most important offices within the government and they were likely descendants of the most prominent families of the Old Assyrian period. One of the most influential offices in the Assyrian administration was the position of

2707:

in Assyrian texts are described as handling property and carrying out administrative tasks on behalf of their masters, many may have in actuality been free servants and not slaves in the common meaning of the term. A number of

1037:. Following the decline of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the subsequent empires that held dominion over the Assyrian lands adopted distinct appellations for the region, with a significant portion of these names also being rooted in 3632:

Ancient Assyrian literature drew heavily on Babylonian literary traditions. Both the Old and Middle Assyrian periods are limited in terms of surviving literary texts. The most important surviving Old Assyrian literary work is

2652:("small") members of the city assembly. Assyrian society grew more complex and hierarchical over time. In the Middle Assyrian Empire, there were several groups among the lower classes, the highest of which were the free men ( 1579:

934–912 BC), who campaigned in the northeast and northwest, Assyrian decline was at last reversed, paving the way for grander efforts under his successors. The end of his reign conventionally marks the beginning of the

1022:", scholars have been examining since the 17th century whether the two terms are connected. And because, in sources predating the Greek ones, the shortened form "Syria" is attested as a synonym for Assyria, notably in 3461: 2922:

only in terms of their behavior, as lacking correct religious practices, and as doing wrongdoings against Assyria. All things considered, there does not appear to have been any well-developed concepts of ethnicity or

2589:). The infantry was divided into three types: light, medium and heavy, with varying weapons, level of armor and responsibilities. While on campaign, the Assyrian army made heavy use of both interpreters/translators ( 2656:), who like the upper classes could receive land in exchange for performing duties for the government, but who could not live on these lands since they were comparably small. Below the free men were the unfree men ( 1629:, also located in the Assyrian heartland, and in 879 BC designated that city as the new capital of the empire. Though no longer the political capital, Assur remained the ceremonial and religious center of Assyria. 2014:("strong king"). Adad-nirari I's inscriptions required 32 lines to be devoted just to his titles. This development peaked under Tukulti-Ninurta I, who assumed, among other titles, the styles "king of Assyria and 2918:

artwork of warfare frequently describe and depict foreign enemies, they are not depicted with different physical features, but rather with different clothing and equipment. Assyrian accounts describe enemies as

2774:

Not all laws were suppressive against women; women whose husbands died or were taken prisoner in war, and who did not have any sons or relatives to support them, were guaranteed support from the government. The

3692: 3579: 1304:. At some point, the city returned to being an independent city-state, though the politics of Assur itself were volatile as well, with fighting between members of Shamshi-Adad's dynasty, native Assyrians and 2779:

women have historically been believed to have been prostitutes, but today, are interpreted as women with an independent social existence, i.e. not tied to a husband, father, or institution. Although most

1816:

Under the empires succeeding the Neo-Babylonians, from the late 6th century BC onward, Assyria began to experience a recovery. Under the Achaemenids, most of the territory was organized into the province

4026:

Though these churches have been distinct for centuries, they still follow much of the same liturgical, spiritual and theological foundation. There are also Assyrian followers of various denominations of

3501: 2695:, indicating that ethnicity was not seen as very important in terms of slavery. The surviving evidence suggests that the number of slaves in Assyria never reached a large share of the population. In the 3675:

performed by their diviners as enough and wished to have access to the relevant texts themselves. The office of chief scholar is first attested in the reign of the Neo-Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta II.

104: 3421: 3035:

was sometimes employed in Syriac writings as a term for enemies of Christians. In this context, the term was sometimes applied to the Persians of the Sasanian Empire; the 4th-century Syriac writer

3359:

Sumerian figures. Because of variation in artwork elsewhere, the artwork of early Assur was also highly variable depending on the time period, ranging from highly stylized to highly naturalistic.

8428:

Chavalas, Mark (1994). "Genealogical History as "Charter": A Study of Old Babylonian Period Historiography and the Old Testament". In Millard, A. R.; Hoffmeier, James K.; Baker, David W. (eds.).

2928:

well as royal Assyrian policies enacted to encourage assimilation and cultural mixture, is Sargon II's account of the construction of Dur-Sharrukin. One of the passages of the inscription reads:

3366:. This head is typical of the art style of the Akkadian period, with an overall naturalistic style, smooth and soft curves and a full mouth. Another unique art piece from the early period is an 1829:, which controlled Mesopotamia from the late 4th to mid-2nd century BC, Assyrian sites such as Assur, Nimrud and Nineveh were resettled and a large number of villages were rebuilt and expanded. 910:

invested few resources in rebuilding it, ancient Assyrian culture and traditions continued to survive for centuries throughout the post-imperial period. Assyria experienced a recovery under the

3274:. At the height of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, various other local languages were also spoken within the imperial borders, though none achieved the same level of official recognition as Aramaic. 3912:

800 years prior. The ancient Mesopotamian religion persisted in some places for centuries after the end of the post-imperial period, such as at Harran until at least the 10th century (the

13838: 13833: 2557:). Chariots first entered extensive military use under Tiglath-Pileser I in the 12th–11th centuries BC and were in the later Neo-Assyrian period gradually phased out in favor of cavalry ( 11517: 2371: 11471: 3517: 3872:(studying the entrails of dead animals) were important parts of the Assyrian religion since they were believed to be means through which deities communicated with the mortal world. 11487: 1887:

In the late 19th and early 20th century, when the Ottomans grew increasingly nationalistic, further persecutions and massacres were enacted against the Assyrians, most notably the

2703:, though this term could confusingly also be used for (free) official servants, retainers and followers, soldiers and subjects of the king. Because many individuals designated as 1355:

in the 14th century BC effectively crippled the Mitanni kingdom. After his invasion, Assyria succeeded in freeing itself from its suzerain, achieving independence once more under

8784:

Garfinkle, Steven J. (2007). "The Assyrians: A New Look at an Ancient Power". In Rubio, Gonzalo; Garfinkle, Steven J.; Beckman, Gary; Snell, Daniel C.; Chavalas, Mark W. (eds.).

3533: 1249:, the earliest known such experiment in world history, which left the initiative for trade and large-scale foreign transactions entirely to the populace rather than the state. 9007:

Kalimi, Isaac; Richardson, Seth (2014). "Sennacherib at the Gates of Jerusalem: Story, History and Historiography: An Introduction". In Kalimi, Isaac; Richardson, Seth (eds.).

2101:

1233 BC inaugurated Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta as capital. Tukulti-Ninurta I's foundation of a new capital was perhaps inspired by developments in Babylonia in the south, where the

9686:

Radner, Karen (2021). "Diglossia and the Neo-Assyrian Empire's Akkadian and Aramaic Text Production". In Jonker, Louis C.; Berlejung, Angelika & Cornelius, Izak (eds.).

1801:

founded by Nabopolassar; the former Assyrian capital cities Assur, Nimrud and Nineveh were nearly completely abandoned. Throughout the time of the Neo-Babylonian and later

12996: 9649: 9329: 3663: 1493:

1237 BC, which marked the beginning of the end of Hittite influence in northern Mesopotamia, and his temporary conquest of Babylonia, which became an Assyrian vassal

2847:

bankers. Because of the extensive cuneiform records known from the period, details of the trade are relatively well-known. It has been estimated that just in the period

11492: 11485: 3908:. Worship of Ashur during this time was carried out in the same way as it had been in ancient times, per a cultic calendar effectively identical to that used under the 2869:

were owned by the state, there also continued to be a vibrant private economic sector within the empire, with property rights of individuals ensured by the government.

2428:) who oversaw one or more villages, collecting taxes in the form of labor and goods and keeping the administration informed of the conditions of their settlements, and 11506: 9597:

Payne, Richard (2012). "Avoiding Ethnicity: Uses of the Ancient Past in Late Sasanian Northern Mesopotamia". In Pohl, Walter; Gantner, Clemens; Payne, Richard (eds.).

3015:) were however used in several senses in pre-modern times; most notably being used for the ancient Assyrians and for the land surrounding Nineveh (and for the city of 2629:

The majority of the population of ancient Assyria were farmers who worked land owned by their families. Old Assyrian society was divided into two main groups: slaves (

1253:

trade network are large collections of Old Assyrian cuneiform tablets from Assyrian trade colonies, the most notable of which is a set of 22,000 clay tablets found at

644: 630: 605: 1774: 898:

The Neo-Assyrian Empire fell in the late 7th century BC, conquered by a coalition of the Babylonians, who had lived under Assyrian rule for about a century, and the

879:

in the early 14th century BC as the Middle Assyrian Empire. In the Middle and Neo-Assyrian periods Assyria was one of the two major Mesopotamian kingdoms, alongside

11493: 2549:). The chariots in the army composed a unit of their own. Based on surviving depictions, chariots were crewed by two soldiers: an archer who commanded the chariot ( 1621:

883–859 BC), the Neo-Assyrian Empire became the dominant political power in the Near East. In his ninth campaign, Ashurnasirpal II marched to the coast of the

1693:

705–681 BC), the empire was further expanded and the gains were consolidated. Both kings founded new capitals. Sargon II moved the capital to the new city of

3545: 1897:

have been made by the Assyrians for autonomy or independence. Further massacres and persecutions, enacted both by governments and by terrorist groups such as the

1003:("governor"). From the time of Assyria's rise as a territorial state, Ashur began to be regarded as an embodiment of the entire land ruled by the Assyrian kings. 8545: 4241:; a term of uncertain implications used to refer to both peoples and geographical locations (not necessarily synonymous with the formal satrapies of the empire). 4038:

Because the Assyrian Church of the East remains dismissed as "Nestorian" and heretical by many other branches of Christianity, it has not been admitted into the

3288: 2239: 11532: 1553:

1114–1076 BC) worked to reverse the decline and made significant conquests, their conquests were ephemeral and shaky, quickly lost again. From the time of

1098: 9504:

The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 3 Part 2: The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and Other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries BC

3635: 2259: 2852:

colonists came from far-away places; the textiles sold by Assyrians in Anatolia were imported from southern Mesopotamia and the tin came from the east in the

1281:. Shamshi-Adad's extensive conquests in northern Mesopotamia eventually made him the ruler of the entire region, founding what some scholars have termed the " 12472: 3690:

Various purely literary works, previously aligned by scholars with propaganda, are known from the Neo-Assyrian period. Such works include, among others, the

2436:) who kept tallies on the labor performed by forced laborers and the remaining time owed. Individual cities had their own administrations, headed by mayors ( 9190: 887:. Assyria was at its strongest in the Neo-Assyrian period, when the Assyrian army was the strongest military power in the world and the Assyrians ruled the 10235: 10169: 3114:

are the predominant self-designations used by Assyrians in their native language, though they are typically translated as "Assyrian" rather than "Syrian".

2933:

Assyrians, experienced in all professions, I set above them as supervisors and guides to teach them how to work properly and respect the gods and the king.

2412:). The total number and size of these provinces varied and changed as Assyria expanded and contracted. Every province was headed by a provincial governor ( 2254: 13025: 11479: 8665: 2392: 2353:

officials also held substantial executive power, though this aspect of the office had disappeared by the time of the rise of the Middle Assyrian Empire.

875:

in northern Mesopotamia, Assyrian power fluctuated over time. The city underwent several periods of foreign rule or domination before Assyria rose under

11462: 3449: 13295: 11518: 10828: 10023:

The Construction of the Assyrian Empire: A Historical Study of the Inscriptions of Shalmanesar III (859–824 B.C.) Relating to His Campaigns to the West

3995:

Though Christianity is today an intrinsic part of Assyrian identity, Assyrian Christians have over the centuries splintered into a number of different

2078: 1292:

After Shamshi-Adad's death, the political situation in northern Mesopotamia was highly volatile, with Assur at times coming under the brief control of

11481: 9480:

Novák, Mirko (2016). "Assyrians and Arameans: Modes of Cohabitation and Acculuration at Guzana (Tell Halaf)". In Aruz, Joan; Seymour, Michael (eds.).

11004: 3312:

In order to support large buildings, they were often built on top of foundation platforms or on mud brick foundations. Floors were typically made of

1979:

Assur first experienced a more autocratic form of kingship under the Amorite conqueror Shamshi-Adad I, the earliest ruler of Assur to use the style

1369:

1363–1328 BC) whose rise to power, independence, and conquests of neighboring territory traditionally marks the rise of the Middle Assyrian Empire (

12909: 11580: 11490: 9973: 9868:"The Land of Syria in the Late Seventeenth Century: ʿAbd al-Ghani al-Nabulusi and Linking City and Countryside through Study, Travel, and Worship" 3362:

Among the most unique finds from the Early period is the head of a woman of which her eyes, eyebrows, and elaborate hair covering were originally

2345:

official gave their name to the year, meaning that their name appeared in all administrative documents signed that year. Kings were typically the

1797:

AD 240) and beyond. The Assyrian heartland experienced a dramatic decrease in the size and number of inhabited settlements during the rule of the

9426:(2021). "Syriac literature and Muslim-Christian relations under the Ottomans, 16th-19th centuries". In Thomas, David; Chesworth, John A. (eds.). 3704: 3698: 3236:

lingua franca of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, with Neo-Assyrian and other forms of Akkadian becoming relegated to a language of the political elite.

2455: 1741: 903: 11478: 3489: 1880:

in the 14th century, which relegated them to a local ethnic and religious minority. The Assyrians lived largely in peace under the rule of the

1094: 8845:

Haider, Peter W. (2008). "Tradition and change in the beliefs at Assur, Nineveh and Nisibis between 300 BC and AD 300". In Kaizer, Ted (ed.).

1092: 11515: 2995:

In pre-modern Syriac-language (the type of Aramaic used in Christian Mesopotamian writings) sources, the typical self-designations used are

1966:"), with Ashur being considered the city's formal king. That the populace of Assur in the Old Assyrian period often referred to the king as 1096: 11505: 9084:

Ancient Egyptian and Ancient Near Eastern Palaces. Volume II: Proceedings of a workshop held at the 10th ICAANE in Vienna, 25–26 April 2016

2376: 11508: 11488: 3270:

Another language sometimes used in ancient Assyria as a language of scholarship and culture, though only in written form, was the ancient

1497:

1225–1216 BC. Tukulti-Ninurta was also the first Assyrian king to try to move the capital away from Assur, inaugurating the new city

11513: 11509: 11474: 11441: 10823: 3956:

The Church of the East developed early in Christian history. Though tradition holds that Christianity was first spread to Mesopotamia by

3708:. In addition to their own works, the Assyrians copied and preserved earlier Mesopotamian literature. The inclusion of texts such as the 3651:, swears by Ishtar, the "lady of combat", and speaks with the gods. Surviving Middle Assyrian literature is only slightly more diverse. 3309:

was also used, though primarily only in works such as aqueducts and river walls, exposed to running water, and defensive fortifications.

2771:

women, were prohibited from wearing veils and others, such as certain priestesses, were only allowed to wear veils if they were married.

2492: 2380: 970:"). From the time of its rise as a territorial state in the 14th century BC and onward, Assyria was referred to in official documents as 11469: 11468: 3826:

was for instance regarded as a god of justice and Ishtar was seen as a goddess of love and war) and their own primary seats of worship (

3401:; four-sided stone stelae decorated all around with both images and text. Obelisks saw continued use until at least the 9th century BC. 3342: 2683:

Slavery was an intrinsic part of nearly every society in the ancient Near East. There were two main types of slaves in ancient Assyria:

2564:

Under the Neo-Assyrian Empire, important new developments in the military were the large-scale introduction of cavalry, the adoption of

2537:("shield-bearing troops") but surviving records are not detailed enough to determine what the differences were. It is possible that the 2238:

890–884 BC), perhaps inspired by his predecessor of the same name, made unfulfilled plans to transfer the capital to a city called

1093: 11482: 8334: 4080: 1285:". The survival of this realm relied chiefly on Shamshi-Adad's own strength and charisma and it thus collapsed shortly after his death 8502:

Donabed, Sargon George (2019). "Persistent Perseverence: A Trajectory of Assyrian History in the Modern Age". In Rowe, Paul S. (ed.).

1095: 13843: 12913: 12364: 11619: 11510: 3031:

as a self-designation could perhaps be explained by the Assyrians described in the Bible being prominent enemies of Israel; the term

2037: 1902: 1184:

2600–2025 BC), Assur was dominated by states and polities from southern Mesopotamia. Early on, Assur for a time fell under the loose

1030:

texts from the time of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, modern scholars overwhelmingly support the conclusion that the names are connected.

13285: 11519: 10879: 10228: 2396: 1323:

Assyria's rise as a territorial state in later times was in large part facilitated by two separate invasions of Mesopotamia by the

11523: 3822:

Below Ashur, the other Mesopotamian deities were organized in a hierarchy, with each having their own assigned roles (the sun-god

1893:(Assyrian genocide), which resulted in the deaths of as many as 250,000 Assyrians. Throughout the 20th century, many unsuccessful 11797: 11499: 11498: 10440: 9638: 3639:, a text found in a well-preserved version on a cuneiform tablet from Kültepe. Once thought to have been a parody, the tale is a 1894: 11514: 11464: 1606:

Through decades of conquests, the early Neo-Assyrian kings worked to retake the lands of the Middle Assyrian Empire. Since this

12112: 12106: 9639:"Royal pen pals: the kings of Assyria in correspondence with officials, clients and total strangers (8th and 7th centuries BC)" 4195:

but Assur was not independent during this time and distinct Assyrian cultural and religious practices had not yet fully formed.

1970:("great one") clearly indicates that the kings, despite their limited executive power, were seen as royal figures and as being 1805:, Assyria remained a marginal and sparsely populated region. Toward the end of the 6th century BC, the Assyrian dialect of the 11502: 11501: 11500: 11494: 10143: 3181:. Though both were written with cuneiform script, the signs look quite different and can be distinguished relatively easily. 922:, which sacked numerous cities and semi independent Assyrian territories in the region, including Assur itself. The remaining 13808: 12601: 11504: 11463: 10997: 8774: 8557: 8492: 8397: 8260: 3830:

was for instance primarily worshipped at Nimrud and Ishtar primarily at Arbela). Quintessentially Babylonian deities such as

2887: 12579: 11522: 11503: 10100: 4088:

of the Chaldean Church signed a list of common proposals to move toward unity, approved by synods of both churches in 1997.

1849:. Though in some aspects influenced by Assyrian culture, these states were for the most part not ruled by Assyrian rulers. 1760:

in the west but he was defeated in 609 BC, marking the end of the ancient line of Assyrian kings and of Assyria as a state.

1432:("king"). Shortly after achieving independence, he further claimed the dignity of a great king on the level of the Egyptian 13037: 12944: 11573: 11497: 11496: 11484: 3370:

figurine of a nude woman, and fragments of at least five additional similar figurines. The ivory used might have come from

1148:

6300–5800 BC. Though the sites of some nearby cities that would later be incorporated into the Assyrian heartland, such as

1486:

brought the Middle Assyrian Empire to its greatest extent. His most notable military achievements were his victory at the

13813: 12939: 12447: 11528: 11060: 10570: 10221: 4103: 3356: 2475:

was introduced by the Ottoman Empire in 1865, nearly two and a half thousand years after the Neo-Assyrian Empire's fall.

1161: 11495: 2835: 2510:("king's unit"). Some professional (though not standing) troops are also attested in the Middle Assyrian period, dubbed 778: 59: 13290: 13206: 12929: 12894: 12124: 10061: 9995: 9967: 9930: 9900: 9879: 9791: 9735: 9695: 9627: 9608: 9512: 9491: 9437: 9395: 9318: 9225: 9099: 9022: 8976: 8937: 8916: 8856: 8835: 8814: 8793: 8737: 8716: 8687: 8645: 8578: 8534: 8513: 8460: 8323: 8302: 8281: 8241: 8174: 8110: 934:

persisted at Assur until its final sack in the 3rd century AD, and at certain other holdouts for centuries thereafter.

3324:

features of ancient Assyrian architecture. Some examples of features of ancient Assyrian architecture include stepped

2529:

The Assyrian army developed and evolved over time. In the Middle Assyrian period, foot soldiers were divided into the

1282: 13334: 10297: 10031: 9830: 9533: 9341: 9206: 9043: 8997: 8877: 8806:

Let Them Not Return: Sayfo – The Genocide Against the Assyrian, Syriac, and Chaldean Christians in the Ottoman Empire

8439: 8418: 2790: 2518:, though what their role was is not clear due to the scarcity of sources. Perhaps this category included archers and 1837:

the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The region was under the Parthians primarily ruled by a group of vassal kingdoms, including

11650: 11527: 11511: 11466: 11465: 9038:. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago Assyriological Studies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2763:

The status of women decreased in the Middle Assyrian period, as can be gathered from laws concerning them among the

13422: 13407: 13003: 12991: 12506: 10990: 10961: 9705:

Reade, Julian (2011). "The Evolution of Assyrian Imperial Architecture: Political Implications and Uncertainties".

8568: 3842:

were worshipped in Assyria just as much as in Babylonia, and several traditionally Babylonian rituals, such as the

3508: 11467: 10119: 9033: 2506:

Middle Assyrian period. A small central standing army unit was established in the Neo-Assyrian Empire, dubbed the

1789:

Despite the violent downfall of the Assyrian Empire, Assyrian culture continued to survive through the subsequent

13280: 13266: 13018: 12668: 11792: 11566: 11434: 9726:

de Ridder, Jacob Jan (2017). "Slavery in Old Assyrian Documents". In Kulakoğlu, Fikri; Barjamovic, Gojko (eds.).

4039: 3405:

temples and palaces. Another well-known form of Neo-Assyrian art are colossi, often human-headed lions or bulls (

1140:

Agricultural villages in the region that would later become Assyria are known to have existed by the time of the

3381:

Several other new artistic innovations were also made in the Middle Assyrian period. In the temple dedicated to

13848: 12884: 12187: 12172: 12154: 12130: 12035: 11860: 11530: 11491: 10874: 10858: 9502: 9082:

Kertai, David (2019). "The Throne Room of Assyria". In Bietak, Manfred; Matthiae, Paolo; Prell, Silvia (eds.).

4123: 3043:, mother of corruption". In a similar fashion, the term was also sometimes applied to the later Muslim rulers. 2073: 1116: 11525: 2451:, the Assyrian kings could also grant arable lands to individuals in exchange for goods and military service. 2105:

had transferred the administration from the long-established city of Babylon to the newly constructed city of

1778:

Detail of a stele in the style of the Neo-Assyrian royal steles, erected in Assur in the 2nd century AD under

12041: 12002: 11916: 11787: 11529: 11526: 11486: 10900: 3888:, a vassal kingdom covering much of the old Assyrian heartland, converted to Judaism in the 1st century AD. 3752: 1868: 1809:

went extinct, having toward the end of the Neo-Assyrian Empire already largely been replaced by Aramaic as a

931: 236: 8588:

Eppihimer, Melissa (2013). "Representing Ashur: The Old Assyrian Rulers' Seals and Their Ur III Prototype".

2839:

Old Assyrian cuneiform tablet from Kültepe recording the repayment of a loan, impressed with four different

2298:), tasked with advising and guiding the kings through interpreting omens. The magnates included the offices 1602:

745–727 BC, under whom the Neo-Assyrian Empire was consolidated, centralized and significantly expanded

13798: 13030: 12526: 12501: 12437: 12201: 11516: 11512: 11394: 10910: 10645: 9872:

Grounded Identities: Territory and Belonging in the Medieval and Early Modern Middle East and Mediterranean

9581: 4153: 4044:

Joint International Commission for Theological Dialogue Between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church

3880:, with many Greek deities becoming syncretized with Mesopotamian deities. There was also some influence of 3355:

figures of male and female worshippers from Assur before the rise of the Akkadian Empire greatly resembles

3738:

in the Library of Ashurbanipal is the primary reason for how such texts have survived to the present day.

3023:

is also used to refer to the ancient Assyrian Empire. In the sense of a citizen of Mosul, the designation

2454:

To overcome the challenges of governing a large empire, the Neo-Assyrian Empire developed a sophisticated

2362: 13579: 13344: 13307: 13239: 13008: 12511: 12457: 12320: 12018: 11737: 11712: 11706: 11629: 10966: 10848: 10843: 10778: 10454: 8869:

Assyrian Origins: Discoveries at Ashur on the Tigris: Antiquities in the Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin

4305: 4000: 3949: 3283: 2924: 11521: 11507: 9950: 9688:

Multilingualism in Ancient Contexts: Perspectives from Ancient Near Eastern and Early Christian Contexts

8233:

Revival and Awakening: American Evangelical Missionaries in Iran and the Origins of Assyrian Nationalism

2752:

Wives were expected to provide their husbands with garments and food. Although marriages were typically

2484: 1954:, where the king was a permanent, albeit not the only prominent, actor. The Old Assyrian kings were not 1482:

1243–1207 BC), Assyria began to realize its aspirations of becoming a significant regional power.

13803: 13757: 13432: 13412: 13254: 13244: 13234: 12934: 12924: 12703: 12521: 11743: 11547: 11427: 10971: 10580: 4138: 4020: 3603: 3561: 2218: 2115: 1749: 1699: 12166: 11480: 11475: 11473: 9543:

Parker, Bradley J. (2011). "The Construction and Performance of Kingship in the Neo-Assyrian Empire".

3267:, a codified version of classical Aramaic as spoken at Edessa during the Christianization of Assyria. 2676:, though what these designations meant in terms of social standing and living standards is not known. 13384: 13229: 12799: 12594: 11520: 10655: 10470: 10186: 9423: 8908:

Islamic Manuscripts of Late Medieval Rum, 1270s–1370s: Production, Patronage and the Arts of the Book

4079:, seen as indispensable by the Catholic Church. This obstacle was removed in 2001, when the Catholic 4067: 4032: 3586: 3328:, vaulted roofs, and palaces to a large degree often being made up of sets of self-contained suites. 3138: 2621: 9582:"National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Times" 2366: 1860:

240. During the sack, the Ashur temple was destroyed again and the city's population was dispersed.

974:("land of Ashur"), marking its shift to being a regional polity. The first attested use of the term 13471: 13442: 13086: 12442: 11980: 11731: 11483: 11476: 10610: 10252: 10207: 4113: 4008: 1514: 1086: 747: 24: 11639: 3661:(a narrative of the reign of Tukulti-Ninurta I and his exploits), fragments of other royal epics, 2488: 13853: 13828: 13823: 13818: 13793: 13699: 13447: 13111: 12844: 12531: 12065: 12053: 11926: 11825: 11145: 10920: 10853: 10747: 10600: 10518: 10513: 10178: 9671:"Last Emperor or Crown Prince Forever? Aššur-uballiṭ II of Assyria according to Archival Sources" 9600:

Visions of Community in the Post-Roman World: The West, Byzantium and the Islamic World, 300–1100

9388:

Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene: Three Regna Minora of Northern Mesopotamia Between East and West

4158: 4060:

Common Christological Declaration Between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East

3680: 3620: 3346:

A 20th-century illustration of decorative patterns found in ancient Assyrian reliefs and garments

2097:

The first transfer of administrative power away from Assur occurred under Tukulti-Ninurta I, who

2019: 30:"Assyrian Empire" redirects here. For the most powerful stage of the ancient Assyrian state, see 11489: 11472: 9867: 8091: 4222: 3647:, the founder of the Akkadian Empire. The text follows Sargon as he gains strength from the god 13402: 13261: 13131: 13106: 12976: 12728: 12286: 11898: 11700: 11694: 11602:

with various additional/alternate self-identifications, such as Syriacs, Arameans, or Chaldeans

11524: 10951: 10803: 10562: 9429:

Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History Volume 18. The Ottoman Empire (1800–1914)

4108: 4016: 4012: 3996: 3877: 3640: 2561:). In the Middle Assyrian period, cavalry was mainly used for escorting or message deliveries. 1919: 1610:

had to begin nearly from scratch, its eventual success was an extraordinary achievement. Under

1415: 1382: 1347:

1430 BC, Assur was subjugated by Mitanni, an arrangement that lasted for about 70 years, until

987: 836: 761: 703: 518: 253: 11802: 8251:

Bedford, Peter R. (2009). "The Neo-Assyrian Empire". In Morris, Ian; Scheidel, Walter (eds.).

2335:

From the time of Erishum I in the early Old Assyrian period onward, a yearly office-holder, a

1644:

political power rather than the king. This time of stagnation came to an end with the rise of

86: 13767: 13506: 13374: 12986: 12859: 12838: 12758: 12718: 12609: 11910: 11886: 11312: 10620: 10011: 4209: 4192: 3027:

were used for some individuals in the pre-modern period. The reluctance of Christians to use

2957: 1798: 1790: 1769: 1301: 1177: 1107: 907: 848: 820: 726: 677: 623: 547: 8956:

Jakob, Stefan (2017b). "Economy, Society, and Daily Life in the Middle Assyrian Period". In

8349: 3397:

1074–1056 BC). An entirely new type of monument introduced in the 11th century BC were

13601: 13483: 13417: 13379: 13275: 13201: 13196: 13121: 12969: 12587: 12493: 12479: 12427: 12402: 12392: 12382: 12377: 12372: 12136: 11830: 11470: 10838: 10798: 10277: 4148: 4118: 4076: 3657: 3615: 2823:

811–783 BC) might have been regent and participated in military campaigns. Another is

2764: 1984: 1950:

In the Assur city-state of the Old Assyrian period, the government was in many respects an

11661: 8848:

The Variety of Local Religious Life in the Near East: In the Hellenistic and Roman Periods

4287:

This phenomenon does not only apply to the Assyrians; the Christian Greek populace of the

2756:, husbands were allowed to buy a female slave in order to produce an heir if his wife was 2227:

The Neo-Assyrian Empire underwent several different capitals. There is some evidence that

8: 13543: 13501: 13427: 13302: 13224: 12753: 12723: 12708: 12568: 12452: 12422: 12417: 12412: 12397: 12315: 12077: 11986: 11904: 11892: 11840: 11835: 11675: 11655: 11614: 11477: 11348: 11293: 11207: 11114: 11092: 10925: 10833: 10808: 10615: 10590: 4295:) rather than Greeks since the term "Greek" was associated with the ancient Pagan Greeks. 4205: 4188: 3966: 3960:, the exact timespan when the Assyrians were first Christianized is unknown. The city of 3909: 3260: 3166: 3143: 2882: 2866: 2384: 2129: 2031: 1645: 1592: 1581: 1498: 1419: 1386: 1220: 1197: 1111: 955: 939: 864: 863:

2600 BC but there is no evidence that the city was independent until the collapse of the

844: 828: 716: 690: 610: 534: 502: 393: 139: 110: 31: 9728:

Subartu XXXIX: Kültepe International Meetings, Vol. II: Movement, Resources, Interaction

8655:

Fincke, Jeanette C. "Assyrian Scholarship and Scribal Culture in Kalḫu and Nineveh". In

3090:, consistently referring to the Aramaic-speaking Christians of Mesopotamia and Syria as 13674: 13669: 13654: 13616: 13591: 13528: 13389: 13324: 12959: 12768: 12683: 12467: 12387: 12308: 12281: 11998: 11624: 11056: 10915: 10884: 10783: 10630: 10547: 9770: 9762: 9568: 9560: 9468: 9374: 9286: 9278: 9177: 9169: 9134: 9113: 9105: 9070: 8693: 8613: 8605: 8431:

Faith, Tradition, and History: Old Testament Historiography in Its Near Eastern Context

8218: 8210: 8151: 8087: 4072: 3974: 3957: 3935: 3337: 2466:, an official message sent in the Neo-Assyrian period from the western border province 2228: 1972: 1818: 1335:

1595 BC destroyed the dominant Old Babylonian Empire, allowing the smaller kingdoms of

872: 13516: 9125:

Kletter, Raz; Zwickel, Wolfgang (2006). "The Assyrian Building of ʿAyyelet ha-Šaḥar".

3655:

knowledge as a way to strengthen their power. Known Middle Assyrian works include the

2827:, who influenced politics in the reigns of Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Ashurbanipal. 2577:, composed of perhaps 1,000 soldiers, most of whom would have been infantry soldiers ( 1033:

Both "Assyria" and the contraction, "Syria," are ultimately derived from the Akkadian

783: 768: 64: 49: 19:

This article is about ancient Assyria. For its geographic and cultural heartland, see

13743: 13694: 13659: 13496: 13437: 13339: 13249: 13219: 13214: 13081: 13076: 13060: 12949: 12889: 12809: 12804: 12713: 12462: 12432: 12259: 12210: 12196: 12047: 11850: 11451: 11339: 11329: 10905: 10762: 10757: 10742: 10677: 10595: 10552: 10272: 10267: 10163: 10057: 10027: 9991: 9963: 9926: 9896: 9875: 9841: 9826: 9787: 9774: 9731: 9714: 9691: 9623: 9604: 9572: 9529: 9508: 9487: 9472: 9433: 9391: 9337: 9314: 9290: 9221: 9202: 9181: 9117: 9095: 9074: 9039: 9018: 8993: 8972: 8933: 8912: 8873: 8852: 8831: 8810: 8789: 8770: 8733: 8712: 8697: 8683: 8641: 8617: 8574: 8553: 8530: 8509: 8488: 8456: 8435: 8414: 8393: 8365: 8319: 8298: 8277: 8256: 8237: 8222: 8170: 8156: 8143: 8106: 8082: 8065: 4098: 4085: 4051: 3710: 3625: 3468: 3271: 3154: 3133: 3079: 3062:("Assyrian"), which was sometimes even in ancient times rendered in the shorter form 3058:, sometimes translated as "Syrian", is believed to be derived from the Akkadian term 3036: 2696: 2023: 1806: 1802: 1622: 1543: 1532: 1487: 1469: 1340: 1204:

2025 BC, due to the collapse of the Third Dynasty of Ur, Assur became an independent

1054: 1042: 884: 773: 369: 357: 218: 213: 54: 20: 11419: 10080: 9378: 3940: 3788: 3777: 1352: 13788: 13586: 13521: 13511: 13185: 13166: 13161: 13156: 13096: 13071: 12407: 11992: 11845: 11817: 11723: 11686: 11389: 10818: 10813: 10717: 10712: 10707: 10697: 10692: 10682: 10498: 10355: 10340: 10324: 10319: 10314: 10292: 9754: 9552: 9460: 9364: 9298:

Luukko, Mikko; Van Buylaere, Greta. "Languages and Writing Systems in Assyria". In

9270: 9159: 9087: 9062: 9014: 8947:

Jakob, Stefan (2017a). "The Middle Assyrian Period (14th to 11th Century BCE)". In

8675: 8597: 8202: 8138: 8133: 8121: 8077: 4288: 4163: 3913: 3766: 3317: 2853: 2611: 2497: 2042: 1753: 1668: 1611: 1010:). The term's first attested use is during the time of the ancient Greek historian 804:

from the 21st century BC to the 14th century BC, which eventually expanded into an

441: 381: 12345: 9414:

Michel, Cécile. "Economy, Society, and Daily Life in the Old Assyrian Period". In

8788:. Publications of the Association of Ancient Historians. Claremont: Regina Books. 6395: 4065:

Historically, the main obstacle in the way of ecumenism has been the ancient text

13684: 13649: 13538: 13533: 13452: 13363: 13101: 12954: 12866: 12854: 12778: 12773: 12763: 12698: 12673: 12658: 12645: 12633: 12335: 12160: 11950: 11944: 11807: 11782: 11762: 11589: 11406: 11375: 11370: 11360: 11070: 10752: 10727: 10722: 10702: 10650: 10640: 10635: 10625: 10605: 10575: 10527: 10523: 10493: 10051: 10021: 9985: 9920: 9890: 9820: 9660:

Radner, Karen. "Economy, Society, and Daily Life in the Neo‐Assyrian Period". In

9598: 9556: 9523: 9481: 9464: 9427: 9308: 9008: 8987: 8966: 8927: 8906: 8867: 8846: 8825: 8804: 8727: 8706: 8669: 8635: 8544:

Drower, Margaret Stephana; Gray, Eric William; Sherwin-White, Susan Mary (2012).

8524: 8503: 8480: 8450: 8429: 8408: 8387: 8313: 8292: 8271: 8231: 8100: 4143: 3896: 3716: 3644: 3524: 3371: 3264: 3222: 3158: 2980: 2878: 2813: 2243: 2102: 1854: 1833: 1826: 1779: 1633: 1356: 1317: 1193: 1173: 1141: 1133: 1121: 1050: 1023: 979: 943: 923: 919: 915: 911: 876: 565: 341: 9334:

The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume I Part 2: Early History of the Middle East

9199:

The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume I Part 2: Early History of the Middle East

8671:

The Routledge Companion to Women and Monarchy in the Ancient Mediterranean World

3019:, built next to Nineveh's ruins). In Syriac translations of the Bible, the term 13664: 13639: 12919: 12849: 12556: 12215: 12142: 12118: 12006: 11777: 11772: 11344: 10732: 10006: 5640: 5638: 5636: 4304:

For alternate names and the name debate in the Syriac Christian community, see

3387: 3244: 3194: 2802: 2684: 2263: 1881: 1877: 1278: 1065:, which included much of the old Assyrian heartland, was also sometimes called 902:. Though the core urban territory of Assyria was extensively devastated in the 888: 309: 9766: 9236: 8989:

Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, its People and their Origins

8609: 8206: 3679:

Most of the surviving ancient Assyrian literature comes from the Neo-Assyrian

1783: 1568:

the reinvigorated Assyrian army to reconquer large parts of the empire. Under

13782: 13737: 13689: 13679: 13644: 13596: 13573: 13548: 13312: 13141: 13136: 13013: 12814: 12663: 12059: 11666: 11644: 11252: 11248: 11081: 10532: 10380: 10287: 9957: 9718: 9109: 8866:

Harper, Prudence O.; Klengel-Brandt, Evelyn; Aruz, Joan; Benzel, Kim (1995).

8679: 8147: 5762: 4028: 2840: 2569: 2523: 2459: 2286:). From at least the time of Shalmaneser I onward, there were grand viziers ( 2177: 2106: 2086: 1898: 1864: 1745: 1694: 1667:

The Neo-Assyrian Empire reached the height of its extent and power under the

1554: 1455: 1441: 1437: 1428:

Ashur-uballit I was the first native Assyrian ruler to claim the royal title

1209: 1019: 1015: 927: 892: 868: 637: 276: 175: 12325: 8929:

The World's Christians: Who They Are, Where They Are, and How They Got There

8410:

Ecumenism and Interreligious Dialogue: Unitatis Redintegratio, Nostra Aetate

5633: 4237:

by modern historians, Assyria appears in Achaemenid royal inscriptions as a

926:, who have survived in northern Mesopotamia to modern times, were gradually 855:

AD 240) periods, based on political events and gradual changes in language.

13563: 13329: 13126: 12834: 12829: 12819: 12653: 12083: 11385: 10537: 10350: 10282: 9274: 4380: 4128: 3973:

According to some traditions, Christianity took hold in Assyria when Saint

3892: 3552: 3313: 3198: 2985: 2892: 2463: 2027: 1997: 1729: 1717: 1569: 1189: 895:, spanning from parts of modern-day Iran in the east to Egypt in the west. 797: 429: 11172: 10982: 9091: 9066: 8369: 3922: 2739:

681–669 BC) and one of the most influential women in Assyrian history

2644:("sons of Ashur"). Among the free citizens there was also a division into 2015: 1215: 13747: 13709: 13558: 13394: 13319: 13116: 12678: 12330: 11968: 11962: 11599: 11214: 11102: 11052: 11014: 10956: 10946: 10737: 10669: 10542: 10430: 10244: 8122:"The Amarna diplomacy in IR perspective:a system of states in the making" 4262: 4133: 3988: 3798: 3756: 3440: 3256: 3153:

The ancient Assyrians primarily spoke and wrote the Assyrian language, a

3007:("Assyrian") rarely being used as a self-designation. The terms Assyria ( 2798: 2757: 2687:, primarily foreigners who were kidnapped or who were spoils of war, and 1963: 1943: 1683: 1518: 967: 794: 405: 109:

A map showing the ancient Assyrian heartland (red) and the extent of the

94: 9940:

Veenhof, Klaas R. "The Old Assyrian Period (20th–18th century BCE)". In

9564: 9282: 9261:

Llop, Jaume (2012). "The Development of the Middle Assyrian Provinces".

9138: 9010:

Sennacherib at the Gates of Jerusalem: Story, History and Historiography

8896:

Heeßel, Nils P. "Assyrian Scholarship and Scribal Culture in Ashur". In

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Frahm, Eckart (2017b). "The Neo-Assyrian Period (ca. 1000–609 BCE)". In

8214: 8193:

Bahrani, Zainab (2006). "Race and Ethnicity in Mesopotamian Antiquity".

867:

in the 21st century BC, when a line of independent kings beginning with

12824: 12296: 12291: 12089: 10488: 10483: 10127: 10041:

Yamada, Shiego. "The Transition Period (17th to 15th century BCE)". In

9369: 9352: 9173: 5437:

Dalley, Stephanie (2015). The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon.

4062:, with some further efforts also having been made in the years since. 4004: 3945: 3811: 3722: 3672: 2753: 2729: 2688: 2625:

Neo-Assyrian relief depicting some Assyrian individuals in a procession

2349:

officials in their first regnal years. In the Old Assyrian period, the

1924: 1810: 1703: 1587: 1246: 1205: 819:, modern historians typically divide ancient Assyrian history into the 812: 801: 456: 417: 10213: 10120:"Newly Digitised Manuscript Sheds Valuable Light on Assyrian Identity" 9987:

Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire 550–330 BCE

8253:

The Dynamics of Ancient Empires: State Power from Assyria to Byzantium

3201:, the Assyrians had much respect for Babylon and its ancient culture. 2973:

in 2008 (top) and an Assyrian woman celebrating Akitu in 2019 (bottom)

1863:

Starting from the 1st century AD onward, many of the Assyrians became

1396: 1254: 1224: 13634: 13606: 13553: 13091: 12783: 12743: 12516: 12350: 12230: 12071: 12012: 11264: 11234: 10793: 10478: 10365: 10302: 9353:"Images of the Kings of Adiabene: Numismatic and Sculptural Evidence" 9310:

The Construction of Equality: Syriac Immigration and the Swedish City

7377: 7375: 7373: 7360: 7358: 7271: 7269: 7267: 7265: 7263: 7235: 7233: 4055: 4047: 3869: 3864:(18th century BC) to the head of the pantheon, modelled after Enlil. 3861: 3352: 3306: 3146: 2919: 2906: 2824: 2725: 2472: 2388: 2308: 1955: 1951: 1929: 1873: 1672: 1661: 1328: 1274: 1232: 1153: 1058: 1011: 880: 293: 9925:. Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis. Göttingen: Academic Press Fribourg. 9670: 9448: 9164: 9147: 7691: 7689: 6494: 5738: 5535: 5533: 5531: 5529: 5527: 4007:", continues to exist, other prominent eastern churches include the 2946: 2429: 1422:(right) at their respective heights in the 13th and 7th centuries BC 1172:

The name "Assur" is first attested for the site in documents of the

1006:

The modern name "Assyria" is of Greek origin, derived from Ασσυρία (

13151: 12981: 12964: 12738: 12733: 12301: 12274: 12247: 12235: 12220: 11974: 11921: 11258: 11243: 11239: 11223: 11189: 11177: 11165: 11140: 10930: 10585: 10508: 10503: 10410: 10395: 10390: 10345: 9758: 9745:

Rollinger, Robert (2006). "The Terms "Assyria" and "Syria" Again".

9449:"Chronology and History in the Late Assyrian Empire (631—619 B.C.)" 8601: 8548:. In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). 8066:"Royal Gardens, Parks, and the Architecture Within: Assyrian Views" 6216: 5791: 5789: 5621: 4023:, which branched off from the Assyrian Church of the East in 1968. 3885: 3302: 3232: 2861: 1842: 1737: 1324: 1320:, which after his reign ruled Assyria for about a thousand years. 1309: 1305: 1293: 1270: 1185: 1062: 816: 460: 325: 246: 11558: 8273:

Assyrians in Modern Iraq: Negotiating Political and Cultural Space

7815: 7706: 7704: 7417: 7370: 7355: 7331: 7260: 7230: 2597:), both probably being drawn from foreigners resettled in Assyra. 13611: 13568: 12693: 12563: 11956: 11758: 11317: 11282: 11276: 11270: 11196: 11160: 11128: 11107: 10687: 10415: 10405: 10370: 9801:

Russell, John M. (2017a). "Assyrian Cities and Architecture". In

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Among the most influential women of the Neo-Assyrian period were

2692: 2568:

for armor and weapons, and the development of new and innovative

2519: 2326: 2193: 1976:(first among equals) among the powerful individuals of the city. 1838: 1433: 1405: 1336: 1258: 1149: 1027: 223: 184: 9892:

Genocide in the Middle East: The Ottoman Empire, Iraq, and Sudan

5786: 4528: 4526: 3964:

was an important early Christian center; according to the later

3734: 3213: 2720: 2467: 1942:

1974–1934 BC). The seated ruler is thought to represent the god

13491: 13146: 12536: 12340: 12269: 12242: 12225: 10435: 10385: 10307: 10202: 9332:. In Edwards, I. E. S.; Gadd, C. J.; Hammond, N. G. L. (eds.). 9237:"Remembrance at Assur: The Case of the dated Aramaic memorials" 9197:. In Edwards, I. E. S.; Gadd, C. J.; Hammond, N. G. L. (eds.). 9053:

Kertai, David (2013). "The Queens of the Neo-Assyrian Empire".

8827:

The Past from Above: Aerial Photographs of Archaeological Sites

7701: 7664: 7662: 7550: 7548: 7546: 7485: 7483: 7288: 7286: 7284: 6422: 6344: 3983: 3917: 3891:

In the 1st century BC onward, as a frontier region between the

3857: 3835: 3802: 3684: 3382: 3325: 3162: 2989: 2444:

Assyrian kings appointing their own vassal rulers. Through the

2341:

official, was elected from the influential men of Assyria. The

2279: 2209: 2161: 2082: 1757: 1713:

681–669 BC) brought Assyria to its greatest ever extent.

1657: 1626: 958:, when Assyria was merely a city-state centered on the city of 805: 193: 166: 11461: 8865: 8640:. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press. 7733: 7731: 7519: 7446: 7444: 6460: 6458: 5650: 5644: 5129: 2262:, a palace herald, made in the reign of the Neo-Assyrian king 1660:

all the way to the Egyptian border and the 729 BC conquest of

1091: 13704: 12688: 12264: 12252: 12148: 11123: 10788: 10425: 10420: 10400: 10101:"Women, Fundamentalism and Terror: Echoes of Ancient Assyria" 7087: 6373: 6371: 6295: 6293: 6291: 4964: 4962: 4923: 4523: 4291:

in the Middle Ages overwhelmingly self-identified as Romans (

4184: 3961: 3844: 3831: 3728: 3367: 3363: 3016: 2970: 2966: 2745: 2445: 2337: 2145: 1889: 1846: 1733: 1308:

for control. The infighting came to an end after the rise of

1157: 1129: 959: 899: 856: 551: 473: 153: 125: 7659: 7647: 7635: 7543: 7480: 7298: 7281: 6985: 6983: 6786: 6784: 5421: 5419: 4662: 4631: 4619: 4187:

became an independent city-state, i.e. the beginning of the

1505:

1233 BC. The capital was returned to Assur after his death.

883:

in the south, and at times became the dominant power in the

13839:

States and territories disestablished in the 7th century BC

13834:

States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC

12899: 12876: 12619: 12613: 11119: 10375: 9962:. Berlin: Max Planck Institute for the History of Science. 7803: 7728: 7589: 7587: 7468: 7441: 7250: 7248: 7220: 7218: 7075: 6605: 6603: 6518: 6455: 5801: 4793: 3839: 3671:

might have originated with the kings no longer viewing the

3648: 3495:

Glazed tile depicting a king and attendants, 9th century BC

2565: 1297: 1061:("land of the Assyrians"), though the northern province of 10150:. 22 March 2019. Archived from the original on 11 May 2023 9853:

Svärd, Saana (2015). "Changes in Neo-Assyrian Queenship".

8526:

The Imperialisation of Assyria: An Archaeological Approach

7791: 7779: 7767: 7179: 6868: 6588: 6470: 6368: 6288: 6204: 6150: 5987: 5716: 5714: 5712: 5710: 5708: 5440: 5290: 4959: 4880: 4878: 4876: 4783: 4781: 4708: 4706: 4344: 4342: 4340: 4031:, chiefly due to missions by American missionaries of the 1946:, with Erishum being the bald figure being led toward him. 1564:

1056–1054 BC) onward, Assyrian decline intensified.

8708:

The Age of Agade: Inventing Empire in Ancient Mesopotamia

8029: 7983: 7981: 7979: 7834: 7832: 7830: 7407: 7405: 7392: 7390: 7321: 7319: 7317: 7315: 7313: 7065: 7063: 7061: 7024: 7022: 6980: 6970: 6968: 6966: 6964: 6937: 6903: 6781: 6759: 6757: 6755: 6713: 6711: 6566: 6564: 6562: 6547: 6537: 6535: 6533: 6445: 6443: 6441: 6439: 6437: 6412: 6410: 6322: 6320: 6179: 6177: 5977: 5975: 5973: 5888: 5886: 5873: 5871: 5416: 5374: 5254: 5242: 5218: 5206: 5179: 5177: 4511: 4212:

when there was no longer an independent Assyrian kingdom.

1901:, have resulted in most of the Assyrian people living in 9501:

Oates, Joan (1992). "The fall of Assyria (635–609 BC)".

8625:

Fales, Frederick Mario. "Assyrian Legal Traditions". In

7904: 7868: 7674: 7623: 7611: 7584: 7572: 7560: 7245: 7215: 7169: 7167: 7130: 7128: 7126: 6901: 6899: 6897: 6895: 6893: 6891: 6889: 6887: 6885: 6883: 6856: 6844: 6740: 6730: 6728: 6726: 6698: 6696: 6681: 6669: 6659: 6657: 6642: 6632: 6630: 6615: 6600: 6194: 6192: 6140: 6138: 6089: 6087: 5934: 5910: 5846: 5844: 5842: 5840: 5825: 5726: 5681: 5671: 5669: 5667: 5665: 5611: 5609: 5607: 5605: 5603: 5601: 5588: 5586: 5584: 5406: 5404: 5391: 5389: 5328: 5326: 5324: 5311: 5309: 5307: 5305: 5141: 4979: 4977: 4846: 4844: 4652: 4650: 4648: 4646: 4607: 4597: 4595: 4489: 4487: 4485: 4483: 4481: 4479: 4466: 4464: 4462: 4208:, when Assyria ceased to be a state. It omits the later 3039:

for instance referred to the Sasanian Empire as "filthy

9336:(3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 9201:(3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 8803:

Gaunt, David; Atto, Naures; Barthoma, Soner O. (2017).

8668:. In Carney, Elizabeth D. & Müller, Sabine (eds.). 8543: 8335:"My Career in Assyriology and Near Eastern Archaeology" 8017: 7507: 7456: 7429: 5922: 5774: 5705: 5627: 5196: 5194: 5192: 5164: 5162: 5160: 5158: 5156: 5107: 5105: 5103: 5078: 5076: 5049: 4989: 4935: 4873: 4863: 4861: 4859: 4829: 4805: 4778: 4742: 4730: 4703: 4693: 4691: 4689: 4437: 4435: 4433: 4431: 4429: 4416: 4414: 4337: 1517:. Though some kings in this period of decline, such as 10179:"The King's Road – the imperial communication network" 9220:. Translated by Tabatabai, Soraia. Oxford: Routledge. 8767:

Assyria: The Rise and Fall of the World's First Empire

8041: 8005: 7976: 7964: 7952: 7928: 7916: 7844: 7827: 7755: 7743: 7716: 7402: 7387: 7343: 7310: 7203: 7152: 7058: 7019: 6961: 6925: 6913: 6796: 6769: 6752: 6708: 6576: 6559: 6530: 6506: 6482: 6434: 6407: 6383: 6356: 6332: 6317: 6276: 6264: 6240: 6228: 6174: 6072: 6060: 6023: 6011: 5999: 5970: 5958: 5946: 5898: 5883: 5868: 5813: 5174: 4901: 4899: 4897: 4895: 4893: 4718: 4674: 4582: 4580: 4555: 4553: 4538: 4327: 4325: 4323: 3078:, also for the ancient Assyrians. Medieval and modern 2979:

Although the use of the term "Assyrian" by the modern

1928:

Line-drawing of a royal seal of the Old Assyrian king

11449: 8786:

Current Issues and the Study of the Ancient Near East

7599: 7531: 7191: 7164: 7123: 7111: 7099: 7046: 6995: 6949: 6880: 6832: 6808: 6723: 6693: 6654: 6627: 6252: 6189: 6162: 6135: 6123: 6111: 6099: 6084: 5856: 5837: 5662: 5598: 5581: 5569: 5557: 5512: 5500: 5476: 5464: 5452: 5401: 5386: 5350: 5338: 5321: 5302: 5278: 5266: 5230: 5117: 5088: 5037: 5025: 5001: 4974: 4947: 4911: 4841: 4817: 4643: 4592: 4499: 4476: 4459: 4447: 4363: 4361: 4359: 4357: 2440:), responsible for the local economy and production. 1343:

to rise in the north and south, respectively. Around

10079: 9646:

Official Epistolography and the Language(s) of Power

8311: 7993: 7892: 7880: 7856: 7821: 7695: 7495: 7034: 7007: 6305: 6050: 6048: 6046: 6044: 6042: 6040: 6038: 5750: 5693: 5545: 5488: 5189: 5153: 5100: 5073: 5061: 4856: 4686: 4426: 4411: 2712:

are however also recorded as being bought and sold.

2501:

20th-century illustration of a Neo-Assyrian spearman

1884:, which gained control of Assyria in 16th century. 9218:

The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy

8505:

Routledge Handbook of Minorities in the Middle East

8102:

Major Turning Points in Jewish Intellectual History

5013: 4890: 4766: 4754: 4577: 4565: 4550: 4320: 3243:

Modern Assyrian people refer to their language as "

2872: 2458:, which included various innovative techniques and 9483:Assyria to Iberia: Art and Culture in the Iron Age 9422: 9350: 9297: 9086:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 41–56. 7946: 7423: 7381: 7364: 7337: 7275: 7239: 7140: 5744: 5539: 5362: 4399: 4354: 3455:Cylinder seal and impression, 14th–13th century BC 3149:tablet, containing an account of a caravan journey 2408:was divided into a set of provinces or districts ( 1732:in 626 BC, in combination with an invasion by the 9644:. In S. Prochazka; L. Reinfandt; S. Tost (eds.). 9525:The Sound System of Modern Assyrian (Neo-Aramaic) 9252:Livingstone, Alasdair. "Assyrian Literature". In 8802: 6820: 6035: 5795: 4003:, the followers of which have often been termed " 2605: 2522:, who needed more extensive training than normal 13780: 10168:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 10124:Assyrian Cultural & Social Youth Association 9956:. In Braarvig, Jens; Geller, Markham J. (eds.). 9351:Marciak, Michal; Wójcikowski, Robert S. (2016). 9006: 8377:Butts, Aaron Michael. "Assyrian Christians". In 4532: 3066:. Some medieval Syriac Christian documents used 2085:(Assyrian capital 879–706 BC), destroyed by the 1014:(5th century BC). The Greeks called the Levant " 808:from the 14th century BC to the 7th century BC. 9959:Multilingualism, Lingua Franca and Lingua Sacra 8452:Study on the Synchronistic King List from Ashur 2699:, several terms were used for slaves, commonly 1996:("king of the land of Ashur") and his grandson 1742:Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire 1073:. In Syriac, Assyria was and is referred to as 904:Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire 488:• Assur becomes an independent city-state 9909: 9313:. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 9124: 8887:Hauser, Stefan R. "Post-Imperial Assyria". In 8485:Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World 8364:. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers. 7525: 4929: 4191:. The Old Assyrian period was preceded by the 4046:. This does not mean that efforts to approach 3208: 2812:824–811 BC), who in the reign of her son 1682:722–705 BC). Under Sargon II and his son 765: 46: 12595: 11574: 11435: 10998: 10229: 9810:Russell, John M. (2017b). "Assyrian Art". In 4071:, used in the Assyrian churches, wherein the 3693:Underworld Vision of an Assyrian Crown Prince 3667:(a short martial poem) and some royal hymns. 3610: 3316:, covered in important rooms with carpets or 1152:, are known to have been inhabited since the 986:1363–1328 BC), who was the first king of the 11598:Ethno-linguistic group(s) indigenous to the 10053:The Making of the Modern Near East 1792–1923 9918: 7304: 7292: 4968: 3746: 2222:Map of the capital cities of ancient Assyria 1176:in the 24th century BC. Through most of the 1156:, the earliest archaeological evidence from 564:• Sack and destruction of Assur by the 11012: 10824:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire 9948: 9446: 9251: 9234: 9127:Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 7809: 7737: 7710: 7474: 7081: 5446: 4011:, which split off in the 16th century, the 2493:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire 2122: 1269:1808 BC when the city was conquered by the 1120:The head of a female statue, dating to the 12602: 12588: 11581: 11567: 11442: 11428: 11049:Late Chalcolithic 4-5 / Early Jezirah 1-3 11005: 10991: 10236: 10222: 9839: 9620:Ancient Assyria: A Very Short Introduction 9330:"The Early Dynastic Period in Mesopotamia" 8470:Dalley, Stephanie. "Assyrian Warfare". In 8167:Introduction to Aramean and Syriac Studies 5656: 4081:Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith 3427:Statue of a praying woman, 25th century BC 2541:included ranged troops, such as slingers ( 1908: 859:, the first Assyrian capital, was founded 103: 12910:Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region 10004: 9990:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 9919:Veenhof, Klaas R.; Eidem, Jesper (2008). 9744: 9725: 9368: 9163: 8992:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 8968:The Tree of Life: An Archaeological Study 8911:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 8783: 8587: 8529:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 8478: 8276:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 8155: 8137: 8081: 7629: 7254: 7224: 6862: 6850: 6687: 6675: 6648: 6621: 6609: 5940: 5831: 4995: 4941: 4884: 4787: 4736: 4668: 4637: 4625: 4613: 2902:669–631 BC) and two royal attendants 2600: 962:, the state was typically referred to as 918:empires, though declined again under the 12734:Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire 9951:"Sumerian in the Middle Assyrian Period" 9914:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 9809: 9800: 9486:. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. 9405:Maul, Stefan M. "Assyrian Religion". In 9327: 9215: 8925: 8872:. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. 8747:Frahm, Eckart (2017a). Introduction. In 8427: 8359: 8269: 8236:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 8119: 8098: 8070:Journal of the American Oriental Society 7874: 7680: 7668: 7653: 7641: 7617: 7593: 7578: 7566: 7554: 7489: 6974: 5916: 5732: 4724: 4712: 4544: 4441: 3939: 3614: 3341: 3287: 3212: 3137: 2886: 2834: 2719: 2620: 2496: 2370: 2363:Middle Assyrian Empire § Government 2253: 2249: 2072: 2036: 2010:1317–1306 BC) introduced the style 1923: 1773: 1586: 1214: 1115: 10243: 9939: 9846:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 8 9636: 9579: 9385: 9145: 9031: 8904: 8823: 8674:. London: Routledge. pp. 137–148. 8552:(4 ed.). Oxford University Press. 8501: 8406: 8385: 8294:Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia 8290: 8250: 8192: 8184:Bagg, Ariel. "Assyrian Technology". In 8164: 8063: 8047: 8035: 8023: 7987: 7850: 7838: 7513: 7462: 7450: 7435: 7209: 7117: 7093: 6989: 6943: 6931: 6874: 6541: 6416: 6270: 6029: 6017: 5952: 5928: 5904: 5877: 5819: 5807: 5780: 5720: 5615: 5563: 5183: 5031: 4983: 4953: 4917: 4850: 4823: 4680: 4656: 4493: 4348: 3992:, a synoptic rendition of the gospels. 3920:until as late as the 18th century (the 3483:Statue of a nude woman, 11th century BC 1245:1974–1934 BC), Assur experimented with 871:began ruling the city. Centered in the 13781: 10176: 10040: 10019: 9983: 9888: 9865: 9685: 9668: 9659: 9648:. Austrian Academy of Sciences Press. 9617: 9542: 9521: 9413: 9081: 9052: 8955: 8946: 8895: 8886: 8844: 8755: 8746: 8704: 8654: 8633: 8522: 8469: 8229: 8011: 7999: 7970: 7958: 7934: 7922: 7797: 7785: 7773: 7761: 7749: 7722: 7605: 7537: 7411: 7396: 7349: 7325: 7158: 7105: 7069: 7052: 7028: 6919: 6838: 6802: 6775: 6763: 6746: 6734: 6717: 6702: 6663: 6636: 6594: 6582: 6570: 6553: 6524: 6512: 6500: 6488: 6476: 6464: 6449: 6428: 6401: 6389: 6377: 6362: 6350: 6338: 6326: 6299: 6282: 6246: 6234: 6222: 6210: 6183: 6156: 6078: 6066: 6005: 5993: 5981: 5964: 5892: 5862: 5850: 5699: 5687: 5675: 5592: 5575: 5551: 5518: 5506: 5494: 5482: 5470: 5458: 5425: 5410: 5395: 5380: 5356: 5344: 5332: 5315: 5296: 5284: 5272: 5260: 5248: 5236: 5224: 5212: 5200: 5168: 5135: 5123: 5111: 5094: 5082: 5067: 5055: 5043: 5007: 4905: 4867: 4799: 4601: 4586: 4517: 4505: 4470: 4453: 4420: 4405: 4331: 3848:festival, were borrowed in the north. 3539:Furniture ornament, 9th–8th century BC 2485:Middle Assyrian Empire § Military 1756:, tried to rally the Assyrian army at 1192:and it was later occupied by both the 13469: 13361: 13183: 13058: 12631: 12583: 11562: 11423: 11405: 11384: 11374: 11292: 11263: 11195: 11171: 10986: 10217: 10118: 10042: 9941: 9852: 9818: 9811: 9802: 9704: 9661: 9596: 9500: 9479: 9415: 9406: 9299: 9253: 8964: 8957: 8948: 8897: 8888: 8830:. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. 8764: 8757: 8748: 8725: 8666:"Invisible Mesopotamian royal women?" 8656: 8626: 8624: 8566: 8471: 8378: 8376: 8332: 8312:BetGivargis-McDaniel, Maegan (2007). 8297:. New York: Oxford University Press. 8185: 7886: 7197: 7185: 7173: 7146: 7134: 7013: 7001: 6955: 6907: 6814: 6790: 6258: 6198: 6168: 6144: 6129: 6117: 6105: 6093: 5628:Drower, Gray & Sherwin-White 2012 5368: 4697: 4381:"Assyria | History, Map, & Facts" 3173:, with Assyrian being referred to as 2367:Neo-Assyrian Empire § Government 2170: 2077:Ruins of one of the entrances of the 1351:1360 BC. Another Hittite invasion by 97:, the ancient Assyrian national deity 13763: 13705:Mesopotamian spring festival (Akitu) 10098: 10049: 9979:from the original on 9 October 2022. 9922:Mesopotamia: The Old Assyrian Period 9781: 9655:from the original on 9 October 2022. 9586:Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies 9404: 9306: 9260: 9188: 8985: 8663: 8448: 8342:Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies 8183: 7910: 7898: 7862: 7501: 7040: 6826: 6311: 6054: 5768: 5756: 5147: 5019: 4835: 4811: 4772: 4760: 4748: 4571: 4559: 4367: 4244: 2633:) and free citizens, referred to as 1752:in 612 BC. The last Assyrian ruler, 13753: 11588: 10015:. Vol. II/8. pp. 785–786. 9895:. Durham: Carolina Academic Press. 9690:. Stellenbosch: African Sun Media. 9545:Journal of Anthropological Research 8255:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4204:This date refers to the end of the 4104:Chronology of the ancient Near East 4050:have not been undertaken. In 1994, 3797:Three different symbols of the god 2489:Neo-Assyrian Empire § Military 13: 9912:A History of the Ancient Near East 9855:State Archives of Assyria Bulletin 9825:. London: Sidgwick & Jackson. 9035:The Akkadian Influences on Aramaic 8732:. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. 8318:. Charleston: Arcadia Publishing. 6404:, Road stations across the empire. 3982:AD, the Christian Assyrian writer 3197:was respected in, and influenced, 2715: 1508:Tukulti-Ninurta I's assassination 1376: 1327:. An invasion by the Hittite king 946:literary and religious tradition. 14: 13865: 10195: 10126:. 23 January 2022. Archived from 9675:State Archives of Assyria Studies 4042:and it does not take part in the 3296:, the Assyrian capital 705–612 BC 3292:A 19th-century reconstruction of 2791:queens of the Neo-Assyrian Empire 2356: 2068: 13844:7th-century BC disestablishments 13762: 13752: 13742: 13733: 13732: 13038:2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis 12612: 12562: 12550: 12507:Assyrian Democratic Organisation 11660: 11649: 11638: 11543: 11542: 10962:Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary 10453: 10201: 10144:"Head of a male figure Assyrian" 9730:. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers. 9528:. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. 8105:. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. 8092:10.7817/jameroriesoci.138.1.0105 8083:10.7817/jameroriesoci.138.1.0105 4298: 4281: 4268: 4254: 3787: 3776: 3765: 3720:(the Babylonian creation myth), 3594: 3578: 3560: 3544: 3532: 3516: 3509:Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III 3500: 3488: 3476: 3460: 3448: 3432: 3420: 2956: 2945: 2891:7th-century BC relief depicting 2873:Personal identity and continuity 2201: 2185: 2169: 2153: 2137: 2121: 2114: 1763: 1404: 1395: 1101: 930:from the 1st century AD onward. 782: 777: 772: 767: 642: 628: 603: 85: 63: 58: 53: 48: 13517:Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects 12940:1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq 12930:1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes 12669:Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period 9747:Journal of Near Eastern Studies 9603:. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing. 8590:Journal of Near Eastern Studies 8550:The Oxford Classical Dictionary 8392:. Oxford: John Wiley and Sons. 8056: 5796:Gaunt, Atto & Barthoma 2017 5771:, From the Millet to the Sword. 5431: 4227: 4215: 4040:Middle East Council of Churches 3929: 3439:Wall relief probably depicting 3392: 3277: 2897: 2818: 2807: 2734: 2268: 2233: 2186: 2047: 2041:Stele of the Neo-Assyrian king 2002: 1934: 1722: 1708: 1688: 1677: 1650: 1638: 1616: 1597: 1574: 1559: 1548: 1537: 1523: 1474: 1460: 1446: 1361: 1237: 949: 16:Major Mesopotamian civilization 12800:Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia 12173:Genocide of Christians by ISIL 12036:Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia 10519:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) 10514:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) 10072: 9507:. Cambridge University Press. 9235:Livingstone, Alasdair (2009). 8407:Cassidy, Edward Idris (2005). 8360:Breasted, James Henry (1926). 8139:10.5752/P.2317-773X.2018v6n2p9 7947:Marciak & Wójcikowski 2016 7424:Luukko & Van Buylaere 2017 7382:Luukko & Van Buylaere 2017 7365:Luukko & Van Buylaere 2017 7338:Luukko & Van Buylaere 2017 7276:Luukko & Van Buylaere 2017 7240:Luukko & Van Buylaere 2017 5540:Luukko & Van Buylaere 2017 4373: 4233:Though often referred to as a 4198: 4177: 4124:List of Mesopotamian dynasties 3623:, containing a portion of the 2668:(people recruited through the 2606:Population and social standing 2202: 2154: 1316:1700 BC. Bel-bani founded the 113:in the 7th century BC (orange) 1: 13059: 11917:Ancient Mesopotamian religion 10901:Ancient Mesopotamian religion 10298:Tigris–Euphrates river system 9910:Van De Mieroop, Marc (2016). 9241:Studia Orientalia Electronica 8169:. Piscataway: Gorgias Press. 6503:, pp. 523, 525, 529–531. 4314: 3860:was elevated in the reign of 3753:Ancient Mesopotamian religion 2969:festival being celebrated in 2848: 2400: 2138: 2098: 2007: 1939: 1869:ancient Mesopotamian religion 1867:, though holdouts of the old 1857: 1794: 1528: 1509: 1502: 1494: 1490: 1479: 1465: 1451: 1370: 1366: 1348: 1344: 1332: 1313: 1286: 1266: 1242: 1201: 1181: 1165: 1145: 1125: 983: 932:Ancient Mesopotamian religion 860: 852: 840: 832: 824: 732: 708: 695: 682: 571: 524: 508: 492: 479: 350: 334: 318: 302: 286: 269: 237:Ancient Mesopotamian religion 159: 146: 131: 75: 13809:Bronze Age countries in Asia 13296:in ISIL-controlled territory 13184: 12527:Syriac Union Party (Lebanon) 12502:Assyrian Democratic Movement 9557:10.3998/jar.0521004.0067.303 9465:10.1515/zava.1991.81.1-2.243 9453:Zeitschrift für Assyriologie 9328:Mallowan, Max E. L. (1971). 9263:Altorientalische Forschungen 9055:Altorientalische Forschungen 9032:Kaufman, Stephen A. (1974). 8932:. Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell. 8705:Foster, Benjamin R. (2016). 8434:. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. 8362:The Conquest of Civilization 6225:, pp. 368–370, 377–378. 4533:Kalimi & Richardson 2014 4223:Neo-Assyrian Empire § Legacy 4154:List of Assyrian settlements 3263:, many Assyrians also speak 3122: 1283:Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia 7: 13470: 13362: 13207:Council of Representatives 12945:Weapons of mass destruction 12632: 12512:Assyrian Universal Alliance 11738:Assyrian Church of the East 11713:Assyrian Pentecostal Church 11707:Assyrian Evangelical Church 11630:Terms for Syriac Christians 10967:Chicago Assyrian Dictionary 10849:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations 10844:Indus-Mesopotamia relations 9949:Wagensonner, Klaus (2018). 9819:Saggs, Henry W. F. (1984). 9622:. Oxford University Press. 8726:Frahm, Eckart, ed. (2017). 4306:terms for Syriac Christians 4091: 4001:Assyrian Church of the East 3950:Assyrian Church of the East 3741: 3284:Architecture of Mesopotamia 3209:Aramaic and other languages 3127: 2616: 2478: 1913: 1414:Maps of the borders of the 10: 13870: 13814:Iron Age countries in Asia 12935:1977 Shia uprising in Iraq 12522:Syriac Union Party (Syria) 11744:Ancient Church of the East 10972:Chicago Hittite Dictionary 9870:. In Tamari, Steve (ed.). 9822:The Might That Was Assyria 9522:Odisho, Edward Y. (1988). 9424:Murre-van den Berg, Heleen 8926:Jacobsen, Douglas (2021). 8570:Sargon II, King of Assyria 7526:Kletter & Zwickel 2006 4139:History of the Middle East 4021:Ancient Church of the East 3933: 3884:, given that the kings of 3750: 3611:Scholarship and literature 3604:Metropolitan Museum of Art 3335: 3281: 3217:A 9th-century AD piece of 3131: 3117: 2876: 2830: 2609: 2533:("weapon troops") and the 2482: 2456:state communication system 2360: 1917: 1767: 1740:in 615/614 BC, led to the 1380: 1257:, near the modern city of 1105: 1084: 1080: 29: 18: 13728: 13627: 13482: 13478: 13465: 13370: 13357: 13192: 13179: 13067: 13054: 12875: 12792: 12644: 12640: 12627: 12545: 12492: 12363: 12195: 12186: 12099: 12028: 11935: 11876: 11859: 11816: 11757: 11722: 11685: 11674: 11636: 11607: 11596: 11538: 11458: 11402: 11381: 11369: 11366: 11359: 11356: 11338: 11328: 11311: 11304: 11302: 11268: 11256: 11247: 11238: 11233: 11205: 11188: 11159: 11144: 11139: 11118: 11113: 11101: 11091: 11079: 11069: 11051: 11048: 11038: 11033: 11028: 11021: 10939: 10893: 10867: 10771: 10668: 10561: 10469: 10462: 10451: 10333: 10260: 10251: 10187:University College London 9889:Travis, Hannibal (2010). 8634:Filoni, Fernando (2017). 8523:Düring, Bleda S. (2020). 8413:. Mahwah: Paulist Press. 8348:(1): 1–23. Archived from 8333:Biggs, Robert D. (2005). 8291:Bertman, Stephen (2003). 8207:10.1080/00438240500509843 8064:Albenda, Pauline (2018). 7822:BetGivargis-McDaniel 2007 4274:Referring to the sun god 4183:This date refers to when 4068:Liturgy of Addai and Mari 3986:composed the influential 3810:Knowledge of the ancient 3747:Ancient Assyrian religion 3587:Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal 1782:rule, by the local ruler 1053:inexplicably referred to 664:Periodization of ancient 582: 578: 562: 544: 531: 515: 499: 486: 470: 466: 452: 448: 435: 423: 411: 399: 387: 375: 363: 347: 331: 315: 299: 283: 266: 262: 252: 242: 232: 206: 118: 102: 82: 74: 41: 13286:in Saddam Hussein's Iraq 13197:Administrative divisions 12042:Muslim conquest of Syria 11732:Chaldean Catholic Church 11030:Northwestern Mesopotamia 10183:Assyrian empire builders 10085:Encyclopaedia Britannica 9386:Marciak, Michał (2017). 9216:Liverani, Mario (2014). 9189:Lewy, Hildegard (1971). 8905:Jackson, Cailah (2020). 8680:10.4324/9780429434105-15 8664:Fink, Sebastian (2020). 8386:Cameron, Averil (2009). 8315:Assyrians of New Britain 8230:Becker, Adam H. (2015). 8099:Aberbach, David (2003). 7696:Encyclopaedia Britannica 7305:Veenhof & Eidem 2008 7293:Veenhof & Eidem 2008 6353:, pp. 360, 370–371. 5138:, pp. 125, 129–130. 4969:Veenhof & Eidem 2008 4170: 4114:Geography of Mesopotamia 4009:Chaldean Catholic Church 3157:(i.e. related to modern 2316:(chief officer/eunuch), 1515:Late Bronze Age collapse 1188:of the Sumerian city of 1128:2334–2154 BC). Found at 1087:History of the Assyrians 811:Spanning from the early 748:History of the Assyrians 25:Assyria (disambiguation) 12845:Mandate for Mesopotamia 12719:First Babylonian Empire 12569:Christianity portal 12532:Syriac Military Council 12131:Massacres of Diyarbekir 12066:Principality of Antioch 12019:Byzantine–Sasanian wars 11826:Assyrian folk/pop music 10020:Yamada, Shiego (2000). 9840:Schippmann, K. (2012). 9637:Radner, Karen (2015b). 9447:Na'aman, Nadav (1991). 9307:Mack, Jennifer (2017). 9146:Lambert, W. G. (1983). 8824:Gerster, Georg (2005). 8567:Elayi, Josette (2017). 8270:Benjamen, Alda (2022). 8165:Akopian, Arman (2017). 8120:Aissaoui, Alex (2018). 5745:Murre-van den Berg 2021 4159:List of Assyrian tribes 3999:. Though the prominent 3997:Christian denominations 3681:Library of Ashurbanipal 3621:Library of Ashurbanipal 3082:sources also connected 2664:("village residents"), 2020:king of Sumer and Akkad 1909:Government and military 1632:Ashurnasirpal II's son 1542:1132–1115 BC) and 1468:1273–1244 BC) and 1045:referred to Assyria as 978:is during the reign of 766: 546:• Conquest by the 207:Official languages 47: 13004:Insurgency (2011–2013) 12925:Iraqi–Kurdish conflict 12729:Middle Assyrian Empire 12287:Al-Hasakah Governorate 12125:Massacres of Badr Khan 11899:Middle Assyrian Empire 11701:Syriac Catholic Church 11695:Syriac Orthodox Church 11190:Middle Hittite Kingdom 10804:Babylonian mathematics 10177:Radner, Karen (2012). 10105:Heinrich Böll Stiftung 10050:Yapp, Malcolm (1988). 10005:Widengren, G. (1986). 9866:Tamari, Steve (2019). 9782:Roux, Georges (1992). 9669:Radner, Karen (2019). 9618:Radner, Karen (2015). 9580:Parpola, Simo (2004). 9275:10.1524/aofo.2012.0007 8809:. New York: Berghahn. 8769:. London: Bloomsbury. 8765:Frahm, Eckart (2023). 8729:A Companion to Assyria 8479:Deutscher, G. (2009). 8126:Estudos Internacionais 4109:History of Mesopotamia 4017:Syriac Catholic Church 4013:Syriac Orthodox Church 3953: 3944:An early 20th-century 3878:ancient Greek religion 3641:first-person narrative 3629: 3443:, 21st–16th century BC 3347: 3331: 3297: 3226: 3150: 2935: 2903: 2843: 2740: 2626: 2601:Population and society 2502: 2404: 2274: 2090: 2053: 1983:(king) and the title ' 1947: 1920:List of Assyrian kings 1786: 1603: 1416:Middle Assyrian Empire 1383:Middle Assyrian Empire 1227: 1137: 988:Middle Assyrian Empire 891:then yet assembled in 793:) was a major ancient 762:Neo-Assyrian cuneiform 704:Middle Assyrian period 519:Middle Assyrian period 23:. For other uses, see 13849:Eastern Mediterranean 13291:in post-invasion Iraq 12997:U.S. troop withdrawal 12759:Neo-Babylonian Empire 12155:Independence movement 11911:Post-imperial Assyria 11887:Early Assyrian period 11313:Neo-Babylonian Empire 11146:Old Babylonian Empire 11061:Early Dynastic period 10099:Bain, Robert (2017). 10056:. London: Routledge. 10012:Encyclopaedia Iranica 9984:Waters, Matt (2014). 9092:10.2307/j.ctvh4zg0s.6 9067:10.1524/aof.2013.0006 8965:James, E. O. (1966). 8711:. Oxford: Routledge. 8508:. London: Routledge. 4193:Early Assyrian period 4075:does not contain the 3943: 3618: 3345: 3291: 3216: 3165:) closely related to 3141: 3046:The self-designation 2930: 2890: 2838: 2723: 2624: 2500: 2374: 2257: 2250:Aristocracy and elite 2240:Nemid Tukulti-Ninurta 2076: 2040: 1927: 1799:Neo-Babylonian Empire 1777: 1770:Post-imperial Assyria 1590: 1302:Old Babylonian Empire 1218: 1178:Early Assyrian period 1162:Early Dynastic Period 1119: 1108:Early Assyrian period 908:Neo-Babylonian Empire 678:Early Assyrian period 624:Neo-Babylonian Empire 472:• Foundation of 13240:Council of Ministers 13122:Mesopotamian Marshes 11831:Music of Mesopotamia 11778:Chaldean Neo-Aramaic 11773:Assyrian Neo-Aramaic 11040:Southern Mesopotamia 11035:Northern Mesopotamia 10799:Babylonian astronomy 10278:Mesopotamian Marshes 10210:at Wikimedia Commons 8986:Jupp, James (2001). 8487:. Oxford: Elsevier. 8355:on 27 February 2008. 7188:, pp. 205, 217. 6527:, pp. 528, 531. 6467:, pp. 526, 528. 5299:, pp. 167, 169. 5150:, pp. 199, 203. 4210:post-imperial period 4149:Assyrian nationalism 4119:Music of Mesopotamia 4077:Words of Institution 3658:Tukulti-Ninurta Epic 3636:Sargon, Lord of Lies 3259:or Neo-Syriac. As a 2765:Middle Assyrian Laws 2260:Bel-harran-beli-usur 2219:class=notpageimage| 1985:king of the Universe 1791:post-imperial period 1591:A partial relief of 1531:1178–1133 BC), 1454:1305–1274 BC), 1132:, on display at the 727:Post-imperial period 365:• 1114–1076 BC 13799:Ancient Mesopotamia 13502:Mesopotamian Arabic 13308:Freedom of religion 12754:Neo-Assyrian Empire 12724:Old Assyrian Period 12709:Neo-Sumerian Empire 12137:Rise of nationalism 12078:Jalayirid Sultanate 11905:Neo-Assyrian Empire 11893:Old Assyrian period 11836:Syriac sacral music 11656:Aramean-Syriac flag 11615:Assyrian continuity 11294:Neo-Assyrian Empire 11208:Bronze Age Collapse 11141:Old Hittite Kingdom 11115:Old Assyrian period 11093:Third Dynasty of Ur 10880:Destruction by ISIL 10834:Sumerian literature 10809:Akkadian literature 10245:Ancient Mesopotamia 9848:. pp. 816–817. 7913:, pp. 343–344. 7800:, pp. 365–367. 7788:, pp. 379–380. 7776:, pp. 383–385. 7713:, pp. 359–360. 7671:, pp. 471–472. 7656:, pp. 465–469. 7644:, pp. 463–465. 7557:, pp. 299–300. 7492:, pp. 423–424. 7453:, pp. 117–118. 6793:, pp. 163–166. 6597:, pp. 156–157. 6479:, pp. 526–527. 6380:, pp. 149–151. 6302:, pp. 149–150. 6213:, pp. 146–147. 6159:, pp. 140–141. 5996:, pp. 363–365. 5810:, pp. 119–120. 5659:, pp. 816–817. 5428:, pp. 183–184. 5383:, pp. 177–178. 5263:, pp. 165–168. 5251:, pp. 166–167. 5227:, pp. 136–138. 5215:, pp. 133–135. 4930:Van De Mieroop 2016 4838:, pp. 758–759. 4814:, pp. 739–740. 4751:, pp. 729–730. 4671:, pp. 785–786. 4640:, pp. 283–287. 4628:, pp. 285–287. 4520:, pp. 195–196. 4206:Neo-Assyrian Empire 4189:Old Assyrian period 4033:Presbyterian Church 3967:Chronicle of Arbela 3914:"Sabians" of Harran 3910:Neo-Assyrian Empire 3261:liturgical language 2883:Assyrian continuity 2867:means of production 2462:. Per estimates by 2385:Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta 2324:(grand vizier) and 2312:(chief cupbearer), 2130:Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta 2032:king of all peoples 1716:After the death of 1646:Tiglath-Pileser III 1593:Tiglath-Pileser III 1582:Neo-Assyrian Empire 1499:Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta 1420:Neo-Assyrian Empire 1387:Neo-Assyrian Empire 1198:Third Dynasty of Ur 1112:Old Assyrian period 956:Old Assyrian period 906:and the succeeding 865:Third Dynasty of Ur 800:which existed as a 717:Neo-Assyrian period 691:Old Assyrian period 611:Third Dynasty of Ur 535:Neo-Assyrian period 503:Old Assyrian period 394:Tiglath-Pileser III 140:Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta 111:Neo-Assyrian Empire 32:Neo-Assyrian Empire 13433:Telecommunications 13408:Foreign Investment 13345:Wars and conflicts 13281:in pre-Saddam Iraq 13245:Presidency Council 13031:2019–2021 protests 12960:Invasion of Kuwait 12784:Sassanid Asorestan 12779:Parthian Babylonia 12774:Seleucid Babylonia 12769:Achaemenid Assyria 12684:Jemdet Nasr period 12557:History portal 11999:Church of the East 11788:Bohtan Neo-Aramaic 11625:Chaldean Catholics 11150:Southern Akkadians 11057:Jemdet Nasr period 10916:Mesopotamian myths 10130:on 12 October 2022 9370:10.1017/irq.2016.8 8637:The Church in Iraq 8449:Chen, Fei (2020). 6877:, pp. 36, 38. 6556:, pp. 81, 83. 5645:Harper et al. 1995 3975:Thaddeus of Edessa 3958:Thomas the Apostle 3954: 3936:Church of the East 3801:, from reliefs at 3630: 3619:A tablet from the 3348: 3338:Art of Mesopotamia 3298: 3227: 3195:Greek civilization 3151: 2904: 2844: 2741: 2627: 2503: 2405: 2275: 2229:Tukulti-Ninurta II 2091: 2054: 1973:primus inter pares 1948: 1787: 1604: 1228: 1223:trading colony at 1138: 873:Assyrian heartland 437:• 612–609 BC 425:• 669–631 BC 413:• 681–669 BC 401:• 705–681 BC 389:• 745–727 BC 377:• 883–859 BC 13804:Ancient Near East 13776: 13775: 13724: 13723: 13720: 13719: 13710:Mandaean New Year 13461: 13460: 13353: 13352: 13335:Political parties 13230:Foreign relations 13175: 13174: 13082:Lower Mesopotamia 13077:Upper Mesopotamia 13050: 13049: 13046: 13045: 12810:Abbasid Caliphate 12805:Umayyad Caliphate 12714:Isin-Larsa period 12577: 12576: 12488: 12487: 12204: 12182: 12181: 12149:Assyrian genocide 12048:Abbasid Caliphate 11870: 11753: 11752: 11620:Assyrian diaspora 11556: 11555: 11452:Ancient Near East 11417: 11416: 11412: 11411: 11340:Macedonian Empire 11330:Achaemenid Empire 11203:c. 1200–1150 BCE 11186:c. 1400–1200 BCE 11157:c. 1600–1400 BCE 11137:c. 1800–1600 BCE 11099:c. 2000–1800 BCE 11089:c. 2100–2000 BCE 11077:c. 2200–2100 BCE 11067:c. 2350–2200 BCE 11046:c. 3500–2350 BCE 10980: 10979: 10931:Ziggurat (Temple) 10906:Sumerian religion 10664: 10663: 10611:Middle Babylonian 10553:Kish civilization 10449: 10448: 10273:Lower Mesopotamia 10268:Upper Mesopotamia 10206:Media related to 10026:. Leiden: BRILL. 9874:. Leiden: BRILL. 9786:. Penguin Books. 9432:. Leiden: BRILL. 9390:. Leiden: BRILL. 8851:. Leiden: BRILL. 8776:978-1-526-62381-2 8559:978-0-19-954556-8 8494:978-0-08-087774-7 8455:. Leiden: BRILL. 8399:978-1-4051-9833-2 8262:978-0-19-537158-1 8195:World Archaeology 8038:, pp. 50–51. 6992:, pp. 16–17. 6946:, pp. 56–57. 6749:, pp. 88–89. 5747:, pp. 27–28. 5690:, pp. 19–20. 5058:, pp. 41–42. 4351:, pp. 82–85. 4099:Ancient Near East 4086:Raphael I Bidawid 4052:Pope John Paul II 3711:Epic of Gilgamesh 3626:Epic of Gilgamesh 3471:, 13th century BC 3469:Tukulti-Ninurta I 3272:Sumerian language 3134:Akkadian language 3037:Ephrem the Syrian 2724:Relief depicting 2697:Akkadian language 2640: 2306:(palace herald), 1992:assume the style 1807:Akkadian language 1803:Achaemenid Empire 1700:conquest of Egypt 1623:Mediterranean Sea 1544:Tiglath-Pileser I 1533:Ashur-resh-ishi I 1488:Battle of Nihriya 1470:Tukulti-Ninurta I 1341:Kassite Babylonia 1219:The ruins of the 1055:Lower Mesopotamia 1043:Achaemenid Empire 885:ancient Near East 847:(911–609 BC) and 755: 754: 739: 738: 668: 658: 657: 654: 653: 650: 649: 616: 615: 370:Tiglath-Pileser I 358:Tukulti-Ninurta I 199: 190: 181: 172: 163: 150: 135: 21:Assyrian homeland 13861: 13766: 13765: 13756: 13755: 13746: 13736: 13735: 13480: 13479: 13467: 13466: 13398: 13359: 13358: 13210: 13181: 13180: 13167:Sinjar Mountains 13157:Zagros Mountains 13097:Hamrin Mountains 13056: 13055: 13019:Mosul liberation 12992:Iraqi insurgency 12914:National Command 12903: 12739:Simurrum culture 12642: 12641: 12629: 12628: 12618: 12617: 12616: 12604: 12597: 12590: 12581: 12580: 12567: 12566: 12555: 12554: 12553: 12200: 12193: 12192: 12167:Post-Saddam Iraq 11993:Nestorian schism 11987:Christianization 11959:(132 BCE–244 CE) 11953:(247 BCE–224 CE) 11913:(609 BCE–240 CE) 11874: 11873: 11864: 11724:East Syriac Rite 11687:West Syriac Rite 11683: 11682: 11664: 11653: 11642: 11583: 11576: 11569: 11560: 11559: 11546: 11545: 11450:Timeline of the 11444: 11437: 11430: 11421: 11420: 11390:Byzantine Empire 11265:Middle Babylonia 11231:c. 1150–911 BCE 11024: 11023: 11007: 11000: 10993: 10984: 10983: 10829:Sumerian cuisine 10819:Warfare in Sumer 10814:Economy of Sumer 10467: 10466: 10457: 10341:Fertile Crescent 10325:Sinjar Mountains 10320:Hamrin Mountains 10315:Zagros Mountains 10293:Taurus Mountains 10258: 10257: 10238: 10231: 10224: 10215: 10214: 10205: 10190: 10173: 10167: 10159: 10157: 10155: 10139: 10137: 10135: 10115: 10113: 10111: 10095: 10093: 10091: 10067: 10046: 10037: 10016: 10001: 9980: 9978: 9955: 9945: 9936: 9915: 9906: 9885: 9862: 9849: 9842:"Parthian Assur" 9836: 9815: 9806: 9797: 9778: 9741: 9722: 9701: 9682: 9665: 9656: 9654: 9643: 9633: 9614: 9593: 9576: 9539: 9518: 9497: 9476: 9459:(1–2): 243–267. 9443: 9419: 9410: 9401: 9382: 9372: 9347: 9324: 9303: 9294: 9257: 9248: 9231: 9212: 9185: 9167: 9142: 9121: 9078: 9049: 9028: 9015:Brill Publishers 9003: 8982: 8961: 8952: 8943: 8922: 8901: 8892: 8883: 8862: 8841: 8820: 8799: 8780: 8761: 8752: 8743: 8722: 8701: 8660: 8651: 8630: 8621: 8584: 8563: 8540: 8519: 8498: 8475: 8466: 8445: 8424: 8403: 8382: 8373: 8356: 8354: 8339: 8329: 8308: 8287: 8266: 8247: 8226: 8189: 8180: 8161: 8159: 8141: 8116: 8095: 8085: 8051: 8045: 8039: 8033: 8027: 8021: 8015: 8009: 8003: 7997: 7991: 7985: 7974: 7968: 7962: 7956: 7950: 7944: 7938: 7932: 7926: 7920: 7914: 7908: 7902: 7896: 7890: 7884: 7878: 7872: 7866: 7860: 7854: 7848: 7842: 7836: 7825: 7819: 7813: 7810:Livingstone 2017 7807: 7801: 7795: 7789: 7783: 7777: 7771: 7765: 7759: 7753: 7747: 7741: 7738:Livingstone 2017 7735: 7726: 7720: 7714: 7711:Livingstone 2017 7708: 7699: 7693: 7684: 7678: 7672: 7666: 7657: 7651: 7645: 7639: 7633: 7627: 7621: 7615: 7609: 7603: 7597: 7591: 7582: 7576: 7570: 7564: 7558: 7552: 7541: 7535: 7529: 7523: 7517: 7511: 7505: 7499: 7493: 7487: 7478: 7475:Wagensonner 2018 7472: 7466: 7460: 7454: 7448: 7439: 7433: 7427: 7421: 7415: 7409: 7400: 7394: 7385: 7379: 7368: 7362: 7353: 7347: 7341: 7335: 7329: 7323: 7308: 7302: 7296: 7290: 7279: 7273: 7258: 7252: 7243: 7237: 7228: 7222: 7213: 7207: 7201: 7195: 7189: 7183: 7177: 7171: 7162: 7156: 7150: 7144: 7138: 7132: 7121: 7115: 7109: 7103: 7097: 7091: 7085: 7082:Livingstone 2009 7079: 7073: 7067: 7056: 7050: 7044: 7038: 7032: 7026: 7017: 7011: 7005: 6999: 6993: 6987: 6978: 6972: 6959: 6953: 6947: 6941: 6935: 6929: 6923: 6917: 6911: 6905: 6878: 6872: 6866: 6860: 6854: 6848: 6842: 6836: 6830: 6824: 6818: 6812: 6806: 6800: 6794: 6788: 6779: 6773: 6767: 6761: 6750: 6744: 6738: 6732: 6721: 6715: 6706: 6700: 6691: 6685: 6679: 6673: 6667: 6661: 6652: 6646: 6640: 6634: 6625: 6619: 6613: 6607: 6598: 6592: 6586: 6580: 6574: 6568: 6557: 6551: 6545: 6539: 6528: 6522: 6516: 6510: 6504: 6498: 6492: 6486: 6480: 6474: 6468: 6462: 6453: 6447: 6432: 6426: 6420: 6414: 6405: 6399: 6393: 6387: 6381: 6375: 6366: 6360: 6354: 6348: 6342: 6336: 6330: 6324: 6315: 6309: 6303: 6297: 6286: 6280: 6274: 6268: 6262: 6256: 6250: 6244: 6238: 6232: 6226: 6220: 6214: 6208: 6202: 6196: 6187: 6181: 6172: 6166: 6160: 6154: 6148: 6142: 6133: 6127: 6121: 6115: 6109: 6103: 6097: 6091: 6082: 6076: 6070: 6064: 6058: 6052: 6033: 6027: 6021: 6015: 6009: 6003: 5997: 5991: 5985: 5979: 5968: 5962: 5956: 5950: 5944: 5938: 5932: 5926: 5920: 5914: 5908: 5902: 5896: 5890: 5881: 5875: 5866: 5860: 5854: 5848: 5835: 5829: 5823: 5817: 5811: 5805: 5799: 5793: 5784: 5778: 5772: 5766: 5760: 5754: 5748: 5742: 5736: 5730: 5724: 5718: 5703: 5697: 5691: 5685: 5679: 5673: 5660: 5654: 5648: 5642: 5631: 5625: 5619: 5613: 5596: 5590: 5579: 5573: 5567: 5561: 5555: 5549: 5543: 5537: 5522: 5516: 5510: 5504: 5498: 5492: 5486: 5480: 5474: 5468: 5462: 5456: 5450: 5444: 5438: 5435: 5429: 5423: 5414: 5408: 5399: 5393: 5384: 5378: 5372: 5366: 5360: 5354: 5348: 5342: 5336: 5330: 5319: 5313: 5300: 5294: 5288: 5282: 5276: 5270: 5264: 5258: 5252: 5246: 5240: 5234: 5228: 5222: 5216: 5210: 5204: 5198: 5187: 5181: 5172: 5166: 5151: 5145: 5139: 5133: 5127: 5121: 5115: 5109: 5098: 5092: 5086: 5080: 5071: 5065: 5059: 5053: 5047: 5041: 5035: 5029: 5023: 5017: 5011: 5005: 4999: 4993: 4987: 4981: 4972: 4966: 4957: 4951: 4945: 4939: 4933: 4927: 4921: 4915: 4909: 4903: 4888: 4882: 4871: 4865: 4854: 4848: 4839: 4833: 4827: 4821: 4815: 4809: 4803: 4797: 4791: 4785: 4776: 4770: 4764: 4758: 4752: 4746: 4740: 4734: 4728: 4722: 4716: 4710: 4701: 4695: 4684: 4678: 4672: 4666: 4660: 4654: 4641: 4635: 4629: 4623: 4617: 4611: 4605: 4599: 4590: 4584: 4575: 4569: 4563: 4557: 4548: 4542: 4536: 4530: 4521: 4515: 4509: 4503: 4497: 4491: 4474: 4468: 4457: 4451: 4445: 4439: 4424: 4418: 4409: 4403: 4397: 4396: 4394: 4392: 4377: 4371: 4365: 4352: 4346: 4335: 4329: 4308: 4302: 4296: 4289:Byzantine Empire 4285: 4279: 4272: 4266: 4258: 4252: 4248: 4242: 4231: 4225: 4219: 4213: 4202: 4196: 4181: 4164:Assyrian cuisine 3952:, with entourage 3791: 3780: 3769: 3643:of the reign of 3598: 3589:, 7th century BC 3582: 3573:, 8th century BC 3564: 3555:, 8th century BC 3548: 3536: 3527:, 9th century BC 3520: 3511:, 9th century BC 3504: 3492: 3480: 3467:Temple altar of 3464: 3452: 3436: 3424: 3396: 3394: 3372:Indian elephants 3155:Semitic language 3011:) and Assyrian ( 3003:, with the term 2999:("Aramean") and 2960: 2949: 2901: 2899: 2854:Zagros Mountains 2850: 2822: 2820: 2811: 2809: 2738: 2736: 2672:system) and the 2638: 2612:Assyrian culture 2553:) and a driver ( 2402: 2273:783–773 BC) 2272: 2270: 2237: 2235: 2205: 2204: 2189: 2188: 2173: 2172: 2157: 2156: 2141: 2140: 2125: 2124: 2118: 2100: 2079:Northwest Palace 2052:883–859 BC) 2051: 2049: 2043:Ashurnasirpal II 2022:", "king of the 2009: 2006: 2004: 1941: 1938: 1936: 1859: 1796: 1754:Ashur-uballit II 1746:Assur was sacked 1726: 1724: 1712: 1710: 1692: 1690: 1681: 1679: 1669:Sargonid dynasty 1654: 1652: 1642: 1640: 1620: 1618: 1612:Ashurnasirpal II 1601: 1599: 1578: 1576: 1563: 1561: 1552: 1550: 1541: 1539: 1530: 1527: 1525: 1511: 1504: 1496: 1492: 1481: 1478: 1476: 1467: 1464: 1462: 1453: 1450: 1448: 1408: 1399: 1372: 1368: 1365: 1363: 1350: 1346: 1334: 1315: 1288: 1268: 1244: 1241: 1239: 1203: 1183: 1167: 1147: 1127: 1049:("Athura"). The 1020:similar to Syria 985: 862: 854: 842: 834: 826: 788: 786: 781: 776: 771: 734: 710: 697: 684: 674: 673: 663: 660: 659: 646: 645: 632: 631: 620: 619: 607: 606: 600: 599: 584: 583: 573: 526: 510: 494: 481: 442:Ashur-uballit II 382:Ashurnasirpal II 352: 336: 320: 304: 288: 271: 197: 188: 179: 170: 161: 157: 148: 144: 142: 133: 129: 107: 89: 77: 69: 67: 62: 57: 52: 39: 38: 13869: 13868: 13864: 13863: 13862: 13860: 13859: 13858: 13779: 13778: 13777: 13772: 13716: 13700:Public holidays 13623: 13474: 13457: 13396: 13366: 13349: 13208: 13188: 13171: 13102:Iraqi Kurdistan 13092:Euphrates river 13063: 13042: 13009:War (2014–2017) 12955:Operation Opera 12901: 12871: 12867:Arab Federation 12855:Kingdom of Iraq 12788: 12764:Fall of Babylon 12699:Akkadian Empire 12674:Samarra culture 12659:Hassuna culture 12636: 12623: 12611: 12610: 12608: 12578: 12573: 12561: 12551: 12549: 12541: 12484: 12359: 12336:Mardin Province 12199: 12178: 12161:Simele massacre 12095: 12024: 11989:(1st to 3rd c.) 11971:(64 BCE–637 CE) 11965:(66 BCE–217 CE) 11951:Parthian Empire 11945:Seleucid Empire 11937: 11931: 11927:Assyrian tribes 11895:(2025–1364 BCE) 11889:(2600–2025 BCE) 11868: 11866: 11863: 11855: 11812: 11765: 11749: 11718: 11677: 11670: 11669: 11665: 11659: 11658: 11654: 11648: 11647: 11643: 11634: 11603: 11592: 11590:Assyrian people 11587: 11557: 11552: 11534: 11533: 11531: 11454: 11448: 11418: 11413: 11407:Sassanid Empire 11376:Parthian Empire 11371:Seleucid Empire 11361:Seleucid Empire 11280: 11274: 11251: 11242: 11071:Akkadian Empire 11017: 11011: 10981: 10976: 10935: 10889: 10863: 10772:Culture/society 10767: 10660: 10656:Muslim conquest 10626:Fall of Babylon 10557: 10458: 10445: 10329: 10247: 10242: 10198: 10193: 10161: 10160: 10153: 10151: 10142: 10133: 10131: 10109: 10107: 10089: 10087: 10075: 10070: 10064: 10034: 9998: 9976: 9970: 9953: 9933: 9903: 9882: 9833: 9794: 9738: 9698: 9652: 9641: 9630: 9611: 9536: 9515: 9494: 9440: 9398: 9344: 9321: 9228: 9209: 9195:. 2600–1816 BC" 9165:10.2307/4200181 9148:"The God Aššur" 9102: 9046: 9025: 9000: 8979: 8940: 8919: 8880: 8859: 8838: 8817: 8796: 8777: 8740: 8719: 8690: 8648: 8581: 8560: 8537: 8516: 8495: 8463: 8442: 8421: 8400: 8352: 8337: 8326: 8305: 8284: 8263: 8244: 8177: 8113: 8059: 8054: 8046: 8042: 8034: 8030: 8022: 8018: 8010: 8006: 7998: 7994: 7986: 7977: 7969: 7965: 7957: 7953: 7945: 7941: 7933: 7929: 7921: 7917: 7909: 7905: 7897: 7893: 7885: 7881: 7873: 7869: 7861: 7857: 7849: 7845: 7837: 7828: 7820: 7816: 7808: 7804: 7796: 7792: 7784: 7780: 7772: 7768: 7760: 7756: 7748: 7744: 7736: 7729: 7721: 7717: 7709: 7702: 7694: 7687: 7679: 7675: 7667: 7660: 7652: 7648: 7640: 7636: 7628: 7624: 7616: 7612: 7604: 7600: 7592: 7585: 7577: 7573: 7565: 7561: 7553: 7544: 7536: 7532: 7524: 7520: 7512: 7508: 7500: 7496: 7488: 7481: 7473: 7469: 7461: 7457: 7449: 7442: 7434: 7430: 7422: 7418: 7410: 7403: 7395: 7388: 7380: 7371: 7363: 7356: 7348: 7344: 7336: 7332: 7324: 7311: 7303: 7299: 7291: 7282: 7274: 7261: 7253: 7246: 7238: 7231: 7223: 7216: 7208: 7204: 7196: 7192: 7184: 7180: 7172: 7165: 7157: 7153: 7145: 7141: 7133: 7124: 7116: 7112: 7104: 7100: 7092: 7088: 7080: 7076: 7068: 7059: 7051: 7047: 7039: 7035: 7027: 7020: 7012: 7008: 7000: 6996: 6988: 6981: 6973: 6962: 6954: 6950: 6942: 6938: 6930: 6926: 6918: 6914: 6906: 6881: 6873: 6869: 6861: 6857: 6849: 6845: 6837: 6833: 6825: 6821: 6813: 6809: 6801: 6797: 6789: 6782: 6774: 6770: 6762: 6753: 6745: 6741: 6733: 6724: 6716: 6709: 6701: 6694: 6686: 6682: 6674: 6670: 6662: 6655: 6647: 6643: 6635: 6628: 6620: 6616: 6608: 6601: 6593: 6589: 6581: 6577: 6569: 6560: 6552: 6548: 6540: 6531: 6523: 6519: 6511: 6507: 6499: 6495: 6487: 6483: 6475: 6471: 6463: 6456: 6448: 6435: 6431:, Making speed. 6427: 6423: 6415: 6408: 6400: 6396: 6388: 6384: 6376: 6369: 6361: 6357: 6349: 6345: 6337: 6333: 6325: 6318: 6310: 6306: 6298: 6289: 6281: 6277: 6269: 6265: 6257: 6253: 6245: 6241: 6233: 6229: 6221: 6217: 6209: 6205: 6197: 6190: 6182: 6175: 6167: 6163: 6155: 6151: 6143: 6136: 6128: 6124: 6116: 6112: 6104: 6100: 6092: 6085: 6077: 6073: 6065: 6061: 6053: 6036: 6028: 6024: 6016: 6012: 6004: 6000: 5992: 5988: 5980: 5971: 5963: 5959: 5951: 5947: 5939: 5935: 5927: 5923: 5915: 5911: 5903: 5899: 5891: 5884: 5876: 5869: 5861: 5857: 5849: 5838: 5830: 5826: 5818: 5814: 5806: 5802: 5794: 5787: 5779: 5775: 5767: 5763: 5755: 5751: 5743: 5739: 5731: 5727: 5719: 5706: 5698: 5694: 5686: 5682: 5674: 5663: 5657:Schippmann 2012 5655: 5651: 5643: 5634: 5626: 5622: 5614: 5599: 5591: 5582: 5574: 5570: 5562: 5558: 5550: 5546: 5538: 5525: 5517: 5513: 5505: 5501: 5493: 5489: 5481: 5477: 5469: 5465: 5457: 5453: 5445: 5441: 5436: 5432: 5424: 5417: 5409: 5402: 5394: 5387: 5379: 5375: 5367: 5363: 5355: 5351: 5343: 5339: 5331: 5322: 5314: 5303: 5295: 5291: 5283: 5279: 5271: 5267: 5259: 5255: 5247: 5243: 5235: 5231: 5223: 5219: 5211: 5207: 5199: 5190: 5182: 5175: 5167: 5154: 5146: 5142: 5134: 5130: 5122: 5118: 5110: 5101: 5093: 5089: 5081: 5074: 5066: 5062: 5054: 5050: 5042: 5038: 5030: 5026: 5018: 5014: 5006: 5002: 4994: 4990: 4982: 4975: 4967: 4960: 4952: 4948: 4940: 4936: 4928: 4924: 4916: 4912: 4904: 4891: 4883: 4874: 4866: 4857: 4849: 4842: 4834: 4830: 4822: 4818: 4810: 4806: 4798: 4794: 4786: 4779: 4771: 4767: 4759: 4755: 4747: 4743: 4735: 4731: 4723: 4719: 4711: 4704: 4696: 4687: 4679: 4675: 4667: 4663: 4655: 4644: 4636: 4632: 4624: 4620: 4612: 4608: 4600: 4593: 4585: 4578: 4570: 4566: 4558: 4551: 4543: 4539: 4531: 4524: 4516: 4512: 4504: 4500: 4492: 4477: 4469: 4460: 4452: 4448: 4440: 4427: 4419: 4412: 4404: 4400: 4390: 4388: 4379: 4378: 4374: 4366: 4355: 4347: 4338: 4330: 4321: 4317: 4312: 4311: 4303: 4299: 4286: 4282: 4273: 4269: 4259: 4255: 4249: 4245: 4232: 4228: 4220: 4216: 4203: 4199: 4182: 4178: 4173: 4168: 4144:History of Iraq 4094: 3977:converted King 3938: 3932: 3808: 3807: 3806: 3805: 3794: 3793: 3792: 3783: 3782: 3781: 3772: 3771: 3770: 3759: 3751:Main articles: 3749: 3744: 3645:Sargon of Akkad 3613: 3606: 3599: 3590: 3585:Portion of the 3583: 3574: 3565: 3556: 3551:Crown of Queen 3549: 3540: 3537: 3528: 3525:Shalmaneser III 3521: 3512: 3505: 3496: 3493: 3484: 3481: 3472: 3465: 3456: 3453: 3444: 3437: 3428: 3425: 3391: 3340: 3334: 3286: 3280: 3223:Syriac language 3211: 3136: 3130: 3125: 3120: 2981:Assyrian people 2977: 2976: 2975: 2974: 2963: 2962: 2961: 2952: 2951: 2950: 2896: 2885: 2879:Assyrian people 2877:Main articles: 2875: 2833: 2817: 2814:Adad-nirari III 2806: 2733: 2718: 2716:Status of women 2619: 2614: 2608: 2603: 2545:) and archers ( 2495: 2481: 2471:East until the 2369: 2359: 2320:(chief judge), 2288:sukkallu rabi’u 2267: 2252: 2232: 2225: 2224: 2223: 2221: 2215: 2214: 2213: 2212: 2206: 2198: 2197: 2196: 2190: 2182: 2181: 2180: 2174: 2166: 2165: 2164: 2158: 2150: 2149: 2148: 2142: 2134: 2133: 2132: 2126: 2103:Kassite dynasty 2071: 2046: 2001: 1962:("governor of 1933: 1922: 1916: 1911: 1855:Sasanian Empire 1834:Parthian Empire 1827:Seleucid Empire 1772: 1766: 1721: 1707: 1687: 1676: 1649: 1637: 1634:Shalmaneser III 1615: 1596: 1573: 1558: 1547: 1536: 1522: 1473: 1459: 1445: 1426: 1425: 1424: 1423: 1418:(left) and the 1411: 1410: 1409: 1401: 1400: 1389: 1381:Main articles: 1379: 1377:Assyrian Empire 1360: 1357:Ashur-uballit I 1318:Adaside dynasty 1236: 1194:Akkadian Empire 1174:Akkadian period 1142:Hassuna culture 1134:Pergamon Museum 1122:Akkadian period 1114: 1106:Main articles: 1104: 1099: 1097: 1089: 1083: 1051:Sasanian Empire 980:Ashur-uballit I 952: 924:Assyrian people 920:Sasanian Empire 877:Ashur-uballit I 837:Middle Assyrian 835:2025–1364 BC), 827:2600–2025 BC), 751: 643: 629: 604: 568: 566:Sasanian Empire 555: 537: 521: 505: 489: 476: 438: 426: 414: 402: 390: 378: 366: 354: 342:Ashur-uballit I 338: 322: 306: 290: 273: 228: 202: 196: 187: 178: 169: 156: 143: 138: 128: 114: 98: 91: 90: 70: 44: 35: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 13867: 13857: 13856: 13854:Former empires 13851: 13846: 13841: 13836: 13831: 13829:7th century BC 13826: 13824:8th century BC 13821: 13819:9th century BC 13816: 13811: 13806: 13801: 13796: 13794:Ancient Levant 13791: 13774: 13773: 13771: 13770: 13760: 13750: 13740: 13729: 13726: 13725: 13722: 13721: 13718: 13717: 13715: 13714: 13713: 13712: 13707: 13697: 13692: 13687: 13682: 13677: 13672: 13667: 13662: 13657: 13652: 13647: 13642: 13637: 13631: 13629: 13625: 13624: 13622: 13621: 13620: 13619: 13614: 13609: 13604: 13599: 13589: 13584: 13583: 13582: 13577: 13571: 13566: 13561: 13556: 13551: 13546: 13541: 13536: 13526: 13525: 13524: 13519: 13514: 13509: 13504: 13494: 13488: 13486: 13476: 13475: 13463: 13462: 13459: 13458: 13456: 13455: 13450: 13445: 13440: 13438:Transportation 13435: 13430: 13428:Stock Exchange 13425: 13423:Reconstruction 13420: 13415: 13410: 13405: 13403:Infrastructure 13400: 13392: 13387: 13382: 13377: 13371: 13368: 13367: 13355: 13354: 13351: 13350: 13348: 13347: 13342: 13337: 13332: 13327: 13322: 13317: 13316: 13315: 13310: 13305: 13300: 13299: 13298: 13288: 13283: 13273: 13272: 13271: 13270: 13269: 13262:Prime Minister 13259: 13258: 13257: 13247: 13242: 13232: 13227: 13222: 13217: 13212: 13204: 13199: 13193: 13190: 13189: 13177: 13176: 13173: 13172: 13170: 13169: 13164: 13159: 13154: 13149: 13144: 13139: 13134: 13129: 13124: 13119: 13114: 13109: 13104: 13099: 13094: 13089: 13084: 13079: 13074: 13068: 13065: 13064: 13052: 13051: 13048: 13047: 13044: 13043: 13041: 13040: 13035: 13034: 13033: 13023: 13022: 13021: 13016: 13006: 13001: 13000: 12999: 12994: 12989: 12979: 12974: 12973: 12972: 12970:1991 uprisings 12962: 12957: 12952: 12947: 12942: 12937: 12932: 12927: 12922: 12920:Saddam Hussein 12917: 12906: 12905: 12897: 12892: 12887: 12881: 12879: 12873: 12872: 12870: 12869: 12864: 12863: 12862: 12852: 12850:Mandatory Iraq 12847: 12842: 12839:Mamluk dynasty 12832: 12827: 12822: 12817: 12812: 12807: 12802: 12796: 12794: 12790: 12789: 12787: 12786: 12781: 12776: 12771: 12766: 12761: 12756: 12751: 12746: 12741: 12736: 12731: 12726: 12721: 12716: 12711: 12706: 12704:Gutian dynasty 12701: 12696: 12691: 12686: 12681: 12676: 12671: 12666: 12661: 12656: 12650: 12648: 12638: 12637: 12625: 12624: 12607: 12606: 12599: 12592: 12584: 12575: 12574: 12572: 12571: 12559: 12546: 12543: 12542: 12540: 12539: 12534: 12529: 12524: 12519: 12514: 12509: 12504: 12498: 12496: 12490: 12489: 12486: 12485: 12483: 12482: 12477: 12476: 12475: 12465: 12463:United Kingdom 12460: 12455: 12450: 12445: 12440: 12435: 12430: 12425: 12420: 12415: 12410: 12405: 12400: 12395: 12390: 12385: 12380: 12375: 12369: 12367: 12361: 12360: 12358: 12357: 12356: 12355: 12354: 12353: 12348: 12343: 12333: 12328: 12323: 12313: 12312: 12311: 12306: 12305: 12304: 12299: 12294: 12279: 12278: 12277: 12272: 12267: 12257: 12256: 12255: 12250: 12245: 12240: 12239: 12238: 12233: 12228: 12223: 12216:Nineveh Plains 12207: 12205: 12190: 12184: 12183: 12180: 12179: 12177: 12176: 12170: 12164: 12158: 12152: 12146: 12143:Adana massacre 12140: 12134: 12128: 12122: 12119:Schism of 1552 12116: 12113:Ottoman Empire 12110: 12107:Safavid Empire 12103: 12101: 12097: 12096: 12094: 12093: 12087: 12081: 12075: 12069: 12063: 12057: 12054:Emirs of Mosul 12051: 12045: 12039: 12032: 12030: 12026: 12025: 12023: 12022: 12016: 12010: 11996: 11990: 11984: 11978: 11972: 11966: 11960: 11954: 11948: 11941: 11939: 11933: 11932: 11930: 11929: 11924: 11919: 11914: 11908: 11902: 11901:(1363–912 BCE) 11896: 11890: 11883: 11881: 11871: 11857: 11856: 11854: 11853: 11848: 11843: 11838: 11833: 11828: 11822: 11820: 11814: 11813: 11811: 11810: 11805: 11800: 11795: 11790: 11785: 11780: 11775: 11769: 11767: 11755: 11754: 11751: 11750: 11748: 11747: 11741: 11735: 11728: 11726: 11720: 11719: 11717: 11716: 11710: 11704: 11698: 11691: 11689: 11680: 11672: 11671: 11637: 11635: 11633: 11632: 11627: 11622: 11617: 11611: 11609: 11605: 11604: 11597: 11594: 11593: 11586: 11585: 11578: 11571: 11563: 11554: 11553: 11551: 11550: 11539: 11536: 11535: 11460: 11459: 11456: 11455: 11447: 11446: 11439: 11432: 11424: 11415: 11414: 11410: 11409: 11404: 11400: 11399: 11383: 11382:63 BCE–224 CE 11379: 11378: 11373: 11368: 11364: 11363: 11358: 11354: 11353: 11345:Ancient Greeks 11337: 11333: 11332: 11327: 11323: 11322: 11310: 11306: 11305: 11303: 11301: 11297: 11296: 11291: 11287: 11286: 11267: 11262: 11255: 11246: 11237: 11232: 11228: 11227: 11220: 11204: 11200: 11199: 11197:Middle Assyria 11194: 11192: 11187: 11183: 11182: 11170: 11158: 11154: 11153: 11143: 11138: 11134: 11133: 11117: 11112: 11100: 11096: 11095: 11090: 11086: 11085: 11078: 11074: 11073: 11068: 11064: 11063: 11050: 11047: 11043: 11042: 11037: 11032: 11027: 11022: 11019: 11018: 11010: 11009: 11002: 10995: 10987: 10978: 10977: 10975: 10974: 10969: 10964: 10959: 10954: 10952:Assyriologists 10949: 10943: 10941: 10937: 10936: 10934: 10933: 10928: 10923: 10918: 10913: 10908: 10903: 10897: 10895: 10891: 10890: 10888: 10887: 10882: 10877: 10871: 10869: 10865: 10864: 10862: 10861: 10859:List of rulers 10856: 10851: 10846: 10841: 10836: 10831: 10826: 10821: 10816: 10811: 10806: 10801: 10796: 10791: 10786: 10781: 10775: 10773: 10769: 10768: 10766: 10765: 10760: 10755: 10750: 10748:Proto-Armenian 10745: 10740: 10735: 10733:Middle Persian 10730: 10725: 10720: 10715: 10710: 10705: 10700: 10695: 10690: 10685: 10680: 10674: 10672: 10666: 10665: 10662: 10661: 10659: 10658: 10653: 10648: 10643: 10638: 10633: 10628: 10623: 10621:Neo-Babylonian 10618: 10613: 10608: 10603: 10601:Old Babylonian 10598: 10593: 10588: 10583: 10578: 10573: 10571:Early Dynastic 10567: 10565: 10559: 10558: 10556: 10555: 10550: 10545: 10540: 10535: 10530: 10521: 10516: 10511: 10506: 10501: 10496: 10491: 10486: 10481: 10475: 10473: 10464: 10460: 10459: 10452: 10450: 10447: 10446: 10444: 10443: 10438: 10433: 10428: 10423: 10418: 10413: 10408: 10403: 10398: 10393: 10388: 10383: 10378: 10373: 10368: 10363: 10358: 10353: 10348: 10343: 10337: 10335: 10331: 10330: 10328: 10327: 10322: 10317: 10312: 10311: 10310: 10305: 10295: 10290: 10285: 10280: 10275: 10270: 10264: 10262: 10255: 10249: 10248: 10241: 10240: 10233: 10226: 10218: 10212: 10211: 10197: 10196:External links 10194: 10192: 10191: 10174: 10140: 10116: 10096: 10081:"Ashurbanipal" 10076: 10074: 10071: 10069: 10068: 10063:978-0582493803 10062: 10047: 10038: 10032: 10017: 10002: 9997:978-1107009608 9996: 9981: 9969:978-3945561133 9968: 9946: 9937: 9932:978-3727816239 9931: 9916: 9907: 9902:978-1594604362 9901: 9886: 9881:978-9004385337 9880: 9863: 9850: 9837: 9831: 9816: 9807: 9798: 9793:978-0140125238 9792: 9779: 9767:10.1086/511103 9759:10.1086/511103 9753:(4): 283–287. 9742: 9737:978-2503575223 9736: 9723: 9702: 9697:978-1991201164 9696: 9683: 9666: 9657: 9634: 9629:978-0198715900 9628: 9615: 9610:978-1409427094 9609: 9594: 9577: 9551:(3): 357–386. 9540: 9534: 9519: 9514:978-3111033587 9513: 9498: 9493:978-1588396068 9492: 9477: 9444: 9439:978-9004448094 9438: 9420: 9411: 9402: 9397:978-9004350700 9396: 9383: 9348: 9342: 9325: 9320:978-1452955018 9319: 9304: 9295: 9258: 9249: 9232: 9227:978-0415679053 9226: 9213: 9207: 9186: 9143: 9133:(2): 151–186. 9122: 9101:978-3447111836 9100: 9079: 9061:(1): 108–124. 9050: 9044: 9029: 9024:978-9004265615 9023: 9004: 8998: 8983: 8978:978-9004378025 8977: 8962: 8953: 8944: 8939:978-1119626107 8938: 8923: 8918:978-1474451505 8917: 8902: 8893: 8884: 8878: 8863: 8858:978-9004167353 8857: 8842: 8837:978-0892368174 8836: 8821: 8816:978-1785334986 8815: 8800: 8795:978-1930053465 8794: 8781: 8775: 8762: 8753: 8744: 8739:978-1118325247 8738: 8723: 8718:978-1315686561 8717: 8702: 8689:978-0429434105 8688: 8661: 8652: 8647:978-0813229652 8646: 8631: 8622: 8610:10.1086/669098 8602:10.1086/669098 8585: 8580:978-1628371772 8579: 8564: 8558: 8541: 8536:978-1108478748 8535: 8520: 8515:978-1138649040 8514: 8499: 8493: 8476: 8467: 8462:978-9004430914 8461: 8446: 8440: 8425: 8419: 8404: 8398: 8389:The Byzantines 8383: 8374: 8357: 8330: 8325:978-0738550121 8324: 8309: 8304:978-0195183641 8303: 8288: 8283:978-1108838795 8282: 8267: 8261: 8248: 8243:978-0226145280 8242: 8227: 8190: 8181: 8176:978-1463238933 8175: 8162: 8117: 8112:978-1403917669 8111: 8096: 8076:(1): 105–120. 8060: 8058: 8055: 8053: 8052: 8040: 8028: 8026:, p. 409. 8016: 8014:, p. 239. 8004: 7992: 7975: 7973:, p. 240. 7963: 7961:, p. 194. 7951: 7939: 7937:, p. 202. 7927: 7925:, p. 200. 7915: 7903: 7901:, p. 342. 7891: 7879: 7877:, p. 164. 7867: 7865:, p. 763. 7855: 7843: 7826: 7814: 7812:, p. 364. 7802: 7790: 7778: 7766: 7764:, p. 379. 7754: 7752:, p. 378. 7742: 7740:, p. 359. 7727: 7725:, p. 368. 7715: 7700: 7685: 7683:, p. 487. 7673: 7658: 7646: 7634: 7630:Eppihimer 2013 7622: 7620:, p. 458. 7610: 7598: 7596:, p. 455. 7583: 7581:, p. 454. 7571: 7569:, p. 453. 7559: 7542: 7530: 7528:, p. 154. 7518: 7516:, p. 110. 7506: 7504:, p. 511. 7494: 7479: 7477:, p. 228. 7467: 7465:, p. 164. 7455: 7440: 7438:, p. 117. 7428: 7426:, p. 319. 7416: 7414:, p. 180. 7401: 7399:, p. 147. 7386: 7384:, p. 318. 7369: 7367:, p. 321. 7354: 7352:, p. 162. 7342: 7340:, p. 316. 7330: 7328:, p. 149. 7309: 7307:, p. 112. 7297: 7295:, p. 111. 7280: 7278:, p. 315. 7259: 7255:Deutscher 2009 7244: 7242:, p. 313. 7229: 7225:Garfinkle 2007 7214: 7202: 7200:, p. 603. 7190: 7178: 7176:, p. 602. 7163: 7161:, p. 328. 7151: 7139: 7137:, p. 601. 7122: 7110: 7098: 7086: 7084:, p. 154. 7074: 7072:, p. 241. 7057: 7045: 7043:, p. 175. 7033: 7031:, p. 149. 7018: 7006: 7004:, p. 290. 6994: 6979: 6960: 6958:, p. 599. 6948: 6936: 6924: 6922:, p. 145. 6912: 6910:, p. 132. 6879: 6867: 6863:Garfinkle 2007 6855: 6851:Garfinkle 2007 6843: 6831: 6819: 6817:, p. 167. 6807: 6805:, p. 113. 6795: 6780: 6778:, p. 158. 6768: 6766:, p. 157. 6751: 6739: 6722: 6720:, p. 100. 6707: 6692: 6688:de Ridder 2017 6680: 6676:de Ridder 2017 6668: 6653: 6649:de Ridder 2017 6641: 6626: 6622:de Ridder 2017 6614: 6610:de Ridder 2017 6599: 6587: 6585:, p. 101. 6575: 6573:, p. 156. 6558: 6546: 6529: 6517: 6515:, p. 531. 6505: 6493: 6491:, p. 153. 6481: 6469: 6454: 6452:, p. 152. 6433: 6421: 6406: 6394: 6392:, p. 154. 6382: 6367: 6365:, p. 360. 6355: 6343: 6341:, p. 369. 6331: 6329:, p. 300. 6316: 6314:, p. 107. 6304: 6287: 6285:, p. 359. 6275: 6263: 6261:, p. 172. 6251: 6249:, p. 213. 6239: 6237:, p. 190. 6227: 6215: 6203: 6201:, p. 402. 6188: 6186:, p. 155. 6173: 6171:, p. 123. 6161: 6149: 6147:, p. 120. 6134: 6132:, p. 118. 6122: 6120:, p. 114. 6110: 6108:, p. 112. 6098: 6096:, p. 109. 6083: 6081:, p. 146. 6071: 6069:, p. 367. 6059: 6034: 6022: 6010: 6008:, p. 365. 5998: 5986: 5984:, p. 145. 5969: 5967:, p. 144. 5957: 5945: 5941:Eppihimer 2013 5933: 5931:, p. 103. 5921: 5919:, p. 117. 5909: 5897: 5895:, p. 143. 5882: 5867: 5855: 5836: 5832:Eppihimer 2013 5824: 5812: 5800: 5785: 5783:, p. 119. 5773: 5761: 5759:, p. 139. 5749: 5737: 5735:, p. 141. 5725: 5723:, p. 118. 5704: 5692: 5680: 5661: 5649: 5632: 5620: 5597: 5595:, p. 238. 5580: 5578:, p. 230. 5568: 5556: 5544: 5542:, p. 314. 5523: 5521:, p. 236. 5511: 5509:, p. 232. 5499: 5487: 5485:, p. 193. 5475: 5473:, p. 141. 5463: 5461:, p. 192. 5451: 5449:, p. 266. 5439: 5430: 5415: 5413:, p. 183. 5400: 5398:, p. 187. 5385: 5373: 5361: 5359:, p. 177. 5349: 5347:, p. 173. 5337: 5335:, p. 170. 5320: 5318:, p. 169. 5301: 5289: 5287:, p. 144. 5277: 5275:, p. 136. 5265: 5253: 5241: 5239:, p. 165. 5229: 5217: 5205: 5188: 5186:, p. 312. 5173: 5152: 5140: 5128: 5126:, p. 122. 5116: 5099: 5097:, p. 117. 5087: 5072: 5060: 5048: 5046:, p. 191. 5036: 5024: 5022:, p. 198. 5012: 5010:, p. 112. 5000: 4996:Garfinkle 2007 4988: 4973: 4958: 4946: 4942:Garfinkle 2007 4934: 4932:, p. 115. 4922: 4910: 4889: 4885:Garfinkle 2007 4872: 4855: 4840: 4828: 4816: 4804: 4792: 4788:Garfinkle 2007 4777: 4775:, p. 745. 4765: 4763:, p. 731. 4753: 4741: 4737:Garfinkle 2007 4729: 4717: 4715:, p. 208. 4702: 4700:, p. 600. 4685: 4683:, p. 416. 4673: 4669:Widengren 1986 4661: 4642: 4638:Rollinger 2006 4630: 4626:Rollinger 2006 4618: 4616:, p. 284. 4614:Rollinger 2006 4606: 4604:, p. 113. 4591: 4576: 4574:, p. 754. 4564: 4562:, p. 344. 4549: 4537: 4522: 4510: 4508:, p. 196. 4498: 4475: 4473:, p. 161. 4458: 4456:, p. 133. 4446: 4425: 4423:, p. 229. 4410: 4398: 4372: 4370:, p. 187. 4353: 4336: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4310: 4309: 4297: 4280: 4267: 4253: 4243: 4226: 4214: 4197: 4175: 4174: 4172: 4169: 4167: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4106: 4101: 4095: 4093: 4090: 4054:and Patriarch 3934:Main article: 3931: 3928: 3796: 3795: 3786: 3785: 3784: 3775: 3774: 3773: 3764: 3763: 3762: 3761: 3760: 3748: 3745: 3743: 3740: 3612: 3609: 3608: 3607: 3600: 3593: 3591: 3584: 3577: 3575: 3566: 3559: 3557: 3550: 3543: 3541: 3538: 3531: 3529: 3522: 3515: 3513: 3506: 3499: 3497: 3494: 3487: 3485: 3482: 3475: 3473: 3466: 3459: 3457: 3454: 3447: 3445: 3438: 3431: 3429: 3426: 3419: 3388:Ashur-bel-kala 3357:Early Dynastic 3336:Main article: 3333: 3330: 3282:Main article: 3279: 3276: 3210: 3207: 3132:Main article: 3129: 3126: 3124: 3121: 3119: 3116: 3074:, rather than 2965: 2964: 2955: 2954: 2953: 2944: 2943: 2942: 2941: 2940: 2874: 2871: 2841:cylinder seals 2832: 2829: 2803:Shamshi-Adad V 2717: 2714: 2685:chattel slaves 2618: 2615: 2607: 2604: 2602: 2599: 2593:) and guides ( 2539:sạ bū ša kakkē 2535:sạ bū ša arâtē 2531:sạ bū ša kakkē 2480: 2477: 2460:relay stations 2379:, governor of 2358: 2357:Administration 2355: 2264:Shalmaneser IV 2251: 2248: 2217: 2216: 2208: 2207: 2200: 2199: 2192: 2191: 2184: 2183: 2176: 2175: 2168: 2167: 2160: 2159: 2152: 2151: 2144: 2143: 2136: 2135: 2128: 2127: 2120: 2119: 2113: 2112: 2111: 2070: 2069:Capital cities 2067: 1915: 1912: 1910: 1907: 1882:Ottoman Empire 1878:Timurid Empire 1768:Main article: 1765: 1762: 1748:in 614 BC and 1728:Babylon under 1584:(911–609 BC). 1413: 1412: 1403: 1402: 1394: 1393: 1392: 1391: 1390: 1378: 1375: 1373:1363–912 BC). 1353:Šuppiluliuma I 1279:Shamshi-Adad I 1103: 1100: 1090: 1085:Main article: 1082: 1079: 951: 948: 889:largest empire 843:1363–912 BC), 821:Early Assyrian 753: 752: 744: 741: 740: 737: 736: 729: 723: 722: 719: 713: 712: 706: 700: 699: 693: 687: 686: 680: 670: 669: 656: 655: 652: 651: 648: 647: 640: 634: 633: 626: 617: 614: 613: 608: 596: 595: 590: 580: 579: 576: 575: 569: 563: 560: 559: 556: 548:Neo-Babylonian 545: 542: 541: 538: 532: 529: 528: 522: 516: 513: 512: 506: 500: 497: 496: 490: 487: 484: 483: 477: 471: 468: 467: 464: 463: 454: 453:Historical era 450: 449: 446: 445: 439: 436: 433: 432: 427: 424: 421: 420: 415: 412: 409: 408: 403: 400: 397: 396: 391: 388: 385: 384: 379: 376: 373: 372: 367: 364: 361: 360: 355: 348: 345: 344: 339: 332: 329: 328: 323: 316: 313: 312: 310:Shamshi-Adad I 307: 300: 297: 296: 291: 284: 281: 280: 274: 267: 264: 263: 260: 259: 256: 250: 249: 244: 240: 239: 234: 230: 229: 227: 226: 221: 216: 210: 208: 204: 203: 201: 200: 191: 182: 173: 164: 151: 136: 122: 120: 116: 115: 108: 100: 99: 92: 84: 83: 80: 79: 78:2025 BC–609 BC 72: 71: 45: 42: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13866: 13855: 13852: 13850: 13847: 13845: 13842: 13840: 13837: 13835: 13832: 13830: 13827: 13825: 13822: 13820: 13817: 13815: 13812: 13810: 13807: 13805: 13802: 13800: 13797: 13795: 13792: 13790: 13787: 13786: 13784: 13769: 13761: 13759: 13751: 13749: 13745: 13741: 13739: 13731: 13730: 13727: 13711: 13708: 13706: 13703: 13702: 13701: 13698: 13696: 13693: 13691: 13688: 13686: 13683: 13681: 13678: 13676: 13673: 13671: 13668: 13666: 13663: 13661: 13658: 13656: 13653: 13651: 13648: 13646: 13643: 13641: 13638: 13636: 13633: 13632: 13630: 13626: 13618: 13615: 13613: 13610: 13608: 13605: 13603: 13600: 13598: 13595: 13594: 13593: 13590: 13588: 13585: 13581: 13578: 13575: 13574:Iraqi Turkmen 13572: 13570: 13567: 13565: 13562: 13560: 13557: 13555: 13552: 13550: 13547: 13545: 13542: 13540: 13537: 13535: 13532: 13531: 13530: 13527: 13523: 13520: 13518: 13515: 13513: 13510: 13508: 13505: 13503: 13500: 13499: 13498: 13495: 13493: 13490: 13489: 13487: 13485: 13481: 13477: 13473: 13468: 13464: 13454: 13451: 13449: 13446: 13444: 13441: 13439: 13436: 13434: 13431: 13429: 13426: 13424: 13421: 13419: 13416: 13414: 13411: 13409: 13406: 13404: 13401: 13399: 13393: 13391: 13388: 13386: 13383: 13381: 13378: 13376: 13373: 13372: 13369: 13365: 13360: 13356: 13346: 13343: 13341: 13338: 13336: 13333: 13331: 13328: 13326: 13323: 13321: 13318: 13314: 13311: 13309: 13306: 13304: 13301: 13297: 13294: 13293: 13292: 13289: 13287: 13284: 13282: 13279: 13278: 13277: 13274: 13268: 13265: 13264: 13263: 13260: 13256: 13253: 13252: 13251: 13248: 13246: 13243: 13241: 13238: 13237: 13236: 13233: 13231: 13228: 13226: 13223: 13221: 13218: 13216: 13213: 13211: 13209:(legislative) 13205: 13203: 13200: 13198: 13195: 13194: 13191: 13187: 13182: 13178: 13168: 13165: 13163: 13160: 13158: 13155: 13153: 13150: 13148: 13145: 13143: 13142:Syrian Desert 13140: 13138: 13137:Shatt al-Arab 13135: 13133: 13130: 13128: 13125: 13123: 13120: 13118: 13115: 13113: 13110: 13108: 13105: 13103: 13100: 13098: 13095: 13093: 13090: 13088: 13085: 13083: 13080: 13078: 13075: 13073: 13072:Faw peninsula 13070: 13069: 13066: 13062: 13057: 13053: 13039: 13036: 13032: 13029: 13028: 13027: 13024: 13020: 13017: 13015: 13014:Fall of Mosul 13012: 13011: 13010: 13007: 13005: 13002: 12998: 12995: 12993: 12990: 12988: 12987:U.S. invasion 12985: 12984: 12983: 12980: 12978: 12975: 12971: 12968: 12967: 12966: 12963: 12961: 12958: 12956: 12953: 12951: 12950:Iran–Iraq War 12948: 12946: 12943: 12941: 12938: 12936: 12933: 12931: 12928: 12926: 12923: 12921: 12918: 12915: 12911: 12908: 12907: 12904: 12898: 12896: 12893: 12891: 12888: 12886: 12883: 12882: 12880: 12878: 12874: 12868: 12865: 12861: 12858: 12857: 12856: 12853: 12851: 12848: 12846: 12843: 12840: 12836: 12833: 12831: 12828: 12826: 12823: 12821: 12818: 12816: 12815:Buyid dynasty 12813: 12811: 12808: 12806: 12803: 12801: 12798: 12797: 12795: 12791: 12785: 12782: 12780: 12777: 12775: 12772: 12770: 12767: 12765: 12762: 12760: 12757: 12755: 12752: 12750: 12747: 12745: 12742: 12740: 12737: 12735: 12732: 12730: 12727: 12725: 12722: 12720: 12717: 12715: 12712: 12710: 12707: 12705: 12702: 12700: 12697: 12695: 12692: 12690: 12687: 12685: 12682: 12680: 12677: 12675: 12672: 12670: 12667: 12665: 12664:Halaf culture 12662: 12660: 12657: 12655: 12652: 12651: 12649: 12647: 12643: 12639: 12635: 12630: 12626: 12621: 12615: 12605: 12600: 12598: 12593: 12591: 12586: 12585: 12582: 12570: 12565: 12560: 12558: 12548: 12547: 12544: 12538: 12535: 12533: 12530: 12528: 12525: 12523: 12520: 12518: 12515: 12513: 12510: 12508: 12505: 12503: 12500: 12499: 12497: 12495: 12491: 12481: 12478: 12474: 12471: 12470: 12469: 12468:United States 12466: 12464: 12461: 12459: 12456: 12454: 12451: 12449: 12446: 12444: 12441: 12439: 12436: 12434: 12431: 12429: 12426: 12424: 12421: 12419: 12416: 12414: 12411: 12409: 12406: 12404: 12401: 12399: 12396: 12394: 12391: 12389: 12386: 12384: 12381: 12379: 12376: 12374: 12371: 12370: 12368: 12366: 12362: 12352: 12349: 12347: 12344: 12342: 12339: 12338: 12337: 12334: 12332: 12329: 12327: 12324: 12322: 12319: 12318: 12317: 12314: 12310: 12307: 12303: 12300: 12298: 12295: 12293: 12290: 12289: 12288: 12285: 12284: 12283: 12280: 12276: 12273: 12271: 12268: 12266: 12263: 12262: 12261: 12258: 12254: 12251: 12249: 12246: 12244: 12241: 12237: 12234: 12232: 12229: 12227: 12224: 12222: 12219: 12218: 12217: 12214: 12213: 12212: 12209: 12208: 12206: 12203: 12198: 12194: 12191: 12189: 12185: 12174: 12171: 12168: 12165: 12162: 12159: 12156: 12153: 12150: 12147: 12144: 12141: 12138: 12135: 12132: 12129: 12126: 12123: 12120: 12117: 12114: 12111: 12108: 12105: 12104: 12102: 12098: 12091: 12088: 12085: 12082: 12079: 12076: 12073: 12070: 12067: 12064: 12061: 12060:Buyid amirate 12058: 12055: 12052: 12049: 12046: 12043: 12040: 12037: 12034: 12033: 12031: 12027: 12020: 12017: 12014: 12011: 12008: 12004: 12000: 11997: 11994: 11991: 11988: 11985: 11982: 11981:Roman Assyria 11979: 11976: 11973: 11970: 11967: 11964: 11961: 11958: 11955: 11952: 11949: 11946: 11943: 11942: 11940: 11934: 11928: 11925: 11923: 11920: 11918: 11915: 11912: 11909: 11907:(911–609 BCE) 11906: 11903: 11900: 11897: 11894: 11891: 11888: 11885: 11884: 11882: 11880: 11875: 11872: 11862: 11858: 11852: 11849: 11847: 11844: 11842: 11839: 11837: 11834: 11832: 11829: 11827: 11824: 11823: 11821: 11819: 11815: 11809: 11808:Syriac script 11806: 11804: 11801: 11799: 11796: 11794: 11791: 11789: 11786: 11784: 11781: 11779: 11776: 11774: 11771: 11770: 11768: 11764: 11760: 11756: 11745: 11742: 11739: 11736: 11733: 11730: 11729: 11727: 11725: 11721: 11714: 11711: 11708: 11705: 11702: 11699: 11696: 11693: 11692: 11690: 11688: 11684: 11681: 11679: 11673: 11668: 11667:Chaldean flag 11663: 11657: 11652: 11646: 11645:Assyrian flag 11641: 11631: 11628: 11626: 11623: 11621: 11618: 11616: 11613: 11612: 11610: 11606: 11601: 11595: 11591: 11584: 11579: 11577: 11572: 11570: 11565: 11564: 11561: 11549: 11541: 11540: 11537: 11457: 11453: 11445: 11440: 11438: 11433: 11431: 11426: 11425: 11422: 11408: 11401: 11397: 11396: 11391: 11387: 11380: 11377: 11372: 11365: 11362: 11355: 11351: 11350: 11346: 11341: 11335: 11334: 11331: 11325: 11324: 11320: 11319: 11314: 11308: 11307: 11299: 11298: 11295: 11289: 11288: 11285: 11284: 11279: 11278: 11273: 11272: 11266: 11261: 11260: 11254: 11250: 11245: 11241: 11236: 11230: 11229: 11226: 11225: 11221: 11218: 11216: 11210: 11209: 11202: 11201: 11198: 11193: 11191: 11185: 11184: 11180: 11179: 11174: 11168: 11167: 11162: 11156: 11155: 11151: 11147: 11142: 11136: 11135: 11132: 11130: 11125: 11121: 11116: 11111: 11109: 11104: 11098: 11097: 11094: 11088: 11087: 11084: 11083: 11076: 11075: 11072: 11066: 11065: 11062: 11058: 11054: 11045: 11044: 11041: 11036: 11031: 11026: 11025: 11020: 11016: 11008: 11003: 11001: 10996: 10994: 10989: 10988: 10985: 10973: 10970: 10968: 10965: 10963: 10960: 10958: 10955: 10953: 10950: 10948: 10945: 10944: 10942: 10938: 10932: 10929: 10927: 10924: 10922: 10919: 10917: 10914: 10912: 10909: 10907: 10904: 10902: 10899: 10898: 10896: 10892: 10886: 10883: 10881: 10878: 10876: 10873: 10872: 10870: 10866: 10860: 10857: 10855: 10852: 10850: 10847: 10845: 10842: 10840: 10837: 10835: 10832: 10830: 10827: 10825: 10822: 10820: 10817: 10815: 10812: 10810: 10807: 10805: 10802: 10800: 10797: 10795: 10792: 10790: 10787: 10785: 10782: 10780: 10777: 10776: 10774: 10770: 10764: 10761: 10759: 10756: 10754: 10751: 10749: 10746: 10744: 10741: 10739: 10736: 10734: 10731: 10729: 10726: 10724: 10721: 10719: 10716: 10714: 10711: 10709: 10706: 10704: 10701: 10699: 10696: 10694: 10691: 10689: 10686: 10684: 10681: 10679: 10676: 10675: 10673: 10671: 10667: 10657: 10654: 10652: 10649: 10647: 10644: 10642: 10639: 10637: 10634: 10632: 10629: 10627: 10624: 10622: 10619: 10617: 10614: 10612: 10609: 10607: 10604: 10602: 10599: 10597: 10594: 10592: 10589: 10587: 10584: 10582: 10579: 10577: 10574: 10572: 10569: 10568: 10566: 10564: 10560: 10554: 10551: 10549: 10546: 10544: 10541: 10539: 10536: 10534: 10531: 10529: 10525: 10522: 10520: 10517: 10515: 10512: 10510: 10507: 10505: 10502: 10500: 10497: 10495: 10492: 10490: 10487: 10485: 10482: 10480: 10477: 10476: 10474: 10472: 10468: 10465: 10461: 10456: 10442: 10439: 10437: 10434: 10432: 10429: 10427: 10424: 10422: 10419: 10417: 10414: 10412: 10409: 10407: 10404: 10402: 10399: 10397: 10394: 10392: 10389: 10387: 10384: 10382: 10379: 10377: 10374: 10372: 10369: 10367: 10364: 10362: 10359: 10357: 10354: 10352: 10349: 10347: 10344: 10342: 10339: 10338: 10336: 10332: 10326: 10323: 10321: 10318: 10316: 10313: 10309: 10306: 10304: 10301: 10300: 10299: 10296: 10294: 10291: 10289: 10288:Syrian Desert 10286: 10284: 10281: 10279: 10276: 10274: 10271: 10269: 10266: 10265: 10263: 10259: 10256: 10254: 10250: 10246: 10239: 10234: 10232: 10227: 10225: 10220: 10219: 10216: 10209: 10204: 10200: 10199: 10188: 10184: 10180: 10175: 10171: 10165: 10149: 10145: 10141: 10129: 10125: 10121: 10117: 10106: 10102: 10097: 10086: 10082: 10078: 10077: 10065: 10059: 10055: 10054: 10048: 10044: 10039: 10035: 10033:90-04-11772-5 10029: 10025: 10024: 10018: 10014: 10013: 10008: 10003: 9999: 9993: 9989: 9988: 9982: 9975: 9971: 9965: 9961: 9960: 9952: 9947: 9943: 9938: 9934: 9928: 9924: 9923: 9917: 9913: 9908: 9904: 9898: 9894: 9893: 9887: 9883: 9877: 9873: 9869: 9864: 9860: 9856: 9851: 9847: 9843: 9838: 9834: 9832:9780312035112 9828: 9824: 9823: 9817: 9813: 9808: 9804: 9799: 9795: 9789: 9785: 9780: 9776: 9772: 9768: 9764: 9760: 9756: 9752: 9748: 9743: 9739: 9733: 9729: 9724: 9720: 9716: 9712: 9708: 9703: 9699: 9693: 9689: 9684: 9680: 9676: 9672: 9667: 9663: 9658: 9651: 9647: 9640: 9635: 9631: 9625: 9621: 9616: 9612: 9606: 9602: 9601: 9595: 9591: 9587: 9583: 9578: 9574: 9570: 9566: 9562: 9558: 9554: 9550: 9546: 9541: 9537: 9535:3-447-02744-4 9531: 9527: 9526: 9520: 9516: 9510: 9506: 9505: 9499: 9495: 9489: 9485: 9484: 9478: 9474: 9470: 9466: 9462: 9458: 9454: 9450: 9445: 9441: 9435: 9431: 9430: 9425: 9421: 9417: 9412: 9408: 9403: 9399: 9393: 9389: 9384: 9380: 9376: 9371: 9366: 9362: 9358: 9354: 9349: 9345: 9343:0-521-07791-5 9339: 9335: 9331: 9326: 9322: 9316: 9312: 9311: 9305: 9301: 9296: 9292: 9288: 9284: 9280: 9276: 9272: 9269:(1): 87–111. 9268: 9264: 9259: 9255: 9250: 9246: 9242: 9238: 9233: 9229: 9223: 9219: 9214: 9210: 9208:0-521-07791-5 9204: 9200: 9196: 9194: 9187: 9183: 9179: 9175: 9171: 9166: 9161: 9157: 9153: 9149: 9144: 9140: 9136: 9132: 9128: 9123: 9119: 9115: 9111: 9110:j.ctvh4zg0s.6 9107: 9103: 9097: 9093: 9089: 9085: 9080: 9076: 9072: 9068: 9064: 9060: 9056: 9051: 9047: 9045:0-226-62281-9 9041: 9037: 9036: 9030: 9026: 9020: 9016: 9012: 9011: 9005: 9001: 8999:0-521-80789-1 8995: 8991: 8990: 8984: 8980: 8974: 8970: 8969: 8963: 8959: 8954: 8950: 8945: 8941: 8935: 8931: 8930: 8924: 8920: 8914: 8910: 8909: 8903: 8899: 8894: 8890: 8885: 8881: 8879:0-87099-743-2 8875: 8871: 8870: 8864: 8860: 8854: 8850: 8849: 8843: 8839: 8833: 8829: 8828: 8822: 8818: 8812: 8808: 8807: 8801: 8797: 8791: 8787: 8782: 8778: 8772: 8768: 8763: 8759: 8754: 8750: 8745: 8741: 8735: 8731: 8730: 8724: 8720: 8714: 8710: 8709: 8703: 8699: 8695: 8691: 8685: 8681: 8677: 8673: 8672: 8667: 8662: 8658: 8653: 8649: 8643: 8639: 8638: 8632: 8628: 8623: 8619: 8615: 8611: 8607: 8603: 8599: 8595: 8591: 8586: 8582: 8576: 8573:. SBL Press. 8572: 8571: 8565: 8561: 8555: 8551: 8547: 8542: 8538: 8532: 8528: 8527: 8521: 8517: 8511: 8507: 8506: 8500: 8496: 8490: 8486: 8482: 8477: 8473: 8468: 8464: 8458: 8454: 8453: 8447: 8443: 8441:0-931464-82-X 8437: 8433: 8432: 8426: 8422: 8420:0-8091-4338-0 8416: 8412: 8411: 8405: 8401: 8395: 8391: 8390: 8384: 8380: 8375: 8371: 8367: 8363: 8358: 8351: 8347: 8343: 8336: 8331: 8327: 8321: 8317: 8316: 8310: 8306: 8300: 8296: 8295: 8289: 8285: 8279: 8275: 8274: 8268: 8264: 8258: 8254: 8249: 8245: 8239: 8235: 8234: 8228: 8224: 8220: 8216: 8212: 8208: 8204: 8200: 8196: 8191: 8187: 8182: 8178: 8172: 8168: 8163: 8158: 8153: 8149: 8145: 8140: 8135: 8131: 8127: 8123: 8118: 8114: 8108: 8104: 8103: 8097: 8093: 8089: 8084: 8079: 8075: 8071: 8067: 8062: 8061: 8050:, p. 50. 8049: 8044: 8037: 8032: 8025: 8020: 8013: 8008: 8001: 7996: 7990:, p. 49. 7989: 7984: 7982: 7980: 7972: 7967: 7960: 7955: 7949:, p. 80. 7948: 7943: 7936: 7931: 7924: 7919: 7912: 7907: 7900: 7895: 7889:, p. 42. 7888: 7883: 7876: 7875:Breasted 1926 7871: 7864: 7859: 7853:, p. 83. 7852: 7847: 7841:, p. 35. 7840: 7835: 7833: 7831: 7823: 7818: 7811: 7806: 7799: 7794: 7787: 7782: 7775: 7770: 7763: 7758: 7751: 7746: 7739: 7734: 7732: 7724: 7719: 7712: 7707: 7705: 7697: 7692: 7690: 7682: 7681:Russell 2017b 7677: 7670: 7669:Russell 2017b 7665: 7663: 7655: 7654:Russell 2017b 7650: 7643: 7642:Russell 2017b 7638: 7632:, p. 37. 7631: 7626: 7619: 7618:Russell 2017b 7614: 7608:, p. 32. 7607: 7602: 7595: 7594:Russell 2017b 7590: 7588: 7580: 7579:Russell 2017b 7575: 7568: 7567:Russell 2017b 7563: 7556: 7555:Mallowan 1971 7551: 7549: 7547: 7540:, p. 44. 7539: 7534: 7527: 7522: 7515: 7510: 7503: 7498: 7491: 7490:Russell 2017a 7486: 7484: 7476: 7471: 7464: 7459: 7452: 7447: 7445: 7437: 7432: 7425: 7420: 7413: 7408: 7406: 7398: 7393: 7391: 7383: 7378: 7376: 7374: 7366: 7361: 7359: 7351: 7346: 7339: 7334: 7327: 7322: 7320: 7318: 7316: 7314: 7306: 7301: 7294: 7289: 7287: 7285: 7277: 7272: 7270: 7268: 7266: 7264: 7257:, p. 20. 7256: 7251: 7249: 7241: 7236: 7234: 7227:, p. 54. 7226: 7221: 7219: 7212:, p. 11. 7211: 7206: 7199: 7194: 7187: 7182: 7175: 7170: 7168: 7160: 7155: 7148: 7143: 7136: 7131: 7129: 7127: 7119: 7114: 7108:, p. 37. 7107: 7102: 7095: 7090: 7083: 7078: 7071: 7066: 7064: 7062: 7055:, p. 10. 7054: 7049: 7042: 7037: 7030: 7025: 7023: 7016:, p. 10. 7015: 7010: 7003: 6998: 6991: 6986: 6984: 6976: 6975:Benjamen 2022 6971: 6969: 6967: 6965: 6957: 6952: 6945: 6940: 6934:, p. 57. 6933: 6928: 6921: 6916: 6909: 6904: 6902: 6900: 6898: 6896: 6894: 6892: 6890: 6888: 6886: 6884: 6876: 6871: 6865:, p. 66. 6864: 6859: 6853:, p. 64. 6852: 6847: 6841:, p. 80. 6840: 6835: 6828: 6823: 6816: 6811: 6804: 6799: 6792: 6787: 6785: 6777: 6772: 6765: 6760: 6758: 6756: 6748: 6743: 6737:, p. 85. 6736: 6731: 6729: 6727: 6719: 6714: 6712: 6705:, p. 81. 6704: 6699: 6697: 6690:, p. 50. 6689: 6684: 6678:, p. 51. 6677: 6672: 6666:, p. 83. 6665: 6660: 6658: 6651:, p. 57. 6650: 6645: 6639:, p. 84. 6638: 6633: 6631: 6624:, p. 56. 6623: 6618: 6612:, p. 49. 6611: 6606: 6604: 6596: 6591: 6584: 6579: 6572: 6567: 6565: 6563: 6555: 6550: 6544:, p. 36. 6543: 6538: 6536: 6534: 6526: 6521: 6514: 6509: 6502: 6497: 6490: 6485: 6478: 6473: 6466: 6461: 6459: 6451: 6446: 6444: 6442: 6440: 6438: 6430: 6425: 6419:, p. 64. 6418: 6413: 6411: 6403: 6398: 6391: 6386: 6379: 6374: 6372: 6364: 6359: 6352: 6347: 6340: 6335: 6328: 6323: 6321: 6313: 6308: 6301: 6296: 6294: 6292: 6284: 6279: 6273:, p. 58. 6272: 6267: 6260: 6255: 6248: 6243: 6236: 6231: 6224: 6219: 6212: 6207: 6200: 6195: 6193: 6185: 6180: 6178: 6170: 6165: 6158: 6153: 6146: 6141: 6139: 6131: 6126: 6119: 6114: 6107: 6102: 6095: 6090: 6088: 6080: 6075: 6068: 6063: 6056: 6051: 6049: 6047: 6045: 6043: 6041: 6039: 6032:, p. 29. 6031: 6026: 6020:, p. 22. 6019: 6014: 6007: 6002: 5995: 5990: 5983: 5978: 5976: 5974: 5966: 5961: 5955:, p. 74. 5954: 5949: 5943:, p. 49. 5942: 5937: 5930: 5925: 5918: 5917:Chavalas 1994 5913: 5907:, p. 71. 5906: 5901: 5894: 5889: 5887: 5880:, p. 70. 5879: 5874: 5872: 5865:, p. 37. 5864: 5859: 5853:, p. 38. 5852: 5847: 5845: 5843: 5841: 5834:, p. 43. 5833: 5828: 5822:, p. 22. 5821: 5816: 5809: 5804: 5798:, p. 10. 5797: 5792: 5790: 5782: 5777: 5770: 5765: 5758: 5753: 5746: 5741: 5734: 5733:Jacobsen 2021 5729: 5722: 5717: 5715: 5713: 5711: 5709: 5701: 5696: 5689: 5684: 5678:, p. 19. 5677: 5672: 5670: 5668: 5666: 5658: 5653: 5647:, p. 18. 5646: 5641: 5639: 5637: 5629: 5624: 5618:, p. 20. 5617: 5612: 5610: 5608: 5606: 5604: 5602: 5594: 5589: 5587: 5585: 5577: 5572: 5566:, p. 19. 5565: 5560: 5554:, p. 97. 5553: 5548: 5541: 5536: 5534: 5532: 5530: 5528: 5520: 5515: 5508: 5503: 5497:, p. 20. 5496: 5491: 5484: 5479: 5472: 5467: 5460: 5455: 5448: 5443: 5434: 5427: 5422: 5420: 5412: 5407: 5405: 5397: 5392: 5390: 5382: 5377: 5370: 5365: 5358: 5353: 5346: 5341: 5334: 5329: 5327: 5325: 5317: 5312: 5310: 5308: 5306: 5298: 5293: 5286: 5281: 5274: 5269: 5262: 5257: 5250: 5245: 5238: 5233: 5226: 5221: 5214: 5209: 5203:, p. 46. 5202: 5197: 5195: 5193: 5185: 5180: 5178: 5171:, p. 57. 5170: 5165: 5163: 5161: 5159: 5157: 5149: 5144: 5137: 5132: 5125: 5120: 5114:, p. 45. 5113: 5108: 5106: 5104: 5096: 5091: 5085:, p. 43. 5084: 5079: 5077: 5070:, p. 42. 5069: 5064: 5057: 5052: 5045: 5040: 5034:, p. 81. 5033: 5028: 5021: 5016: 5009: 5004: 4998:, p. 69. 4997: 4992: 4986:, p. 68. 4985: 4980: 4978: 4971:, p. 30. 4970: 4965: 4963: 4956:, p. 66. 4955: 4950: 4944:, p. 68. 4943: 4938: 4931: 4926: 4920:, p. 65. 4919: 4914: 4907: 4902: 4900: 4898: 4896: 4894: 4887:, p. 67. 4886: 4881: 4879: 4877: 4870:, p. 34. 4869: 4864: 4862: 4860: 4853:, p. 61. 4852: 4847: 4845: 4837: 4832: 4826:, p. 62. 4825: 4820: 4813: 4808: 4801: 4796: 4790:, p. 63. 4789: 4784: 4782: 4774: 4769: 4762: 4757: 4750: 4745: 4739:, p. 61. 4738: 4733: 4727:, p. 48. 4726: 4725:Liverani 2014 4721: 4714: 4713:Liverani 2014 4709: 4707: 4699: 4694: 4692: 4690: 4682: 4677: 4670: 4665: 4659:, p. 18. 4658: 4653: 4651: 4649: 4647: 4639: 4634: 4627: 4622: 4615: 4610: 4603: 4598: 4596: 4588: 4583: 4581: 4573: 4568: 4561: 4556: 4554: 4547:, p. 22. 4546: 4545:Aissaoui 2018 4541: 4534: 4529: 4527: 4519: 4514: 4507: 4502: 4496:, p. 21. 4495: 4490: 4488: 4486: 4484: 4482: 4480: 4472: 4467: 4465: 4463: 4455: 4450: 4443: 4442:Aberbach 2003 4438: 4436: 4434: 4432: 4430: 4422: 4417: 4415: 4407: 4402: 4387:. 6 July 2023 4386: 4382: 4376: 4369: 4364: 4362: 4360: 4358: 4350: 4345: 4343: 4341: 4334:, p. 39. 4333: 4328: 4326: 4324: 4319: 4307: 4301: 4294: 4290: 4284: 4277: 4271: 4264: 4257: 4247: 4240: 4236: 4230: 4224: 4218: 4211: 4207: 4201: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4180: 4176: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4097: 4096: 4089: 4087: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4069: 4063: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4036: 4034: 4030: 4029:Protestantism 4024: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3993: 3991: 3990: 3985: 3980: 3976: 3971: 3969: 3968: 3963: 3959: 3951: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3927: 3925: 3924: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3898: 3894: 3889: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3873: 3871: 3865: 3863: 3859: 3853: 3849: 3847: 3846: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3820: 3818: 3813: 3804: 3800: 3790: 3779: 3768: 3758: 3754: 3739: 3737: 3736: 3731: 3730: 3729:Myth of Etana 3725: 3724: 3719: 3718: 3713: 3712: 3707: 3706: 3705:Marduk Ordeal 3701: 3700: 3699:Sin of Sargon 3695: 3694: 3688: 3686: 3682: 3677: 3674: 3668: 3666: 3665: 3660: 3659: 3652: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3637: 3628: 3627: 3622: 3617: 3605: 3597: 3592: 3588: 3581: 3576: 3572: 3571: 3563: 3558: 3554: 3547: 3542: 3535: 3530: 3526: 3519: 3514: 3510: 3503: 3498: 3491: 3486: 3479: 3474: 3470: 3463: 3458: 3451: 3446: 3442: 3435: 3430: 3423: 3418: 3417: 3416: 3412: 3410: 3409: 3402: 3400: 3389: 3384: 3379: 3375: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3360: 3358: 3354: 3344: 3339: 3329: 3327: 3321: 3319: 3315: 3310: 3308: 3304: 3295: 3290: 3285: 3275: 3273: 3268: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3241: 3237: 3235: 3234: 3224: 3220: 3215: 3206: 3202: 3200: 3196: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3148: 3145: 3140: 3135: 3115: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3095: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3044: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2993: 2991: 2987: 2982: 2972: 2968: 2959: 2948: 2939: 2934: 2929: 2926: 2921: 2915: 2912: 2908: 2894: 2889: 2884: 2880: 2870: 2868: 2863: 2857: 2855: 2842: 2837: 2828: 2826: 2815: 2804: 2800: 2795: 2792: 2786: 2783: 2778: 2772: 2770: 2766: 2761: 2759: 2755: 2750: 2747: 2731: 2727: 2722: 2713: 2711: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2681: 2677: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2636: 2632: 2623: 2613: 2598: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2571: 2570:siege warfare 2567: 2562: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2547:ṣābū ša qalte 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2527: 2525: 2524:foot soldiers 2521: 2517: 2516:ṣābū ḫurādātu 2513: 2509: 2499: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2476: 2474: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2452: 2450: 2448: 2441: 2439: 2435: 2434:ša bēt-kūdini 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2373: 2368: 2364: 2354: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2339: 2333: 2332: 2329: 2328: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2310: 2305: 2302:(treasurer), 2301: 2297: 2291: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2265: 2261: 2256: 2247: 2245: 2241: 2230: 2220: 2211: 2195: 2179: 2178:Dur-Sharrukin 2163: 2147: 2131: 2117: 2110: 2108: 2107:Dur-Kurigalzu 2104: 2095: 2088: 2087:Islamic State 2084: 2080: 2075: 2066: 2064: 2058: 2044: 2039: 2035: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 1999: 1995: 1994:šar māt Aššur 1990: 1986: 1982: 1977: 1975: 1974: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1945: 1931: 1926: 1921: 1906: 1904: 1900: 1899:Islamic State 1896: 1892: 1891: 1885: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1870: 1866: 1865:Christianized 1861: 1856: 1850: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1835: 1830: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1814: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1792: 1785: 1781: 1776: 1771: 1764:Later history 1761: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1719: 1714: 1705: 1701: 1696: 1695:Dur-Sharrukin 1685: 1674: 1671:, founded by 1670: 1665: 1663: 1659: 1647: 1635: 1630: 1628: 1624: 1613: 1609: 1594: 1589: 1585: 1583: 1571: 1565: 1556: 1555:Eriba-Adad II 1545: 1534: 1520: 1516: 1506: 1500: 1489: 1483: 1471: 1457: 1456:Shalmaneser I 1443: 1442:Adad-nirari I 1439: 1438:Hittite kings 1435: 1431: 1421: 1417: 1407: 1398: 1388: 1384: 1374: 1358: 1354: 1342: 1338: 1330: 1326: 1321: 1319: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1290: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1262: 1260: 1256: 1250: 1248: 1234: 1226: 1222: 1217: 1213: 1211: 1210:Puzur-Ashur I 1207: 1199: 1196:and then the 1195: 1191: 1187: 1179: 1175: 1170: 1163: 1160:dates to the 1159: 1155: 1151: 1143: 1135: 1131: 1123: 1118: 1113: 1109: 1102:Early history 1088: 1078: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1031: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1004: 1002: 997: 993: 989: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 957: 947: 945: 941: 935: 933: 929: 928:Christianized 925: 921: 917: 913: 909: 905: 901: 896: 894: 893:world history 890: 886: 882: 878: 874: 870: 869:Puzur-Ashur I 866: 858: 850: 849:post-imperial 846: 838: 830: 822: 818: 814: 809: 807: 803: 799: 796: 792: 787: 785: 780: 775: 770: 763: 759: 750: 749: 743: 742: 730: 728: 725: 724: 720: 718: 715: 714: 707: 705: 702: 701: 694: 692: 689: 688: 681: 679: 676: 675: 672: 671: 667: 662: 661: 641: 639: 638:Median Empire 636: 635: 627: 625: 622: 621: 618: 612: 609: 602: 601: 598: 597: 594: 591: 589: 586: 585: 581: 577: 570: 567: 561: 557: 553: 549: 543: 539: 536: 530: 523: 520: 514: 507: 504: 498: 491: 485: 478: 475: 469: 465: 462: 458: 455: 451: 447: 443: 440: 434: 431: 428: 422: 419: 416: 410: 407: 404: 398: 395: 392: 386: 383: 380: 374: 371: 368: 362: 359: 356: 353:1243–1207 BC 346: 343: 340: 337:1363–1328 BC 330: 327: 324: 321:1700–1691 BC 314: 311: 308: 305:1808–1776 BC 298: 295: 292: 289:1974–1935 BC 282: 278: 277:Puzur-Ashur I 275: 265: 261: 257: 255: 254:Notable kings 251: 248: 245: 241: 238: 235: 231: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 211: 209: 205: 195: 192: 186: 183: 177: 176:Dur-Sharrukin 174: 168: 165: 155: 152: 149:1233–1207 BC) 141: 137: 134:2025–1233 BC) 127: 124: 123: 121: 117: 112: 106: 101: 96: 88: 81: 73: 68: 66: 61: 56: 51: 40: 37: 33: 26: 22: 13602:Christianity 13484:Demographics 13418:Oil reserves 13413:Oil Industry 13380:Central Bank 13276:Human rights 13202:Constitution 13147:Tigris river 13127:Persian Gulf 12835:Ottoman Iraq 12820:Qara Qoyunlu 12748: 12654:Ubaid period 12084:Qara Qoyunlu 11947:(312–63 BCE) 11878: 11678:Christianity 11393: 11386:Ancient Rome 11357:311–129 BCE 11343: 11336:336–301 BCE 11326:539–331 BCE 11316: 11309:626–539 BCE 11300:729–609 BCE 11290:911–729 BCE 11281: 11275: 11269: 11257: 11222: 11212: 11206: 11176: 11164: 11149: 11126: 11105: 11080: 11039: 11034: 11029: 11013:Timeline of 10854:Royal titles 10779:Architecture 10616:Neo-Assyrian 10463:(Pre)history 10360: 10283:Persian Gulf 10182: 10152:. Retrieved 10147: 10132:. Retrieved 10128:the original 10123: 10108:. Retrieved 10104: 10088:. Retrieved 10084: 10052: 10043:Frahm (2017) 10022: 10010: 9986: 9958: 9942:Frahm (2017) 9921: 9911: 9891: 9871: 9858: 9854: 9845: 9821: 9812:Frahm (2017) 9803:Frahm (2017) 9784:Ancient Iraq 9783: 9750: 9746: 9727: 9710: 9706: 9687: 9678: 9674: 9662:Frahm (2017) 9645: 9619: 9599: 9589: 9585: 9548: 9544: 9524: 9503: 9482: 9456: 9452: 9428: 9416:Frahm (2017) 9407:Frahm (2017) 9387: 9360: 9356: 9333: 9309: 9300:Frahm (2017) 9266: 9262: 9254:Frahm (2017) 9244: 9240: 9217: 9198: 9192: 9158:(1): 82–86. 9155: 9151: 9130: 9126: 9083: 9058: 9054: 9034: 9009: 8988: 8967: 8958:Frahm (2017) 8949:Frahm (2017) 8928: 8907: 8898:Frahm (2017) 8889:Frahm (2017) 8868: 8847: 8826: 8805: 8785: 8766: 8758:Frahm (2017) 8749:Frahm (2017) 8728: 8707: 8670: 8657:Frahm (2017) 8636: 8627:Frahm (2017) 8596:(1): 35–49. 8593: 8589: 8569: 8549: 8525: 8504: 8484: 8472:Frahm (2017) 8451: 8430: 8409: 8388: 8379:Frahm (2017) 8361: 8350:the original 8345: 8341: 8314: 8293: 8272: 8252: 8232: 8201:(1): 48–59. 8198: 8194: 8186:Frahm (2017) 8166: 8129: 8125: 8101: 8073: 8069: 8057:Bibliography 8048:Cassidy 2005 8043: 8036:Cassidy 2005 8031: 8024:Akopian 2017 8019: 8007: 8002:, p. 6. 7995: 7988:Cassidy 2005 7966: 7954: 7942: 7930: 7918: 7906: 7894: 7882: 7870: 7858: 7851:Lambert 1983 7846: 7839:Bedford 2009 7824:, p. 7. 7817: 7805: 7793: 7781: 7769: 7757: 7745: 7718: 7676: 7649: 7637: 7625: 7613: 7601: 7574: 7562: 7533: 7521: 7514:Albenda 2018 7509: 7497: 7470: 7463:Kaufman 1974 7458: 7451:Donabed 2019 7436:Donabed 2019 7431: 7419: 7345: 7333: 7300: 7210:Parpola 2004 7205: 7193: 7181: 7154: 7142: 7120:, p. 7. 7118:Cameron 2009 7113: 7101: 7096:, Chapter 1. 7094:Jackson 2020 7089: 7077: 7048: 7036: 7009: 6997: 6990:Parpola 2004 6977:, p. 2. 6951: 6944:Bahrani 2006 6939: 6932:Bahrani 2006 6927: 6915: 6875:Bedford 2009 6870: 6858: 6846: 6834: 6822: 6810: 6798: 6771: 6742: 6683: 6671: 6644: 6617: 6590: 6578: 6549: 6542:Bedford 2009 6520: 6508: 6496: 6484: 6472: 6424: 6417:Radner 2015b 6397: 6385: 6358: 6346: 6334: 6307: 6278: 6271:Veenhof 2017 6266: 6254: 6242: 6230: 6218: 6206: 6164: 6152: 6125: 6113: 6101: 6074: 6062: 6030:Bedford 2009 6025: 6018:Bedford 2009 6013: 6001: 5989: 5960: 5953:Veenhof 2017 5948: 5936: 5929:Bertman 2003 5924: 5912: 5905:Veenhof 2017 5900: 5878:Veenhof 2017 5858: 5827: 5820:Parpola 2004 5815: 5808:Donabed 2019 5803: 5781:Donabed 2019 5776: 5764: 5752: 5740: 5728: 5721:Donabed 2019 5702:, p. 7. 5695: 5683: 5652: 5623: 5616:Parpola 2004 5571: 5564:Parpola 2004 5559: 5547: 5514: 5502: 5490: 5478: 5466: 5454: 5447:Na'aman 1991 5442: 5433: 5376: 5371:, p. 2. 5364: 5352: 5340: 5292: 5280: 5268: 5256: 5244: 5232: 5220: 5208: 5184:Gerster 2005 5143: 5131: 5119: 5090: 5063: 5051: 5039: 5032:Bertman 2003 5027: 5015: 5003: 4991: 4984:Veenhof 2017 4954:Veenhof 2017 4949: 4937: 4925: 4918:Veenhof 2017 4913: 4908:, p. 2. 4851:Veenhof 2017 4831: 4824:Veenhof 2017 4819: 4807: 4802:, chapter 3. 4795: 4768: 4756: 4744: 4732: 4720: 4681:Marciak 2017 4676: 4664: 4657:Parpola 2004 4633: 4621: 4609: 4589:, p. 3. 4567: 4540: 4535:, p. 5. 4513: 4501: 4494:Parpola 2004 4449: 4444:, p. 4. 4408:, p. 5. 4401: 4389:. Retrieved 4384: 4375: 4349:Lambert 1983 4300: 4292: 4283: 4270: 4256: 4246: 4238: 4229: 4217: 4200: 4179: 4129:Beth Nahrain 4066: 4064: 4037: 4025: 3994: 3987: 3972: 3965: 3955: 3930:Christianity 3921: 3905: 3901: 3890: 3874: 3866: 3854: 3850: 3843: 3821: 3816: 3812:polytheistic 3809: 3735:Epic of Anzu 3733: 3727: 3721: 3715: 3709: 3703: 3697: 3691: 3689: 3678: 3669: 3662: 3656: 3653: 3634: 3631: 3624: 3568: 3413: 3406: 3403: 3380: 3376: 3361: 3349: 3322: 3314:rammed earth 3311: 3299: 3278:Architecture 3269: 3252: 3248: 3242: 3238: 3231: 3228: 3203: 3199:ancient Rome 3191: 3187: 3183: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3152: 3144:Old Assyrian 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3096: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3045: 3040: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2994: 2986:Christianity 2978: 2936: 2931: 2916: 2905: 2893:Ashurbanipal 2858: 2845: 2796: 2787: 2781: 2776: 2773: 2768: 2762: 2751: 2742: 2728:, mother of 2709: 2704: 2700: 2682: 2678: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2648:("big") and 2645: 2641: 2634: 2630: 2628: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2563: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2543:ṣābū ša ušpe 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2528: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2504: 2464:Karen Radner 2453: 2446: 2442: 2437: 2433: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2406: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2336: 2334: 2331: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2307: 2304:nāgir ekalli 2303: 2299: 2295: 2292: 2287: 2283: 2276: 2226: 2096: 2092: 2062: 2059: 2055: 2011: 1998:Arik-den-ili 1993: 1989:iššiak Aššur 1988: 1980: 1978: 1971: 1967: 1960:iššiak Aššur 1959: 1949: 1888: 1886: 1862: 1851: 1831: 1822: 1815: 1788: 1750:Nineveh fell 1730:Nabopolassar 1718:Ashurbanipal 1715: 1666: 1631: 1607: 1605: 1570:Ashur-dan II 1566: 1507: 1484: 1429: 1427: 1322: 1291: 1263: 1261:in Turkey. 1251: 1229: 1221:Old Assyrian 1171: 1139: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1046: 1038: 1034: 1032: 1007: 1005: 1000: 995: 991: 975: 971: 963: 953: 950:Nomenclature 936: 897: 845:Neo-Assyrian 829:Old Assyrian 815:to the late 810: 798:civilization 795:Mesopotamian 790: 757: 756: 745: 698:2025–1364 BC 685:2600–2025 BC 665: 593:Succeeded by 592: 587: 511:2025–1364 BC 430:Ashurbanipal 198:(612–609 BC) 189:(705–612 BC) 180:(706–705 BC) 171:(879–706 BC) 162:1207–879 BC) 36: 13758:WikiProject 13559:Marsh Arabs 13544:Circassians 13225:Foreign aid 13117:Mesopotamia 12679:Uruk period 12443:New Zealand 12438:Netherlands 12202:Settlements 12115:(1555–1917) 12092:(1453–1501) 12086:(1375–1468) 12080:(1335–1432) 12074:(1258–1335) 12068:(1098–1268) 12029:Middle ages 11969:Roman Syria 11963:Syrian Wars 11600:Middle East 11403:224–mid 7C 11367:129–63 BCE 11349:Macedonians 11244:city-states 11240:Neo-Hittite 11215:Sea Peoples 11131:city-states 11110:city-states 11053:Uruk period 11015:Mesopotamia 10957:Hittitology 10947:Assyriology 10868:Archaeology 10738:Old Persian 10548:Jemdet Nasr 10090:28 November 10073:Web sources 10007:"Āsōristān" 9713:: 109–125. 9707:Mesopotamia 8132:(2): 9–29. 8012:Hauser 2017 8000:Filoni 2017 7971:Hauser 2017 7959:Haider 2008 7935:Haider 2008 7923:Haider 2008 7798:Parker 2011 7786:Fincke 2017 7774:Fincke 2017 7762:Fincke 2017 7750:Fincke 2017 7723:Heeßel 2017 7606:Düring 2020 7538:Kertai 2019 7412:Frahm 2017b 7397:Radner 2021 7350:Frahm 2017b 7326:Radner 2021 7159:Becker 2015 7106:Filoni 2017 7070:Hauser 2017 7053:Odisho 1988 7029:Travis 2010 6920:Düring 2020 6839:Michel 2017 6803:Kertai 2013 6776:Jakob 2017b 6764:Jakob 2017b 6747:Michel 2017 6735:Michel 2017 6718:Michel 2017 6703:Michel 2017 6664:Michel 2017 6637:Michel 2017 6595:Jakob 2017b 6583:Düring 2020 6571:Jakob 2017b 6554:Michel 2017 6525:Dalley 2017 6513:Dalley 2017 6501:Dalley 2017 6489:Jakob 2017b 6477:Dalley 2017 6465:Dalley 2017 6450:Jakob 2017b 6429:Radner 2012 6402:Radner 2012 6390:Jakob 2017b 6378:Jakob 2017b 6363:Parker 2011 6351:Parker 2011 6339:Parker 2011 6327:Yamada 2000 6300:Jakob 2017b 6283:Parker 2011 6247:Radner 2017 6235:Frahm 2017b 6223:Parker 2011 6211:Jakob 2017b 6184:Jakob 2017b 6157:Radner 2019 6079:Jakob 2017b 6067:Parker 2011 6006:Parker 2011 5994:Parker 2011 5982:Jakob 2017b 5965:Jakob 2017b 5893:Jakob 2017b 5863:Düring 2020 5851:Düring 2020 5700:Radner 2015 5688:Radner 2015 5676:Radner 2015 5593:Hauser 2017 5576:Hauser 2017 5552:Waters 2014 5519:Hauser 2017 5507:Hauser 2017 5495:Radner 2015 5483:Frahm 2017b 5471:Radner 2019 5459:Frahm 2017b 5426:Frahm 2017b 5411:Frahm 2017b 5396:Frahm 2017b 5381:Frahm 2017b 5357:Frahm 2017b 5345:Frahm 2017b 5333:Frahm 2017b 5316:Frahm 2017b 5297:Frahm 2017b 5285:Düring 2020 5273:Düring 2020 5261:Frahm 2017b 5249:Frahm 2017b 5237:Frahm 2017b 5225:Jakob 2017a 5213:Jakob 2017a 5201:Düring 2020 5169:Düring 2020 5136:Jakob 2017a 5124:Jakob 2017a 5112:Düring 2020 5095:Jakob 2017a 5083:Düring 2020 5068:Düring 2020 5056:Düring 2020 5044:Frahm 2017b 5008:Yamada 2017 4906:Radner 2015 4868:Düring 2020 4800:Foster 2016 4602:Tamari 2019 4587:Radner 2015 4518:Frahm 2017b 4506:Frahm 2017b 4471:Frahm 2017b 4454:Düring 2020 4421:Hauser 2017 4406:Frahm 2017a 4332:Düring 2020 4263:physiognomy 4134:Beth Garmai 4058:signed the 3989:Diatessaron 3757:Ashur (god) 3257:Neo-Aramaic 2801:, queen of 2799:Shammuramat 2689:debt slaves 2637:("men") or 2559:ša petḫalle 2520:charioteers 2508:kiṣir šarri 2314:rab ša-rēši 2030:Seas" and " 2012:šarru dannu 1813:language. 1784:Rʻuth-Assor 1684:Sennacherib 1608:reconquista 1519:Ashur-dan I 1501:as capital 940:Greco-Roman 711:1363–912 BC 588:Preceded by 527:1363–912 BC 406:Sennacherib 13783:Categories 13675:Television 13655:Literature 13617:Irreligion 13592:Secularism 13529:Minorities 13397:(currency) 13390:Corruption 13235:Government 13026:Insurgency 12825:Aq Qoyunlu 12646:Chronology 12326:Diyarbakır 12297:Tell Tamer 12292:Al-Hasakah 12188:By country 12100:Modern era 12090:Aq Qoyunlu 12062:(945–1055) 12056:(905–1383) 12050:(750–1258) 11865:(including 11841:Folk dance 11127:and other 11106:and other 10921:Divination 10631:Achaemenid 10596:Isin-Larsa 10489:Trialetian 10484:Mousterian 10471:Prehistory 10134:25 January 10110:29 January 9861:: 157–171. 9681:: 135–142. 9592:(2): 5–22. 9363:: 79–101. 9247:: 151–157. 9013:. Leiden: 8481:"Akkadian" 7887:James 1966 7198:Butts 2017 7186:Payne 2012 7174:Butts 2017 7135:Butts 2017 7014:Biggs 2005 7002:Saggs 1984 6956:Butts 2017 6908:Novák 2016 6815:Svärd 2015 6791:Svärd 2015 6259:Oates 1992 6199:Fales 2017 6169:Reade 2011 6145:Reade 2011 6130:Reade 2011 6118:Reade 2011 6106:Reade 2011 6094:Reade 2011 5369:Elayi 2017 4698:Butts 2017 4385:Britannica 4315:References 4019:, and the 4005:Nestorians 3946:archbishop 3717:Enûma Eliš 3673:divination 3664:The Hunter 3523:Statue of 3167:Babylonian 2754:monogamous 2730:Esarhaddon 2610:See also: 2595:rādi kibsi 2591:targumannu 2555:ša mugerre 2551:māru damqu 2483:See also: 2432:officers ( 2418:bēl pīhāti 2414:bel pāḫete 2377:Ili-ittija 2361:See also: 2016:Karduniash 1918:See also: 1832:After the 1811:vernacular 1793:(609 BC – 1704:Esarhaddon 1247:free trade 1206:city-state 1063:Nōdšīragān 966:("city of 813:Bronze Age 802:city-state 746:See also: 721:911–609 BC 540:911–609 BC 457:Bronze Age 418:Esarhaddon 243:Government 93:Symbol of 13695:Squatting 13660:Education 13607:Mandaeism 13576:/Turkoman 13554:Mandaeans 13539:Assyrians 13534:Armenians 13497:Languages 13385:Companies 13340:Judiciary 13250:President 13220:Elections 13215:Democracy 13061:Geography 12977:Sanctions 12895:2003–2011 12890:1968–2003 12885:1958–1968 12744:Babylonia 12517:Dawronoye 12448:Palestine 12378:Australia 12351:Tur Abdin 12231:Tel Keppe 12151:(1914–20) 12139:(19th c.) 12121:(16th c.) 12109:(1508–55) 12072:Ilkhanate 12021:(502–628) 12015:(226–651) 12013:Asoristan 11983:(116–118) 11938:antiquity 11936:Classical 11869:contexts) 11766:languages 11318:Chaldeans 11235:Phoenicia 11173:Karduniaš 10794:Cuneiform 10670:Languages 10479:Acheulean 10366:Babylonia 10303:Euphrates 10253:Geography 9775:162760021 9719:0076-6615 9573:145597598 9473:159785150 9291:163552048 9191:"Assyria 9182:163337976 9118:194319884 9075:163392326 8971:. BRILL. 8698:224979097 8618:162825616 8546:"Osroëne" 8223:144093611 8157:158689222 8148:2317-773X 7911:Maul 2017 7899:Maul 2017 7863:Lewy 1971 7502:Bagg 2017 7147:acsya.org 7041:Jupp 2001 6827:Fink 2020 6312:Llop 2012 6055:Bain 2017 5769:Mack 2017 5757:Yapp 1988 5148:Chen 2020 5020:Chen 2020 4836:Lewy 1971 4812:Lewy 1971 4773:Lewy 1971 4761:Lewy 1971 4749:Lewy 1971 4572:Lewy 1971 4560:Maul 2017 4391:13 August 4368:Roux 1992 4056:Dinkha IV 4048:ecumenism 3923:Shamsīyah 3916:) and at 3870:extispicy 3862:Hammurabi 3353:alabaster 3318:reed mats 3307:Limestone 3147:cuneiform 3123:Languages 3106:. 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