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their health and lifespan. Since the tail plays a significant role in locomotion and energy storage of fat deposits, it is too valuable to be dropped haphazardly. Many species have evolved specific behaviors after autotomy, such as decreased activity, to compensate for negative consequences such as depleted energy resources. Some such lizards, in which the tail is a major storage organ for accumulating reserves, will return to a dropped tail after the threat has passed, and will eat it to recover part of the sacrificed supplies. Conversely, some species have been observed to attack rivals and grab their tails, which they eat after their opponents flee.
265:, in which the individual will delay autotomy until the predator moves its jaws up the tail or holds on for a long time, allowing the salamander to retain its tail when toxicity alone can ward off predators. Regeneration is one of the highest priorities after autotomy, in order to optimize locomotor performance and recoup reproductive fitness. While regenerating their tails, caudal autotomy is restored at an energetic cost that often hinders body growth or intraspecies interactions.
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techniques, 47% of stone crabs that had both claws removed died after declawing, and 28% of single claw amputees died; 76% of the casualties died within 24 hours of declawing. The occurrence of regenerated claws in the fishery harvest is low; one study indicates less than 10%, and a more recent study indicates only 13% have regenerated claws. (See
329:, are capable of autotomic release of skin, e.g. upon being captured by a predator. They are the first mammals known to do so. They can completely regenerate the autotomically released or otherwise damaged skin tissue — regrowing hair follicles, skin, sweat glands, fur and cartilage with little or no scarring. These and other species of
203:. The second form of caudal autotomy is intravertebral autotomy, in which there are zones of weakness, fracture planes across each vertebra in the mid-part of the tail. In this second type of autotomy the lizard contracts a muscle to fracture a vertebra, rather than break the tail between two vertebrae.
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are used as a self-replenishing source of food by humans, particularly in
Florida. Harvesting is accomplished by removing one or both claws from the live animal and returning it to the ocean where it can regrow the lost limb(s). However, under experimental conditions, but using commercially accepted
366:
Over 200 species of invertebrates are capable of using autotomy as an avoidance or protective behaviour. These animals can voluntarily shed appendages when necessary for survival. Autotomy can occur in response to chemical, thermal and electrical stimulation, but is perhaps most frequently a response
251:
takes on a new club-like shape providing the male with a better fighting weapon, such that autotomy and regeneration work together to increase the lizard's ability to survive and reproduce. There are also examples in which salamanders will attack the tails of conspecifics in order to establish social
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and leading to its death, this only happens if the skin of the victim is sufficiently thick, such as a mammal's. The sting of a queen honey bee has no barbs, however, and does not autotomize. All species of true honey bees have this form of stinger autotomy. No other stinging insect have the sting
255:
Despite this mechanism's effectiveness, it is costly, and is employed only after other defenses have failed. One cost is to the immune system: tail loss results in a weakened immune system which allows for mites and other harmful organisms to have a larger negative impact on individuals and reduce
195:
The technical term for this ability to drop the tail is 'caudal autotomy'. In most lizards that sacrifice the tail in this manner, breakage occurs only when the tail is grasped with sufficient force, but some animals, such as some species of geckos, can perform true autotomy, throwing off the tail
483:
Post-harvest leg autotomy can be problematic in some crab and lobster fisheries, and often occurs if these crustaceans are exposed to freshwater or hypersaline water in the form of dried salt on sorting trays. The autotomy reflex in crustaceans has been proposed as an example of natural behaviour
136:
when caught by the tail will shed part of it in attempting to escape. In many species the detached tail will continue to wriggle, creating a deceptive sense of continued struggle, and distracting the predator's attention from the fleeing prey animal. In addition, many species of lizards, such as
510:
spp.) undergo autotomy if they are stung in a leg by wasps or bees. Under experimental conditions, when spiders are injected in the leg with bee or wasp venom, they shed this appendage. But, if they are injected with only saline, they rarely autotomize the leg, indicating it is not the physical
211:
to minimize bleeding. Another adaptation associated with intravertebral autotomy is that skin flaps fold over the wound at the site of autotomy to readily seal the wound, which can minimize infection at the autotomy site. Caudal autotomy is prevalent among lizards; it has been recorded in 13 of
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that raises questions concerning assertions on whether crustaceans can "feel pain", which may be based on definitions of "pain" that are flawed for lack of any falsifiable test, either to establish or deny the meaningfulness of the concept in this context.
104:
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to mechanical stimulation during capture by a predator. Autotomy serves either to improve the chances of escape or to reduce further damage occurring to the remainder of the animal such as the spread of a chemical toxin after being stung.
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Simões, Tiago R.; Caldwell, Michael W.; Nydam, Randall L.; Jiménez-Huidobro, Paulina (September 2016). "Osteology, phylogeny, and functional morphology of two
Jurassic lizard species and the early evolution of scansoriality in geckoes".
101:
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are also known to exhibit a so-called "false caudal autotomy," whereby the skin on the tail slides off with minimal force, leaving only the bare vertebral structure. Examples of species possessing this ability are
226:
lizard fights by using its tail as a whip against other conspecifics. It can autotomize its tail but this is met with a social cost - tail loss decreases social standing and mating ability. For example,
167:, have elaborately colored blue tails which have been shown to divert predatory attacks toward the tail and away from the body and head. Depending upon the species, the animal may be able to partially
183:
of the regenerated organ generally differs distinctly from its original appearance. However, some salamanders can regenerate a morphologically complete and identical tail. Some reptiles, such as the
1037:
Watson, C. M.; Roelke, C. E.; Pasichnyk, P. N.; Cox, C. L. (2012). "The fitness consequences of the autotomous blue tail in lizards: an empirical test of predator response using clay models".
1721:
Argaez, Víctor; Solano-Zavaleta, Israel; Zúñiga-Vega, J. Jaime (2018-04-24). "Another potential cost of tail autotomy: tail loss may result in high ectoparasite loads in
Sceloporus lizards".
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Hosotani, Marina; Nakamura, Teppei; Ichii, Osamu; Irie, Takao; Sunden, Yuji; Elewa, Yaser Hosny Ali; Watanabe, Takafumi; Ueda, Hiromi; Mishima, Takashi; Kon, Yasuhiro (15 February 2021).
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van der Vos, W.; Witzmann, F.; Fröbisch, N. B. (2017-11-16). "Tail regeneration in the
Paleozoic tetrapod Microbrachis pelikani and comparison with extant salamanders and squamates".
100:
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a victim, the barbed stinger remains embedded. As the bee tears itself loose, the stinger takes with it the entire distal segment of the bee's abdomen, along with a nerve
1199:"Tail furcations in lizards: a revised summary and the second report of tail duplication in the Western Fence Lizard, Sceloporus occidentalis Baird & Girard, 1852"
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injection or the ingress of fluid that necessarily causes autotomy. In addition, spiders injected with venom components which cause injected humans to report pain (
305:, were identified as having intervertebral autotomy planes, and these species were placed in the squamate taxonomy as being an ancestor of current existing geckos.
1874:
Ducey, P. K.; Brodie, E. D.; Baness, E. A. (1993). "Salamander tail autotomy and snake predation - role of antipredator behavior and toxicity for 3 neotropical
872:
Ducey, P.K.; Brodie, E.D.; Baness, E.A. (1993). "Salamander tail autotomy and snake predation: role of antipredator behavior and toxicity for three neotropical
1274:
Gilbert, Emily A. B.; Payne, Samantha L.; Vickaryous, Matthew K. (November 2013). "The
Anatomy and Histology of Caudal Autotomy and Regeneration in Lizards".
220:
Caudal autotomy is present as an anti-predator tactic but is also present in species that have high rates of intraspecific competition and aggression. The
2185:
Shargal, Eyal; Rath-Wolfson, Lea; Kronfeld, Noga; Dayan, Tamar (October 1999). "Ecological and histological aspects of tail loss in spiny mice (Rodentia:
1526:
Bateman, P. W.; Fleming, P. A. (January 2009). "To cut a long tail short: a review of lizard caudal autotomy studies carried out over the last 20 years".
1764:
Cooper, W.E. (2003). "Shifted balance of risk and cost after autotomy affects use of cover, escape, activity, and foraging in the Keeled
Earless Lizard (
616:, which must be removed by the genitalia of subsequent drones if they are also to mate with the same queen. The drones die within minutes of mating.
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body from their head which may have evolved as a defence-mechanism against internal parasites. These sea slugs are known to be able to conduct
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3545:
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Gilbert, E. A. B.; Payne, S. L.; Vickaryous, M. K. (2013). "The anatomy and histology of caudal autotomy and regeneration in lizards".
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apparatus modified this way, though some may have barbed stings. Two wasp species that use sting autotomy as a defense mechanism are
273:
Fossils of reptiles possessing the ability to autotomize that are not within the lizard family have been found that date back to the
2904:
1655:"Evolution of antipredator behavior in an island lizard species, Podarcis erhardii (Reptilia: Lacertidae): The sum of all fears?"
540:
when transferring sperm and plugs the female's genital opening, after which the palp keeps pumping. This helps the male to avoid
527:) autotomize the leg, but if the injections contain venom components which do not cause pain to humans, autotomy does not occur.
2397:
570:, and the end of the bee's digestive tract. This massive abdominal rupture kills the bee. Although it is widely believed that a
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its tail, typically over a period of weeks or months. Though functional, the new tail section often is shorter and will contain
72:
the lost body part later. Autotomy is thought to have evolved independently at least nine times. The term was coined in 1883 by
1081:
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Fleming, P.A.; Muller, D.; Bateman, P.W. (2007). "Leave it all behind: a taxonomic perspective of autotomy in invertebrates".
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Caudal autotomy in lizards takes two forms. In the first form, called intervertebral autotomy, the tail breaks between the
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921:"Effect of caudal autotomy on aquatic and terrestrial locomotor performance in two Desmognathine salamander species"
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Autotomy occurs in some species of octopus for survival and for reproduction: the specialized reproductive arm (the
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Bely, Alexandra E.; Nyberg, Kevin G. (2010-03-01). "Evolution of animal regeneration: re-emergence of a field".
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2420:
2238:"Unique histological features of the tail skin of cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) related to caudal autotomy"
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There are also adaptations that help mitigate the cost of autotomy, as seen in the highly toxic salamander,
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1242:"To cut a long tail short: a review of lizard caudal autotomy studies carried out over the last 20 years"
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245:, smaller eggs or no eggs at all are produced after the tail is lost. However, the regenerated tail in
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Arnold, E.N. (February 1984). "Evolutionary aspects of tail shedding in lizards and their relatives".
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each, on the tip having a large sticky gland that secretes a sticky substance. Young specimens of two
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Arnold, E. N. (1984-02-01). "Evolutionary aspects of tail shedding in lizards and their relatives".
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food into their cells which they use to survive after separation from their digestive system.
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can self-amputate a portion of their tail. There is known autotomy of the tail of sea snail
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grasp or to distract the predator and thereby allow escape. Some animals are able to
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when stressed, is also a form of autotomy, and they regenerate the organ(s) lost.
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shed their arms. The arm itself may even be able to regrow into a new starfish.
56:) or 'self-amputation', is the behaviour whereby an animal sheds or discards an
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3444:
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3321:
3229:
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Collins, A.M.; Caperna, T.J.; Williams, V.; Garrett, W.M.; Evans, J.D. (2006).
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and if escape succeeds, the male goes on to guard the female from competitors.
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honey bee can sting only once, this is a partial misconception: although the
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In spiders, autotomy can also play a role in mating. The male of
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Patrick Flammang; Jerome Ribesse; Michel Jangoux (2002-12-01).
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suffers reduced social status following caudal autotomy, while
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252:dominance and decrease the fitness of competitors.
116:The conspicuous change in the tail pattern of this
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2514:
187:, develop split or branched tails after autotomy.
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1482:
918:
3173:
3163:Physiological and Biochemical Zoology
3048:
2418:
2363:
1919:
1917:
1810:
1648:
1646:
1602:
1600:
1327:Physiological and Biochemical Zoology
1276:Physiological and Biochemical Zoology
1240:Bateman, P.W.; Fleming, P.A. (2009).
1235:
1233:
1221:
386:Species of (land) slugs in the genus
175:rather than regenerated vertebrae of
2772:
1112:
459:via incorporating chloroplasts from
3020:Integrative and Comparative Biology
1770:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
1119:Integrative and Comparative Biology
536:from Southeast Asia breaks off his
13:
3104:
2207:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1999.tb00757.x
1914:
1643:
1597:
1230:
1080:Balasubramanian, D. (2019-03-17).
431:will drop a large number of their
293:species from the Jurassic period,
14:
3657:
3141:
2714:Eisner, T.; Camazine, S. (1983).
2396:Rudman, W.B. (October 14, 1998).
2370:(Opisthobranchiata: Sacoglossa)""
1926:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1113:Bely, Alexandra E. (2010-10-01).
552:Sometimes when honey bees (genus
547:
3605:
3604:
3147:
2983:10.1111/j.1365-2583.2006.00674.x
2307:10.1111/j.1469-185X.2007.00020.x
1540:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00484.x
1261:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00484.x
361:
313:At least two species of African
3091:Bishop Museum Occasional Papers
3007:
2958:
2923:
2896:
2858:
2804:
2791:
2766:
2640:
2439:
2412:
2389:
2153:
2060:
1995:
1960:
1867:
1851:
1817:Journal of Experimental Zoology
1804:
1714:
1562:
1519:
1476:
1433:
1361:
1318:
1267:
1190:
1164:Journal of Experimental Zoology
1155:
1106:
1073:
1030:
582:, tearing loose from the bee's
179:, and in color and texture the
3250:Bee learning and communication
961:
912:
865:
822:
809:
758:
731:
688:
679:
619:
466:
93:A lizard tail shed by autotomy
79:
34:with tail lost due to autotomy
1:
3152:The dictionary definition of
2829:10.1016/s0140-6736(96)01367-0
2799:The Anatomy of the Honey Bee.
787:10.1126/science.184.4144.1379
673:
451:, can regenerate their whole
269:Autotomy in the fossil record
3199:
3117:Journal of Molluscan Studies
2522:Gulf and Florida Stone Crabs
1878:(Caudata, Plethodontidae)".
876:(Caudata: Plethodontidae)".
606:genitalia of male honey bees
296:Eichstaettisaurus schroederi
190:
146:Cordylosaurus subtessellatus
7:
2419:Baker, Harry (2021-03-08).
2160:Cormier, Zoe (2012-09-26).
641:
370:
212:approximately 20 families.
10:
3662:
2028:10.1038/s41598-018-21526-3
1946:10.1016/j.tree.2009.08.005
1609:Journal of Natural History
1485:Journal of Natural History
1059:10.1016/j.zool.2012.04.001
487:
308:
281:, belonging to the groups
18:
3600:
3554:
3533:
3412:
3307:Evolutionary neuroscience
3207:
3136:Autotomy in sea gastropod
3082:Edmondson, C. H. (1935).
2565:spp., Fishery in Florida"
2473:10.1016/j.cub.2021.01.014
1782:10.1007/s00265-003-0619-y
1735:10.1163/15685381-17000156
1629:10.1080/00222938400770131
1505:10.1080/00222938400770131
3636:Antipredator adaptations
3260:Behavioral endocrinology
2971:Insect Molecular Biology
2893:Retrieved 23 April 2013.
2797:Snodgrass, R.E. (1956).
2785:10.1038/nature.2012.9939
817:Biology of the Reptilia.
738:Fredericq, Leon (1883).
653:Anti-predator adaptation
533:Nephilengys malabarensis
302:Ardeosaurus digitatellus
32:white-headed dwarf gecko
19:Not to be confused with
3455:Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt
3235:Animal sexual behaviour
2741:10.1073/pnas.80.11.3382
2674:10.1073/pnas.80.11.3382
663:Evisceration (autotomy)
405:exhibit autotomy. Both
216:Effectiveness and costs
85:Reptiles and amphibians
3394:Tool use by non-humans
3347:Philosophical ethology
3292:Comparative psychology
3240:Animal welfare science
3129:10.1093/mollus/60.1.19
1837:10.1002/jez.1401760305
1184:10.1002/jez.1402020108
1006:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0577
501:
500:with two limbs missing
236:Iberolacerta monticola
121:
109:
94:
35:
3111:Pakarinen, E (1994).
3033:10.1093/icb/42.6.1107
2813:"Removing bee stings"
2364:Lewin, R. A. (1970).
919:Marvin, A.G. (2010).
566:, various muscles, a
495:
262:Bolitoglossa rostrata
115:
107:
92:
64:mechanism to elude a
29:
3500:William Homan Thorpe
3265:Behavioural genetics
3225:Animal consciousness
3220:Animal communication
2903:Steinau, R. (2011).
1766:Holbrookia propinqua
185:Western fence lizard
140:Plestiodon fasciatus
3641:Types of amputation
3255:Behavioural ecology
2911:on December 5, 2016
2732:1983PNAS...80.3382E
2665:1983PNAS...80.3382E
2464:2021CBio...31.R233M
2129:10.1038/nature11499
2121:2012Natur.489..561S
2020:2018NatSR...8.3328L
1938:2010TEcoE..25..161B
1892:1993Biotr..25..344D
1829:1971JEZ...176..295C
1621:1984JNatH..18..127A
1571:American Naturalist
1497:1984JNatH..18..127A
1386:2006JEZA..305..965C
1176:1977JEZ...202...57S
1051:2012Zool..115..339W
890:1993Biotr..25..344D
843:1977Natur.265..533M
779:1974Sci...184.1379C
773:(4144): 1379–1380.
423:Discodoris fragilis
419:Discodoris lilacina
408:Discodoris lilacina
3584:Behavioral Ecology
3505:Nikolaas Tinbergen
3297:Emotion in animals
3275:Cognitive ethology
2944:10.1007/bf02223116
2891:howstuffworks.com.
2614:Fish and Fisheries
2593:2016-03-05 at the
2542:Menippe mercenaria
2402:The Sea Slug Forum
2342:2011-07-04 at the
2295:Biological Reviews
2254:10.1242/bio.058230
2195:Journal of Zoology
2008:Scientific Reports
1969:Journal of Zoology
1528:Journal of Zoology
1249:Journal of Zoology
1132:10.1093/icb/icq118
697:Biological Reviews
542:sexual cannibalism
502:
478:Declawing of crabs
421:also being called
414:Berthella martensi
275:Late Carboniferous
152:Holaspis guentheri
122:
110:
95:
36:
3618:
3617:
3510:Jakob von Uexküll
3280:Comfort behaviour
3068:978-1-4863-0763-0
2726:(11): 3382–3385.
2659:(11): 3382–3385.
2626:10.1111/faf.12010
2368:Oxynoe panamensis
2352:978-1-60107-564-2
2115:(7417): 561–565.
2078:10.1111/zoj.12487
1981:10.1111/jzo.12516
1813:Lygosoma laterale
1723:Amphibia-Reptilia
1674:10.1111/evo.12555
1395:10.1002/jez.a.346
1203:Herpetology Notes
940:10.1643/cp-09-188
837:(5594): 533–535.
750:. 2 (in French).
709:10.1111/brv.12539
425:. The members of
395:Oxynoe panamensis
344:eastern chipmunks
340:Sigmodon hispidus
158:Phelsuma barbouri
105:
3653:
3608:
3607:
3570:Animal Cognition
3563:Animal Behaviour
3515:Wolfgang Wickler
3215:Animal cognition
3194:
3187:
3180:
3171:
3170:
3151:
3132:
3099:
3098:
3088:
3079:
3073:
3072:
3052:
3046:
3045:
3035:
3011:
3005:
3004:
2994:
2962:
2956:
2955:
2932:Insectes Sociaux
2927:
2921:
2920:
2918:
2916:
2907:. Archived from
2900:
2894:
2884:
2878:
2877:
2875:
2873:
2862:
2856:
2855:
2853:
2851:
2808:
2802:
2795:
2789:
2788:
2770:
2764:
2763:
2753:
2743:
2711:
2705:
2704:
2694:
2676:
2644:
2638:
2637:
2605:
2599:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2574:
2572:
2557:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2534:
2525:
2518:
2512:
2511:
2485:
2475:
2458:(5): R233–R234.
2443:
2437:
2436:
2434:
2433:
2416:
2410:
2409:
2404:. Archived from
2393:
2387:
2386:
2374:
2361:
2355:
2333:
2327:
2326:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2273:
2233:
2227:
2226:
2182:
2176:
2175:
2173:
2172:
2157:
2151:
2150:
2140:
2096:
2090:
2089:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2047:
1999:
1993:
1992:
1964:
1958:
1957:
1921:
1912:
1911:
1871:
1865:
1855:
1849:
1848:
1808:
1802:
1801:
1761:
1755:
1754:
1718:
1712:
1711:
1685:
1659:
1650:
1641:
1640:
1604:
1595:
1594:
1566:
1560:
1559:
1523:
1517:
1516:
1480:
1474:
1473:
1437:
1431:
1430:
1422:
1416:
1415:
1397:
1365:
1359:
1358:
1322:
1316:
1315:
1271:
1265:
1264:
1246:
1237:
1228:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1194:
1188:
1187:
1159:
1153:
1152:
1134:
1110:
1104:
1103:
1101:
1100:
1077:
1071:
1070:
1034:
1028:
1027:
1017:
985:
979:
965:
959:
958:
956:
950:. Archived from
925:
916:
910:
909:
869:
863:
862:
851:10.1038/265533a0
826:
820:
813:
807:
806:
762:
756:
755:
745:
735:
729:
728:
703:(6): 1881–1896.
692:
686:
683:
596:Synoeca surinama
521:phospholipase A2
326:Acomys percivali
230:Uta stansburiana
106:
3661:
3660:
3656:
3655:
3654:
3652:
3651:
3650:
3621:
3620:
3619:
3614:
3596:
3550:
3529:
3525:Solly Zuckerman
3465:Karl von Frisch
3450:Richard Dawkins
3435:John B. Calhoun
3420:Patrick Bateson
3408:
3342:Pain in animals
3203:
3198:
3144:
3110:
3107:
3105:Further reading
3102:
3086:
3080:
3076:
3069:
3053:
3049:
3012:
3008:
2963:
2959:
2928:
2924:
2914:
2912:
2901:
2897:
2885:
2881:
2871:
2869:
2864:
2863:
2859:
2849:
2847:
2823:(9023): 301–2.
2809:
2805:
2796:
2792:
2771:
2767:
2712:
2708:
2645:
2641:
2606:
2602:
2595:Wayback Machine
2584:
2580:
2570:
2568:
2559:
2558:
2554:
2546:
2535:
2528:
2519:
2515:
2452:Current Biology
2444:
2440:
2431:
2429:
2417:
2413:
2394:
2390:
2378:Pacific Science
2372:
2362:
2358:
2344:Wayback Machine
2334:
2330:
2291:
2287:
2234:
2230:
2183:
2179:
2170:
2168:
2158:
2154:
2097:
2093:
2065:
2061:
2000:
1996:
1965:
1961:
1922:
1915:
1900:10.2307/2388793
1872:
1868:
1856:
1852:
1809:
1805:
1762:
1758:
1719:
1715:
1657:
1651:
1644:
1605:
1598:
1567:
1563:
1524:
1520:
1481:
1477:
1454:10.2307/1441541
1438:
1434:
1423:
1419:
1380:(12): 965–973.
1366:
1362:
1323:
1319:
1272:
1268:
1244:
1238:
1231:
1226:
1222:
1195:
1191:
1160:
1156:
1111:
1107:
1098:
1096:
1078:
1074:
1035:
1031:
994:Biology Letters
986:
982:
966:
962:
954:
923:
917:
913:
898:10.2307/2388793
870:
866:
827:
823:
814:
810:
763:
759:
743:
736:
732:
693:
689:
684:
680:
676:
668:Self-amputation
644:
622:
590:Polybia rejecta
550:
490:
469:
373:
364:
348:Tamias striatus
311:
271:
242:Coleonyx brevis
218:
193:
164:Ameiva wetmorei
97:
87:
82:
60:, usually as a
24:
17:
16:Self-amputation
12:
11:
5:
3659:
3649:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3631:Animal anatomy
3616:
3615:
3613:
3612:
3601:
3598:
3597:
3595:
3594:
3587:
3580:
3577:Animal Welfare
3573:
3566:
3558:
3556:
3552:
3551:
3549:
3548:
3543:
3537:
3535:
3531:
3530:
3528:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3490:Desmond Morris
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3445:Marian Dawkins
3442:
3440:Charles Darwin
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3416:
3414:
3410:
3409:
3407:
3406:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3385:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3322:Human ethology
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3288:
3287:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3230:Animal culture
3227:
3222:
3217:
3211:
3209:
3205:
3204:
3197:
3196:
3189:
3182:
3174:
3168:
3167:
3159:
3143:
3142:External links
3140:
3139:
3138:
3133:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3100:
3074:
3067:
3047:
3026:(6): 1107–15.
3006:
2977:(5): 541–549.
2957:
2938:(2): 111–120.
2922:
2895:
2879:
2868:. 23 June 2011
2857:
2803:
2790:
2765:
2706:
2639:
2600:
2578:
2552:
2526:
2513:
2438:
2411:
2408:on 2010-06-15.
2388:
2356:
2328:
2301:(3): 481–510.
2285:
2228:
2201:(2): 187–193.
2177:
2152:
2091:
2059:
1994:
1959:
1932:(3): 161–170.
1913:
1886:(3): 344–349.
1866:
1863:978-0140103113
1850:
1823:(3): 295–302.
1803:
1776:(2): 179–187.
1756:
1729:(2): 191–202.
1713:
1683:2027.42/110598
1668:(1): 216–231.
1642:
1615:(1): 127–169.
1596:
1583:10.1086/283780
1577:(6): 962–974.
1561:
1518:
1491:(1): 127–169.
1475:
1432:
1417:
1360:
1339:10.1086/673889
1333:(6): 631–644.
1317:
1288:10.1086/673889
1282:(6): 631–644.
1266:
1229:
1220:
1189:
1154:
1125:(4): 515–527.
1105:
1072:
1045:(5): 339–344.
1029:
980:
960:
957:on 2013-12-02.
934:(3): 468–474.
911:
884:(3): 344–349.
864:
821:
808:
757:
730:
687:
677:
675:
672:
671:
670:
665:
660:
658:Autoamputation
655:
650:
643:
640:
621:
618:
549:
548:Bees and wasps
546:
498:fishing spider
489:
486:
468:
465:
457:photosynthesis
442:E. atroviridis
372:
369:
363:
360:
310:
307:
270:
267:
217:
214:
192:
189:
86:
83:
81:
78:
74:Leon Fredericq
52:, "severing",
48:, "self-" and
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3658:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3628:
3626:
3611:
3603:
3602:
3599:
3593:
3592:
3588:
3586:
3585:
3581:
3579:
3578:
3574:
3572:
3571:
3567:
3565:
3564:
3560:
3559:
3557:
3553:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3538:
3536:
3532:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3495:Thomas Sebeok
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3485:Konrad Lorenz
3483:
3481:
3480:Julian Huxley
3478:
3476:
3475:Heini Hediger
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3417:
3415:
3411:
3405:
3404:Zoomusicology
3402:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3364:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3337:Neuroethology
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3286:
3283:
3282:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3245:Anthrozoology
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3212:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3195:
3190:
3188:
3183:
3181:
3176:
3175:
3172:
3166:
3164:
3160:
3158:at Wiktionary
3157:
3156:
3150:
3146:
3145:
3137:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3109:
3108:
3096:
3092:
3085:
3078:
3070:
3064:
3060:
3059:
3051:
3043:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3010:
3002:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2961:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2926:
2910:
2906:
2899:
2892:
2888:
2887:How Bees Work
2883:
2867:
2861:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2807:
2800:
2794:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2777:
2769:
2761:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
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428:Phyllodesmium
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362:Invertebrates
359:
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356:Octodon degus
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284:
283:Recumbirostra
280:
279:Early Permian
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118:marbled gecko
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33:
28:
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3568:
3561:
3520:E. O. Wilson
3470:Jane Goodall
3430:Donald Broom
3399:Zoosemiotics
3352:Sociobiology
3162:
3154:
3123:(1): 19–23.
3120:
3116:
3094:
3090:
3077:
3057:
3050:
3023:
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3009:
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2970:
2960:
2935:
2931:
2925:
2913:. Retrieved
2909:the original
2905:"Bee stings"
2898:
2890:
2882:
2870:. Retrieved
2860:
2848:. Retrieved
2820:
2816:
2806:
2798:
2793:
2774:
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2723:
2719:
2709:
2656:
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2581:
2571:23 September
2569:. Retrieved
2562:
2555:
2543:
2539:
2520:
2516:
2455:
2451:
2441:
2430:. Retrieved
2426:Live Science
2424:
2414:
2406:the original
2401:
2391:
2382:
2376:
2367:
2359:
2331:
2298:
2294:
2288:
2245:
2242:Biology Open
2241:
2231:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2180:
2169:. Retrieved
2155:
2112:
2108:
2102:
2094:
2069:
2062:
2011:
2007:
1997:
1975:(1): 34–44.
1972:
1968:
1962:
1929:
1925:
1883:
1879:
1876:Bolitoglossa
1875:
1869:
1853:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1806:
1773:
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1206:
1202:
1192:
1170:(1): 57–67.
1167:
1163:
1157:
1122:
1118:
1108:
1097:. Retrieved
1085:
1075:
1042:
1038:
1032:
1000:(1): 70–73.
997:
993:
983:
968:
963:
952:the original
931:
927:
914:
881:
877:
874:Bolitoglossa
873:
867:
834:
830:
824:
816:
811:
770:
766:
760:
751:
747:
733:
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625:Evisceration
623:
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600:
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588:
553:
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531:
529:
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503:
482:
470:
448:E. marginata
446:
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422:
412:
406:
400:
393:
387:
385:
377:hectocotylus
374:
365:
355:
347:
339:
324:
320:Acomys kempi
318:
312:
300:
294:
272:
260:
258:
254:
246:
240:
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228:
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219:
198:
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162:
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150:
144:
138:
123:
62:self-defense
49:
45:
38:
37:
3460:Dian Fossey
3425:Marc Bekoff
3413:Ethologists
2776:Nature News
2014:(1): 3328.
1534:(1): 1–14.
1209:: 459–475.
620:Echinoderms
614:mating plug
473:stone crabs
467:Crustaceans
453:parasitised
336:cotton rats
248:Agama agama
223:Agama agama
130:salamanders
80:Vertebrates
3625:Categories
3362:Structures
3357:Stereotypy
3097:(8): 3–20.
2620:: 97–133.
2610:Wynne, CDL
2483:10935/5590
2432:2021-03-09
2398:"Autotomy"
2385:: 356–358.
2346:. 21 pp.,
2171:2012-09-27
1880:Biotropica
1448:(3): 597.
1099:2019-03-25
878:Biotropica
754:: 414–426.
674:References
471:Autotomic
389:Prophysaon
315:spiny mice
169:regenerate
70:regenerate
66:predator's
41:(from the
3591:Behaviour
3534:Societies
3372:Honeycomb
2915:April 23,
2872:April 23,
2850:April 23,
2683:0027-8424
2598:. 104 pp.
2508:232145105
2492:0960-9822
2354:, page 9.
2262:2046-6390
2223:0952-8369
2215:1469-7998
2086:0024-4082
2036:2045-2322
1989:0952-8369
1743:0173-5373
1692:1558-5646
1662:Evolution
1637:0022-2933
1548:0952-8369
1513:0022-2933
1462:0045-8511
1404:1552-499X
1296:1522-2152
1215:2071-5773
1141:1540-7063
1094:0971-751X
1086:The Hindu
725:195660712
568:venom sac
517:histamine
513:serotonin
439:species,
403:sea slugs
205:Sphincter
201:vertebrae
191:Mechanism
173:cartilage
58:appendage
54:αὐτοτομία
3646:Ethology
3610:Category
3555:Journals
3382:Instinct
3332:Learning
3327:Instinct
3302:Ethogram
3285:Grooming
3208:Branches
3201:Ethology
3155:autotomy
3042:21680394
3001:17069630
2952:42293043
2845:43667134
2760:16593325
2701:16593325
2634:43948913
2591:Archived
2500:33689716
2340:Archived
2323:20401676
2315:17624964
2280:33563609
2147:23018966
2054:29507301
1954:19800144
1798:26292254
1790:25063251
1751:90793506
1700:25346210
1591:83564728
1556:43627684
1412:17068798
1347:24241061
1304:24241061
1255:: 1–14.
1149:21558220
1067:22938695
1024:19740891
948:84584258
803:21997926
717:31240822
642:See also
636:starfish
564:ganglion
538:pedipalp
525:melittin
383:cavity.
371:Molluscs
291:squamate
39:Autotomy
21:Autonomy
3312:Feeding
2992:1847503
2837:8709689
2728:Bibcode
2661:Bibcode
2563:Menippe
2460:Bibcode
2271:7904004
2187:Muridae
2138:3480082
2117:Bibcode
2045:5838224
2016:Bibcode
1934:Bibcode
1908:2388793
1888:Bibcode
1845:5548871
1825:Bibcode
1708:6203357
1617:Bibcode
1493:Bibcode
1470:1441541
1382:Bibcode
1355:8962045
1312:8962045
1172:Bibcode
1047:Bibcode
1039:Zoology
1015:2817253
906:2388793
886:Bibcode
859:4219251
839:Bibcode
795:4833262
775:Bibcode
767:Science
584:abdomen
576:stinger
507:Argiope
488:Spiders
350:), and
309:Mammals
134:tuatara
126:lizards
3065:
3040:
2999:
2989:
2950:
2843:
2835:
2817:Lancet
2758:
2751:394047
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2692:394047
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2350:
2321:
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2260:
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2103:Acomys
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2052:
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928:Copeia
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831:Nature
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648:Ainhum
610:drones
572:worker
437:Elysia
433:cerata
381:mantle
331:rodent
289:. Two
161:, and
3389:Swarm
3317:Hover
3270:Breed
3087:(PDF)
2948:S2CID
2841:S2CID
2630:S2CID
2547:(PDF)
2504:S2CID
2373:(PDF)
2319:S2CID
2258:eISSN
2248:(2).
2211:eISSN
1904:JSTOR
1794:S2CID
1786:JSTOR
1747:S2CID
1704:S2CID
1658:(PDF)
1587:S2CID
1552:S2CID
1466:JSTOR
1351:S2CID
1308:S2CID
1245:(PDF)
955:(PDF)
944:S2CID
924:(PDF)
902:JSTOR
855:S2CID
799:S2CID
744:(PDF)
721:S2CID
634:Some
560:sting
461:algal
401:Some
124:Some
46:auto-
43:Greek
3377:Nest
3367:Hive
3063:ISBN
3038:PMID
2997:PMID
2917:2013
2874:2013
2852:2013
2833:PMID
2756:PMID
2697:PMID
2679:ISSN
2573:2012
2496:PMID
2488:ISSN
2348:ISBN
2311:PMID
2276:PMID
2219:ISSN
2143:PMID
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1985:ISSN
1950:PMID
1859:ISBN
1841:PMID
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1739:ISSN
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1446:1964
1408:PMID
1400:ISSN
1378:305A
1343:PMID
1300:PMID
1292:ISSN
1211:ISSN
1145:PMID
1137:ISSN
1090:ISSN
1063:PMID
1020:PMID
973:ISBN
932:2010
791:PMID
713:PMID
593:and
580:skin
555:Apis
523:and
445:and
411:and
352:degu
323:and
299:and
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177:bone
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3125:doi
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2825:doi
2821:348
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2746:PMC
2736:doi
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