595:
516:
547:, a branch of the larger Ohlonean language family. They inhabited multilingual regions interconnected through shared symbols and rituals as well as monetary, trade, and complex kinship relationships. This shared culture connected with a larger Indigenous California, where long-distance trade relations and communication characterized linguistically diverse societies that shared a variety of resources and practicies, spiritual and physical, tracing back over thousands of years.
551:
believed that sites of earlier habitation may have been washed away by stream action or submerged on the continental shelf. Archaeological evidence points to a major change beginning around 1,000 years old, with the arrival of new technologies such as notched line sinkers and circular shell fishhooks, bows and arrows, flanged steatite pipes, stone "flower-pot" mortars, new
Olivella shell bead types, and "banjo" effigy ornaments signifying the development of the
48:
272:
Francisco Bay to Mutsun. There is evidence that this grouping was more geographic than linguistic, and that the records of the 'Santa Cruz
Costanoan' language in fact represent several diverse dialects. Awaswas Ohlone continues to be considered a separate language, but the degree to which it originally extended to the east of present-day Santa Cruz County is completely unknown.
184:, with linguistic and cultural ties to other Ohlone peoples in the region. "Ohlone" is a modern collective term for the peoples of the region; however, the term was not historically used by the indigenous populations themselves. They did not consider themselves to be a part of a larger tribe, such as the
271:
The
Awaswas spoke an Ohlone dialect that has some structural affiliation to San Francisco Bay Ohlone and some affiliation to Mutsun Ohlone. An analysis of Awaswas shows it to represent disparate dialects spoken by Natives who were apparently in the midst of language shift from a divergent form of San
550:
Santa Cruz had been the home to the
Awaswas people whose self-sustaining culture supported them in the coastal bioregion of the Monterey Bay for more than 12,000 years. Archaeological excavations suggest these early dates but it is possible that human habitation goes back further, as it is generally
586:
village welcomed the expedition, exchanging food for
Spanish glass beads and cloth; an overture which was readily accepted by the Spanish. The expedition was traveling through the area during the fall, a time when Awaswas tribes left their coastal village sites for their winter forest homes to hunt
488:
The
Chaloctaca lived along the crest of the Santa Cruz Mountains around Loma Prieta Creek. They may have been a separate village community of one larger group with the Sayanta. They held kinship ties with the Sayanta, Achistaca, Cotoni, Partacsi of Santa Clara Valley, and Somontoc. The Spanish
267:
to refer to the
Awaswas, who lived to the north of them. Unfortunately, translations for villages in Awaswas territory are difficult to piece together, as very little of the Awaswas language is still in circulation or on record. Many of the names for Monterey Bay places come from Mutsun words.
1186:
405:(one mile further northwest). They held kinship ties with the Aptos, Sayanta, Cajastaca, Chaloctaca, Cotoni, Pitac, and Chitactac. At the time of their first interactions with the Spanish, the chief of the Uypi was Soquel ("Laurel Tree").
587:
and gather, not encountering people and, being unfamiliar with the land, were badly in need of food. Shortly after the Portolá expedition returned to
Monterey, permanent Spanish settlement began in the region, with the founding of
331:
that the
Portola Expedition first encountered the Awaswas on October 23, 1769. At the time of their first interactions with the Spanish, the chief of the Quiroste was Charquin. The Spanish renamed the people "San Rafael".
199:
For centuries, the Santa Cruz
Mountains indigenous inhabitants experienced economic competition and military conflict with a series of colonizing newcomers. Centralized government and religious policies designed to foster
1194:
688:
tribal band. In 2012, Amah Mutsun Tribal Chairman Valentin Lopez stated that "tribe members are scattered. Few can afford to live in their historic lands today," and many now make their homes in the
177:
region for approximately 12,000 years. The Awaswas maintained regular trade networks with regional cultures before the Spanish colonists began settling in the area from the 18th century.
368:
An inland Cotoni group that lived in the Santa Cruz Mountains away from the coast. It is believed that they lived in the upper San Lorenzo River drainage near the present-day towns of
288:
The largest and most economically and politically powerful tribe of the Santa Cruz Mountains, the Quiroste lived at the northern edge of the mountain range on the Pacific Coast from
879:
444:
people), and Cajastaca. At the time of their first interactions with the Spanish, the chief of the Aptos was Molegnis. The Spanish renamed the people "San Lucas".
1142:
614:
in June 1777. Quiroste people appear among the early San Francisco Peninsula coastal groups baptized at Mission San Francisco, starting in 1787 and 1788.
721:
455:
Living to the south of the Aptos, the Cajastaca ("Jackrabbit") were a sub-group of the larger Aptos tribe. The Spanish renamed the people "San Antonio".
208:, as well as continued contact with the colonizers through trade, inter-marriage and other intercultural processes, have resulted in varying degrees of
1558:
751:"An Overview of Ohlone Culture: excerpt, originally called "Ethnographic Background", from a 1991 report titled, The Santa's Village Site CA-SCr=239"
280:
The Awaswas were six distinct tribes, and further branched into bands. They lived in territories marked by watersheds with ridgelines as boundaries.
1245:
173:
in North America, with subgroups historically numbering about 600 to 1,400. Academic research suggests that their ancestors had lived within the
629:(founded in 1791) built in their territory. Most were forced into slavery at this mission and were baptized, lived and educated to be Catholic
668:
In 2011, a march was held in Santa Cruz to preserve "the Knoll", the 6,000-year-old burial site of a child, located near Branciforte Creek.
436:, lived the Aptos ("The People"). The Aptos tribe was one of the larger Awaswas groups in the region. They held kinship ties with the Uypi,
348:
area. They subsisted on shellfish from the coast and carried them to the hills, where their villages were located. Two known villages were
750:
1070:
Landscape Evolution and the Arhcaeological Record: A Geoarchaeological Study of the Southern Santa Clara Valley and Surrounding Regions
815:
480:
to the north and east. They held kinship ties with the Chaloctaca and Achistaca. The Spanish renamed the people "San Juan Capistrano".
1045:
Original Nation Approaches to Inter-National Law: The Quest for the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and Nature in the Age of Anthropocene
681:
1543:
372:
and Riverside Grove. They held kinship ties with the Cotoni, Sayanta, and Chaloctaca. The Spanish renamed the people "San Dionisio".
1115:
1538:
650:
938:
588:
1098:
Who Discovered the Golden Gate? The Explorers' Own Accounts How They Discovered a Hidden Harbor and at Last Found Its Entrance
1459:
1533:
706:
1323:
1308:
1293:
1077:
1052:
1027:
972:
914:
863:
828:
502:
1351:
856:
We Are Not Animals: Indigenous Politics of Survival, Rebellion, and Reconstitution in Nineteenth-Century California
510:
170:
607:
1364:
726:
1072:. Center of Archaeological Research at Davis, Department of Anthropology, University of California. p. 1.
622:
573:
17:
611:
490:
1563:
1449:
1418:
653:, declared the Ohlone extinct, which directly led to the tribe's losing federal recognition and land rights.
345:
340:
Just south of the Quiroste and north of the Uypi, the Cotoni lived along the Pacific Ocean, near present-day
236:
78:
1223:
689:
617:
The Spanish called the Awaswas "the Santa Cruz people" and theirs became the main language spoken at the
569:
416:
and renamed the people "San Daniel". By 1810, the Spanish began to call the Uypi tribe the Soquel tribe.
1553:
1329:
1286:
A Time of Little Choice: The Disintegration of Tribal Culture in the San Francisco Bay Area 1769-1910
672:
469:
369:
389:
and Soquel Creek. Uypi territory was rich in fields and coastal terraces. Three known villages were
939:"Ohlone/Costanoan Indians of the San Francisco Peninsula and their Neighbors, Yesterday and Today"
1428:
289:
464:
The Sayanta tribe was a smaller Awaswas group that lived in the Santa Cruz Mountains around the
228:
992:
437:
386:
758:
543:. The Santa Cruz Mountain tribes were united linguistically, as they spoke a language called
506:
341:
316:
205:
1318:. Santa Cruz County History Journal, Number 5. Santa Cruz, CA: Museum of Art & History.
1162:
579:
1344:
582:
arrived on October 23, 1769 near Año Nuevo, Awaswas-speaking Quiroste representatives from
473:
301:
174:
662:
8:
1301:
The Costanoan/Ohlone Indians of the San Francisco and Monterey Bay Area, A Research Guide
1143:"As Big Basin Finally Reopens, Indigenous Stewardship Key Among Plans for Park's Rebirth"
701:
1487:
1120:
626:
618:
599:
477:
413:
297:
1502:
1319:
1304:
1289:
1073:
1048:
1023:
968:
910:
859:
824:
382:
293:
213:
296:. The Quiroste derived their political influence from controlling the production of
227:
and the coastal mountain range of the Santa Cruz Mountains with territories between
1477:
1469:
1444:
1393:
552:
544:
240:
124:
107:
103:
99:
82:
31:
527:, with linguistic and genetic ties to other Ohlone groups, such as peoples of the
1548:
1512:
1507:
1497:
1492:
1482:
1454:
1337:
711:
634:
441:
304:
shell beads, the latter being used as currency throughout Indigenous California.
260:
95:
1378:
1068:
Rosenthal, Jeffrey; Meyer, Jack; Hildebrandt, William R.; King, Jerome (2004).
646:
524:
209:
201:
1527:
1413:
1403:
1398:
1388:
1383:
594:
540:
536:
465:
224:
152:
148:
433:
429:
232:
220:
128:
637:, until the missions were discontinued by the Mexican Government in 1834.
1316:
A Gathering of Voices: The Native Peoples of the Central California Coast
676:
661:
There are no living survivors of the Awaswas, who are spoken for by the
515:
425:
716:
74:
1359:
263:
that may refer and translate to "north". It may have been used by the
1408:
621:. The Franciscans named local tribes after saints. During the era of
532:
432:
at the western edge of their land, and eastward about halfway to the
219:
Awaswas speakers were formerly distributed over much of the northern
144:
1116:"Indigenous Founders of a Museum Cafe Put Repatriation on the Menu"
193:
682:
489:
renamed the people "Jesus" (Mission Santa Cruz) and "San Carlos" (
344:, likely including the inland ridge of Ben Lomond Mountain in the
1215:
937:
Milliken, Randall; Shoup, Laurence H.; Ortiz, Beverly R. (2009).
120:
52:
Awaswas territory boundaries with known Indigenous tribes labeled
1423:
1360:
606:
The slow conversion of the Awaswas began after the founding of
528:
264:
256:
189:
181:
140:
47:
1067:
1020:
California Prehistory: Colonization, Culture, and Complexity
185:
27:
One of the Ohlone Native Americans of Northern California
1246:"Healing ceremonies recall California Mission heritage"
999:. Vol. 30, no. 8. Times Publishing Group, Inc
965:
Proto Utian Grammar and Dictionary With Notes on Yokuts
196:, but instead functioned independently of one another.
1163:"Save the Knoll - Ohlone speaking event in Santa Cruz"
993:"Native Americans on Cabrillo College and Colonialism"
905:
Natasha, Warner; Butler, Lynnika; Geary, Luna (2016).
858:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. p. 66.
1303:. Menlo Park, CA: Ballena Press Publication, 1997.
1047:. Springer International Publishing. p. viii.
932:
930:
928:
926:
722:
Slavery among Native Americans in the United States
936:
904:
809:
807:
805:
803:
801:
799:
797:
795:
707:Ohlone tribes and villages in Santa Cruz Mountains
519:Map showing the Awaswas amongst the Ohlone tribes.
381:The Uypi were concentrated along the mouth of the
793:
791:
789:
787:
785:
783:
781:
779:
777:
775:
424:At the southern edge of Uypi territory, bound by
1525:
1288:Menlo Park, CA: Ballena Press Publication 1995.
923:
393:("Place of Red Abalone", near the river mouth),
1109:
1107:
744:
742:
671:Awaswas people, the "documented descendants of
853:
813:
772:
625:, the Awaswas people's lives changed with the
1345:
1095:
1091:
1089:
1042:
558:
1187:"Archaeological Society/Dig-It Club Meeting"
1104:
986:
984:
739:
675:and Santa Cruz", have become members of the
1243:
1352:
1338:
1100:. San Mateo County Historical Association.
1086:
1043:Fukurai, Hiroshi; Krooth, Richard (2021).
748:
401:, present-day Westlake neighborhood), and
46:
1017:
981:
962:
909:. University of Hawaii Press. p. 9.
907:Mutsun-English, English-Mutsun Dictionary
598:Reduced scale reconstruction of the 1795
363:(Mutsun: "Place of the Enemy/Competitor")
1559:History of Santa Cruz County, California
1096:Stranger, Frank M.; Brown, Alan (1969).
656:
593:
514:
292:south to Año Nuevo Creek, and inland to
1018:Jones, Terry L.; Klar, Kathryn (2007).
14:
1526:
1140:
640:
589:Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo
155:, and other Ohlonean-speaking peoples
1333:
1279:Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin
1275:Handbook of the Indians of California
1113:
943:Government Documents and Publications
849:
847:
563:
1114:Brown, Patricia Leigh (2022-12-11).
990:
886:. University of California, Berkeley
68:Regions with significant populations
1281:No. 78. (map of villages, page 465)
24:
844:
25:
1575:
503:History of California before 1900
327:) at Whitehouse Creek. It was at
1544:Indigenous peoples of California
823:. University of Nebraska Press.
511:Indigenous peoples of California
412:as an ideal settlement site for
171:Indigenous peoples of California
1365:Indigenous people of California
1237:
1226:from the original on 2013-08-11
1208:
1179:
1155:
1141:Severn, Cathy (July 20, 2022).
1134:
1061:
1036:
1022:. AltaMira Press. p. 125.
854:Rizzo-Martinez, Martin (2022).
814:Rizzo-Martinez, Martin (2022).
727:Population of Native California
1539:Extinct Native American tribes
1011:
991:Gumz, Jondi (April 15, 2021).
956:
898:
872:
623:Spanish missions in California
574:Spanish missions in California
13:
1:
1419:Verona Band of Alameda County
1266:
963:Callaghan, Catherine (2013).
651:Hearst Museum of Anthropology
608:Mission San Francisco de Asís
483:
397:(about one mile northwest of
1193:. 2012-11-15. Archived from
275:
246:
7:
1429:List of tribes and villages
884:California Language Archive
695:
612:Mission Santa Clara de Asís
570:Province of Las Californias
491:Mission Santa Clara de Asís
468:drainage, near present-day
283:
10:
1580:
1534:California Mission Indians
1244:Donna Jones (2012-12-21).
967:. De Gruyter. p. 22.
673:Missions San Juan Bautista
567:
559:Spanish period (1769-1821)
500:
496:
459:
29:
1468:
1437:
1371:
1314:Yamane, Linda, ed. 2002.
1273:Kroeber, Alfred L. 1925.
755:Santa Cruz Public Library
335:
139:
134:
118:
113:
94:
89:
72:
67:
62:
57:
45:
732:
523:Indigenous Awaswas were
419:
307:Two known villages were
180:The Awaswas people were
1220:Amah Mutsun Tribal Band
1167:Indybay, Santa Cruz IMC
663:Amah Mutsun Tribal Band
649:, then director of the
408:The Spanish identified
376:
223:area, living along the
1450:Traditional narratives
603:
520:
169:, were a group of the
119:Traditional religion,
30:For the language, see
1455:Hunting and gathering
1191:Santa Cruz Good Times
657:Awaswas peoples today
597:
518:
507:History of California
212:and loss of original
206:cultural assimilation
135:Related ethnic groups
63:c. 600 - 1,400 (1769)
1564:Santa Cruz Mountains
610:in October 1776 and
175:Santa Cruz Mountains
165:, also known as the
1284:Milliken, Randall.
1277:. Washington, D.C:
1250:Santa Cruz Sentinel
702:California genocide
641:Loss of recognition
42:
1299:Teixeira, Lauren.
1121:The New York Times
817:We Are Not Animals
627:Mission Santa Cruz
619:Mission Santa Cruz
604:
600:Mission Santa Cruz
580:Portolá expedition
564:Under Spanish rule
521:
414:Mission Santa Cruz
241:San Mateo Counties
83:San Mateo Counties
40:
1554:Aptos, California
1521:
1520:
383:San Lorenzo River
259:derived from the
214:cultural identity
167:Santa Cruz people
159:
158:
16:(Redirected from
1571:
1354:
1347:
1340:
1331:
1330:
1260:
1259:
1257:
1256:
1241:
1235:
1234:
1232:
1231:
1212:
1206:
1205:
1203:
1202:
1183:
1177:
1176:
1174:
1173:
1159:
1153:
1152:
1150:
1149:
1138:
1132:
1131:
1129:
1128:
1111:
1102:
1101:
1093:
1084:
1083:
1065:
1059:
1058:
1040:
1034:
1033:
1015:
1009:
1008:
1006:
1004:
988:
979:
978:
960:
954:
953:
951:
949:
934:
921:
920:
902:
896:
895:
893:
891:
876:
870:
869:
851:
842:
841:
839:
837:
822:
811:
770:
769:
767:
766:
757:. Archived from
749:Robert Cartier.
746:
687:
684:
633:, also known as
555:secret society.
58:Total population
50:
43:
39:
32:Awaswas language
21:
1579:
1578:
1574:
1573:
1572:
1570:
1569:
1568:
1524:
1523:
1522:
1517:
1464:
1460:Native American
1433:
1367:
1358:
1328:
1269:
1264:
1263:
1254:
1252:
1242:
1238:
1229:
1227:
1214:
1213:
1209:
1200:
1198:
1185:
1184:
1180:
1171:
1169:
1161:
1160:
1156:
1147:
1145:
1139:
1135:
1126:
1124:
1112:
1105:
1094:
1087:
1080:
1066:
1062:
1055:
1041:
1037:
1030:
1016:
1012:
1002:
1000:
989:
982:
975:
961:
957:
947:
945:
935:
924:
917:
903:
899:
889:
887:
878:
877:
873:
866:
852:
845:
835:
833:
831:
820:
812:
773:
764:
762:
747:
740:
735:
712:Mission Indians
698:
679:
659:
643:
635:Mission Indians
576:
568:Main articles:
566:
561:
513:
501:Main articles:
499:
486:
462:
442:Mutsun speaking
422:
385:in present-day
379:
338:
300:arrowheads and
286:
278:
261:Mutsun language
249:
235:in present-day
229:Point Año Nuevo
96:Ohlone language
53:
38:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1577:
1567:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1551:
1546:
1541:
1536:
1519:
1518:
1516:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1474:
1472:
1466:
1465:
1463:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1441:
1439:
1435:
1434:
1432:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1375:
1373:
1369:
1368:
1357:
1356:
1349:
1342:
1334:
1327:
1326:
1312:
1297:
1282:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1262:
1261:
1236:
1207:
1178:
1154:
1133:
1103:
1085:
1078:
1060:
1053:
1035:
1028:
1010:
980:
973:
955:
922:
915:
897:
871:
864:
843:
829:
771:
737:
736:
734:
731:
730:
729:
724:
719:
714:
709:
704:
697:
694:
690:Central Valley
658:
655:
647:Alfred Kroeber
642:
639:
602:Parish Chapel.
591:in June 1770.
565:
562:
560:
557:
525:Ohlone peoples
498:
495:
485:
482:
461:
458:
457:
456:
452:
451:
421:
418:
378:
375:
374:
373:
365:
364:
337:
334:
315:, present-day
302:Olivella snail
298:Monterey chert
285:
282:
277:
274:
248:
245:
210:language death
202:language shift
157:
156:
137:
136:
132:
131:
116:
115:
111:
110:
92:
91:
87:
86:
70:
69:
65:
64:
60:
59:
55:
54:
51:
36:
26:
18:Awaswas people
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1576:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1552:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1532:
1531:
1529:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1467:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1442:
1440:
1436:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1376:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1355:
1350:
1348:
1343:
1341:
1336:
1335:
1332:
1325:
1324:0-940283-11-5
1321:
1317:
1313:
1310:
1309:0-87919-141-4
1306:
1302:
1298:
1295:
1294:0-87919-132-5
1291:
1287:
1283:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1271:
1251:
1247:
1240:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1211:
1197:on 2014-04-09
1196:
1192:
1188:
1182:
1168:
1164:
1158:
1144:
1137:
1123:
1122:
1117:
1110:
1108:
1099:
1092:
1090:
1081:
1079:9781883019150
1075:
1071:
1064:
1056:
1054:9783030592738
1050:
1046:
1039:
1031:
1029:9780759108721
1025:
1021:
1014:
998:
994:
987:
985:
976:
974:9783110276770
970:
966:
959:
944:
940:
933:
931:
929:
927:
918:
916:9780985621186
912:
908:
901:
885:
881:
875:
867:
865:9781496219626
861:
857:
850:
848:
832:
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680: [
677:Amah Mutsun
426:Aptos Creek
403:Hottrochtac
290:Bean Hollow
1528:Categories
1267:References
1255:2012-12-23
1230:2021-12-05
1201:2012-12-23
1172:2012-12-23
1148:2022-08-02
1127:2023-08-13
765:2023-03-23
717:Reductions
484:Chaloctaca
438:Calendaruc
387:Santa Cruz
346:Bonny Doon
311:(south of
237:Santa Cruz
79:Santa Cruz
1503:Ramaytush
1488:Chochenyo
1470:Languages
1409:Ramaytush
1394:Chochenyo
1216:"History"
880:"Awaswas"
645:In 1925,
631:neophytes
578:When the
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325:Chipletac
323:(west of
317:Pescadero
309:Churmutcé
276:Divisions
251:The term
247:Etymology
145:Ramaytush
90:Languages
1445:Religion
1224:Archived
1003:13 March
948:17 March
890:23 March
836:13 March
696:See also
683:Wikidata
474:Glenwood
410:Aulintak
399:Aulintak
391:Aulintak
284:Quiroste
231:and the
194:Cheyenne
114:Religion
1478:Awaswas
1438:Culture
1379:Awaswas
584:Mitenne
545:Awaswas
497:History
460:Sayanta
395:Chalumü
329:Mitenne
321:Mitenne
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121:Animism
108:English
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100:Awaswas
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319:) and
313:Oljons
265:Mutsun
257:exonym
255:is an
190:Navajo
182:Ohlone
153:Tamien
149:Rumsen
141:Mutsun
821:(PDF)
733:Notes
686:]
420:Aptos
192:, or
125:Kuksu
1320:ISBN
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