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nearby in North Africa, the
Egyptians developed a calendar of their own. The Egyptian calendar was solar based, while the Babylonian calendar was lunar based. A potential blend between the two that has been noted by some historians is the adoption of a crude leap year by the Babylonians after the Egyptians developed one. The Babylonian leap year shares no similarities with the leap year practiced today. It involved the addition of a thirteenth month as a means to re-calibrate the calendar to better match the growing season.
369:. The stars followed and possibly charted by these city-states are identical stars to the ones in the astrolabes. Each region had a set of twelve stars it followed, which combined equals the thirty-six stars in the astrolabes. The twelve stars of each region also correspond to the months of the year. The two cuneiform texts that provide the information for this claim are the large star list “K 250” and “K 8067”. Both of these tablets were translated and transcribed by Weidner. During the reign of
304:. Since omens via the planets were produced without any human action, they were seen as more powerful. But they believed the events these omens foretold were also avoidable. The relationship Mesopotamians had with omens can be seen in the Omen Compendia, a Babylonian text composed starting from the beginning of the second millennium on-wards. It is the primary source text that tells us that ancient Mesopotamians saw omens as preventable. The text also contains information on
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that is considered excellent by other historians who specialize in
Babylonian astronomy. Two other texts concerning the astrolabes that should be mentioned are the Brussels and Berlin compilations. They offer similar information to the Pinches anthology, but do contain some differing information from
440:
Babylonian priests were the ones responsible for developing new forms of mathematics and did so to better calculate the movements of celestial bodies. One such priest, Nabu-rimanni, is the first documented
Babylonian astronomer. He was a priest for the moon god and is credited with writing lunar and
283:
and world view of the ancient
Babylonian astrologers and astronomers. This is largely due to the current fragmentary state of Babylonian planetary theory, and also due to Babylonian astronomy and cosmology largely being separate endeavors. Nevertheless, traces of cosmology can be found in Babylonian
436:
The exploration of the Sun, Moon, and other celestial bodies affected the development of
Mesopotamian culture. The study of the sky led to the development of a calendar and advanced mathematics in these societies. The Babylonians were not the first complex society to develop a calendar globally and
427:
Tablet 1 houses information that closely parallels information contained in astrolabe B. The similarities between Tablet 1 and astrolabe B show that the authors were inspired by the same source for at least some of the information. There are six lists of stars on this tablet that relate to sixty
891:
Historians have found evidence that Athens during the late 5th century may have been aware of
Babylonian astronomy. astronomers, or astronomical concepts and practices through the documentation by Xenophon of Socrates telling his students to study astronomy to the extent of being able to tell the
866:
IV.2 that
Hipparchus improved the values for the Moon's periods known to him from "even more ancient astronomers" by comparing eclipse observations made earlier by "the Chaldeans", and by himself. However Kugler found that the periods that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus had already been used in
348:
and date back to the Old
Babylonian Kingdom. They are a list of thirty-six stars connected with the months in a year, generally considered to be written between 1800 and 1100 B.C. No complete texts have been found, but there is a modern compilation by Pinches, assembled from texts housed in the
373:
these three separate traditions were combined. This combining also ushered in a more scientific approach to astronomy as connections to the original three traditions weakened. The increased use of science in astronomy is evidenced by the traditions from these three regions being arranged in
146:
and procedure texts, hence current knowledge of
Babylonian planetary theory is in a fragmentary state. Nevertheless, the surviving fragments show that Babylonian astronomy was the first "successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena" and that "all
441:
eclipse computation tables as well as other elaborate mathematical calculations. The computation tables are organized in seventeen or eighteen tables that document the orbiting speeds of planets and the Moon. His work was later recounted by astronomers during the
Seleucid dynasty.
215:. The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in 'strings' that lie along declination circles and thus measure right-ascensions or time intervals, and also employs the stars of the zenith, which are also separated by given right-ascensional differences.
851:
and the idea of the day being split into two halves of twelve from the Babylonians. Other sources point to Greek pardegms, a stone with 365-366 holes carved into it to represent the days in a year, from the Babylonians as well.
879:). Apparently Hipparchus only confirmed the validity of the periods he learned from the Chaldeans by his newer observations. Later Greek knowledge of this specific Babylonian theory is confirmed by 2nd-century
328:, circa 2500-670 B.C., show lunar omens observed by the Mesopotamians. "When the moon disappears, evil will befall the land. When the moon disappears out of its reckoning, an eclipse will take place".
319:
is a series of cuneiform tablets that gives insight on different sky omens Babylonian astronomers observed. Celestial bodies such as the Sun and Moon were given significant power as omens. Reports from
537:. Babylonian procedure texts describe, and ephemerides employ, arithmetical procedures to compute the time and place of significant astronomical events. More recent analysis of previously unpublished
428:
constellations in charted paths of the three groups of Babylonian star paths, Ea, Anu, and Enlil. There are also additions to the paths of both Anu and Enlil that are not found in astrolabe B.
135:. The Babylonians used the sexagesimal system to trace the planets transits, by dividing the 360 degree sky into 30 degrees, they assigned 12 zodiacal signs to the stars along the ecliptic.
811:) have been preserved up to the present time, or some aspects of their work and thought are still known through later references. However, achievements in these fields by earlier
883:, which contains 32 lines of a single column of calculations for the Moon using this same "System B", but written in Greek on papyrus rather than in cuneiform on clay tablets.
188:
Babylonian astronomers developed zodiacal signs. They are made up of the division of the sky into three sets of thirty degrees and the constellations that inhabit each sector.
653:. Seleucus, however, was unique among them in that he was the only one known to have supported the heliocentric theory of planetary motion proposed by Aristarchus, where the
312:
as “namburbu”, meaning roughly, “ loosening”. The god Ea was the one believed to send the omens. Concerning the severity of omens, eclipses were seen as the most dangerous.
560:. Whereas Greek astronomers expressed "prejudice in favor of circles or spheres rotating with uniform motion", such a preference did not exist for Babylonian astronomers.
223:
The Babylonians were the first civilization known to possess a functional theory of the planets. The oldest surviving planetary astronomical text is the Babylonian
633:. The Greek geographer Strabo lists Seleucus as one of the four most influential astronomers, who came from Hellenistic Seleuceia on the Tigris, alongside
296:
could and did indicate future events to mankind through omens; sometimes through animal entrails, but most often they believed omens could be read through
91:, and some modern scholars have thus referred to this approach as a scientific revolution. This approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in
2199:, ed. Erle Leichty, Maria deJ. Ellis, and Pamela Gerardi, pp. 353–362. Philadelphia: Occasional Publications of the Samuel Noah Kramer Fund 9, 1988.
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Though there is a lack of surviving material on Babylonian planetary theory, it appears most of the Chaldean astronomers were concerned mainly with
227:, a 7th-century BC copy of a list of observations of the motions of the planet Venus that probably dates as early as the second millennium BC. The
131:. Babylonian astronomy paved the way for modern astrology and is responsible for its spread across the Graeco-Roman empire during the 2nd Century,
357:
The thirty-six stars that make up the astrolabes are believed to be derived from the astronomical traditions from three Mesopotamian city-states,
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time of night from the stars. This skill is referenced in the poem of Aratos, which discusses telling the time of night from the zodiacal signs.
408:
MUL.APIN is a collection of two cuneiform tablets (Tablet 1 and Tablet 2) that document aspects of Babylonian astronomy such as the movement of
545:, dated between 350 and 50 BC, demonstrates that Babylonian astronomers sometimes used geometrical methods, prefiguring the methods of the
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and not with theory. It had been thought that most of the predictive Babylonian planetary models that have survived were usually strictly
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177:. First presumed to be describing rules to a game, its use was later deciphered to be a unit converter for calculating the movement of
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2602:
420:. Each tablet is also split into smaller sections called Lists. It was comprised in the general time frame of the astrolabes and
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model for the heliocentric theory and by developing methods to compute planetary positions using this model. He may have used
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1730:"The Earliest Candidates of Auroral Observations in Assyrian Astrological Reports: Insights on Solar Activity around 660 BCE"
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are due to the attraction of the Moon, and that the height of the tides depends on the Moon's position relative to the Sun.
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was not uniform, though they were unaware of why this was; it is today known that this is due to the Earth moving in an
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None of his original writings or Greek translations have survived, though a fragment of his work has survived only in
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This article is about ancient astronomy from Babylonian civilization. For information about Babylonian cosmology, see
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533:, though the Babylonian astronomers were concerned with the philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early
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Only fragments of Babylonian astronomy have survived, consisting largely of contemporary clay tablets containing
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819:, were forgotten for a long time. Since the discovery of key archaeological sites in the 19th century, many
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Writing Science Before the Greeks: A Naturalistic Analysis of the Babylonian Astronomical Treatise MUL.APIN
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1951:
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1891:"Ancient Babylonian astronomers calculated Jupiter's position from the area under a time-velocity graph"
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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences
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Aside from occasional interactions between the two, Babylonian astronomy was largely independent from
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van der Waerden, B. L. (1951). "Babylonian Astronomy. III. The Earliest Astronomical Computations".
684:. He noted that the tides varied in time and strength in different parts of the world. According to
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2686:
1980:"Stellar Distances in Early Babylonian Astronomy: A New Perspective on the Hilprecht Text (HS 229)"
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within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the
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The only surviving planetary model from among the Chaldean astronomers is that of the Hellenistic
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1940:
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Pingree, David (1998). "Legacies In Astronomy And Celestial Omens". In Dalley, Stephanie (ed.).
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and their relationships with various celestial phenomena including the motions of the planets.
18:
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64:. This system simplified the calculating and recording of unusually great and small numbers.
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Cosmology : historical, literary, philosophical, religious, and scientific perspectives
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Contributions made by the Chaldean astronomers during this period include the discovery of
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2185:. 3 volumes. London:1956; 2nd edition, New York: Springer, 1983. (Commonly abbreviated as
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8:
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906:
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159:, and in the West … depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways."
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Jones, Alexander. "The Adaptation of Babylonian Methods in Greek Numerical Astronomy."
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1991:
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Mesopotamian Astrology: An Introduction to Babylonian and Assyrian Celestial Divination
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699:, Seleucus may have proved the heliocentric theory by determining the constants of a
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458:
232:
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2015:
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571:, and many accurate astronomical observations. For example, they observed that the
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45:
1970:
The Heavenly Writing: Divination, Horoscopy, and Astronomy in Mesopotamian Culture
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715:
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362:
316:
237:
200:
1703:"Three thousand years of sexagesimal numbers in Mesopotamian mathematical texts"
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1729:
1719:
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Aaboe, A.; Britton, J.P.; Henderson, J.A.; Neugebauer, O.; Sachs, A.J. (1991).
792:
650:
580:
542:
453:
studied Assyrian cuneiform tablets, reporting unusual red skies which might be
366:
350:
100:
53:
1952:"A consideration of Babylonian astronomy within the historiography of science"
1628:
1459:
847:). Herodotus writes that the Greeks learned such aspects of astronomy as the
661:. According to Plutarch, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system through
583:
around the Sun, with the Earth moving swifter when it is nearer to the Sun at
3006:
2818:
832:
614:
564:
182:
1906:
1728:
Hayakawa, Hisashi; Mitsuma, Yasuyuki; Ebihara, Yusuke; Miyake, Fusa (2019).
67:
During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new
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242:
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112:
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494:
424:, evidenced by similar themes, mathematical principles, and occurrences.
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57:
49:
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In 1900, Franz Xaver Kugler demonstrated that Ptolemy had stated in his
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1680:
1671:
1647:
763: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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264:
128:
76:
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2004:
1995:
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and settings of the planets, and lengths of daylight as measured by a
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1609:
1593:
1113:. State Archives of Assyria. Vol. 8. Helsinki University Press.
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methods that were available in his time, as he was a contemporary of
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345:
341:
337:
309:
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280:
68:
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2112:"Babylonian Astronomy. III. The Earliest Astronomical Computations"
2102:
2087:"Babylonian Astronomy. III. The Earliest Astronomical Computations"
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2019:
1931:
1856:
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1214:
The Reports of the Magicians and Astrologers of Nineveh and Babylon
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700:
618:
588:
576:
534:
518:
417:
403:
192:
173:
An object labelled the ivory prism was recovered from the ruins of
80:
1524:
Studies in Arabic versions of Greek texts and in mediaeval science
386:, an astronomical system contained and discussed in the MUL.APIN.
308:
rites to avert evil, or “nam-bur-bi”, a term later adopted by the
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876:
642:
634:
550:
486:
470:
325:
321:
174:
120:
108:
61:
23:
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680:, although he believed that the interaction was mediated by the
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Babylon to Voyager and Beyond: A History of Planetary Astronomy
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Paul Murdin, ed. (2001). "Seleucus of Seleucia (c. 190 BCE?)".
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approach to astronomy. They began studying and recording their
1500:
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1423:
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1280:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1193:
469:
Neo-Babylonian astronomy refers to the astronomy developed by
1648:"Saros Cycle Dates and Related Babylonian Astronomical Texts"
1181:
1041:
1039:
1037:
1024:
1022:
1020:
676:. Seleucus correctly theorized that tides were caused by the
383:
305:
104:
2202:
1727:
1316:
1418:
1220:
689:
677:
673:
672:, his arguments were probably related to the phenomenon of
489:
periods of Mesopotamian history. The systematic records in
358:
293:
246:
2166:
The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages
1394:
1159:
1157:
1080:
1078:
1034:
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also laid the foundations of what would eventually become
2378:
2197:
A Scientific Humanist: Studies in Memory of Abraham Sachs
1870:
The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures
1169:
831:. Most known astronomical tablets have been described by
658:
572:
379:
1370:
1216:. New York: D. Appleton & Company. pp. 451–460.
871:, specifically the collection of texts nowadays called "
2005:"Chaldaean Astronomy of the Last Three Centuries B. C."
1841:"The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods"
1807:"Review: Babylonian Astrological Omens and Their Stars"
1300:
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500:
1544:
1382:
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around its own axis which in turn revolved around the
60:, was based on sixty, as opposed to ten in the modern
2980:
2164:, 82(1991): 441-453; reprinted in Michael Shank, ed.
2134:
1406:
1127:
340:
of the same name) are one of the earliest documented
147:
subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the
1295:
1144:
1142:
981:
1956:
Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A
1090:
1063:
993:
493:allowed for the observation of a repeating 18-year
432:
Relationship of calendar, mathematics and astronomy
1652:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
1334:
1051:
1005:
969:
688:(1.1.9), Seleucus was the first to state that the
245:period in the 7th century BC, comprises a list of
1346:
1139:
665:, though it is not known what arguments he used.
336:The astrolabes (not to be mistaken for the later
3004:
2062:"Babylonian Astronomy. II. The Thirty-Six Stars"
718:translation, which was later referred to by the
2109:
2084:
2059:
1977:
1506:
1429:
1243:
1231:
1045:
1028:
1444:The Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics
1108:
617:model. Seleucus is known from the writings of
2218:
1916:"Hellenophilia versus the History of Science"
1784:
1693:The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy
1289:
1199:
1187:
1175:
729:Babylonian influence on Hellenistic astronomy
645:. Their works were originally written in the
587:and moving slower when it is farther away at
553:over time in an abstract mathematical space.
1945:. Oxford University Press. pp. 125–137.
1888:
1764:
1620:Episodes From the Early History of Astronomy
1518:
1376:
1829:
1441:
1400:
464:
162:
2225:
2211:
2195:"Hipparchus and Babylonian Astronomy." In
2116:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1838:
1682:Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology
1866:"Babylonian Astronomy: Historical Sketch"
1755:
1745:
1718:
827:have been found, some of them related to
779:Learn how and when to remove this message
594:
292:It was a common Mesopotamian belief that
2168:. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000.
2008:Journal of the American Oriental Society
1966:
1949:
1863:
1811:Journal of the American Oriental Society
1785:Hunger, Hermann; Pingree, David (1999).
1304:
1211:
1163:
1069:
886:
393:
374:accordance to the paths of the stars of
17:
1938:
1913:
1804:
1700:
1388:
1133:
1057:
975:
3005:
2135:Watson, Rita; Horowitz, Wayne (2011).
2034:
2002:
1775:
1412:
1340:
1111:Astrological reports to Assyrian kings
1096:
197:catalogues of stars and constellations
2206:
1882:10.1086/amerjsemilanglit.55.2.3088090
1707:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
1689:
1678:
1616:
1591:
1566:
1550:
1364:
1352:
1148:
1084:
1011:
999:
987:
609:(b. 190 BC), who supported the Greek
2964:
1795:
761:adding citations to reliable sources
732:
501:Arithmetical and geometrical methods
79:dealing with an ideal nature of the
1594:"Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity"
1237:
856:Influence on Hipparchus and Ptolemy
218:
13:
2154:
2128:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37224.x
1585:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1958.tb00499.x
1569:"On Babylonian Planetary Theories"
199:as well as schemes for predicting
14:
3034:
2037:"Explaining Babylonian Astronomy"
1778:A History of Horoscopic Astrology
1734:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
279:, very little is known about the
2990:
2963:
2952:
2951:
2722:Southern African Large Telescope
1765:Hetherington, Norris S. (1993).
815:civilizations, notably those in
737:
107:sources frequently use the term
2091:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
2066:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
1984:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
1845:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
1512:
1476:
1435:
1246:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
1205:
1102:
748:needs additional citations for
697:Bartel Leendert van der Waerden
491:Babylonian astronomical diaries
338:astronomical measurement device
2139:. Leiden: Brill Academic Pub.
2110:Van der Waerden, B.L. (1987).
2085:Van der Waerden, B.L. (1951).
2060:Van der Waerden, B.L. (1949).
1889:Ossendrijver, Mathieu (2016).
1788:Astral Sciences in Mesopotamia
1780:. American Federation of Astr.
1530:. pp. viii & 201–17.
1212:Thompson, R. Campbell (1904).
517:, and usually did not involve
267:presented in Mesopotamian and
259:Ancient near eastern cosmology
44:was the study or recording of
36:Ancient near eastern cosmology
1:
2232:
1973:. Cambridge University Press.
1834:. Cambridge University Press.
1489:, Feltrinelli, Milano, 2003,
957:
791:Many of the works of ancient
723:Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi
631:Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi
331:
2183:Astronomical Cuneiform Texts
1978:Rochberg-Halton, F. (1983).
1967:Rochberg, Francesca (2004).
1950:Rochberg, Francesca (2002).
1109:Hermann Hunger, ed. (1992).
962:
841:Astronomical Cuneiform Texts
549:, to describe the motion of
449:A team of scientists at the
269:Assyro-Babylonian literature
252:
48:during the early history of
7:
1830:Leverington, David (2003).
1796:Koch, Ulla Susanne (1995).
895:
875:" (sometimes attributed to
389:
10:
3039:
1800:. Museum Tusculanum Press.
1720:10.1007/s00407-019-00221-3
1696:. Oxford University Press.
1560:
952:Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa
917:Babylonian star catalogues
649:and later translated into
598:
444:
401:
284:literature and mythology.
256:
225:Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa
169:Babylonian star catalogues
166:
33:
2946:
2738:
2715:Large Binocular Telescope
2680:Extremely Large Telescope
2673:Extremely large telescope
2646:
2529:
2469:
2390:
2352:
2313:
2306:
2240:
1942:The Legacy of Mesopotamia
1776:Holden, James H. (2006).
1629:10.1007/978-1-4613-0109-7
1290:Hunger & Pingree 1999
1200:Hunger & Pingree 1999
1188:Hunger & Pingree 1999
1176:Hunger & Pingree 1999
398:Mul.apin cuneiform tablet
115:, who were considered as
2687:Gran Telescopio Canarias
1757:10.3847/2041-8213/ab42e4
465:Neo-Babylonian astronomy
461:between 680 and 650 BC.
287:
163:Old Babylonian astronomy
2782:Astrology and astronomy
2492:Gravitational radiation
2003:Sarton, George (1955).
1914:Pingree, David (1992).
1907:10.1126/science.aad8085
1864:Olmstead, A.T. (1938).
1839:Neugebauer, O. (1948).
1701:Friberg, Jöran (2019).
1460:10.1888/0333750888/3998
835:and later published by
529:like that of the later
473:astronomers during the
83:and began employing an
2701:Hubble Space Telescope
1805:Lambert, W.G. (1987).
912:Babylonian mathematics
595:Heliocentric astronomy
399:
229:Babylonian astrologers
31:
2805:Astroparticle physics
2540:Australian Aboriginal
2035:Steele, John (2019).
1690:Evans, James (1998).
1679:Brown, David (2000).
1617:Aaboe, Asger (2001).
1592:Aaboe, Asger (1974).
1567:Aaboe, Asger (1958).
887:Means of transmission
457:incidents, caused by
451:University of Tsukuba
397:
344:tablets that discuss
241:, written during the
97:Hellenistic astrology
89:philosophy of science
21:
3013:Babylonian astronomy
2797:Astronomers Monument
2729:Very Large Telescope
2276:Astronomical symbols
1507:Van der Waerden 1987
1430:Van der Waerden 1987
1317:Hayakawa et al. 2019
1232:Van der Waerden 1949
1046:Rochberg-Halton 1983
1029:Van der Waerden 1951
927:History of astronomy
902:Babylonian astrology
813:ancient Near Eastern
757:improve this article
611:Aristarchus of Samos
607:Seleucus of Seleucia
601:Seleucus of Seleucia
575:'s motion along the
558:Babylonian cosmology
277:Babylonian mythology
140:astronomical diaries
42:Babylonian astronomy
2870:List of astronomers
2283:Astronomical object
1452:2000eaa..bookE3998.
907:Babylonian calendar
799:writers (including
720:Persian philosopher
641:(Naburimannu), and
497:of lunar eclipses.
263:In contrast to the
127:and other forms of
2856:Physical cosmology
1087:, p. 296–297.
922:Egyptian astronomy
682:Earth's atmosphere
547:Oxford Calculators
531:Hellenistic models
459:geomagnetic storms
400:
133:Hellenistic Period
32:
2978:
2977:
2863:Quantum cosmology
2849:Planetary geology
2642:
2641:
2353:Celestial subject
2146:978-90-04-20230-6
1901:(6272): 482–484.
1638:978-0-387-95136-2
1537:978-965-223-626-5
1487:Flussi e riflussi
1377:Ossendrijver 2016
1329:Aaboe et al. 1991
1120:978-951-570-130-5
789:
788:
781:
647:Akkadian language
539:cuneiform tablets
525:, or speculative
233:Western astrology
149:Hellenistic world
46:celestial objects
26:tablet recording
3030:
2995:
2994:
2986:
2971:
2967:
2966:
2959:
2955:
2954:
2939:
2930:
2923:
2916:
2909:
2900:
2893:
2886:
2884:Medieval Islamic
2879:
2872:
2865:
2858:
2851:
2844:
2837:
2828:
2821:
2814:
2807:
2800:
2791:
2784:
2777:
2770:
2768:Astroinformatics
2763:
2756:
2749:
2747:Archaeoastronomy
2731:
2724:
2717:
2710:
2708:Keck Observatory
2703:
2696:
2689:
2682:
2675:
2668:
2661:
2635:
2626:
2619:
2612:
2605:
2603:Medieval Islamic
2598:
2591:
2584:
2577:
2570:
2563:
2556:
2549:
2542:
2522:
2515:
2508:
2501:
2494:
2487:
2480:
2462:
2453:
2446:
2439:
2432:
2430:
2422:
2420:
2408:
2401:
2381:
2374:
2367:
2345:
2338:
2331:
2324:
2311:
2310:
2299:
2292:
2285:
2278:
2271:
2262:
2255:
2248:
2227:
2220:
2213:
2204:
2203:
2150:
2131:
2106:
2081:
2056:
2031:
1999:
1974:
1963:
1946:
1935:
1910:
1885:
1860:
1835:
1826:
1801:
1792:
1781:
1772:
1761:
1759:
1749:
1724:
1722:
1697:
1686:
1675:
1642:
1613:
1588:
1579:(3–4): 209–277.
1554:
1553:, p. 62–65.
1548:
1542:
1541:
1528:Brill Publishers
1516:
1510:
1504:
1498:
1480:
1474:
1473:
1439:
1433:
1427:
1416:
1410:
1404:
1401:Leverington 2003
1398:
1392:
1386:
1380:
1374:
1368:
1367:, p. 40–62.
1362:
1356:
1350:
1344:
1338:
1332:
1326:
1320:
1314:
1308:
1302:
1293:
1292:, p. 57–65.
1287:
1278:
1277:
1241:
1235:
1229:
1218:
1217:
1209:
1203:
1202:, p. 12–20.
1197:
1191:
1185:
1179:
1173:
1167:
1161:
1152:
1146:
1137:
1131:
1125:
1124:
1106:
1100:
1094:
1088:
1082:
1073:
1067:
1061:
1055:
1049:
1043:
1032:
1026:
1015:
1009:
1003:
997:
991:
985:
979:
973:
784:
777:
773:
770:
764:
741:
733:
410:celestial bodies
219:Planetary theory
201:heliacal risings
179:celestial bodies
123:specializing in
3038:
3037:
3033:
3032:
3031:
3029:
3028:
3027:
3003:
3002:
3001:
2989:
2981:
2979:
2974:
2962:
2950:
2942:
2935:
2926:
2919:
2914:X-ray telescope
2912:
2905:
2896:
2889:
2882:
2875:
2868:
2861:
2854:
2847:
2840:
2833:
2824:
2817:
2810:
2803:
2794:
2787:
2780:
2773:
2766:
2759:
2752:
2745:
2734:
2727:
2720:
2713:
2706:
2699:
2692:
2685:
2678:
2671:
2664:
2657:
2649:
2638:
2631:
2622:
2615:
2608:
2601:
2594:
2587:
2580:
2573:
2566:
2559:
2552:
2545:
2538:
2525:
2520:Multi-messenger
2518:
2511:
2504:
2497:
2490:
2483:
2476:
2465:
2458:
2449:
2442:
2435:
2428:
2425:
2416:
2411:
2404:
2397:
2386:
2377:
2370:
2359:
2348:
2343:Space telescope
2341:
2334:
2327:
2320:
2302:
2295:
2288:
2281:
2274:
2267:
2258:
2251:
2244:
2236:
2231:
2157:
2155:Further reading
2147:
1664:10.2307/1006543
1639:
1604:(1257): 21–42.
1563:
1558:
1557:
1549:
1545:
1538:
1526:. Vol. 2.
1517:
1513:
1505:
1501:
1481:
1477:
1470:
1440:
1436:
1428:
1419:
1411:
1407:
1399:
1395:
1387:
1383:
1375:
1371:
1363:
1359:
1351:
1347:
1339:
1335:
1327:
1323:
1315:
1311:
1303:
1296:
1288:
1281:
1242:
1238:
1230:
1221:
1210:
1206:
1198:
1194:
1190:, p. 1–33.
1186:
1182:
1174:
1170:
1162:
1155:
1147:
1140:
1132:
1128:
1121:
1107:
1103:
1095:
1091:
1083:
1076:
1068:
1064:
1056:
1052:
1044:
1035:
1027:
1018:
1010:
1006:
998:
994:
990:, p. 5–6,.
986:
982:
974:
970:
965:
960:
937:Mayan astronomy
898:
889:
858:
837:Otto Neugebauer
785:
774:
768:
765:
754:
742:
731:
603:
597:
503:
467:
447:
434:
422:Enuma Anu Enlil
412:and records of
406:
392:
334:
317:Enuma Anu Enlil
290:
273:in Mesopotamian
271:, particularly
261:
255:
238:Enuma anu enlil
221:
211:, shadows, and
171:
165:
39:
12:
11:
5:
3036:
3026:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3000:
2999:
2976:
2975:
2973:
2972:
2960:
2947:
2944:
2943:
2941:
2940:
2933:
2932:
2931:
2924:
2917:
2903:
2902:
2901:
2894:
2887:
2880:
2866:
2859:
2852:
2845:
2838:
2831:
2830:
2829:
2815:
2808:
2801:
2792:
2785:
2778:
2771:
2764:
2761:Astrochemistry
2757:
2750:
2742:
2740:
2736:
2735:
2733:
2732:
2725:
2718:
2711:
2704:
2697:
2694:Hale Telescope
2690:
2683:
2676:
2669:
2662:
2654:
2652:
2644:
2643:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2636:
2629:
2628:
2627:
2613:
2606:
2599:
2592:
2585:
2578:
2571:
2564:
2557:
2550:
2543:
2535:
2533:
2527:
2526:
2524:
2523:
2516:
2509:
2502:
2495:
2488:
2481:
2473:
2471:
2467:
2466:
2464:
2463:
2456:
2455:
2454:
2440:
2433:
2427:Visible-light
2423:
2409:
2402:
2394:
2392:
2388:
2387:
2385:
2384:
2383:
2382:
2368:
2356:
2354:
2350:
2349:
2347:
2346:
2339:
2332:
2325:
2317:
2315:
2308:
2304:
2303:
2301:
2300:
2293:
2286:
2279:
2272:
2265:
2264:
2263:
2249:
2241:
2238:
2237:
2230:
2229:
2222:
2215:
2207:
2201:
2200:
2190:
2176:
2156:
2153:
2152:
2151:
2145:
2132:
2122:(1): 525–545.
2107:
2103:10.1086/371009
2082:
2078:10.1086/370901
2057:
2053:10.1086/703532
2047:(2): 292–295.
2032:
2020:10.2307/595168
2014:(3): 166–173.
2000:
1990:(3): 209–217.
1975:
1964:
1947:
1936:
1932:10.1086/356288
1926:(4): 554–563.
1911:
1886:
1876:(2): 113–129.
1861:
1857:10.1086/370729
1836:
1827:
1802:
1793:
1782:
1773:
1762:
1725:
1713:(2): 183–216.
1698:
1687:
1676:
1643:
1637:
1614:
1589:
1562:
1559:
1556:
1555:
1543:
1536:
1511:
1509:, p. 527.
1499:
1475:
1469:978-0333750889
1468:
1434:
1417:
1415:, p. 169.
1405:
1403:, p. 6–7.
1393:
1391:, p. 557.
1381:
1369:
1357:
1345:
1333:
1321:
1309:
1294:
1279:
1258:10.1086/371009
1236:
1219:
1204:
1192:
1180:
1168:
1166:, p. 679.
1153:
1138:
1126:
1119:
1101:
1089:
1074:
1062:
1050:
1033:
1016:
1004:
1002:, p. 209.
992:
980:
967:
966:
964:
961:
959:
956:
955:
954:
949:
944:
939:
934:
924:
919:
914:
909:
904:
897:
894:
888:
885:
857:
854:
801:mathematicians
787:
786:
745:
743:
736:
730:
727:
599:Main article:
596:
593:
581:elliptic orbit
565:eclipse cycles
543:British Museum
502:
499:
475:Neo-Babylonian
466:
463:
446:
443:
433:
430:
402:Main article:
391:
388:
351:British Museum
333:
330:
289:
286:
257:Main article:
254:
251:
220:
217:
213:intercalations
183:constellations
164:
161:
85:internal logic
62:decimal system
54:numeral system
28:Halley's comet
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3035:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3010:
3008:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2987:
2984:
2970:
2961:
2958:
2949:
2948:
2945:
2938:
2934:
2929:
2925:
2922:
2918:
2915:
2911:
2910:
2908:
2904:
2899:
2895:
2892:
2888:
2885:
2881:
2878:
2874:
2873:
2871:
2867:
2864:
2860:
2857:
2853:
2850:
2846:
2843:
2839:
2836:
2832:
2827:
2823:
2822:
2820:
2819:Constellation
2816:
2813:
2809:
2806:
2802:
2799:
2798:
2793:
2790:
2786:
2783:
2779:
2776:
2772:
2769:
2765:
2762:
2758:
2755:
2751:
2748:
2744:
2743:
2741:
2737:
2730:
2726:
2723:
2719:
2716:
2712:
2709:
2705:
2702:
2698:
2695:
2691:
2688:
2684:
2681:
2677:
2674:
2670:
2667:
2663:
2660:
2656:
2655:
2653:
2651:
2645:
2634:
2630:
2625:
2621:
2620:
2618:
2614:
2611:
2607:
2604:
2600:
2597:
2593:
2590:
2586:
2583:
2579:
2576:
2572:
2569:
2565:
2562:
2558:
2555:
2551:
2548:
2544:
2541:
2537:
2536:
2534:
2532:
2528:
2521:
2517:
2514:
2510:
2507:
2503:
2500:
2496:
2493:
2489:
2486:
2482:
2479:
2475:
2474:
2472:
2470:Other methods
2468:
2461:
2457:
2452:
2448:
2447:
2445:
2441:
2438:
2434:
2431:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2410:
2407:
2406:Submillimetre
2403:
2400:
2396:
2395:
2393:
2389:
2380:
2376:
2375:
2373:
2369:
2366:
2365:Extragalactic
2362:
2358:
2357:
2355:
2351:
2344:
2340:
2337:
2333:
2330:
2329:Observational
2326:
2323:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2312:
2309:
2305:
2298:
2294:
2291:
2287:
2284:
2280:
2277:
2273:
2270:
2266:
2261:
2257:
2256:
2254:
2250:
2247:
2243:
2242:
2239:
2235:
2228:
2223:
2221:
2216:
2214:
2209:
2208:
2205:
2198:
2194:
2193:Toomer, G. J.
2191:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2174:0-226-74951-7
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2158:
2148:
2142:
2138:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2006:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1976:
1972:
1971:
1965:
1962:(4): 661–684.
1961:
1957:
1953:
1948:
1944:
1943:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1837:
1833:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1803:
1799:
1794:
1790:
1789:
1783:
1779:
1774:
1770:
1769:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1699:
1695:
1694:
1688:
1684:
1683:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1644:
1640:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1621:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1565:
1564:
1552:
1547:
1539:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1515:
1508:
1503:
1496:
1495:88-07-10349-4
1492:
1488:
1484:
1479:
1471:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1438:
1431:
1426:
1424:
1422:
1414:
1409:
1402:
1397:
1390:
1385:
1378:
1373:
1366:
1361:
1354:
1349:
1342:
1337:
1330:
1325:
1318:
1313:
1306:
1305:Olmstead 1938
1301:
1299:
1291:
1286:
1284:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1240:
1233:
1228:
1226:
1224:
1215:
1208:
1201:
1196:
1189:
1184:
1177:
1172:
1165:
1164:Rochberg 2002
1160:
1158:
1150:
1145:
1143:
1136:, p. 93.
1135:
1130:
1122:
1116:
1112:
1105:
1098:
1093:
1086:
1081:
1079:
1071:
1070:Rochberg 2004
1066:
1059:
1054:
1047:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1030:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1014:, p. 21.
1013:
1008:
1001:
996:
989:
984:
977:
972:
968:
953:
950:
948:
945:
943:
940:
938:
935:
932:
928:
925:
923:
920:
918:
915:
913:
910:
908:
905:
903:
900:
899:
893:
884:
882:
878:
874:
870:
865:
864:
853:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
833:Abraham Sachs
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
783:
780:
772:
769:November 2012
762:
758:
752:
751:
746:This section
744:
740:
735:
734:
726:
724:
721:
717:
712:
710:
706:
705:trigonometric
702:
698:
695:According to
693:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
668:According to
666:
664:
660:
656:
655:Earth rotated
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
602:
592:
590:
586:
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2795:
2775:Astrophysics
2754:Astrobiology
2546:
2418:Far-infrared
2372:Local system
2307:Astronomy by
2297:... in space
2196:
2186:
2182:
2165:
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2136:
2119:
2115:
2097:(1): 20–34.
2094:
2090:
2069:
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2011:
2007:
1987:
1983:
1969:
1959:
1955:
1941:
1923:
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1817:(1): 93–96.
1814:
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1771:. CRC Press.
1767:
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1710:
1706:
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1623:. Springer.
1619:
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1546:
1523:
1520:Shlomo Pines
1514:
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1408:
1396:
1389:Pingree 1992
1384:
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1324:
1312:
1252:(1): 20–34.
1249:
1245:
1239:
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1195:
1183:
1171:
1134:Lambert 1987
1129:
1110:
1104:
1099:, p. 1.
1092:
1065:
1058:Pingree 1998
1053:
1007:
995:
983:
976:Friberg 2019
971:
929:(Section on
890:
872:
861:
859:
844:
840:
825:clay tablets
823:writings on
790:
775:
766:
755:Please help
750:verification
747:
713:
694:
667:
615:heliocentric
604:
569:saros cycles
562:
555:
515:arithmetical
504:
468:
448:
439:
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407:
356:
354:each other.
335:
314:
291:
262:
243:Neo-Assyrian
236:
222:
190:
187:
172:
137:
125:astronomical
113:philosophers
99:. Classical
77:philosophies
66:
41:
40:
15:
2842:Planetarium
2499:High-energy
2485:Cosmic rays
2437:Ultraviolet
2072:(1): 6–26.
1851:(1): 1–38.
1658:(6): 1–75.
1483:Lucio Russo
1413:Sarton 1955
1341:Sarton 1955
1097:Holden 2006
931:Mesopotamia
869:ephemerides
867:Babylonian
809:geographers
805:astronomers
797:Hellenistic
725:(865-925).
670:Lucio Russo
637:(Kidinnu),
507:ephemerides
495:Saros cycle
205:water clock
144:ephemerides
75:system and
58:sexagesimal
50:Mesopotamia
3007:Categories
2835:Photometry
2812:Binoculars
2789:Astrometry
2650:telescopes
2547:Babylonian
2391:EM methods
2269:Astronomer
2179:Neugebauer
1747:1909.05498
1740:(1): L18.
1551:Aaboe 2001
1365:Aaboe 2001
1353:Brown 2000
1149:Aaboe 1958
1085:Evans 1998
1012:Aaboe 1974
1000:Aaboe 1958
988:Brown 2000
958:References
709:Hipparchus
639:Naburianos
585:perihelion
527:philosophy
479:Achaemenid
332:Astrolabes
265:world view
167:See also:
129:divination
24:Babylonian
2907:Telescope
2513:Spherical
2460:Gamma-ray
2429:(optical)
2234:Astronomy
1573:Centaurus
1274:222450259
963:Citations
829:astronomy
821:cuneiform
817:Babylonia
701:geometric
663:reasoning
523:cosmology
511:empirical
414:solstices
371:Hammurabi
346:astronomy
342:cuneiform
310:Akkadians
302:astrology
298:astronomy
281:cosmology
253:Cosmology
195:contains
109:Chaldeans
69:empirical
30:in 164 BC
2957:Category
2666:Category
2561:Egyptian
2478:Neutrino
2413:Infrared
2361:Galactic
2336:Sidewalk
2290:Glossary
2260:Timeline
2181:, Otto.
1791:. Brill.
1685:. Brill.
1522:(1986).
947:Pleiades
942:MUL.APIN
896:See also
873:System B
863:Almagest
619:Plutarch
589:aphelion
577:ecliptic
535:universe
519:geometry
487:Parthian
483:Seleucid
471:Chaldean
418:eclipses
404:MUL.APIN
390:MUL.APIN
306:Sumerian
193:MUL.APIN
111:for the
81:universe
3023:Chaldea
3018:Babylon
2969:Commons
2921:history
2891:Russian
2739:Related
2648:Optical
2633:Tibetan
2617:Serbian
2610:Persian
2554:Chinese
2531:Culture
2451:History
2322:Amateur
2253:History
2246:Outline
1895:Science
1672:1006543
1561:Sources
1448:Bibcode
881:papyrus
877:Kidinnu
839:in the
643:Sudines
635:Kidenas
551:Jupiter
541:in the
455:aurorae
445:Aurorae
326:Babylon
322:Nineveh
175:Nineveh
121:scribes
2983:Portal
2937:Zodiac
2877:French
2582:Indian
2575:Hebrew
2314:Manner
2172:
2143:
2028:595168
2026:
1996:545074
1994:
1823:602955
1821:
1670:
1635:
1608:
1534:
1493:
1466:
1272:
1266:542419
1264:
1117:
849:gnomon
807:, and
716:Arabic
686:Strabo
629:, and
627:Strabo
623:Aetius
485:, and
382:, and
367:Amurru
365:, and
235:. The
209:gnomon
117:priest
73:belief
56:used,
52:. The
2928:lists
2898:Women
2589:Inuit
2568:Greek
2506:Radar
2444:X-ray
2399:Radio
2379:Solar
2024:JSTOR
1992:JSTOR
1819:JSTOR
1742:arXiv
1668:JSTOR
1610:74272
1606:JSTOR
1270:S2CID
1262:JSTOR
793:Greek
690:tides
674:tides
651:Greek
384:Enlil
363:Akkad
288:Omens
247:omens
157:Islam
155:, in
153:India
151:, in
105:Latin
101:Greek
93:Greek
2997:Asia
2659:List
2624:folk
2596:Maya
2170:ISBN
2162:Isis
2141:ISBN
2041:Isis
1920:Isis
1633:ISBN
1532:ISBN
1491:ISBN
1464:ISBN
1115:ISBN
795:and
678:Moon
567:and
513:and
416:and
359:Elam
324:and
315:The
300:and
294:gods
275:and
191:The
181:and
103:and
95:and
2826:IAU
2187:ACT
2124:doi
2120:500
2099:doi
2074:doi
2049:doi
2045:110
2016:doi
1928:doi
1903:doi
1899:351
1878:doi
1853:doi
1815:107
1752:doi
1738:884
1715:doi
1660:doi
1625:doi
1602:276
1581:doi
1456:doi
1254:doi
845:ACT
759:by
659:Sun
573:Sun
380:Anu
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1986:.
1982:.
1960:33
1958:.
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1924:83
1922:.
1918:.
1897:.
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