115:
510:
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largely a result of substantial population replacement. In other places, Bantu language expansion, like many other languages, has been documented with population genetic evidence to have occurred by means other than complete or predominant population replacement (e.g. via language shift and admixture of incoming and existing populations). For example, one study found this to be the case in Bantu language speakers who are
African
3759:
739:
outmigration more effortful. Other factors promoting state-formation were increased trade among
African communities and with European and Arab traders on the coasts, technological innovations in economic activity, and new techniques in the political-spiritual ritualisation of royalty as the source of national strength and health. Other inland centres established during this phase of expansion include
274:
to extensive admixture between migrants and local populations. A 2023 genetic study of 1,487 Bantu speakers sampled from 143 populations across 14 African countries revealed that the expansion occurred ~4,000 years ago in
Western Africa. The results showed that Bantu speakers received significant gene-flow from local groups in regions they expanded into.
807:. Within the fierce debate among linguists about the word "Bantu", Seidensticker (2024) indicates that there has been a "profound conceptual trend in which a "purely technical without any non-linguistic connotations was transformed into a designation referring indiscriminately to language, culture, society, and race"."
641:
Movements by small groups to the southeast from the Great Lakes region were more rapid, with initial settlements widely dispersed near the coast and near rivers, due to comparatively difficult farming conditions in areas farther from water. Archaeological findings have shown that by 100 BC to 300 AD,
519:
depicting a shield-carrying Bantu warrior. The movement of Bantu settlers, who migrated southwards and settled in the summer rainfall regions of
Southern Africa within the last 2000 years, established a range of relationships with the indigenous San people from bitter conflict to ritual interaction
273:
evidence all support the conclusion that the Bantu expansion was a significant human migration. Generally, the movements of Bantu language-speaking peoples from the
Cameroon/Nigeria border region throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa radically reshaped the genetic structure of the continent and led
229:
Initially, archaeologists believed that they could find archaeological similarities in the region's ancient cultures that the Bantu-speakers were held to have traversed. Linguists, classifying the languages and creating a genealogical table of relationships, believed they could reconstruct material
3153:
Patin, Etienne; Lopez, Marie; Grollemund, Rebecca; Verdu, Paul; Harmant, Christine; Quach, Hélène; Laval, Guillaume; Perry, George H.; Barreiro, Luis B.; Froment, Alain; Heyer, Evelyne; Massougbodji, Achille; Fortes-Lima, Cesar; Migot-Nabias, Florence; Bellis, Gil; Dugoujon, Jean-Michel; Pereira,
431:
groups speak Bantu languages; however, a considerable portion of their vocabulary is not Bantu in origin. Much of this vocabulary is botanical, deals with honey collecting, or is otherwise specialised for the forest and is shared between western Batwa groups. It has been proposed that this is the
221:
region straddling the borderlands here has been identified as containing remnants of "the Bantu who stayed home" as the bulk of Bantu-speakers moved away from the region. Archaeological evidence from the separate works of Jean
Hurault (1979, 1986 and 1988) and Rigobert Tueché (2000) in the region
33:
524:
Linguistic, archeological and genetic evidence indicates that during the course of the Bantu expansion, "independent waves of migration of western
African and East African Bantu-speakers into southern Africa occurred." In some places, genetic evidence suggests that Bantu language expansion was
738:
traded with the inland kingdoms, including Great
Zimbabwe. Such processes of state-formation occurred with increasing frequency from the 16th century onward. They likely resulted from denser population, which led to more specialised divisions of labour, including military power, while making
771:
Manfred K. H. Eggert stated that "the current archaeological record in the
Central African rainforest is extremely spotty and consequently far from convincing so as to be taken as a reflection of a steady influx of Bantu speakers into the forest, let alone movement on a larger scale."
176:
1). Linguistic analysis suggests that the expansion proceeded in two directions: the first went across or along the
Northern border of the Congo forest region (towards East Africa), and the second – and possibly others – went south along Africa's Atlantic coast into what is now the
541:. Where Bantu was adopted via language shift of existing populations, prior African languages were spoken, probably from African language families that are now lost, except as substrate influences of local Bantu languages (such as click sounds in local Bantu languages).
2735:
Bostoen, Koen; Clist, Bernard; Doumenge, Charles; Grollemund, Rebecca; Hombert, Jean-Marie; Muluwa, Joseph Koni; Maley, Jean (June 2015). "Middle to Late Holocene Paleoclimatic Change and the Early Bantu Expansion in the Rain Forests of Western Central Africa".
633:
dominated the Great Lakes region between 650BC and 550BC. It was one of Africa's oldest iron-smelting centres. By the first century BC, Bantu speaking communities in the great lakes region developed iron forging techniques that enabled them to produce
448:-speaking peoples inhabited Southern Africa. Their descendants have largely mixed with other peoples and adopted other languages. A few still live by foraging, often supplemented by working for neighbouring farmers in the arid regions around the
363:
The Atlantic-Congo family comprises a huge group of languages spread throughout Western, Central and Southern Africa. The Benue–Congo branch includes the Bantu languages, which are found throughout Central, Southern, and Eastern Africa.
1625:
Castrì, L; Tofanelli, S; Garagnani, P; et al. (2009). "MtDNA variability in two Bantu-speaking populations (Shona and Hutu) from Eastern Africa: Implications for peopling and migration patterns in sub-Saharan Africa".
1581:
Alves, I; Coelho, M; Gignoux, C; et al. (2011). "Genetic homogeneity across Bantu-speaking groups from Mozambique and Angola challenges early split scenarios between East and West Bantu populations".
230:
culture elements. They believed that the expansion was caused by the development of agriculture, the making of ceramics, and the use of iron, which permitted new ecological zones to be exploited. In 1966,
2346:
Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald H. (22 September 1978). "Complex Iron Smelting and Prehistoric Culture in Tanzania: Recent discoveries show complex technological achievement in African iron production".
367:
A characteristic feature of most Atlantic–Congo languages, including almost all the Bantu languages except Swahili, Sotho-Tswana and Nguni languages, is their use of tone. They generally lack case
564:
BC. Although early models posited that the early speakers were both iron-using and agricultural, definitive archaeological evidence that they used iron does not appear until as late as 400
226:(occupied for 2000 years until today), somewhat south and contiguous with the Mambilla region, have an ancient history of descent from the north in the direction of the Mambilla region.
3020:
Li, Sen; Schlebusch, Carina; Jakobsson, Mattias (2014). "Genetic variation reveals large-scale population expansion and migration during the expansion of Bantu-speaking peoples".
650:
in Kenya. These communities also integrated and intermarried with the communities already present at the coast. Between 300 AD-1000 AD, through participation in the long-existing
157:
are remarkably similar to each other, suggesting the common cultural origin of their original speakers. The linguistic core of the Bantu languages, which comprise a branch of the
595:
of the pre-Bantu population is missing, suggesting that there was a complete population replacement. In South Africa, however, a more complex intermixing could have taken place.
3154:
Joana B.; Fernandes, VerĂłnica; Pereira, Luisa; Van der Veen, Lolke; Mouguiama-Daouda, Patrick; Bustamante, Carlos D.; Hombert, Jean-Marie; Quintana-Murci, LluĂs (5 May 2017).
1422:
Plaza, S; Salas, A; Calafell, F; Corte-Real, F; Bertranpetit, J; Carracedo, A; Comas, D (2004). "Insights into the western Bantu dispersal: MtDNA lineage analysis in Angola".
3113:
Berniell-Lee, G.; Calafell, F.; Bosch, E.; Heyer, E.; Sica, L.; Mouguiama-Daouda, P.; van der Veen, L.; Hombert, J.-M.; Quintana-Murci, L.; Comas, D. (1 July 2009).
379:). The root of the verb tends to remain unchanged, with either particles or auxiliary verbs expressing tenses and moods. For example, in a number of languages the
1898:
Bahuchet, Serge (1993). "History of the Inhabitants of the Central African Rain Forest: Perspectives from Comparative Linguistics". In Hladik, C.M. (ed.).
1937:
Ambrose, Stanley H. (1986). "Hunter-gatherer adaptations to non-marginal environments: an ecological and archaeological assessment of the Dorobo model".
165:. Genetic evidence also indicates that there was a large human migration from central Africa, with varying levels of admixture with local population.
2241:
Beleza, Sandra; Gusmao, Leonor; Amorim, Antonio; Caracedo, Angel; Salas, Antonio (August 2005). "The Genetic Legacy of Western Bantu Migrations".
2678:"Pikunda-Munda and Batalimo-Maluba Archaeological Investigations of the Iron Age Settlement History of the Western and Northern Congo Basin"
480:
beginning around 5,000 years ago. Many centuries later, around AD 1000, some Eastern Cushitic speakers also settled in northern and coastal
1661:
775:
Seidensticker (2024) indicates that the prevalent paradigm for the Bantu expansion has a forced connection between Central African
1226:"Dense sampling of ethnic groups within African countries reveals fine-scale genetic structure and extensive historical admixture"
257:-speaking peoples they encountered. Herding practices reached the far south several centuries before Bantu-speaking migrants did.
168:
The expansion is believed to have taken place in at least two waves, between about 4,000 and 2,000 years ago (approximately 2,000
3821:
3041:
Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2020). "Bantu Migrations and Cultural Transnationalism in the Ancient Global Age, c. 2500 BCE–1400 CE".
3826:
3816:
3806:
3791:
2311:
Lane, Paul; Ashley, Ceri; Oteyo, Gilbert (January 2006). "New Dates for Kansyore and Urewe Wares from Northern Nyanza, Kenya".
3050:
2554:
2471:
2438:
2284:
Clist, Bernard-Olivier (1987). "A critical reappraisal of the chronological framework of the Early Iron Age Urewe Industry".
2190:
2009:
1980:
1907:
1306:
1164:
1133:
952:
854:
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are treated as synonymous with the geographic location of ceramic remnants; the popular approach of attempting to correlate
3147:
2087:"Inferring the Demographic History of African Farmers and Pygmy Hunter–Gatherers Using a Multilocus Resequencing Data Set"
2765:
Bousman, C. Britt (June 1998). "The Chronological Evidence for the Introduction of Domestic Stock into Southern Africa".
1842:
Tracing the 'Bantu Expansion' from its source: Dental nonmetric affinities among West African and neighboring populations
1467:"On the edge of Bantu expansions: MtDNA, Y chromosome and lactase persistence genetic variation in southwestern Angola"
658:. Other pioneering groups had reached modern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa by AD 300 along the coast, and the modern
118:
Map indicating the spread of the Early Iron Age across Africa; all numbers are AD dates except for the "250 BC" date.
1056:
Grollemund, Rebecca; Branford, Simon; Bostoen, Koen; Meade, Andrew; Venditti, Chris; Pagel, Mark (27 October 2015).
687:
190:
1923:
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Before the expansion of Bantu-speaking farmers, Central, Southern, and Southeast Africa were likely populated by
17:
1125:
2138:"The origins of the Lemba 'Black Jews' of southern Africa: evidence from p12F2 and other Y-chromosome markers"
572:, followed the coast and the major rivers of the Congo system southward, reaching central Angola by around 500
568:
BC, though they were agricultural. The western branch, not necessarily linguistically distinct, according to
2182:
2971:"Bantu Language Trees Reflect the Spread of Farming across Sub-Saharan Africa: A Maximum-Parsimony Analysis"
1686:
Koile, Ezequiel; Greenhill, Simon J.; Blasi, Damián E.; Bouckaert, Remco; Gray, Russell D. (9 August 2022).
472:
and other more northerly areas. The first waves consisted of Southern Cushitic speakers, who settled around
607:
334:
591:
suggests that only haplogroups that originated in West Africa are found there today, and the distinctive L
3801:
2908:
Grollemund, Rebecca; Branford, Simon; Bostoen, Koen; Meade, Andrew; Venditti, Chris; Pagel, Mark (2015).
1754:
654:, these communities established links with Arabian and Indian traders, leading to the development of the
153:
There is linguistic evidence for this expansion – a great many of the languages which are spoken across
3811:
3749:
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1293:
Worlds Together, Worlds Apart: A History of the World: From the Beginnings of Humankind to the Present
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788:
598:
Further east, Bantu-speaking communities had reached the great Central African rainforest, and by 500
3115:"Genetic and Demographic Implications of the Bantu Expansion: Insights from Human Paternal Lineages"
1182:"Genetic and Demographic Implications of the Bantu Expansion: Insights from Human Paternal Lineages"
496:-speaking herder populations comprised a third group of the area's pre-Bantu expansion inhabitants.
358:
142:. In the process, the Proto-Bantu-speaking settlers displaced, eliminated or absorbed pre-existing
533:, while another population genetic study found this to be the case in the Bantu language-speaking
456:
continue their traditional subsistence by raising livestock in Namibia and adjacent South Africa.
3332:
2609:
Sadr, Karim (9 July 2019). "Kweneng: A Newly Discovered Pre-Colonial Capital Near Johannesburg".
2206:
Ehret, C. (2001). "Bantu Expansions: Re-Envisioning a Central Problem of Early African History".
803:
that the earliest ceramic manufacturing in a given area is evidence for the earliest presence of
691:
674:
Between the 11th and 16th centuries, powerful Bantu-speaking states on a scale larger than local
1534:"Y-chromosomal variation in sub-Saharan Africa: Insights into the history of Niger–Congo groups"
3737:
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1298:
493:
404:
277:
Based on dental evidence, Irish (2016) concluded that the common ancestors of West African and
1997:
1150:
1016:
579:
It is clear that there were human populations in the region at the time of the expansion, and
3655:
3156:"Dispersals and genetic adaptation of Bantu-speaking populations in Africa and North America"
2463:
1119:
944:
872:"Dispersals and genetic adaptation of Bantu-speaking populations in Africa and North America"
695:
178:
2502:
Thornton, John (October 1977). "Demography and History in the Kingdom of Kongo, 1550–1750".
1900:
Tropical Forests, People, and Food: Biocultural Interactions and Applications to Development
1290:
3265:
3167:
2921:
2392:
Pouwels, Randall L.; Kusimba, Chapurukha M. (2000). "The Rise and Fall of Swahili States".
2038:
1699:
1665:
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994:
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complex. The Swahili city-states were also established early in this period. These include
626:
223:
127:
222:
indicates cultural continuity from 3000 BC until today. The majority of the groups of the
114:
8:
3227:
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2430:
An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in World History, 1000 BC to AD 400
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Bantuists believe that the Bantu expansion most probably began on the highlands between
3711:
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1447:
1399:
1366:
1347:
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1092:
1057:
1038:
917:
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663:
651:
490:-speaking hunter-gatherers also inhabited Southeast Africa before the Bantu expansion.
465:
408:
372:
250:
3640:
1688:"Phylogeographic analysis of the Bantu language expansion supports a rainforest route"
3659:
3552:
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2841:
2794:
2757:
2717:
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2523:
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Paths in the Rainforest: Toward a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa
2159:
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2005:
1976:
1903:
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1599:
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1351:
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1203:
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1042:
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948:
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487:
445:
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and Bantus branched out from a common ancestral population c. 70,000 years ago. Many
396:
254:
2375:
1611:
1451:
509:
237:
The hypothesized Bantu expansion pushed out or assimilated the hunter-forager proto-
3775:
3205:
3183:
3175:
3126:
3077:
2998:
2982:
2947:
2929:
2886:
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2831:
2815:
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2745:
2689:
2653:
2618:
2591:
2546:
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2511:
2401:
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2215:
2149:
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1801:
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1635:
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1331:
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1245:
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1115:
1087:
1077:
1020:
1012:
1004:
940:
921:
899:
891:
821:
740:
679:
659:
588:
218:
2910:"Bantu expansion shows that habitat alters the route and pace of human dispersals"
2359:
1058:"Bantu expansion shows that habitat alters the route and pace of human dispersals"
3665:
3644:
3578:
3485:
3413:
3303:
3270:
2428:
2103:
1755:"Ethnogenesis and Fractal History on an African Frontier: Mambila-Njerep-Mandulu"
1121:
From Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa
784:
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538:
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330:
318:
246:
154:
143:
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3557:
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3313:
3293:
3220:
2914:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2859:"Bringing together linguistic and genetic evidence to test the Bantu expansion"
2709:
2693:
1960:. Vol. 5 of Kölner Beiträge zur Afrikanistik. Berlin: Reimer. p. 407.
1008:
792:
735:
727:
707:
234:
published an article presenting these correlations as a reasonable hypothesis.
158:
139:
45:
3212:
3081:
3060:
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2622:
2595:
2515:
2324:
2254:
2050:
1805:
1770:
1435:
1335:
999:
3785:
3598:
3562:
3255:
2701:
1721:
1257:
816:
804:
796:
557:
428:
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392:
346:
231:
131:
3179:
3131:
3114:
2934:
1712:
1549:
1390:
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1181:
1082:
895:
3701:
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3336:
3322:
3307:
3197:
3140:
3012:
2986:
2961:
2900:
2874:
2845:
2819:
2367:
2297:
2262:
2122:
2068:
1958:
The Historical Reconstruction of Southern Cushitic Phonology and Vocabulary
1739:
1647:
1603:
1567:
1510:
1491:
1443:
1408:
1275:
1249:
1207:
1180:
Berniell-Lee, Gemma; Calafell, Francesc; Bosch, Elena; et al. (2006).
1101:
1034:
913:
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647:
635:
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of East Africa, where a rich environment supported a dense population. The
534:
473:
412:
376:
326:
322:
249:, Bantu speakers may have adopted livestock husbandry from other unrelated
2163:
642:
Bantu speaking communities were present at the coastal areas of Misasa in
3706:
3650:
3542:
1998:"Archaeological and Linguistic Reconstructions of History in East Africa"
1595:
1322:
Vansina, J. (1995). "New Linguistic Evidence and 'The Bantu Expansion'".
975:"The genetic legacy of the expansion of Bantu-speaking peoples in Africa"
453:
342:
294:
293:, and may have migrated southward, from the Sahara into various parts of
278:
262:
258:
242:
201:
system. The expansion reached South Africa, probably as early as AD 300.
198:
173:
147:
135:
3188:
3033:
2943:
2882:
2827:
2802:
Currie, Thomas E.; Meade, Andrew; Guillon, Myrtille; Mace, Ruth (2013).
2786:
904:
3680:
3588:
3537:
2994:
2227:
1975:. Nairobi, Kenya: British Institute in Eastern Africa. pp. 19–48.
1778:
1639:
1365:
Tishkoff, S. A.; Reed, F. A.; Friedlaender, F. R.; et al. (2009).
711:
703:
621:
Another stream of migration, having moved east by 3,000 years ago (1000
530:
513:
380:
368:
3089:
2804:"Cultural phylogeography of the Bantu Languages of sub-Saharan Africa"
2582:"Farmers, cattle-herders and rulers in western Uganda, AD 1000–1500".
2413:
1813:
1343:
3444:
1367:"The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans"
972:
2219:
3770:
3418:
2852:
2749:
2405:
2027:"The Evolution of Human Genetic and Phenotypic Variation in Africa"
2002:
The Archaeological and Linguistic Reconstruction of African History
675:
643:
516:
477:
449:
302:
266:
210:
186:
162:
32:
1872:
3696:
3670:
3547:
3459:
3368:
3043:
West African Masking Traditions and Diaspora Masquerade Carnivals
1971:
Ehret, Christopher (1983). Mack, John; Robertshaw, Peter (eds.).
1465:
Coelho, M; Sequeira, F; Luiselli, D; Beleza, S; Rocha, J (2009).
731:
719:
603:
580:
526:
375:
is characteristic, with some languages having two dozen genders (
310:
286:
238:
214:
1531:
1289:
Pollard, Elizabeth; Rosenberg, Clifford; Tignor, Robert (2011).
197:, or inland along the many south-to-north flowing rivers of the
3716:
3603:
3593:
3510:
3500:
3495:
3454:
3408:
3383:
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683:
615:
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290:
282:
194:
3112:
2907:
2734:
2646:"Genetizing Bantu: Historical Insight or Historical Trilemma?"
1179:
1055:
333:, and amid migration, diverged into East Bantu peoples (e.g.,
3583:
3505:
3490:
3464:
3449:
3439:
3423:
3398:
3393:
3363:
1792:
Oliver, Roland (1966). "The Problem of the Bantu Expansion".
1364:
752:
723:
630:
584:
481:
338:
306:
298:
182:
80:
1685:
1624:
1532:
De Filippo, C; Barbieri, C; Whitten, M; et al. (2011).
1464:
1421:
560:
from their core region in West Africa began around 4000–3500
3318:
1580:
715:
314:
2240:
2025:
Campbell, Michael C.; Tishkoff, Sarah A. (February 2010).
36:
Chronological overview after Nurse and Philippson (2003):
3152:
869:
625:
BC), was creating a major new population center near the
281:
peoples may have originated in the western region of the
169:
669:
468:-speaking peoples had migrated into the region from the
2563:
2394:
The International Journal of African Historical Studies
2208:
The International Journal of African Historical Studies
2084:
2801:
1288:
1223:
3747:
3019:
349:
may have admixture from back-migrated Bantu peoples.
2853:
de Filippo, Cesare; Bostoen, Koen; Stoneking, Mark;
2004:. University of California Press. pp. 104–157.
2000:. In Ehert, Christopher; Posnansky, Merrick (eds.).
1844:. American Association of Physical Anthropologists.
678:
began to emerge. Notable early kingdoms include the
464:
Prior to the arrival of Bantus in Southeast Africa,
2537:Doyle, Shane (2016). "Bunyoro-Kitara, Kingdom of".
2458:
The Peopling of Africa: A Geographic Interpretation
2080:
2078:
973:Fortes-Lima, Cesar A.; et al. (5 April 2023).
783:, where the geographic location of speakers of the
2455:
241:, who had formerly inhabited Southern Africa. In
126:was a major series of migrations of the original
3783:
3068:Vansina, Jan (1984). "Western Bantu Expansion".
2671:
2669:
2075:
2024:
341:) between 2500 BC and 1200 BC. He suggests that
3242:
2310:
1924:"Early migrations into East Africa | Enzi"
1692:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1062:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
937:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History
844:
386:
134:, which spread from an original nucleus around
2391:
2135:
1879:. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
1752:
1149:Adler, Philip J.; Pouwels, Randall L. (2007).
27:Postulated millennia-long series of migrations
3228:
2675:
2666:
2491:(3rd ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press.
935:Bostoen, Koen (2018). "The Bantu Expansion".
583:are their closest living relatives. However,
2345:
1148:
2569:
2486:
1902:. Paris: Unesco/Parthenon. pp. 37–54.
1114:
602:BC, pioneering groups had emerged into the
352:
3235:
3221:
2387:
2385:
2018:
1989:
870:Patin, Etienne; et al. (5 May 2017).
556:It seems likely that the expansion of the
544:
499:
3187:
3130:
3002:
2951:
2933:
2890:
2835:
2657:
2584:Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa
2313:Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa
2153:
2112:
2102:
2058:
1949:
1930:
1729:
1711:
1628:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1557:
1500:
1490:
1398:
1265:
1197:
1091:
1081:
1024:
998:
903:
845:Nurse, Derek; Philippson, GĂ©rard (2003).
432:remnant of an independent western Batwa (
383:is the auxiliary designating the future.
161:, was located in the southern regions of
3045:. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 67–88.
2501:
1964:
1897:
1835:
1833:
1831:
968:
966:
964:
795:data has resulted in propagation of the
508:
204:
113:
31:
3067:
2764:
2382:
2176:
1995:
1936:
1753:Zeitlyn, David; Connell, Bruce (2003).
1321:
1219:
1217:
934:
337:) and West Bantu peoples (e.g., Congo,
325:in 7000 BC. From Nigeria and Cameroon,
14:
3784:
2968:
2643:
2637:
2453:
1873:"Common Origins of Pygmies and Bantus"
1791:
945:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.191
3216:
3040:
2676:Seidensticker, Dirk (28 March 2024).
2536:
2426:
2283:
2205:
1973:Culture History in the Southern Sudan
1970:
1955:
1839:
1828:
961:
670:From the 11th century to 17th century
3148:Bantu Expansion and Hunter-gatherers
2608:
2136:Spurdle, A. B.; Jenkins, T. (1996).
1214:
1142:
1108:
1916:
702:, and the Zambezi River, where the
459:
24:
2727:
2659:10.1553/medievalworlds_no4_2016s79
2142:American Journal of Human Genetics
1017:1854/LU-01GYSSJZXPWXA5Z7DVSNTP0DQA
606:to the south, in what are now the
439:
25:
3838:
3106:
2767:The African Archaeological Review
1664:. Beta.mnet.co.za. Archived from
1224:Bird, Nancy; et al. (2023).
452:desert, while a larger number of
418:
3769:
3757:
3732:
3731:
3022:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
2975:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
2863:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
2808:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
1939:Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika
1870:
688:Democratic Republic of the Congo
191:Democratic Republic of the Congo
3119:Molecular Biology and Evolution
2602:
2575:
2530:
2495:
2480:
2447:
2420:
2339:
2304:
2277:
2234:
2199:
2170:
2129:
2085:Patin, E.; et al. (2009).
1891:
1864:
1785:
1746:
1679:
1654:
1618:
1574:
1538:Molecular Biology and Evolution
1525:
1458:
1415:
1358:
1315:
1282:
1186:Molecular Biology and Evolution
1152:World Civilizations: Since 1500
698:(c.1075–c.1220) in present-day
694:in the Great Lakes region, the
3822:Archaeology of Southern Africa
3070:The Journal of African History
2644:Eggert, Manfred K. H. (2016).
2611:Journal of African Archaeology
2547:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe078
2504:The Journal of African History
1794:The Journal of African History
1759:The Journal of African History
1173:
1126:University of California Press
1049:
928:
863:
838:
159:Atlantic-Congo language family
150:groups that they encountered.
13:
1:
3827:Archaeology of Eastern Africa
3817:Archaeology of Central Africa
3807:Internal migrations in Africa
3792:Demographic history of Africa
2969:Holden, Clare Janaki (2002).
2682:African Archaeological Review
2360:10.1126/science.201.4361.1085
2183:University of Wisconsin Press
832:
329:Proto-Bantu peoples began to
2104:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000448
1996:Ambrose, Stanley H. (1982).
1297:. New York: Norton. p.
1118:; Brandt, Steven A. (1984).
766:
608:Democratic Republic of Congo
504:
444:Before the Bantu expansion,
387:Pre-expansion-era demography
335:Democratic Republic of Congo
7:
3243:Bantu religion and folklore
2487:Shillington, Kevin (2005).
2427:Ehret, Christopher (1998).
1956:Ehret, Christopher (1980).
1877:CNRS International Magazine
1850:10.13140/RG.2.2.14163.78880
810:
10:
3843:
3631:African diaspora religions
2694:10.1007/s10437-024-09576-7
2590:(1): 39–72. January 1998.
2539:The Encyclopedia of Empire
2462:. New Haven, Connecticut:
1662:"Carte Blanche > M-Net"
1324:Journal of African History
1009:10.1038/s41586-023-06770-6
827:Pre-modern human migration
789:linguistic reconstructions
356:
3729:
3689:
3623:
3616:
3571:
3530:
3523:
3473:
3432:
3351:
3286:
3279:
3248:
3082:10.1017/S0021853700022829
2623:10.1163/21915784-20190001
2596:10.1080/00672709809511464
2516:10.1017/s0021853700015693
2454:Newman, James L. (1995).
2325:10.1080/00672700609480438
2255:10.1007/s00439-005-1290-3
2051:10.1016/j.cub.2009.11.050
1806:10.1017/S0021853700006472
1771:10.1017/S002185370200823X
1436:10.1007/s00439-004-1164-0
1336:10.1017/S0021853700034101
1000:10.1101/2023.04.03.535432
83:nucleus of Eastern Bantu
2433:. London: James Currey.
1471:BMC Evolutionary Biology
652:Indian Ocean trade route
359:Atlantic-Congo languages
353:Atlantic–Congo languages
57:BP: initial expansion
3180:10.1126/science.aal1988
2935:10.1073/pnas.1503793112
2779:10.1023/A:1022110818616
1713:10.1073/pnas.2112853119
1391:10.1126/science.1172257
1083:10.1073/pnas.1503793112
896:10.1126/science.aal1988
500:History and development
425:Central African Pygmies
407:-speaking herders, and
3797:Prehistoric migrations
2987:10.1098/rspb.2002.1955
2875:10.1098/rspb.2012.0318
2820:10.1098/rspb.2013.0695
1840:Irish, Joel D (2016).
1492:10.1186/1471-2148-9-80
1250:10.1126/sciadv.abq2616
692:Bunyoro Kitara Kingdom
587:genetic research from
521:
436:or "Baaka") language.
119:
111:
3132:10.1093/molbev/msp069
2464:Yale University Press
2177:Vansina, Jan (1990).
1550:10.1093/molbev/msq312
1199:10.1093/molbev/msp069
696:Kingdom of Mapungubwe
558:Bantu-speaking people
512:
205:Theories on expansion
179:Republic of the Congo
155:sub-Equatorial Africa
117:
35:
3266:Proto-Bantu language
2738:Current Anthropology
1596:10.3378/027.083.0102
779:and Central African
680:Kingdom of the Kongo
92:: southward advance
3572:Legendary creatures
3172:2017Sci...356..543P
2926:2015PNAS..11213296G
2920:(43): 13296–13301.
2869:(1741): 3256–3263.
2855:Pakendorf, Brigitte
2354:(4361): 1085–1089.
2043:2010CBio...20.R166C
1704:2022PNAS..11912853K
1698:(32): e2112853119.
1483:2009BMCEE...9...80C
1383:2009Sci...324.1035T
1242:2023SciA....9.2616B
1116:Clark, John Desmond
1074:2015PNAS..11213296G
1068:(43): 13296–13301.
991:2024Natur.625..540F
888:2017Sci...356..543P
847:The Bantu Languages
662:(formerly Northern
470:Ethiopian Highlands
423:It is thought that
3802:Prehistoric Africa
3712:John the Conqueror
2570:Shillington (2005)
1640:10.1002/ajpa.21070
801:circular reasoning
797:faulty presumption
522:
520:and intermarriage.
373:grammatical gender
317:), as a result of
120:
112:
101:BP: Congo nucleus
3812:1st millennium BC
3745:
3744:
3725:
3724:
3612:
3611:
3519:
3518:
3166:(6337): 543–546.
3052:978-1-58046-984-5
2981:(1493): 793–799.
2556:978-1-118-44064-3
2489:History of Africa
2473:978-0-300-07280-8
2440:978-0-8139-2057-3
2192:978-0-2991-2573-8
2011:978-0-5200-4593-4
1982:978-1-872566-04-7
1909:978-9-2310-2879-3
1668:on 7 January 2012
1377:(5930): 1035–44.
1308:978-0-3939-1847-2
1166:978-0-495-50262-3
1135:978-0-520-04574-3
985:(7995): 540–547.
954:978-0-19-027773-4
882:(6337): 543–546.
856:978-0-7007-1134-5
570:Christopher Ehret
224:Bamenda highlands
16:(Redirected from
3834:
3774:
3773:
3762:
3761:
3760:
3753:
3735:
3734:
3621:
3620:
3531:Legendary beings
3528:
3527:
3284:
3283:
3237:
3230:
3223:
3214:
3213:
3209:
3191:
3144:
3134:
3125:(7): 1581–1589.
3101:
3064:
3037:
3016:
3006:
2965:
2955:
2937:
2904:
2894:
2849:
2839:
2798:
2761:
2722:
2721:
2673:
2664:
2663:
2661:
2641:
2635:
2634:
2606:
2600:
2599:
2579:
2573:
2567:
2561:
2560:
2541:. pp. 1–3.
2534:
2528:
2527:
2499:
2493:
2492:
2484:
2478:
2477:
2461:
2451:
2445:
2444:
2424:
2418:
2417:
2389:
2380:
2379:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2281:
2275:
2274:
2238:
2232:
2231:
2203:
2197:
2196:
2174:
2168:
2167:
2157:
2133:
2127:
2126:
2116:
2106:
2082:
2073:
2072:
2062:
2037:(4): R166–R173.
2022:
2016:
2015:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1934:
1928:
1927:
1920:
1914:
1913:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1886:
1884:
1868:
1862:
1861:
1837:
1826:
1825:
1789:
1783:
1782:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1733:
1715:
1683:
1677:
1676:
1674:
1673:
1658:
1652:
1651:
1622:
1616:
1615:
1578:
1572:
1571:
1561:
1529:
1523:
1522:
1504:
1494:
1462:
1456:
1455:
1419:
1413:
1412:
1402:
1362:
1356:
1355:
1319:
1313:
1312:
1296:
1286:
1280:
1279:
1269:
1236:(13): eabq2616.
1230:Science Advances
1221:
1212:
1211:
1201:
1177:
1171:
1170:
1157:Cengage Learning
1146:
1140:
1139:
1112:
1106:
1105:
1095:
1085:
1053:
1047:
1046:
1028:
1002:
970:
959:
958:
932:
926:
925:
907:
867:
861:
860:
842:
822:Matrilineal belt
741:Bigo bya Mugenyi
706:kings built the
660:Limpopo Province
624:
601:
575:
567:
563:
552:
548:
460:Southeast Africa
401:hunter-gatherers
217:. The 60,000-km
109:
100:
78:
66:
56:
44:
21:
3842:
3841:
3837:
3836:
3835:
3833:
3832:
3831:
3782:
3781:
3780:
3768:
3758:
3756:
3748:
3746:
3741:
3721:
3685:
3666:Hot foot powder
3641:Candomblé Bantu
3608:
3567:
3515:
3486:Kongo cosmogram
3469:
3428:
3347:
3304:Dini Ya Msambwa
3275:
3271:Bantu languages
3261:Bantu expansion
3244:
3241:
3109:
3104:
3053:
2730:
2728:Further reading
2725:
2674:
2667:
2650:Medieval Worlds
2642:
2638:
2607:
2603:
2581:
2580:
2576:
2568:
2564:
2557:
2535:
2531:
2500:
2496:
2485:
2481:
2474:
2452:
2448:
2441:
2425:
2421:
2390:
2383:
2344:
2340:
2309:
2305:
2298:1854/LU-3118804
2282:
2278:
2239:
2235:
2220:10.2307/3097285
2204:
2200:
2193:
2175:
2171:
2134:
2130:
2097:(4): e1000448.
2083:
2076:
2031:Current Biology
2023:
2019:
2012:
1994:
1990:
1983:
1969:
1965:
1954:
1950:
1935:
1931:
1922:
1921:
1917:
1910:
1896:
1892:
1882:
1880:
1869:
1865:
1838:
1829:
1790:
1786:
1751:
1747:
1684:
1680:
1671:
1669:
1660:
1659:
1655:
1623:
1619:
1579:
1575:
1530:
1526:
1463:
1459:
1420:
1416:
1363:
1359:
1320:
1316:
1309:
1287:
1283:
1222:
1215:
1178:
1174:
1167:
1159:. p. 169.
1147:
1143:
1136:
1113:
1109:
1054:
1050:
971:
962:
955:
933:
929:
868:
864:
857:
843:
839:
835:
813:
785:Bantu languages
769:
749:Thimlich Ohinga
682:in present-day
672:
656:Swahili culture
622:
599:
594:
573:
565:
561:
554:
550:
549:BC to c. AD 500
546:
539:Southern Africa
507:
502:
462:
442:
440:Southern Africa
421:
389:
361:
355:
319:desertification
247:Southern Africa
207:
144:hunter-gatherer
124:Bantu expansion
107:
102:
98:
93:
84:
76:
71:
64:
59:"early split":
58:
54:
49:
42:
37:
28:
23:
22:
18:Bantu Migration
15:
12:
11:
5:
3840:
3830:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3814:
3809:
3804:
3799:
3794:
3779:
3778:
3766:
3743:
3742:
3730:
3727:
3726:
3723:
3722:
3720:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3693:
3691:
3687:
3686:
3684:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3653:
3648:
3638:
3636:Black cat bone
3633:
3627:
3625:
3618:
3617:Bantu diaspora
3614:
3613:
3610:
3609:
3607:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3575:
3573:
3569:
3568:
3566:
3565:
3560:
3558:Nyongo society
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3534:
3532:
3525:
3521:
3520:
3517:
3516:
3514:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3477:
3475:
3471:
3470:
3468:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3436:
3434:
3430:
3429:
3427:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3411:
3406:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3355:
3353:
3349:
3348:
3346:
3345:
3340:
3326:
3316:
3314:Kongo religion
3311:
3301:
3296:
3294:Bantu religion
3290:
3288:
3281:
3277:
3276:
3274:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3252:
3250:
3246:
3245:
3240:
3239:
3232:
3225:
3217:
3211:
3210:
3150:
3145:
3108:
3107:External links
3105:
3103:
3102:
3065:
3061:j.ctv114c79k.8
3051:
3038:
3017:
2966:
2905:
2850:
2799:
2773:(2): 133–150.
2762:
2750:10.1086/681436
2744:(3): 354–384.
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2723:
2665:
2636:
2601:
2574:
2562:
2555:
2529:
2510:(4): 507–530.
2494:
2479:
2472:
2446:
2439:
2419:
2406:10.2307/220701
2381:
2338:
2319:(1): 123–138.
2303:
2276:
2243:Human Genetics
2233:
2198:
2191:
2169:
2148:(5): 1126–33.
2128:
2074:
2017:
2010:
1988:
1981:
1963:
1948:
1929:
1915:
1908:
1890:
1863:
1827:
1800:(3): 361–376.
1784:
1765:(1): 117–138.
1745:
1678:
1653:
1617:
1573:
1544:(3): 1255–69.
1524:
1457:
1424:Human Genetics
1414:
1357:
1330:(2): 173–195.
1314:
1307:
1281:
1213:
1172:
1165:
1141:
1134:
1128:. p. 33.
1107:
1048:
960:
953:
927:
862:
855:
836:
834:
831:
830:
829:
824:
819:
812:
809:
805:Bantu-speakers
793:archaeological
768:
765:
757:Kweneng' Ruins
708:Great Zimbabwe
671:
668:
592:
553:
543:
506:
503:
501:
498:
461:
458:
441:
438:
420:
419:Central Africa
417:
388:
385:
357:Main article:
354:
351:
259:Archaeological
206:
203:
140:Central Africa
110:BP: last phase
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3839:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3789:
3787:
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3765:
3755:
3754:
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3740:
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3698:
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3682:
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3657:
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3649:
3646:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3628:
3626:
3622:
3619:
3615:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3599:Mokele-mbembe
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3576:
3574:
3570:
3564:
3563:Sudika-mbambi
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
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3541:
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3441:
3438:
3437:
3435:
3431:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3414:Nzambi Mpungu
3412:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3356:
3354:
3350:
3344:
3343:Zulu religion
3341:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3327:
3324:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3309:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3291:
3289:
3285:
3282:
3278:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3256:Bantu peoples
3254:
3253:
3251:
3247:
3238:
3233:
3231:
3226:
3224:
3219:
3218:
3215:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3111:
3110:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3076:(2): 129–45.
3075:
3071:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3048:
3044:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3028:(1793): 1–9.
3027:
3023:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2814:(1762): 1–8.
2813:
2809:
2805:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2733:
2732:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2672:
2670:
2660:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2640:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2605:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2578:
2571:
2566:
2558:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2533:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2498:
2490:
2483:
2475:
2469:
2465:
2460:
2459:
2450:
2442:
2436:
2432:
2431:
2423:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2388:
2386:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2342:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2307:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2280:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2249:(4): 366–75.
2248:
2244:
2237:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2202:
2194:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2173:
2165:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2132:
2124:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2091:PLOS Genetics
2088:
2081:
2079:
2070:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2021:
2013:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1992:
1984:
1978:
1974:
1967:
1959:
1952:
1944:
1940:
1933:
1925:
1919:
1911:
1905:
1901:
1894:
1878:
1874:
1871:Awad, Elias.
1867:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1836:
1834:
1832:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1788:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1749:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1682:
1667:
1663:
1657:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1634:(2): 302–11.
1633:
1629:
1621:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1584:Human Biology
1577:
1569:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1528:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1461:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1430:(5): 439–47.
1429:
1425:
1418:
1410:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1361:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1318:
1310:
1304:
1300:
1295:
1294:
1285:
1277:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1220:
1218:
1209:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1192:(7): 1581–9.
1191:
1187:
1183:
1176:
1168:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1153:
1145:
1137:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1122:
1117:
1111:
1103:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1052:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1027:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1001:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
969:
967:
965:
956:
950:
946:
942:
938:
931:
923:
919:
915:
911:
906:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
866:
858:
852:
849:. Routledge.
848:
841:
837:
828:
825:
823:
820:
818:
817:Bantu peoples
815:
814:
808:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
773:
764:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
667:
666:) by AD 500.
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
639:
637:
632:
631:Urewe culture
628:
619:
617:
613:
609:
605:
596:
590:
586:
582:
577:
571:
559:
542:
540:
536:
532:
528:
518:
515:
511:
497:
495:
491:
489:
485:
483:
479:
476:and parts of
475:
471:
467:
457:
455:
451:
447:
437:
435:
430:
426:
416:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
384:
382:
378:
374:
370:
365:
360:
350:
348:
347:Yoruba people
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
275:
272:
271:environmental
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
235:
233:
232:Roland Oliver
227:
225:
220:
216:
212:
202:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
175:
171:
166:
164:
160:
156:
151:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
116:
106:= 2,000–1,000
105:
96:
91:
87:
82:
75:= 2,000–1,500
74:
69:
62:
52:
47:
41:= 4,000–3,500
40:
34:
30:
19:
3736:
3702:Congo Square
3481:Kalûnga Line
3260:
3189:10216/109265
3163:
3159:
3122:
3118:
3073:
3069:
3042:
3025:
3021:
2978:
2974:
2917:
2913:
2866:
2862:
2811:
2807:
2770:
2766:
2741:
2737:
2685:
2681:
2652:(4): 79–90.
2649:
2639:
2614:
2610:
2604:
2587:
2583:
2577:
2565:
2538:
2532:
2507:
2503:
2497:
2488:
2482:
2457:
2449:
2429:
2422:
2397:
2393:
2351:
2347:
2341:
2316:
2312:
2306:
2289:
2285:
2279:
2246:
2242:
2236:
2211:
2207:
2201:
2178:
2172:
2145:
2141:
2131:
2094:
2090:
2034:
2030:
2020:
2001:
1991:
1972:
1966:
1957:
1951:
1942:
1938:
1932:
1918:
1899:
1893:
1881:. Retrieved
1876:
1866:
1841:
1797:
1793:
1787:
1762:
1758:
1748:
1695:
1691:
1681:
1670:. Retrieved
1666:the original
1656:
1631:
1627:
1620:
1590:(1): 13–38.
1587:
1583:
1576:
1541:
1537:
1527:
1474:
1470:
1460:
1427:
1423:
1417:
1374:
1370:
1360:
1327:
1323:
1317:
1292:
1284:
1233:
1229:
1189:
1185:
1175:
1151:
1144:
1120:
1110:
1065:
1061:
1051:
982:
978:
936:
930:
905:10216/109265
879:
875:
865:
846:
840:
774:
770:
761:South Africa
700:South Africa
673:
640:
636:carbon steel
620:
597:
578:
555:
523:
494:Nilo-Saharan
492:
486:
474:Lake Turkana
463:
443:
422:
413:pastoralists
405:Nilo-Saharan
390:
377:noun classes
366:
362:
327:agricultural
323:Green Sahara
276:
236:
228:
208:
167:
152:
123:
121:
103:
94:
89:
85:
72:
67:
65:
60:
50:
38:
29:
3707:Gullah Jack
3651:Goofer dust
3249:Main topics
2710:10194943180
2617:(1): 1–22.
2214:(1): 5–41.
2181:. Madison:
1945:(2): 11–42.
1883:27 November
627:Great Lakes
381:infinitival
343:Igbo people
295:West Africa
285:, amid the
279:Proto-Bantu
199:Congo River
148:pastoralist
128:Proto-Bantu
63:= Eastern,
3786:Categories
3681:Ring shout
3589:Koolakamba
3538:Kimanaueze
3329:Zimbabwean
2688:(2): 5–6.
2400:(2): 437.
1672:2011-12-31
833:References
712:sultanates
704:Monomatapa
531:Mozambique
529:or are in
411:-speaking
399:-speaking
395:foragers,
369:inflection
289:period at
263:linguistic
130:-speaking
70:= Western
3776:Languages
3445:Mami Wata
3287:Religions
3098:163034445
2795:161428419
2758:129501938
2718:268802330
2702:0263-0338
2631:166283404
2524:162627912
2333:162233816
2292:: 35–62.
1858:131878510
1822:162287894
1722:0027-8424
1477:(1): 80.
1352:162117464
1258:2375-2548
1043:258009425
781:languages
767:Criticism
714:based at
676:chiefdoms
664:Transvaal
505:Expansion
48:: origin
3738:Category
3676:Mojo bag
3624:Religion
3474:Concepts
3419:Nzambici
3280:Religion
3198:28473590
3141:19369595
3034:43600725
3013:11958710
2962:26371302
2944:26465769
2901:22628476
2883:41622670
2857:(2012).
2846:23658203
2828:23478639
2787:25130649
2376:37926350
2368:17830304
2263:15928903
2123:19360089
2069:20178763
1740:35914165
1648:19425093
1612:20841059
1604:21453002
1568:21109585
1511:19383166
1452:13213447
1444:15340834
1409:19407144
1276:36989356
1267:10058250
1208:19369595
1102:26371302
1035:38030719
1026:10794141
914:28473590
811:See also
777:ceramics
755:and the
686:and the
644:Tanzania
604:savannas
517:rock art
478:Tanzania
466:Cushitic
450:Kalahari
409:Cushitic
303:Cameroon
251:Cushitic
219:Mambilla
211:Cameroon
187:Cameroon
163:Cameroon
3764:History
3750:Portals
3697:Boo hag
3690:Culture
3671:Kumbaya
3548:Mwuetsi
3524:Culture
3460:Shetani
3433:Spirits
3369:Kalumba
3352:Deities
3333:Ndebele
3206:3094410
3168:Bibcode
3160:Science
3004:1690959
2995:3067712
2953:4629331
2922:Bibcode
2892:3385717
2837:3673054
2348:Science
2271:8686183
2228:3097285
2164:8900243
2155:1914832
2114:2661362
2060:2945812
2039:Bibcode
1779:4100385
1731:9372543
1700:Bibcode
1559:3561512
1519:7760419
1502:2682489
1479:Bibcode
1400:2947357
1379:Bibcode
1371:Science
1238:Bibcode
1093:4629331
1070:Bibcode
995:bioRxiv
987:Bibcode
922:3094410
884:Bibcode
876:Science
736:Swahili
732:Malindi
720:Mombasa
589:Cabinda
581:pygmies
545:c. 3000
527:Pygmies
488:Khoisan
446:Khoisan
397:Khoisan
331:migrate
321:of the
311:Nigeria
297:(e.g.,
287:Kiffian
267:genetic
255:Nilotic
243:Eastern
239:Khoisan
215:Nigeria
97:= 2,500
53:= 3,500
3717:Zombie
3656:Hoodoo
3645:Brazil
3604:Obambo
3594:Mbwiri
3543:Mwindo
3511:Zebola
3501:Nganga
3496:Nkondi
3455:Nkondi
3409:Nyambe
3404:Njambe
3389:Mukasa
3384:Mebege
3379:Kibuka
3374:Kianda
3359:Akongo
3335:&
3299:Badimo
3204:
3196:
3139:
3096:
3090:181385
3088:
3059:
3049:
3032:
3011:
3001:
2993:
2960:
2950:
2942:
2899:
2889:
2881:
2844:
2834:
2826:
2793:
2785:
2756:
2716:
2708:
2700:
2629:
2553:
2522:
2470:
2437:
2414:220701
2412:
2374:
2366:
2331:
2269:
2261:
2226:
2189:
2162:
2152:
2121:
2111:
2067:
2057:
2008:
1979:
1906:
1856:
1820:
1814:180108
1812:
1777:
1738:
1728:
1720:
1646:
1610:
1602:
1566:
1556:
1517:
1509:
1499:
1450:
1442:
1407:
1397:
1350:
1344:182309
1342:
1305:
1274:
1264:
1256:
1206:
1163:
1132:
1100:
1090:
1041:
1033:
1023:
997:
979:Nature
951:
920:
912:
853:
745:Uganda
734:. The
690:, the
684:Angola
623:
616:Zambia
614:, and
612:Angola
600:
574:
566:
562:
551:
547:
434:Mbenga
371:, but
291:Gobero
283:Sahara
269:, and
195:Angola
193:, and
108:
99:
77:
55:
43:
3584:Eloko
3579:Abada
3553:Nambi
3506:Okuyi
3491:Nkisi
3465:Simbi
3450:Nkisi
3440:Jengu
3424:Nzame
3399:Mwari
3394:Muisa
3364:Bunzi
3337:Shona
3323:Chewa
3308:Luhya
3202:S2CID
3094:S2CID
3086:JSTOR
3057:JSTOR
3030:JSTOR
2991:JSTOR
2940:JSTOR
2879:JSTOR
2824:JSTOR
2791:S2CID
2783:JSTOR
2754:S2CID
2714:S2CID
2627:S2CID
2520:S2CID
2410:JSTOR
2372:S2CID
2329:S2CID
2286:MUNTU
2267:S2CID
2224:JSTOR
1854:S2CID
1818:S2CID
1810:JSTOR
1775:JSTOR
1608:S2CID
1515:S2CID
1448:S2CID
1348:S2CID
1340:JSTOR
1039:S2CID
918:S2CID
791:with
753:Kenya
724:Kilwa
648:Kwale
646:and
585:mtDNA
535:Lemba
482:Kenya
429:Batwa
393:Pygmy
339:Gabon
307:Ghana
299:Benin
253:-and
183:Gabon
132:group
81:Urewe
3319:Nyau
3194:PMID
3137:PMID
3047:ISBN
3009:PMID
2958:PMID
2897:PMID
2842:PMID
2706:OCLC
2698:ISSN
2551:ISBN
2468:ISBN
2435:ISBN
2364:PMID
2259:PMID
2187:ISBN
2160:PMID
2119:PMID
2065:PMID
2006:ISBN
1977:ISBN
1904:ISBN
1885:2014
1736:PMID
1718:ISSN
1644:PMID
1600:PMID
1564:PMID
1507:PMID
1440:PMID
1405:PMID
1303:ISBN
1272:PMID
1254:ISSN
1204:PMID
1161:ISBN
1130:ISBN
1098:PMID
1031:PMID
949:ISBN
910:PMID
851:ISBN
799:and
730:and
728:Pate
716:Lamu
576:BC.
454:Nama
345:and
315:Togo
245:and
213:and
146:and
136:West
122:The
79:BP:
3660:USA
3184:hdl
3176:doi
3164:356
3127:doi
3078:doi
3026:281
2999:PMC
2983:doi
2979:269
2948:PMC
2930:doi
2918:112
2887:PMC
2871:doi
2867:279
2832:PMC
2816:doi
2812:280
2775:doi
2746:doi
2690:doi
2654:doi
2619:doi
2592:doi
2543:doi
2512:doi
2402:doi
2356:doi
2352:201
2321:doi
2294:hdl
2251:doi
2247:117
2216:doi
2150:PMC
2109:PMC
2099:doi
2055:PMC
2047:doi
1846:doi
1802:doi
1767:doi
1726:PMC
1708:doi
1696:119
1636:doi
1632:140
1592:doi
1554:PMC
1546:doi
1497:PMC
1487:doi
1432:doi
1428:115
1395:PMC
1387:doi
1375:324
1332:doi
1299:289
1262:PMC
1246:doi
1194:doi
1088:PMC
1078:doi
1066:112
1021:PMC
1013:hdl
1005:doi
983:625
941:doi
900:hdl
892:doi
880:356
759:in
751:in
743:in
537:of
514:San
172:to
68:2.b
61:2.a
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