104:
499:
3722:
3760:
514:
largely a result of substantial population replacement. In other places, Bantu language expansion, like many other languages, has been documented with population genetic evidence to have occurred by means other than complete or predominant population replacement (e.g. via language shift and admixture of incoming and existing populations). For example, one study found this to be the case in Bantu language speakers who are
African
3748:
728:
outmigration more effortful. Other factors promoting state-formation were increased trade among
African communities and with European and Arab traders on the coasts, technological innovations in economic activity, and new techniques in the political-spiritual ritualisation of royalty as the source of national strength and health. Other inland centres established during this phase of expansion include
263:
to extensive admixture between migrants and local populations. A 2023 genetic study of 1,487 Bantu speakers sampled from 143 populations across 14 African countries revealed that the expansion occurred ~4,000 years ago in
Western Africa. The results showed that Bantu speakers received significant gene-flow from local groups in regions they expanded into.
796:. Within the fierce debate among linguists about the word "Bantu", Seidensticker (2024) indicates that there has been a "profound conceptual trend in which a "purely technical without any non-linguistic connotations was transformed into a designation referring indiscriminately to language, culture, society, and race"."
630:
Movements by small groups to the southeast from the Great Lakes region were more rapid, with initial settlements widely dispersed near the coast and near rivers, due to comparatively difficult farming conditions in areas farther from water. Archaeological findings have shown that by 100 BC to 300 AD,
508:
depicting a shield-carrying Bantu warrior. The movement of Bantu settlers, who migrated southwards and settled in the summer rainfall regions of
Southern Africa within the last 2000 years, established a range of relationships with the indigenous San people from bitter conflict to ritual interaction
262:
evidence all support the conclusion that the Bantu expansion was a significant human migration. Generally, the movements of Bantu language-speaking peoples from the
Cameroon/Nigeria border region throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa radically reshaped the genetic structure of the continent and led
218:
Initially, archaeologists believed that they could find archaeological similarities in the region's ancient cultures that the Bantu-speakers were held to have traversed. Linguists, classifying the languages and creating a genealogical table of relationships, believed they could reconstruct material
3142:
Patin, Etienne; Lopez, Marie; Grollemund, Rebecca; Verdu, Paul; Harmant, Christine; Quach, Hélène; Laval, Guillaume; Perry, George H.; Barreiro, Luis B.; Froment, Alain; Heyer, Evelyne; Massougbodji, Achille; Fortes-Lima, Cesar; Migot-Nabias, Florence; Bellis, Gil; Dugoujon, Jean-Michel; Pereira,
420:
groups speak Bantu languages; however, a considerable portion of their vocabulary is not Bantu in origin. Much of this vocabulary is botanical, deals with honey collecting, or is otherwise specialised for the forest and is shared between western Batwa groups. It has been proposed that this is the
210:
region straddling the borderlands here has been identified as containing remnants of "the Bantu who stayed home" as the bulk of Bantu-speakers moved away from the region. Archaeological evidence from the separate works of Jean
Hurault (1979, 1986 and 1988) and Rigobert Tueché (2000) in the region
22:
513:
Linguistic, archeological and genetic evidence indicates that during the course of the Bantu expansion, "independent waves of migration of western
African and East African Bantu-speakers into southern Africa occurred." In some places, genetic evidence suggests that Bantu language expansion was
727:
traded with the inland kingdoms, including Great
Zimbabwe. Such processes of state-formation occurred with increasing frequency from the 16th century onward. They likely resulted from denser population, which led to more specialised divisions of labour, including military power, while making
760:
Manfred K. H. Eggert stated that "the current archaeological record in the
Central African rainforest is extremely spotty and consequently far from convincing so as to be taken as a reflection of a steady influx of Bantu speakers into the forest, let alone movement on a larger scale."
165:
1). Linguistic analysis suggests that the expansion proceeded in two directions: the first went across or along the
Northern border of the Congo forest region (towards East Africa), and the second – and possibly others – went south along Africa's Atlantic coast into what is now the
530:. Where Bantu was adopted via language shift of existing populations, prior African languages were spoken, probably from African language families that are now lost, except as substrate influences of local Bantu languages (such as click sounds in local Bantu languages).
2724:
Bostoen, Koen; Clist, Bernard; Doumenge, Charles; Grollemund, Rebecca; Hombert, Jean-Marie; Muluwa, Joseph Koni; Maley, Jean (June 2015). "Middle to Late Holocene Paleoclimatic Change and the Early Bantu Expansion in the Rain Forests of Western Central Africa".
622:
dominated the Great Lakes region between 650BC and 550BC. It was one of Africa's oldest iron-smelting centres. By the first century BC, Bantu speaking communities in the great lakes region developed iron forging techniques that enabled them to produce
437:-speaking peoples inhabited Southern Africa. Their descendants have largely mixed with other peoples and adopted other languages. A few still live by foraging, often supplemented by working for neighbouring farmers in the arid regions around the
352:
The Atlantic-Congo family comprises a huge group of languages spread throughout Western, Central and Southern Africa. The Benue–Congo branch includes the Bantu languages, which are found throughout Central, Southern, and Eastern Africa.
1614:
Castrì, L; Tofanelli, S; Garagnani, P; et al. (2009). "MtDNA variability in two Bantu-speaking populations (Shona and Hutu) from Eastern Africa: Implications for peopling and migration patterns in sub-Saharan Africa".
1570:
Alves, I; Coelho, M; Gignoux, C; et al. (2011). "Genetic homogeneity across Bantu-speaking groups from Mozambique and Angola challenges early split scenarios between East and West Bantu populations".
219:
culture elements. They believed that the expansion was caused by the development of agriculture, the making of ceramics, and the use of iron, which permitted new ecological zones to be exploited. In 1966,
2335:
Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald H. (22 September 1978). "Complex Iron Smelting and Prehistoric Culture in Tanzania: Recent discoveries show complex technological achievement in African iron production".
356:
A characteristic feature of most Atlantic–Congo languages, including almost all the Bantu languages except Swahili, Sotho-Tswana and Nguni languages, is their use of tone. They generally lack case
553:
BC. Although early models posited that the early speakers were both iron-using and agricultural, definitive archaeological evidence that they used iron does not appear until as late as 400
215:(occupied for 2000 years until today), somewhat south and contiguous with the Mambilla region, have an ancient history of descent from the north in the direction of the Mambilla region.
3009:
Li, Sen; Schlebusch, Carina; Jakobsson, Mattias (2014). "Genetic variation reveals large-scale population expansion and migration during the expansion of Bantu-speaking peoples".
639:
in Kenya. These communities also integrated and intermarried with the communities already present at the coast. Between 300 AD-1000 AD, through participation in the long-existing
146:
are remarkably similar to each other, suggesting the common cultural origin of their original speakers. The linguistic core of the Bantu languages, which comprise a branch of the
584:
of the pre-Bantu population is missing, suggesting that there was a complete population replacement. In South Africa, however, a more complex intermixing could have taken place.
3143:
Joana B.; Fernandes, VerĂłnica; Pereira, Luisa; Van der Veen, Lolke; Mouguiama-Daouda, Patrick; Bustamante, Carlos D.; Hombert, Jean-Marie; Quintana-Murci, LluĂs (5 May 2017).
1411:
Plaza, S; Salas, A; Calafell, F; Corte-Real, F; Bertranpetit, J; Carracedo, A; Comas, D (2004). "Insights into the western Bantu dispersal: MtDNA lineage analysis in Angola".
3102:
Berniell-Lee, G.; Calafell, F.; Bosch, E.; Heyer, E.; Sica, L.; Mouguiama-Daouda, P.; van der Veen, L.; Hombert, J.-M.; Quintana-Murci, L.; Comas, D. (1 July 2009).
368:). The root of the verb tends to remain unchanged, with either particles or auxiliary verbs expressing tenses and moods. For example, in a number of languages the
1887:
Bahuchet, Serge (1993). "History of the Inhabitants of the Central African Rain Forest: Perspectives from Comparative Linguistics". In Hladik, C.M. (ed.).
1926:
Ambrose, Stanley H. (1986). "Hunter-gatherer adaptations to non-marginal environments: an ecological and archaeological assessment of the Dorobo model".
154:. Genetic evidence also indicates that there was a large human migration from central Africa, with varying levels of admixture with local population.
2230:
Beleza, Sandra; Gusmao, Leonor; Amorim, Antonio; Caracedo, Angel; Salas, Antonio (August 2005). "The Genetic Legacy of Western Bantu Migrations".
2667:"Pikunda-Munda and Batalimo-Maluba Archaeological Investigations of the Iron Age Settlement History of the Western and Northern Congo Basin"
469:
beginning around 5,000 years ago. Many centuries later, around AD 1000, some Eastern Cushitic speakers also settled in northern and coastal
1650:
764:
Seidensticker (2024) indicates that the prevalent paradigm for the Bantu expansion has a forced connection between Central African
1215:"Dense sampling of ethnic groups within African countries reveals fine-scale genetic structure and extensive historical admixture"
246:-speaking peoples they encountered. Herding practices reached the far south several centuries before Bantu-speaking migrants did.
157:
The expansion is believed to have taken place in at least two waves, between about 4,000 and 2,000 years ago (approximately 2,000
3810:
3030:
Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2020). "Bantu Migrations and Cultural Transnationalism in the Ancient Global Age, c. 2500 BCE–1400 CE".
3815:
3805:
3795:
3780:
2300:
Lane, Paul; Ashley, Ceri; Oteyo, Gilbert (January 2006). "New Dates for Kansyore and Urewe Wares from Northern Nyanza, Kenya".
3039:
2543:
2460:
2427:
2273:
Clist, Bernard-Olivier (1987). "A critical reappraisal of the chronological framework of the Early Iron Age Urewe Industry".
2179:
1998:
1969:
1896:
1295:
1153:
1122:
941:
843:
776:
are treated as synonymous with the geographic location of ceramic remnants; the popular approach of attempting to correlate
3136:
2076:"Inferring the Demographic History of African Farmers and Pygmy Hunter–Gatherers Using a Multilocus Resequencing Data Set"
2754:
Bousman, C. Britt (June 1998). "The Chronological Evidence for the Introduction of Domestic Stock into Southern Africa".
1831:
Tracing the 'Bantu Expansion' from its source: Dental nonmetric affinities among West African and neighboring populations
1456:"On the edge of Bantu expansions: MtDNA, Y chromosome and lactase persistence genetic variation in southwestern Angola"
647:. Other pioneering groups had reached modern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa by AD 300 along the coast, and the modern
107:
Map indicating the spread of the Early Iron Age across Africa; all numbers are AD dates except for the "250 BC" date.
1045:
Grollemund, Rebecca; Branford, Simon; Bostoen, Koen; Meade, Andrew; Venditti, Chris; Pagel, Mark (27 October 2015).
676:
179:
1912:
3785:
3664:
3317:
3223:
380:
Before the expansion of Bantu-speaking farmers, Central, Southern, and Southeast Africa were likely populated by
1114:
2127:"The origins of the Lemba 'Black Jews' of southern Africa: evidence from p12F2 and other Y-chromosome markers"
561:, followed the coast and the major rivers of the Congo system southward, reaching central Angola by around 500
557:
BC, though they were agricultural. The western branch, not necessarily linguistically distinct, according to
2171:
2960:"Bantu Language Trees Reflect the Spread of Farming across Sub-Saharan Africa: A Maximum-Parsimony Analysis"
1675:
Koile, Ezequiel; Greenhill, Simon J.; Blasi, Damián E.; Bouckaert, Remco; Gray, Russell D. (9 August 2022).
461:
and other more northerly areas. The first waves consisted of Southern Cushitic speakers, who settled around
596:
323:
580:
suggests that only haplogroups that originated in West Africa are found there today, and the distinctive L
3790:
2897:
Grollemund, Rebecca; Branford, Simon; Bostoen, Koen; Meade, Andrew; Venditti, Chris; Pagel, Mark (2015).
1743:
643:, these communities established links with Arabian and Indian traders, leading to the development of the
142:
There is linguistic evidence for this expansion – a great many of the languages which are spoken across
3800:
3738:
3619:
815:
1282:
Worlds Together, Worlds Apart: A History of the World: From the Beginnings of Humankind to the Present
3331:
777:
587:
Further east, Bantu-speaking communities had reached the great Central African rainforest, and by 500
3104:"Genetic and Demographic Implications of the Bantu Expansion: Insights from Human Paternal Lineages"
1171:"Genetic and Demographic Implications of the Bantu Expansion: Insights from Human Paternal Lineages"
485:-speaking herder populations comprised a third group of the area's pre-Bantu expansion inhabitants.
347:
131:. In the process, the Proto-Bantu-speaking settlers displaced, eliminated or absorbed pre-existing
522:, while another population genetic study found this to be the case in the Bantu language-speaking
445:
continue their traditional subsistence by raising livestock in Namibia and adjacent South Africa.
3321:
2598:
Sadr, Karim (9 July 2019). "Kweneng: A Newly Discovered Pre-Colonial Capital Near Johannesburg".
2195:
Ehret, C. (2001). "Bantu Expansions: Re-Envisioning a Central Problem of Early African History".
792:
that the earliest ceramic manufacturing in a given area is evidence for the earliest presence of
680:
663:
Between the 11th and 16th centuries, powerful Bantu-speaking states on a scale larger than local
1523:"Y-chromosomal variation in sub-Saharan Africa: Insights into the history of Niger–Congo groups"
3726:
2666:
1287:
482:
393:
266:
Based on dental evidence, Irish (2016) concluded that the common ancestors of West African and
1986:
1139:
1005:
568:
It is clear that there were human populations in the region at the time of the expansion, and
3644:
3145:"Dispersals and genetic adaptation of Bantu-speaking populations in Africa and North America"
2452:
1108:
933:
861:"Dispersals and genetic adaptation of Bantu-speaking populations in Africa and North America"
684:
167:
2491:
Thornton, John (October 1977). "Demography and History in the Kingdom of Kongo, 1550–1750".
1889:
Tropical Forests, People, and Food: Biocultural Interactions and Applications to Development
1279:
3254:
3156:
2910:
2381:
Pouwels, Randall L.; Kusimba, Chapurukha M. (2000). "The Rise and Fall of Swahili States".
2027:
1688:
1654:
1467:
1367:
1226:
1058:
983:
975:
872:
699:
complex. The Swahili city-states were also established early in this period. These include
615:
212:
116:
211:
indicates cultural continuity from 3000 BC until today. The majority of the groups of the
103:
8:
3216:
2445:
2419:
An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in World History, 1000 BC to AD 400
458:
259:
3160:
2914:
2031:
1692:
1471:
1371:
1255:
1230:
1214:
1062:
1014:
979:
963:
876:
198:
Bantuists believe that the Bantu expansion most probably began on the highlands between
3700:
3190:
3082:
3074:
3045:
3018:
2992:
2979:
2959:
2941:
2928:
2898:
2880:
2867:
2847:
2843:
2825:
2812:
2792:
2779:
2771:
2742:
2702:
2647:
2634:
2615:
2508:
2398:
2360:
2317:
2255:
2212:
2143:
2126:
2102:
2075:
2048:
2015:
1842:
1806:
1798:
1763:
1719:
1676:
1596:
1547:
1522:
1503:
1490:
1455:
1436:
1388:
1355:
1336:
1328:
1081:
1046:
1027:
906:
789:
652:
640:
479:-speaking hunter-gatherers also inhabited Southeast Africa before the Bantu expansion.
454:
397:
361:
239:
3629:
1677:"Phylogeographic analysis of the Bantu language expansion supports a rainforest route"
3648:
3541:
3182:
3125:
3086:
3035:
2997:
2946:
2885:
2830:
2783:
2746:
2706:
2694:
2686:
2619:
2539:
2512:
2456:
2423:
2352:
2321:
2247:
2175:
2168:
Paths in the Rainforest: Toward a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa
2148:
2107:
2053:
1994:
1965:
1892:
1846:
1810:
1724:
1706:
1632:
1588:
1552:
1495:
1428:
1393:
1340:
1291:
1280:
1260:
1242:
1192:
1149:
1118:
1086:
1031:
1019:
937:
898:
839:
769:
745:
558:
476:
434:
416:
and Bantus branched out from a common ancestral population c. 70,000 years ago. Many
385:
243:
2364:
1600:
1440:
498:
226:
The hypothesized Bantu expansion pushed out or assimilated the hunter-forager proto-
3764:
3194:
3172:
3164:
3115:
3066:
2987:
2971:
2936:
2918:
2875:
2859:
2820:
2804:
2763:
2734:
2678:
2642:
2607:
2580:
2535:
2531:
2500:
2390:
2344:
2309:
2282:
2259:
2239:
2204:
2138:
2097:
2087:
2043:
2035:
1834:
1790:
1755:
1714:
1696:
1624:
1580:
1542:
1534:
1507:
1485:
1475:
1420:
1383:
1375:
1320:
1250:
1234:
1182:
1145:
1104:
1076:
1066:
1009:
1001:
993:
929:
910:
888:
880:
810:
729:
668:
648:
577:
207:
2899:"Bantu expansion shows that habitat alters the route and pace of human dispersals"
2348:
1047:"Bantu expansion shows that habitat alters the route and pace of human dispersals"
3654:
3633:
3567:
3474:
3402:
3292:
3259:
2417:
2092:
1744:"Ethnogenesis and Fractal History on an African Frontier: Mambila-Njerep-Mandulu"
1110:
From Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa
773:
765:
737:
644:
527:
422:
389:
319:
307:
235:
143:
132:
3469:
3144:
1838:
860:
3752:
3624:
3546:
3377:
3367:
3302:
3282:
3209:
2903:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2848:"Bringing together linguistic and genetic evidence to test the Bantu expansion"
2698:
2682:
1949:. Vol. 5 of Kölner Beiträge zur Afrikanistik. Berlin: Reimer. p. 407.
997:
781:
724:
716:
696:
223:
published an article presenting these correlations as a reasonable hypothesis.
147:
128:
34:
3201:
3070:
3049:
2767:
2611:
2584:
2504:
2313:
2243:
2039:
1794:
1759:
1424:
1324:
988:
3774:
3587:
3551:
3244:
2690:
1710:
1246:
805:
793:
785:
546:
417:
413:
381:
335:
220:
120:
3168:
3120:
3103:
2923:
1701:
1538:
1379:
1187:
1170:
1071:
884:
3690:
3392:
3325:
3311:
3296:
3186:
3129:
3001:
2975:
2950:
2889:
2863:
2834:
2808:
2356:
2286:
2251:
2111:
2057:
1947:
The Historical Reconstruction of Southern Cushitic Phonology and Vocabulary
1728:
1636:
1592:
1556:
1499:
1480:
1432:
1397:
1264:
1238:
1196:
1169:
Berniell-Lee, Gemma; Calafell, Francesc; Bosch, Elena; et al. (2006).
1090:
1023:
902:
749:
688:
636:
624:
618:
of East Africa, where a rich environment supported a dense population. The
523:
462:
401:
365:
315:
311:
238:, Bantu speakers may have adopted livestock husbandry from other unrelated
2152:
631:
Bantu speaking communities were present at the coastal areas of Misasa in
3695:
3639:
3531:
1987:"Archaeological and Linguistic Reconstructions of History in East Africa"
1584:
1311:
Vansina, J. (1995). "New Linguistic Evidence and 'The Bantu Expansion'".
964:"The genetic legacy of the expansion of Bantu-speaking peoples in Africa"
442:
331:
283:
282:, and may have migrated southward, from the Sahara into various parts of
267:
251:
247:
231:
190:
system. The expansion reached South Africa, probably as early as AD 300.
187:
162:
136:
124:
3177:
3022:
2932:
2871:
2816:
2791:
Currie, Thomas E.; Meade, Andrew; Guillon, Myrtille; Mace, Ruth (2013).
2775:
893:
3669:
3577:
3526:
2983:
2216:
1964:. Nairobi, Kenya: British Institute in Eastern Africa. pp. 19–48.
1767:
1628:
1354:
Tishkoff, S. A.; Reed, F. A.; Friedlaender, F. R.; et al. (2009).
700:
692:
610:
Another stream of migration, having moved east by 3,000 years ago (1000
519:
502:
369:
357:
3078:
2793:"Cultural phylogeography of the Bantu Languages of sub-Saharan Africa"
2571:"Farmers, cattle-herders and rulers in western Uganda, AD 1000–1500".
2402:
1802:
1332:
3433:
1356:"The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans"
961:
2208:
3759:
3407:
2841:
2738:
2394:
2016:"The Evolution of Human Genetic and Phenotypic Variation in Africa"
1991:
The Archaeological and Linguistic Reconstruction of African History
664:
632:
505:
466:
438:
291:
255:
199:
175:
151:
21:
1861:
3685:
3659:
3536:
3448:
3357:
3032:
West African Masking Traditions and Diaspora Masquerade Carnivals
1960:
Ehret, Christopher (1983). Mack, John; Robertshaw, Peter (eds.).
1454:
Coelho, M; Sequeira, F; Luiselli, D; Beleza, S; Rocha, J (2009).
720:
708:
592:
569:
515:
364:
is characteristic, with some languages having two dozen genders (
299:
275:
227:
203:
1520:
1278:
Pollard, Elizabeth; Rosenberg, Clifford; Tignor, Robert (2011).
186:, or inland along the many south-to-north flowing rivers of the
3705:
3592:
3582:
3499:
3489:
3484:
3443:
3397:
3372:
3362:
3347:
3287:
733:
672:
604:
600:
279:
271:
183:
3101:
2896:
2723:
2635:"Genetizing Bantu: Historical Insight or Historical Trilemma?"
1168:
1044:
322:, and amid migration, diverged into East Bantu peoples (e.g.,
3572:
3494:
3479:
3453:
3438:
3428:
3412:
3387:
3382:
3352:
1781:
Oliver, Roland (1966). "The Problem of the Bantu Expansion".
1353:
741:
712:
619:
573:
470:
327:
295:
287:
171:
69:
1674:
1613:
1521:
De Filippo, C; Barbieri, C; Whitten, M; et al. (2011).
1453:
1410:
549:
from their core region in West Africa began around 4000–3500
3307:
1569:
704:
303:
2229:
2014:
Campbell, Michael C.; Tishkoff, Sarah A. (February 2010).
25:
Chronological overview after Nurse and Philippson (2003):
3141:
858:
614:
BC), was creating a major new population center near the
270:
peoples may have originated in the western region of the
158:
658:
457:-speaking peoples had migrated into the region from the
2552:
2383:
The International Journal of African Historical Studies
2197:
The International Journal of African Historical Studies
2073:
2790:
1277:
1212:
3736:
3008:
338:
may have admixture from back-migrated Bantu peoples.
2842:
de Filippo, Cesare; Bostoen, Koen; Stoneking, Mark;
1993:. University of California Press. pp. 104–157.
1989:. In Ehert, Christopher; Posnansky, Merrick (eds.).
1833:. American Association of Physical Anthropologists.
667:
began to emerge. Notable early kingdoms include the
453:
Prior to the arrival of Bantus in Southeast Africa,
2526:Doyle, Shane (2016). "Bunyoro-Kitara, Kingdom of".
2447:
The Peopling of Africa: A Geographic Interpretation
2069:
2067:
962:Fortes-Lima, Cesar A.; et al. (5 April 2023).
772:, where the geographic location of speakers of the
2444:
230:, who had formerly inhabited Southern Africa. In
115:was a major series of migrations of the original
3772:
3057:Vansina, Jan (1984). "Western Bantu Expansion".
2660:
2658:
2064:
2013:
330:) between 2500 BC and 1200 BC. He suggests that
3231:
2299:
1913:"Early migrations into East Africa | Enzi"
1681:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1051:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
926:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History
833:
375:
123:, which spread from an original nucleus around
2380:
2124:
1868:. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
1741:
1138:Adler, Philip J.; Pouwels, Randall L. (2007).
16:Postulated millennia-long series of migrations
3217:
2664:
2655:
2480:(3rd ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press.
924:Bostoen, Koen (2018). "The Bantu Expansion".
572:are their closest living relatives. However,
2334:
1137:
2558:
2475:
1891:. Paris: Unesco/Parthenon. pp. 37–54.
1103:
591:BC, pioneering groups had emerged into the
341:
3224:
3210:
2376:
2374:
2007:
1978:
859:Patin, Etienne; et al. (5 May 2017).
545:It seems likely that the expansion of the
533:
488:
3176:
3119:
2991:
2940:
2922:
2879:
2824:
2646:
2573:Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa
2302:Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa
2142:
2101:
2091:
2047:
1938:
1919:
1718:
1700:
1617:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1546:
1489:
1479:
1387:
1254:
1186:
1080:
1070:
1013:
987:
892:
834:Nurse, Derek; Philippson, GĂ©rard (2003).
421:remnant of an independent western Batwa (
372:is the auxiliary designating the future.
150:, was located in the southern regions of
3034:. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 67–88.
2490:
1953:
1886:
1824:
1822:
1820:
957:
955:
953:
784:data has resulted in propagation of the
497:
193:
102:
20:
3056:
2753:
2371:
2165:
1984:
1925:
1742:Zeitlyn, David; Connell, Bruce (2003).
1310:
1208:
1206:
923:
326:) and West Bantu peoples (e.g., Congo,
314:in 7000 BC. From Nigeria and Cameroon,
3773:
2957:
2632:
2626:
2442:
1862:"Common Origins of Pygmies and Bantus"
1780:
934:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.191
3205:
3029:
2665:Seidensticker, Dirk (28 March 2024).
2525:
2415:
2272:
2194:
1962:Culture History in the Southern Sudan
1959:
1944:
1828:
1817:
950:
659:From the 11th century to 17th century
3137:Bantu Expansion and Hunter-gatherers
2597:
2125:Spurdle, A. B.; Jenkins, T. (1996).
1203:
1131:
1097:
1905:
691:, and the Zambezi River, where the
448:
13:
2716:
2648:10.1553/medievalworlds_no4_2016s79
2131:American Journal of Human Genetics
1006:1854/LU-01GYSSJZXPWXA5Z7DVSNTP0DQA
595:to the south, in what are now the
428:
14:
3827:
3095:
2756:The African Archaeological Review
1653:. Beta.mnet.co.za. Archived from
1213:Bird, Nancy; et al. (2023).
441:desert, while a larger number of
407:
3758:
3746:
3721:
3720:
3011:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
2964:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
2852:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
2797:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
1928:Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika
1859:
677:Democratic Republic of the Congo
180:Democratic Republic of the Congo
3108:Molecular Biology and Evolution
2591:
2564:
2519:
2484:
2469:
2436:
2409:
2328:
2293:
2266:
2223:
2188:
2159:
2118:
2074:Patin, E.; et al. (2009).
1880:
1853:
1774:
1735:
1668:
1643:
1607:
1563:
1527:Molecular Biology and Evolution
1514:
1447:
1404:
1347:
1304:
1271:
1175:Molecular Biology and Evolution
1141:World Civilizations: Since 1500
687:(c.1075–c.1220) in present-day
683:in the Great Lakes region, the
3811:Archaeology of Southern Africa
3059:The Journal of African History
2633:Eggert, Manfred K. H. (2016).
2600:Journal of African Archaeology
2536:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe078
2493:The Journal of African History
1783:The Journal of African History
1748:The Journal of African History
1162:
1115:University of California Press
1038:
917:
852:
827:
148:Atlantic-Congo language family
139:groups that they encountered.
1:
3816:Archaeology of Eastern Africa
3806:Archaeology of Central Africa
3796:Internal migrations in Africa
3781:Demographic history of Africa
2958:Holden, Clare Janaki (2002).
2671:African Archaeological Review
2349:10.1126/science.201.4361.1085
2172:University of Wisconsin Press
821:
318:Proto-Bantu peoples began to
2093:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000448
1985:Ambrose, Stanley H. (1982).
1286:. New York: Norton. p.
1107:; Brandt, Steven A. (1984).
755:
597:Democratic Republic of Congo
493:
433:Before the Bantu expansion,
376:Pre-expansion-era demography
324:Democratic Republic of Congo
7:
3232:Bantu religion and folklore
2476:Shillington, Kevin (2005).
2416:Ehret, Christopher (1998).
1945:Ehret, Christopher (1980).
1866:CNRS International Magazine
1839:10.13140/RG.2.2.14163.78880
799:
10:
3832:
3620:African diaspora religions
2683:10.1007/s10437-024-09576-7
2579:(1): 39–72. January 1998.
2528:The Encyclopedia of Empire
2451:. New Haven, Connecticut:
1651:"Carte Blanche > M-Net"
1313:Journal of African History
998:10.1038/s41586-023-06770-6
816:Pre-modern human migration
778:linguistic reconstructions
345:
3718:
3678:
3612:
3605:
3560:
3519:
3512:
3462:
3421:
3340:
3275:
3268:
3237:
3071:10.1017/S0021853700022829
2612:10.1163/21915784-20190001
2585:10.1080/00672709809511464
2505:10.1017/s0021853700015693
2443:Newman, James L. (1995).
2314:10.1080/00672700609480438
2244:10.1007/s00439-005-1290-3
2040:10.1016/j.cub.2009.11.050
1795:10.1017/S0021853700006472
1760:10.1017/S002185370200823X
1425:10.1007/s00439-004-1164-0
1325:10.1017/S0021853700034101
989:10.1101/2023.04.03.535432
72:nucleus of Eastern Bantu
2422:. London: James Currey.
1460:BMC Evolutionary Biology
641:Indian Ocean trade route
348:Atlantic-Congo languages
342:Atlantic–Congo languages
46:BP: initial expansion
3169:10.1126/science.aal1988
2924:10.1073/pnas.1503793112
2768:10.1023/A:1022110818616
1702:10.1073/pnas.2112853119
1380:10.1126/science.1172257
1072:10.1073/pnas.1503793112
885:10.1126/science.aal1988
489:History and development
414:Central African Pygmies
396:-speaking herders, and
3786:Prehistoric migrations
2976:10.1098/rspb.2002.1955
2864:10.1098/rspb.2012.0318
2809:10.1098/rspb.2013.0695
1829:Irish, Joel D (2016).
1481:10.1186/1471-2148-9-80
1239:10.1126/sciadv.abq2616
681:Bunyoro Kitara Kingdom
576:genetic research from
510:
425:or "Baaka") language.
108:
100:
3121:10.1093/molbev/msp069
2453:Yale University Press
2166:Vansina, Jan (1990).
1539:10.1093/molbev/msq312
1188:10.1093/molbev/msp069
685:Kingdom of Mapungubwe
547:Bantu-speaking people
501:
194:Theories on expansion
168:Republic of the Congo
144:sub-Equatorial Africa
106:
24:
3255:Proto-Bantu language
2727:Current Anthropology
1585:10.3378/027.083.0102
768:and Central African
669:Kingdom of the Kongo
81:: southward advance
3561:Legendary creatures
3161:2017Sci...356..543P
2915:2015PNAS..11213296G
2909:(43): 13296–13301.
2858:(1741): 3256–3263.
2844:Pakendorf, Brigitte
2343:(4361): 1085–1089.
2032:2010CBio...20.R166C
1693:2022PNAS..11912853K
1687:(32): e2112853119.
1472:2009BMCEE...9...80C
1372:2009Sci...324.1035T
1231:2023SciA....9.2616B
1105:Clark, John Desmond
1063:2015PNAS..11213296G
1057:(43): 13296–13301.
980:2024Natur.625..540F
877:2017Sci...356..543P
836:The Bantu Languages
651:(formerly Northern
459:Ethiopian Highlands
412:It is thought that
3791:Prehistoric Africa
3701:John the Conqueror
2559:Shillington (2005)
1629:10.1002/ajpa.21070
790:circular reasoning
786:faulty presumption
511:
509:and intermarriage.
362:grammatical gender
306:), as a result of
109:
101:
90:BP: Congo nucleus
3801:1st millennium BC
3734:
3733:
3714:
3713:
3601:
3600:
3508:
3507:
3155:(6337): 543–546.
3041:978-1-58046-984-5
2970:(1493): 793–799.
2545:978-1-118-44064-3
2478:History of Africa
2462:978-0-300-07280-8
2429:978-0-8139-2057-3
2181:978-0-2991-2573-8
2000:978-0-5200-4593-4
1971:978-1-872566-04-7
1898:978-9-2310-2879-3
1657:on 7 January 2012
1366:(5930): 1035–44.
1297:978-0-3939-1847-2
1155:978-0-495-50262-3
1124:978-0-520-04574-3
974:(7995): 540–547.
943:978-0-19-027773-4
871:(6337): 543–546.
845:978-0-7007-1134-5
559:Christopher Ehret
213:Bamenda highlands
3823:
3763:
3762:
3751:
3750:
3749:
3742:
3724:
3723:
3610:
3609:
3520:Legendary beings
3517:
3516:
3273:
3272:
3226:
3219:
3212:
3203:
3202:
3198:
3180:
3133:
3123:
3114:(7): 1581–1589.
3090:
3053:
3026:
3005:
2995:
2954:
2944:
2926:
2893:
2883:
2838:
2828:
2787:
2750:
2711:
2710:
2662:
2653:
2652:
2650:
2630:
2624:
2623:
2595:
2589:
2588:
2568:
2562:
2556:
2550:
2549:
2530:. pp. 1–3.
2523:
2517:
2516:
2488:
2482:
2481:
2473:
2467:
2466:
2450:
2440:
2434:
2433:
2413:
2407:
2406:
2378:
2369:
2368:
2332:
2326:
2325:
2297:
2291:
2290:
2270:
2264:
2263:
2227:
2221:
2220:
2192:
2186:
2185:
2163:
2157:
2156:
2146:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2105:
2095:
2071:
2062:
2061:
2051:
2026:(4): R166–R173.
2011:
2005:
2004:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1957:
1951:
1950:
1942:
1936:
1935:
1923:
1917:
1916:
1909:
1903:
1902:
1884:
1878:
1877:
1875:
1873:
1857:
1851:
1850:
1826:
1815:
1814:
1778:
1772:
1771:
1739:
1733:
1732:
1722:
1704:
1672:
1666:
1665:
1663:
1662:
1647:
1641:
1640:
1611:
1605:
1604:
1567:
1561:
1560:
1550:
1518:
1512:
1511:
1493:
1483:
1451:
1445:
1444:
1408:
1402:
1401:
1391:
1351:
1345:
1344:
1308:
1302:
1301:
1285:
1275:
1269:
1268:
1258:
1225:(13): eabq2616.
1219:Science Advances
1210:
1201:
1200:
1190:
1166:
1160:
1159:
1146:Cengage Learning
1135:
1129:
1128:
1101:
1095:
1094:
1084:
1074:
1042:
1036:
1035:
1017:
991:
959:
948:
947:
921:
915:
914:
896:
856:
850:
849:
831:
811:Matrilineal belt
730:Bigo bya Mugenyi
695:kings built the
649:Limpopo Province
613:
590:
564:
556:
552:
541:
537:
449:Southeast Africa
390:hunter-gatherers
206:. The 60,000-km
98:
89:
67:
55:
45:
33:
3831:
3830:
3826:
3825:
3824:
3822:
3821:
3820:
3771:
3770:
3769:
3757:
3747:
3745:
3737:
3735:
3730:
3710:
3674:
3655:Hot foot powder
3630:Candomblé Bantu
3597:
3556:
3504:
3475:Kongo cosmogram
3458:
3417:
3336:
3293:Dini Ya Msambwa
3264:
3260:Bantu languages
3250:Bantu expansion
3233:
3230:
3098:
3093:
3042:
2719:
2717:Further reading
2714:
2663:
2656:
2639:Medieval Worlds
2631:
2627:
2596:
2592:
2570:
2569:
2565:
2557:
2553:
2546:
2524:
2520:
2489:
2485:
2474:
2470:
2463:
2441:
2437:
2430:
2414:
2410:
2379:
2372:
2333:
2329:
2298:
2294:
2287:1854/LU-3118804
2271:
2267:
2228:
2224:
2209:10.2307/3097285
2193:
2189:
2182:
2164:
2160:
2123:
2119:
2086:(4): e1000448.
2072:
2065:
2020:Current Biology
2012:
2008:
2001:
1983:
1979:
1972:
1958:
1954:
1943:
1939:
1924:
1920:
1911:
1910:
1906:
1899:
1885:
1881:
1871:
1869:
1858:
1854:
1827:
1818:
1779:
1775:
1740:
1736:
1673:
1669:
1660:
1658:
1649:
1648:
1644:
1612:
1608:
1568:
1564:
1519:
1515:
1452:
1448:
1409:
1405:
1352:
1348:
1309:
1305:
1298:
1276:
1272:
1211:
1204:
1167:
1163:
1156:
1148:. p. 169.
1136:
1132:
1125:
1102:
1098:
1043:
1039:
960:
951:
944:
922:
918:
857:
853:
846:
832:
828:
824:
802:
774:Bantu languages
758:
738:Thimlich Ohinga
671:in present-day
661:
645:Swahili culture
611:
588:
583:
562:
554:
550:
543:
539:
538:BC to c. AD 500
535:
528:Southern Africa
496:
491:
451:
431:
429:Southern Africa
410:
378:
350:
344:
308:desertification
236:Southern Africa
196:
133:hunter-gatherer
113:Bantu expansion
96:
91:
87:
82:
73:
65:
60:
53:
48:"early split":
47:
43:
38:
31:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3829:
3819:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3768:
3767:
3755:
3732:
3731:
3719:
3716:
3715:
3712:
3711:
3709:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3682:
3680:
3676:
3675:
3673:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3642:
3637:
3627:
3625:Black cat bone
3622:
3616:
3614:
3607:
3606:Bantu diaspora
3603:
3602:
3599:
3598:
3596:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3564:
3562:
3558:
3557:
3555:
3554:
3549:
3547:Nyongo society
3544:
3539:
3534:
3529:
3523:
3521:
3514:
3510:
3509:
3506:
3505:
3503:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3466:
3464:
3460:
3459:
3457:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3425:
3423:
3419:
3418:
3416:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3344:
3342:
3338:
3337:
3335:
3334:
3329:
3315:
3305:
3303:Kongo religion
3300:
3290:
3285:
3283:Bantu religion
3279:
3277:
3270:
3266:
3265:
3263:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3241:
3239:
3235:
3234:
3229:
3228:
3221:
3214:
3206:
3200:
3199:
3139:
3134:
3097:
3096:External links
3094:
3092:
3091:
3054:
3050:j.ctv114c79k.8
3040:
3027:
3006:
2955:
2894:
2839:
2788:
2762:(2): 133–150.
2751:
2739:10.1086/681436
2733:(3): 354–384.
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2712:
2654:
2625:
2590:
2563:
2551:
2544:
2518:
2499:(4): 507–530.
2483:
2468:
2461:
2435:
2428:
2408:
2395:10.2307/220701
2370:
2327:
2308:(1): 123–138.
2292:
2265:
2232:Human Genetics
2222:
2187:
2180:
2158:
2137:(5): 1126–33.
2117:
2063:
2006:
1999:
1977:
1970:
1952:
1937:
1918:
1904:
1897:
1879:
1852:
1816:
1789:(3): 361–376.
1773:
1754:(1): 117–138.
1734:
1667:
1642:
1606:
1562:
1533:(3): 1255–69.
1513:
1446:
1413:Human Genetics
1403:
1346:
1319:(2): 173–195.
1303:
1296:
1270:
1202:
1161:
1154:
1130:
1123:
1117:. p. 33.
1096:
1037:
949:
942:
916:
851:
844:
825:
823:
820:
819:
818:
813:
808:
801:
798:
794:Bantu-speakers
782:archaeological
757:
754:
746:Kweneng' Ruins
697:Great Zimbabwe
660:
657:
581:
542:
532:
495:
492:
490:
487:
450:
447:
430:
427:
409:
408:Central Africa
406:
377:
374:
346:Main article:
343:
340:
248:Archaeological
195:
192:
129:Central Africa
99:BP: last phase
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3828:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3778:
3776:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3754:
3744:
3743:
3740:
3729:
3728:
3717:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3683:
3681:
3677:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3650:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3635:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3617:
3615:
3611:
3608:
3604:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3588:Mokele-mbembe
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3565:
3563:
3559:
3553:
3552:Sudika-mbambi
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3524:
3522:
3518:
3515:
3511:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3467:
3465:
3461:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3426:
3424:
3420:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3403:Nzambi Mpungu
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3345:
3343:
3339:
3333:
3332:Zulu religion
3330:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3316:
3313:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3298:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3280:
3278:
3274:
3271:
3267:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3245:Bantu peoples
3243:
3242:
3240:
3236:
3227:
3222:
3220:
3215:
3213:
3208:
3207:
3204:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3100:
3099:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3065:(2): 129–45.
3064:
3060:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3037:
3033:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3017:(1793): 1–9.
3016:
3012:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2803:(1762): 1–8.
2802:
2798:
2794:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2661:
2659:
2649:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2629:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2594:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2567:
2560:
2555:
2547:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2522:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2487:
2479:
2472:
2464:
2458:
2454:
2449:
2448:
2439:
2431:
2425:
2421:
2420:
2412:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2377:
2375:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2331:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2296:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2269:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2238:(4): 366–75.
2237:
2233:
2226:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2191:
2183:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2162:
2154:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2121:
2113:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2080:PLOS Genetics
2077:
2070:
2068:
2059:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2010:
2002:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1981:
1973:
1967:
1963:
1956:
1948:
1941:
1933:
1929:
1922:
1914:
1908:
1900:
1894:
1890:
1883:
1867:
1863:
1860:Awad, Elias.
1856:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1825:
1823:
1821:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1777:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1738:
1730:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1703:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1671:
1656:
1652:
1646:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1623:(2): 302–11.
1622:
1618:
1610:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1573:Human Biology
1566:
1558:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1517:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1450:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1419:(5): 439–47.
1418:
1414:
1407:
1399:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1350:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1307:
1299:
1293:
1289:
1284:
1283:
1274:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1209:
1207:
1198:
1194:
1189:
1184:
1181:(7): 1581–9.
1180:
1176:
1172:
1165:
1157:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1142:
1134:
1126:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1111:
1106:
1100:
1092:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1041:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
990:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
958:
956:
954:
945:
939:
935:
931:
927:
920:
912:
908:
904:
900:
895:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
855:
847:
841:
838:. Routledge.
837:
830:
826:
817:
814:
812:
809:
807:
806:Bantu peoples
804:
803:
797:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
762:
753:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
656:
655:) by AD 500.
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
628:
626:
621:
620:Urewe culture
617:
608:
606:
602:
598:
594:
585:
579:
575:
571:
566:
560:
548:
531:
529:
525:
521:
517:
507:
504:
500:
486:
484:
480:
478:
474:
472:
468:
465:and parts of
464:
460:
456:
446:
444:
440:
436:
426:
424:
419:
415:
405:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
373:
371:
367:
363:
359:
354:
349:
339:
337:
336:Yoruba people
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
264:
261:
260:environmental
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
224:
222:
221:Roland Oliver
216:
214:
209:
205:
201:
191:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
164:
160:
155:
153:
149:
145:
140:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
105:
95:= 2,000–1,000
94:
85:
80:
76:
71:
64:= 2,000–1,500
63:
58:
51:
41:
36:
30:= 4,000–3,500
29:
23:
19:
3725:
3691:Congo Square
3470:Kalûnga Line
3249:
3178:10216/109265
3152:
3148:
3111:
3107:
3062:
3058:
3031:
3014:
3010:
2967:
2963:
2906:
2902:
2855:
2851:
2800:
2796:
2759:
2755:
2730:
2726:
2674:
2670:
2641:(4): 79–90.
2638:
2628:
2603:
2599:
2593:
2576:
2572:
2566:
2554:
2527:
2521:
2496:
2492:
2486:
2477:
2471:
2446:
2438:
2418:
2411:
2386:
2382:
2340:
2336:
2330:
2305:
2301:
2295:
2278:
2274:
2268:
2235:
2231:
2225:
2200:
2196:
2190:
2167:
2161:
2134:
2130:
2120:
2083:
2079:
2023:
2019:
2009:
1990:
1980:
1961:
1955:
1946:
1940:
1931:
1927:
1921:
1907:
1888:
1882:
1870:. Retrieved
1865:
1855:
1830:
1786:
1782:
1776:
1751:
1747:
1737:
1684:
1680:
1670:
1659:. Retrieved
1655:the original
1645:
1620:
1616:
1609:
1579:(1): 13–38.
1576:
1572:
1565:
1530:
1526:
1516:
1463:
1459:
1449:
1416:
1412:
1406:
1363:
1359:
1349:
1316:
1312:
1306:
1281:
1273:
1222:
1218:
1178:
1174:
1164:
1140:
1133:
1109:
1099:
1054:
1050:
1040:
971:
967:
925:
919:
894:10216/109265
868:
864:
854:
835:
829:
763:
759:
750:South Africa
689:South Africa
662:
629:
625:carbon steel
609:
586:
567:
544:
512:
483:Nilo-Saharan
481:
475:
463:Lake Turkana
452:
432:
411:
402:pastoralists
394:Nilo-Saharan
379:
366:noun classes
355:
351:
316:agricultural
312:Green Sahara
265:
225:
217:
197:
156:
141:
112:
110:
92:
83:
78:
74:
61:
56:
54:
49:
39:
27:
18:
3696:Gullah Jack
3640:Goofer dust
3238:Main topics
2699:10194943180
2606:(1): 1–22.
2203:(1): 5–41.
2170:. Madison:
1934:(2): 11–42.
1872:27 November
616:Great Lakes
370:infinitival
332:Igbo people
284:West Africa
274:, amid the
268:Proto-Bantu
188:Congo River
137:pastoralist
117:Proto-Bantu
52:= Eastern,
3775:Categories
3670:Ring shout
3578:Koolakamba
3527:Kimanaueze
3318:Zimbabwean
2677:(2): 5–6.
2389:(2): 437.
1661:2011-12-31
822:References
701:sultanates
693:Monomatapa
520:Mozambique
518:or are in
400:-speaking
388:-speaking
384:foragers,
358:inflection
278:period at
252:linguistic
119:-speaking
59:= Western
3765:Languages
3434:Mami Wata
3276:Religions
3087:163034445
2784:161428419
2747:129501938
2707:268802330
2691:0263-0338
2620:166283404
2513:162627912
2322:162233816
2281:: 35–62.
1847:131878510
1811:162287894
1711:0027-8424
1466:(1): 80.
1341:162117464
1247:2375-2548
1032:258009425
770:languages
756:Criticism
703:based at
665:chiefdoms
653:Transvaal
494:Expansion
37:: origin
3727:Category
3665:Mojo bag
3613:Religion
3463:Concepts
3408:Nzambici
3269:Religion
3187:28473590
3130:19369595
3023:43600725
3002:11958710
2951:26371302
2933:26465769
2890:22628476
2872:41622670
2846:(2012).
2835:23658203
2817:23478639
2776:25130649
2365:37926350
2357:17830304
2252:15928903
2112:19360089
2058:20178763
1729:35914165
1637:19425093
1601:20841059
1593:21453002
1557:21109585
1500:19383166
1441:13213447
1433:15340834
1398:19407144
1265:36989356
1256:10058250
1197:19369595
1091:26371302
1024:38030719
1015:10794141
903:28473590
800:See also
766:ceramics
744:and the
675:and the
633:Tanzania
593:savannas
506:rock art
467:Tanzania
455:Cushitic
439:Kalahari
398:Cushitic
292:Cameroon
240:Cushitic
208:Mambilla
200:Cameroon
176:Cameroon
152:Cameroon
3753:History
3739:Portals
3686:Boo hag
3679:Culture
3660:Kumbaya
3537:Mwuetsi
3513:Culture
3449:Shetani
3422:Spirits
3358:Kalumba
3341:Deities
3322:Ndebele
3195:3094410
3157:Bibcode
3149:Science
2993:1690959
2984:3067712
2942:4629331
2911:Bibcode
2881:3385717
2826:3673054
2337:Science
2260:8686183
2217:3097285
2153:8900243
2144:1914832
2103:2661362
2049:2945812
2028:Bibcode
1768:4100385
1720:9372543
1689:Bibcode
1548:3561512
1508:7760419
1491:2682489
1468:Bibcode
1389:2947357
1368:Bibcode
1360:Science
1227:Bibcode
1082:4629331
1059:Bibcode
984:bioRxiv
976:Bibcode
911:3094410
873:Bibcode
865:Science
725:Swahili
721:Malindi
709:Mombasa
578:Cabinda
570:pygmies
534:c. 3000
516:Pygmies
477:Khoisan
435:Khoisan
386:Khoisan
320:migrate
310:of the
300:Nigeria
286:(e.g.,
276:Kiffian
256:genetic
244:Nilotic
232:Eastern
228:Khoisan
204:Nigeria
86:= 2,500
42:= 3,500
3706:Zombie
3645:Hoodoo
3634:Brazil
3593:Obambo
3583:Mbwiri
3532:Mwindo
3500:Zebola
3490:Nganga
3485:Nkondi
3444:Nkondi
3398:Nyambe
3393:Njambe
3378:Mukasa
3373:Mebege
3368:Kibuka
3363:Kianda
3348:Akongo
3324:&
3288:Badimo
3193:
3185:
3128:
3085:
3079:181385
3077:
3048:
3038:
3021:
3000:
2990:
2982:
2949:
2939:
2931:
2888:
2878:
2870:
2833:
2823:
2815:
2782:
2774:
2745:
2705:
2697:
2689:
2618:
2542:
2511:
2459:
2426:
2403:220701
2401:
2363:
2355:
2320:
2258:
2250:
2215:
2178:
2151:
2141:
2110:
2100:
2056:
2046:
1997:
1968:
1895:
1845:
1809:
1803:180108
1801:
1766:
1727:
1717:
1709:
1635:
1599:
1591:
1555:
1545:
1506:
1498:
1488:
1439:
1431:
1396:
1386:
1339:
1333:182309
1331:
1294:
1263:
1253:
1245:
1195:
1152:
1121:
1089:
1079:
1030:
1022:
1012:
986:
968:Nature
940:
909:
901:
842:
734:Uganda
723:. The
679:, the
673:Angola
612:
605:Zambia
603:, and
601:Angola
589:
563:
555:
551:
540:
536:
423:Mbenga
360:, but
280:Gobero
272:Sahara
258:, and
184:Angola
182:, and
97:
88:
66:
44:
32:
3573:Eloko
3568:Abada
3542:Nambi
3495:Okuyi
3480:Nkisi
3454:Simbi
3439:Nkisi
3429:Jengu
3413:Nzame
3388:Mwari
3383:Muisa
3353:Bunzi
3326:Shona
3312:Chewa
3297:Luhya
3191:S2CID
3083:S2CID
3075:JSTOR
3046:JSTOR
3019:JSTOR
2980:JSTOR
2929:JSTOR
2868:JSTOR
2813:JSTOR
2780:S2CID
2772:JSTOR
2743:S2CID
2703:S2CID
2616:S2CID
2509:S2CID
2399:JSTOR
2361:S2CID
2318:S2CID
2275:MUNTU
2256:S2CID
2213:JSTOR
1843:S2CID
1807:S2CID
1799:JSTOR
1764:JSTOR
1597:S2CID
1504:S2CID
1437:S2CID
1337:S2CID
1329:JSTOR
1028:S2CID
907:S2CID
780:with
742:Kenya
713:Kilwa
637:Kwale
635:and
574:mtDNA
524:Lemba
471:Kenya
418:Batwa
382:Pygmy
328:Gabon
296:Ghana
288:Benin
242:-and
172:Gabon
121:group
70:Urewe
3308:Nyau
3183:PMID
3126:PMID
3036:ISBN
2998:PMID
2947:PMID
2886:PMID
2831:PMID
2695:OCLC
2687:ISSN
2540:ISBN
2457:ISBN
2424:ISBN
2353:PMID
2248:PMID
2176:ISBN
2149:PMID
2108:PMID
2054:PMID
1995:ISBN
1966:ISBN
1893:ISBN
1874:2014
1725:PMID
1707:ISSN
1633:PMID
1589:PMID
1553:PMID
1496:PMID
1429:PMID
1394:PMID
1292:ISBN
1261:PMID
1243:ISSN
1193:PMID
1150:ISBN
1119:ISBN
1087:PMID
1020:PMID
938:ISBN
899:PMID
840:ISBN
788:and
719:and
717:Pate
705:Lamu
565:BC.
443:Nama
334:and
304:Togo
234:and
202:and
135:and
125:West
111:The
68:BP:
3649:USA
3173:hdl
3165:doi
3153:356
3116:doi
3067:doi
3015:281
2988:PMC
2972:doi
2968:269
2937:PMC
2919:doi
2907:112
2876:PMC
2860:doi
2856:279
2821:PMC
2805:doi
2801:280
2764:doi
2735:doi
2679:doi
2643:doi
2608:doi
2581:doi
2532:doi
2501:doi
2391:doi
2345:doi
2341:201
2310:doi
2283:hdl
2240:doi
2236:117
2205:doi
2139:PMC
2098:PMC
2088:doi
2044:PMC
2036:doi
1835:doi
1791:doi
1756:doi
1715:PMC
1697:doi
1685:119
1625:doi
1621:140
1581:doi
1543:PMC
1535:doi
1486:PMC
1476:doi
1421:doi
1417:115
1384:PMC
1376:doi
1364:324
1321:doi
1288:289
1251:PMC
1235:doi
1183:doi
1077:PMC
1067:doi
1055:112
1010:PMC
1002:hdl
994:doi
972:625
930:doi
889:hdl
881:doi
869:356
748:in
740:in
732:in
526:of
503:San
161:to
57:2.b
50:2.a
3777::
3189:.
3181:.
3171:.
3163:.
3151:.
3147:.
3124:.
3112:26
3110:.
3106:.
3081:.
3073:.
3063:25
3061:.
3044:.
3013:.
2996:.
2986:.
2978:.
2966:.
2962:.
2945:.
2935:.
2927:.
2917:.
2905:.
2901:.
2884:.
2874:.
2866:.
2854:.
2850:.
2829:.
2819:.
2811:.
2799:.
2795:.
2778:.
2770:.
2760:15
2758:.
2741:.
2731:56
2729:.
2701:.
2693:.
2685:.
2675:41
2673:.
2669:.
2657:^
2637:.
2614:.
2604:17
2602:.
2577:33
2575:.
2538:.
2507:.
2497:18
2495:.
2455:.
2397:.
2387:33
2385:.
2373:^
2359:.
2351:.
2339:.
2316:.
2306:41
2304:.
2277:.
2254:.
2246:.
2234:.
2211:.
2201:34
2199:.
2174:.
2147:.
2135:59
2133:.
2129:.
2106:.
2096:.
2082:.
2078:.
2066:^
2052:.
2042:.
2034:.
2024:20
2022:.
2018:.
1930:.
1864:.
1841:.
1819:^
1805:.
1797:.
1785:.
1762:.
1752:44
1750:.
1746:.
1723:.
1713:.
1705:.
1695:.
1683:.
1679:.
1631:.
1619:.
1595:.
1587:.
1577:83
1575:.
1551:.
1541:.
1531:28
1529:.
1525:.
1502:.
1494:.
1484:.
1474:.
1462:.
1458:.
1435:.
1427:.
1415:.
1392:.
1382:.
1374:.
1362:.
1358:.
1335:.
1327:.
1317:36
1315:.
1290:.
1259:.
1249:.
1241:.
1233:.
1221:.
1217:.
1205:^
1191:.
1179:26
1177:.
1173:.
1144:.
1113:.
1085:.
1075:.
1065:.
1053:.
1049:.
1026:.
1018:.
1008:.
1000:.
992:.
982:.
970:.
966:.
952:^
936:.
928:.
905:.
897:.
887:.
879:.
867:.
863:.
752:.
736:,
715:,
711:,
707:,
627:.
607:.
599:,
473:.
404:.
392:,
302:,
298:,
294:,
290:,
254:,
250:,
178:,
174:,
170:,
163:AD
159:BC
93:10
35:BP
3741::
3651:)
3647:(
3636:)
3632:(
3328:)
3320:(
3314:)
3310:(
3299:)
3295:(
3225:e
3218:t
3211:v
3197:.
3175::
3167::
3159::
3132:.
3118::
3089:.
3069::
3052:.
3025:.
3004:.
2974::
2953:.
2921::
2913::
2892:.
2862::
2837:.
2807::
2786:.
2766::
2749:.
2737::
2709:.
2681::
2651:.
2645::
2622:.
2610::
2587:.
2583::
2561:.
2548:.
2534::
2515:.
2503::
2465:.
2432:.
2405:.
2393::
2367:.
2347::
2324:.
2312::
2289:.
2285::
2279:6
2262:.
2242::
2219:.
2207::
2184:.
2155:.
2114:.
2090::
2084:5
2060:.
2038::
2030::
2003:.
1974:.
1932:7
1915:.
1901:.
1876:.
1849:.
1837::
1813:.
1793::
1787:7
1770:.
1758::
1731:.
1699::
1691::
1664:.
1639:.
1627::
1603:.
1583::
1559:.
1537::
1510:.
1478::
1470::
1464:9
1443:.
1423::
1400:.
1378::
1370::
1343:.
1323::
1300:.
1267:.
1237::
1229::
1223:9
1199:.
1185::
1158:.
1127:.
1093:.
1069::
1061::
1034:.
1004::
996::
978::
946:.
932::
913:.
891::
883::
875::
848:.
582:0
127:-
84:9
79:7
77:–
75:4
62:3
40:2
28:1
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
