Traumatic brain injury

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beginning the "modern era" of head injury. Until the 20th century, the mortality rate of TBI was high and rehabilitation was uncommon; improvements in care made during World War I reduced the death rate and made rehabilitation possible. Facilities dedicated to TBI rehabilitation were probably first established during World War I. Explosives used in World War I caused many blast injuries; the large number of TBIs that resulted allowed researchers to learn about localization of brain functions. Blast-related injuries are now common problems in returning veterans from Iraq & Afghanistan; research shows that the symptoms of such TBIs are largely the same as those of TBIs involving a physical blow to the head.

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injuries, and 100% of severe injuries. Most mild TBI is completely resolved within three weeks. Almost all people with mild TBI are able to live independently and return to the jobs they had before the injury, although a small portion have mild cognitive and social impairments. Over 90% of people with moderate TBI are able to live independently, although some require assistance in areas such as physical abilities, employment, and financial managing. Most people with severe closed head injury either die or recover enough to live independently; middle ground is less common. Coma, as it is closely related to severity, is a strong predictor of poor outcome.

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in high-income countries, which have seen decreases in traffic-related TBI since the 1970s. Each year in the United States, about two million people have a TBI, approximately 675,000 injuries are seen in the emergency department, and about 500,000 patients are hospitalized. The yearly incidence of TBI is estimated at 180–250 per 100,000 people in the US, 281 per 100,000 in France, 361 per 100,000 in South Africa, 322 per 100,000 in Australia, and 430 per 100,000 in England. In the European Union the yearly aggregate incidence of TBI hospitalizations and fatalities is estimated at 235 per 100,000.

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recovering from TBI include: frustration and impatience with one another, loss of former lives and relationships, difficulty setting reasonable goals, inability to effectively solve problems as a family, increased level of stress and household tension, changes in emotional dynamics, and overwhelming desire to return to pre-injury status. In addition, families may exhibit less effective functioning in areas including coping, problem solving and communication. Psychoeducation and counseling models have been demonstrated to be effective in minimizing family disruption.

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intensively with the orthotic treatment of the lower extremities in cerebral palsy. Modern materials and new functional elements enable the rigidity to be specifically adapted to the requirements that fits to the gait pattern of the patient. The adjustment of the stiffness has a decisive influence on the gait pattern and on the energy cost of walking. It is of great advantage if the stiffness of the orthosis can be adjusted separately from one another via resistances of the two functional elements in the two directions of movement,

1408: 828: 963:(MRI) can show more detail than CT, and can add information about expected outcome in the long term. It is more useful than CT for detecting injury characteristics such as diffuse axonal injury in the longer term; however, MRI is not used in the emergency setting for reasons including its relative inefficacy in detecting bleeds and fractures, its lengthy acquisition of images, the inaccessibility of the patient in the machine, and its incompatibility with metal items used in emergency care. A variant of MRI since 2012 is 1749: 1549: 1307: 1426:; however, it can be used just as well in patients with traumatic brain injuries. According to the Amsterdam Gait Classification, five gait types are described. To assess the gait pattern, the patient is viewed visually or via a video recording from the side of the leg to be assessed. At the point in time at which the leg to be viewed is in mid stance and the leg not to be viewed is in mid swing, the knee angle and the contact of the foot with the ground are assessed on the one hand. 1009: 1557: 1831: 493: 1017: 1417:

interdisciplinary communication in the interdisciplinary team between those affected, doctors, physiotherapists and orthotists, a simple description of the gait pattern is useful. J. Rodda and H. K. Graham already described in 2001 how gait patterns of CP patients can be more easily recognized and defined gait types which they compared in a classification. They also described that gait patterns can vary with age. Building on this, the

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Neurological Surgeons/Congress of Neurological Surgeons, Child Neurology Society, European Society of Pediatric and Neonatal Intensive Care, Neurocritical Care Society, Pediatric Neurocritical Care Research Group, Society of Critical Care Medicine, Paediatric Intensive Care Society UK, Society for Neuroscience in Anesthesiology and Critical Care, World Federation of Pediatric Intensive and Critical Care Societies (January 2012).

53: 761: 1677:, a set of lasting symptoms experienced after mild TBI, can include physical, cognitive, emotional and behavioral problems such as headaches, dizziness, difficulty concentrating, and depression. Multiple TBIs may have a cumulative effect. A young person who receives a second concussion before symptoms from another one have healed may be at risk for developing a very rare but deadly condition called 636: 670:(muscle weakness that causes disordered speech), weakness or numbness in the limbs, loss of coordination, confusion, restlessness, or agitation. Common long-term symptoms of moderate to severe TBI are changes in appropriate social behavior, deficits in social judgment, and cognitive changes, especially problems with sustained attention, processing speed, and executive functioning. 1439: 1491:

expected to have a good outcome if they receive surgery quickly. Diffuse axonal injury may be associated with coma when severe, and poor outcome. Following the acute stage, prognosis is strongly influenced by the patient's involvement in activity that promote recovery, which for most patients requires access to a specialised, intensive rehabilitation service. The

1290:(DC) is performed routinely in the very short period following TBI during operations to treat hematomas; part of the skull is removed temporarily (primary DC). DC performed hours or days after TBI in order to control persistently high intracranial pressures (secondary DC), although can reduce intracranial pressure and length of stay in ICU, but have worse 1673:, the most common cognitive impairment among head-injured people, occurs in 20–79% of people with closed head trauma, depending on severity. People who have had TBI may also have difficulty with understanding or producing spoken or written language, or with more subtle aspects of communication such as body language. 939: 4637:

Brave Americans who risked everything for their country and sustained traumatic brain injuries – the signature injury of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan – deserve cognitive rehabilitation therapy to help them secure the best futures possible. It is unacceptable that the United States has been at war

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is used to correlate intracranial pressure with arterial blood pressure to give information about the state of cerebral perfusion, thus guiding treatment and prevent excessively high or low blood flow to the brain. However, such method of monitoring intracranial pressure of equal or less than 20 mmHg

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Biological, clinical, and demographic factors contribute to the likelihood that an injury will be fatal. In addition, outcome depends heavily on the cause of head injury. In the US, patients with fall-related TBIs have an 89% survival rate, while only 9% of patients with firearm-related TBIs survive.

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TBI also has a substantial impact on the functioning of family systems Caregiving family members and TBI survivors often significantly alter their familial roles and responsibilities following injury, creating significant change and strain on a family system. Typical challenges identified by families

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has been known to decrease for individuals with TBI immediately following the trauma, but evidence has shown that life roles, age, and depressive symptoms influence the trajectory of life satisfaction as time passes. Many people with traumatic brain injuries have poor physical fitness following their

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Prognosis worsens with the severity of injury. Most TBIs are mild and do not cause permanent or long-term disability; however, all severity levels of TBI have the potential to cause significant, long-lasting disability. Permanent disability is thought to occur in 10% of mild injuries, 66% of moderate

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can support physiotherapeutic treatment in setting the right motor impulses in order to create new cerebral connections. The orthosis must meet the requirements of the medical prescription. In addition, the orthosis must be designed by the orthotist in such a way that it achieves the effectiveness of

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Kochanek PM, Carney N, Adelson PD, Ashwal S, Bell MJ, Bratton S, Carson S, Chesnut RM, Ghajar J, Goldstein B, Grant GA, Kissoon N, Peterson K, Selden NR, Tasker RC, Tong KA, Vavilala MS, Wainwright MS, Warden CR, American Academy of Pediatrics-Section on Neurological Surgery, American Association of

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In animal models of TBI, sensory processing has been widely studied to show systematic defects arise and are slowly but likely only partially recovered. It is especially characterised by an initial period of decreased activity in upper cortical layers. This period of decreased activity has also been

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allows ongoing sampling of extracellular fluid for analysis of metabolites that might indicate ischemia or brain metabolism, such as glucose, glycerol, and glutamate. Intraparenchymal brain tissue oxygen monitoring systems (either Licox or Neurovent-PTO) are used routinely in neurointensive care in

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The 20th century saw the advancement of technologies that improved treatment and diagnosis such as the development of imaging tools including CT and MRI, and, in the 21st century, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). The introduction of intracranial pressure monitoring in the 1950s has been credited with

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Findings on the frequency of each level of severity vary based on the definitions and methods used in studies. A World Health Organization study estimated that between 70 and 90% of head injuries that receive treatment are mild, and a US study found that moderate and severe injuries each account for

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Complications are distinct medical problems that may arise as a result of the TBI. The results of traumatic brain injury vary widely in type and duration; they include physical, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral complications. TBI can cause prolonged or permanent effects on consciousness, such as

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Improvement of neurological function usually occurs for two or more years after the trauma. For many years it was believed that recovery was fastest during the first six months, but there is no evidence to support this. It may be related to services commonly being withdrawn after this period, rather

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and nursing are critical. The most effective research documented intervention approach is the activation database guided EEG biofeedback approach, which has shown significant improvements in memory abilities of the TBI subject that are far superior than traditional approaches (strategies, computers,

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ward. Treatment depends on the recovery stage of the patient. In the acute stage, the primary aim is to stabilize the patient and focus on preventing further injury. This is done because the initial damage caused by trauma cannot be reversed. Rehabilitation is the main treatment for the subacute and

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by educating about the dangers of shaking children. Gun safety, including keeping guns unloaded and locked, is another preventative measure. Studies on the effect of laws that aim to control access to guns in the United States have been insufficient to determine their effectiveness preventing number

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Falls can be avoided by installing grab bars in bathrooms and handrails on stairways; removing tripping hazards such as throw rugs; or installing window guards and safety gates at the top and bottom of stairs around young children. Playgrounds with shock-absorbing surfaces such as mulch or sand also

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on a scale of 3–15 based on verbal, motor, and eye-opening reactions to stimuli. In general, it is agreed that a TBI with a GCS of 13 or above is mild, 9–12 is moderate, and 8 or below is severe. Similar systems exist for young children; however, the GCS grading system has limited ability to predict

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Silverberg ND, Iverson GL, ACRM Brain Injury Special Interest Group Mild TBI Task Force and the ACRM Mild TBI Definition Expert Consensus Group, ACRM Brain Injury Special Interest Group Mild TBI Task Force members, Cogan A, Dams-O'Connor K, Delmonico R, Graf MJ, Iaccarino MA, Kajankova M, Kamins J,

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does not justify the routine use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy to treat people recovering from a traumatic brain injury. This review also reported that only a small number of randomized controlled trials had been conducted at the time of the review, many of which had methodological problems and poor

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Regardless of age, TBI rates are higher in males. Men have twice as many TBIs as women do and have a fourfold risk of fatal head injury, and males account for two thirds of childhood and adolescent head trauma; however, when matched for severity of injury, women appear to fare more poorly than men.

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TBI is present in 85% of traumatically injured children, either alone or with other injuries. The greatest number of TBIs occur in people aged 15–24. Because TBI is more common in young people, its costs to society are high due to the loss of productive years to death and disability. The age groups

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The incidence of TBI is increasing globally, due largely to an increase in motor vehicle use in low- and middle-income countries. In developing countries, automobile use has increased faster than safety infrastructure could be introduced. In contrast, vehicle safety laws have decreased rates of TBI

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is estimated to be 21% by 30 days after TBI. A study on Iraq War soldiers found that severe TBI carries a mortality of 30–50%. Deaths have declined due to improved treatments and systems for managing trauma in societies wealthy enough to provide modern emergency and neurosurgical services. The

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and age over sixty or under two years (in children, younger age at time of injury may be associated with a slower recovery of some abilities). Other influences that may affect recovery include pre-injury intellectual ability, coping strategies, personality traits, family environment, social support

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Prognosis differs depending on the severity and location of the lesion, and access to immediate, specialised acute management. Subarachnoid hemorrhage approximately doubles mortality. Subdural hematoma is associated with worse outcome and increased mortality, while people with epidural hematoma are

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was developed at the free university in Amsterdam, the VU medisch centrum. A special feature of this classification is that it makes different gait patterns very recognizable and can be used in patients in whom only one leg and both legs are affected. The Amsterdam Gait Classification was developed

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In patients who have developed paralysis of the legs in the form of spastic hemiplegia or diplegia as a result of the traumatic brain injury, various gait patterns can be observed, the exact extent of which can only be described with the help of complex gait analysis systems. In order to facilitate

1322:. Rehabilitation aims to improve independent functioning at home and in society, and to help adapt to disabilities. Rehabilitation has demonstrated its general effectiveness when conducted by a team of health professionals who specialize in head trauma. As for any person with neurologic deficits, a 1087:

within three hours of a head injury decreases the risk of death. Certain facilities are equipped to handle TBI better than others; initial measures include transporting patients to an appropriate treatment center. Both during transport and in hospital the primary concerns are ensuring proper oxygen

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Changes to common practices in sports have also been discussed. An increase in use of helmets could reduce the incidence of TBI. Due to the possibility that repeatedly "heading" a ball practicing soccer could cause cumulative brain injury, the idea of introducing protective headgear for players has

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Symptoms are dependent on the type of TBI (diffuse or focal) and the part of the brain that is affected. Unconsciousness tends to last longer for people with injuries on the left side of the brain than for those with injuries on the right. Symptoms are also dependent on the injury's severity. With

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TBI is a leading cause of death and disability around the globe and presents a major worldwide social, economic, and health problem. It is the number one cause of coma, it plays the leading role in disability due to trauma, and is the leading cause of brain damage in children and young adults. In

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or an electrolyte abnormality acutely after injury indicate need for endocrinologic work up. Signs and symptoms of hypopituitarism may develop and be screened for in adults with moderate TBI and in mild TBI with imaging abnormalities. Children with moderate to severe head injury may also develop

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The most common causes of TBI in the U.S. include violence, transportation accidents, construction site mishaps, and sports. Motor bikes are major causes, increasing in significance in developing countries as other causes reduce. The estimates that between 1.6 and 3.8 million traumatic brain

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Many patients with mild to moderate head injuries who experience cognitive deficits become easily confused or distracted and have problems with concentration and attention. They also have problems with higher level, so-called executive functions, such as planning, organizing, abstract reasoning,

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Classification of the gait pattern according to the Amsterdam Gait Classification: In gait type 1, the knee angle is normal and the foot contact is complete. In gait type 2, the knee angle is hyperextended and the foot contact is complete. In gait type 3, the knee angle is hyperextended and foot

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basis. Community-based rehabilitation will be required for a high proportion of people, including vocational rehabilitation; this supportive employment matches job demands to the worker's abilities. People with TBI who cannot live independently or with family may require care in supported living

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and violence. Brain trauma occurs as a consequence of a sudden acceleration or deceleration within the cranium or by a complex combination of both movement and sudden impact. In addition to the damage caused at the moment of injury, a variety of events following the injury may result in further

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The orthotic concepts of the treatment are based on the concepts for the patients with cerebral palsy. Due to these requirements, the development of orthoses has changed significantly in recent years, especially since around 2010. At about the same time, care concepts were developed that deal

674:, a deficiency in identifying, understanding, processing, and describing emotions occurs in 60.9% of individuals with TBI. Cognitive and social deficits have long-term consequences for the daily lives of people with moderate to severe TBI, but can be improved with appropriate rehabilitation. 655:, bad taste in the mouth, fatigue or lethargy, and changes in sleep patterns. Cognitive and emotional symptoms include behavioral or mood changes, confusion, and trouble with memory, concentration, attention, or thinking. Mild TBI symptoms may also be present in moderate and severe injuries. 950:, for example checking whether the pupils constrict normally in response to light and assigning a Glasgow Coma Score. Neuroimaging helps in determining the diagnosis and prognosis and in deciding what treatments to give. DSM-5 can be utilized to diagnose TBI and its psychiatric sequelae. 1790:

fraction of those who die after being hospitalized with TBI fell from almost half in the 1970s to about a quarter at the beginning of the 21st century. This decline in mortality has led to a concomitant increase in the number of people living with disabilities that result from TBI.

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studies vary based on such factors as which grades of severity are included, whether deaths are included, whether the study is restricted to hospitalized people, and the study's location. The annual incidence of mild TBI is difficult to determine but may be 100–600 people per 100,000.

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but failed in clinical trials. These failures could be due to factors including faults in the trials' design or in the insufficiency of a single agent to prevent the array of injury processes involved in secondary injury. Other topics of research have included investigations into

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It was first suggested in the 18th century that intracranial pressure rather than skull damage was the cause of pathology after TBI. This hypothesis was confirmed around the end of the 19th century, and opening the skull to relieve pressure was then proposed as a treatment.

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injuries each year are a result of sports and recreation activities in the US. In children aged two to four, falls are the most common cause of TBI, while in older children traffic accidents compete with falls for this position. TBI is the third most common injury to result from

1923:. The 1990s saw the development and dissemination of standardized guidelines for treatment of TBI, with protocols for a range of issues such as drugs and management of intracranial pressure. Research since the early 1990s has improved TBI survival; that decade was known as the " 1394:; however the preventive use of anti-epileptics is not recommended. In those cases where the person is bedridden due to a reduction of consciousness, has to remain in a wheelchair because of mobility problems, or has any other problem heavily impacting self-caring capacities, 1024:

Since a major cause of TBI are vehicle accidents, their prevention or the amelioration of their consequences can both reduce the incidence and gravity of TBI. In accidents, damage can be reduced by use of seat belts, child safety seats and motorcycle helmets, and presence of

747:(Democrat, NJ), TBI is "the signature injury of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan." There is a promising technology called activation database-guided EEG biofeedback, which has been documented to return a TBI's auditory memory ability to above the control group's performance 6084:

Rickard AC, Smith JE, Newell P, Bailey A, Kehoe A, Mann C (August 2014). "Salt or sugar for your injured brain? A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials of mannitol versus hypertonic sodium solutions to manage raised intracranial pressure in traumatic brain injury".

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most at risk for TBI are children ages five to nine and adults over age 80, and the highest rates of death and hospitalization due to TBI are in people over age 65. The incidence of fall-related TBI in First-World countries is increasing as the population ages; thus the

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Thal SC, Schaible EV, Neuhaus W, Scheffer D, Brandstetter M, Engelhard K, et al. (May 2013). "Inhibition of proteasomal glucocorticoid receptor degradation restores dexamethasone-mediated stabilization of the blood-brain barrier after traumatic brain injury".

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Cognitive deficits that can follow TBI include impaired attention; disrupted insight, judgement, and thought; reduced processing speed; distractibility; and deficits in executive functions such as abstract reasoning, planning, problem-solving, and multitasking.

1728:. In patients who have depression after TBI, suicidal ideation is not uncommon; the suicide rate among these persons is increased 2- to 3-fold. Social and behavioral symptoms that can follow TBI include disinhibition, inability to control anger, impulsiveness, 1378:. Social workers, rehabilitation support personnel, nutritionists, therapeutic recreationists, and pharmacists are also important members of the TBI rehabilitation team. After discharge from the inpatient rehabilitation treatment unit, care may be given on an 4122:

Dahlberg CA, Cusick CP, Hawley LA, Newman JK, Morey CE, Harrison-Felix CL, Whiteneck GG (December 2007). "Treatment efficacy of social communication skills training after traumatic brain injury: a randomized treatment and deferred treatment controlled trial".

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Even in the absence of an impact, significant acceleration or deceleration of the head can cause TBI; however in most cases, a combination of impact and acceleration is probably to blame. Forces involving the head striking or being struck by something, termed

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Small children with moderate to severe TBI may have some of these symptoms but have difficulty communicating them. Other signs seen in young children include persistent crying, inability to be consoled, listlessness, refusal to nurse or eat, and irritability.

1681:, in which the brain swells catastrophically after even a mild blow, with debilitating or deadly results. About one in five career boxers is affected by chronic traumatic brain injury (CTBI), which causes cognitive, behavioral, and physical impairments. 1430:

contact is incomplete (only on the forefoot). In gait type 4, the knee angle is bent and foot contact is incomplete (only on the forefoot). With gait type 5, which is also known as crouch gait, the knee angle is bent and the foot contact is complete.

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TBI is a major cause of death and disability worldwide, especially in children and young adults. Males sustain traumatic brain injuries around twice as often as females. The 20th century saw developments in diagnosis and treatment that decreased

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Burgess S, Abu-Laban RB, Slavik RS, Vu EN, Zed PJ (April 2016). "A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials Comparing Hypertonic Sodium Solutions and Mannitol for Traumatic Brain Injury: Implications for Emergency Department Management".

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The Amsterdam Gait Classification facilitates the assessment of the gait pattern in patients after a traumatic brain injury. It helps to facilitate communication in the interdisciplinary team between those affected, doctors, physiotherapists and

843:(the damage that occurs at the moment of trauma when tissues and blood vessels are stretched, compressed, and torn) is not adequate to explain this deterioration; rather, it is caused by secondary injury, a complex set of cellular processes and 7427:

Kerkum YL, Harlaar J, Buizer AI, van den Noort JC, Becher JG, Brehm MA (May 2016). "An individual approach for optimizing ankle-foot orthoses to improve mobility in children with spastic cerebral palsy walking with excessive knee flexion".

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Kumar R, Husain M, Gupta RK, Hasan KM, Haris M, Agarwal AK, et al. (April 2009). "Serial changes in the white matter diffusion tensor imaging metrics in moderate traumatic brain injury and correlation with neuro-cognitive function".

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also appears to affect TBI rates; people with lower levels of education and employment and lower socioeconomic status are at greater risk. Approximately half of those incarcerated in prisons and jails in the United States have had TBIs.

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to improve outcomes. Further research is required to determine the effectiveness and clinical importance of positioning the head at different angles (degrees of head-of-bed elevation) while the person is being treated in intensive care.

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increases with severity of trauma and is particularly elevated with certain types of brain trauma such as cerebral contusions or hematomas. People with early seizures, those occurring within a week of injury, have an increased risk of

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is another cause of TBI, as are work-related and industrial accidents. Firearms and blast injuries from explosions are other causes of TBI, which is the leading cause of death and disability in war zones. According to Representative

2098:. The test requires both attention and working memory which are difficult functions for people with mild traumatic brain injury. The question being studied, is whether results for people with brain injury will show visual-tracking 2051:

was useful in adults but not children. While two other reviews found it did not appear to be useful.In addition to traditional imaging modalities, there are several devices that help to monitor brain injury and facilitate research.

1149:, appears to be as effective as hypertonic saline at reducing ICP; however, some concerns have been raised regarding some of the studies performed. Hyertonic saline is also suitable in children with severe traumatic brain injury. 5675:

problem solving, and making judgments, which may make it difficult to resume pre-injury work-related activities. Recovery from cognitive deficits is greatest within the first 6 months after the injury and more gradual after that.

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and airbags. Education programs exist to lower the number of crashes. In addition, changes to public policy and safety laws can be made; these include speed limits, seat belt and helmet laws, and road engineering practices.

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methods to decrease secondary injury have been the subject of interest follows TBI, trials to test agents that could halt these cellular mechanisms have met largely with failure as of 2008. For example, interest existed in

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to maintain a normal blood pressure. Failing to maintain blood pressure can result in inadequate blood flow to the brain. Blood pressure may be kept at an artificially high level under controlled conditions by infusion of

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that occur in the minutes to days following the trauma. These secondary processes can dramatically worsen the damage caused by primary injury and account for the greatest number of TBI deaths occurring in hospitals.

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is associated with an increased risk of death, and so their routine use is not recommended. There is no strong evidence that the following pharmaceutical interventions should be recommended to routinely treat TBI:

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is used to improve safety when standing and walking. (Designation of the orthosis according to the body parts included in the orthosis fitting: ankle and foot, English abbreviation: AFO for ankle-foot orthoses)

1912:, who survived an accident in which a large iron rod was driven through his head, destroying one or both of his frontal lobes; numerous cases of personality change after brain injury have been reported since. 263:

efforts in older adults and safety measures for children. Depending on the injury, treatment required may be minimal or may include interventions such as medications, emergency surgery or surgery years later.

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Carney N, Totten AM, O'Reilly C, Ullman JS, Hawryluk GW, Bell MJ, Bratton SL, Chesnut R, Harris OA, Kissoon N, Rubiano AM, Shutter L, Tasker RC, Vavilala MS, Wilberger J, Wright DW, Ghajar J (January 2017).

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A large percentage of the people killed by brain trauma do not die right away but rather days to weeks after the event; rather than improving after being hospitalized, some 40% of TBI patients deteriorate.

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the necessary levers, matching the gait pattern, in order to support the proprioceptive approaches of physiotherapy. The orthotic concepts of the treatment are based on the concepts for the patients with

553:, areas that are involved in social behavior, emotion regulation, olfaction, and decision-making, hence the common social/emotional and judgment deficits following moderate-severe TBI. Symptoms such as 7654:

Brown AW, Elovic EP, Kothari S, Flanagan SR, Kwasnica C (March 2008). "Congenital and acquired brain injury. 1. Epidemiology, pathophysiology, prognostication, innovative treatments, and prevention".

2047:; however, a 2020 Cochrane review did not find enough evidence to see if it was useful or not. Maintaining a normal temperature in the immediate period after a TBI appeared useful. One review found a 522:, and in the early 2000s, researchers discovered that diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), a way of processing MRI images that shows white matter tracts, was an effective tool for displaying the extent of 1239:, these drugs are used carefully because they can depress breathing and lower blood pressure. Anti-convulsant medications have only been found to be useful for reducing the risk of an early seizure. 7947: 8863: 1120:

to drain, releasing pressure in the skull. Treatment of raised ICP may be as simple as tilting the person's bed and straightening the head to promote blood flow through the veins of the neck.

11426: 819:, respectively). When a moving object impacts the stationary head, coup injuries are typical, while contrecoup injuries are usually produced when the moving head strikes a stationary object. 9755:

Wright DW, Kellermann AL, Hertzberg VS, Clark PL, Frankel M, Goldstein FC, et al. (April 2007). "ProTECT: a randomized clinical trial of progesterone for acute traumatic brain injury".

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Further research is necessary to determine if the vasoconstrictor indomethacin (indometacin) can be used to treat increased pressure in the skull following a TBI. In addition, drugs such as

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Burns (2019): Temporal neuronal activity patterns in barrel cortex to simple and complex stimuli and the effects of traumatic brain injury. Monash University. Thesis. 10.26180/5b7166ad13e47

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Li W, Dai S, An J, Li P, Chen X, Xiong R, et al. (February 2008). "Chronic but not acute treatment with caffeine attenuates traumatic brain injury in the mouse cortical impact model".

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is no better than imaging and clinical examination that monitor the neurological status of the brain in prolonging the survival, preserving the mental or functional status of the subject.

346:. A closed (also called nonpenetrating, or blunt) injury occurs when the brain is not exposed. A penetrating, or open, head injury occurs when an object pierces the skull and breaches the 10343:

Crompton EM, Lubomirova I, Cotlarciuc I, Han TS, Sharma SD, Sharma P (April 2017). "Meta-Analysis of Therapeutic Hypothermia for Traumatic Brain Injury in Adult and Pediatric Patients".

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are still used for head trauma, but evidence suggests they are not useful; head injuries are either so mild that they do not need imaging or severe enough to merit the more accurate CT.

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Gultekin R, Huang S, Clavisi O, Pattuwage L, König TC, Gruen R (March 2016). "Pharmacological interventions in traumatic brain injury: Can we rely on systematic reviews for evidence?".

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Velikonja D, Warriner E, Brum C (July 2010). "Profiles of emotional and behavioral sequelae following acquired brain injury: cluster analysis of the Personality Assessment Inventory".

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Ownsworth T, Fleming J (2005). "The relative importance of metacognitive skills, emotional status, and executive function in psychosocial adjustment following acquired brain injury".

1163:(larger and/or faster breaths) reduces carbon dioxide levels and causes blood vessels to constrict; this decreases blood flow to the brain and reduces ICP, but it potentially causes 8728:

Kreutzer JS, Stejskal TM, Ketchum JM, Marwitz JH, Taylor LA, Menzel JC (June 2009). "A preliminary investigation of the brain injury family intervention: impact on family members".

323:(examples include stroke and infection). All traumatic brain injuries are head injuries, but the latter term may also refer to injury to other parts of the head; however, the terms 6387:

Curry R, Hollingworth W, Ellenbogen RG, Vavilala MS (March 2008). "Incidence of hypo- and hypercarbia in severe traumatic brain injury before and after 2003 pediatric guidelines".

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Rosenthal G, Furmanov A, Itshayek E, Shoshan Y, Singh V (April 2014). "Assessment of a noninvasive cerebral oxygenation monitor in patients with severe traumatic brain injury".

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Further research is required to determine the effectiveness of non-pharmacological treatment approaches for treating depression in children/adolescents and adults with TBI.

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been proposed. Improved equipment design can enhance safety; softer baseballs reduce head injury risk. Rules against dangerous types of contact, such as "spear tackling" in

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injuries and neurotrauma. In neuropsychology research literature, in general the term "traumatic brain injury" is used to refer to non-penetrating traumatic brain injuries.

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Watson HI, Shepherd AA, Rhodes JK, Andrews PJ (June 2018). "Revisited: A Systematic Review of Therapeutic Hypothermia for Adult Patients Following Traumatic Brain Injury".

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Thornton KE, Carmody DP (June 2008). "Efficacy of traumatic brain injury rehabilitation: interventions of QEEG-guided biofeedback, computers, strategies, and medications".

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Head injury is present in ancient myths that may date back before recorded history. Skulls found in battleground graves with holes drilled over fracture lines suggest that

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TBI is usually classified based on severity, anatomical features of the injury, and the mechanism (the causative forces). Mechanism-related classification divides TBI into

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medication intervention). Gains of 2.61 standard deviations have been documented. The TBI's auditory memory ability was superior to the control group after the treatment.

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are likely to be the key medical staff involved, but depending on the person, doctors of other medical specialties may also be helpful. Allied health professions such as

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or it may be floated off with water. Surgeons look for hemorrhaging blood vessels and seek to control bleeding. In penetrating brain injury, damaged tissue is surgically

647:

mild TBI, the patient may remain conscious or may lose consciousness for a few seconds or minutes. Other symptoms of mild TBI include headache, vomiting, nausea, lack of

1919:

In the 1970s, awareness of TBI as a public health problem grew, and a great deal of progress has been made since then in brain trauma research, such as the discovery of

312:

waves, or penetration by a projectile. Brain function is temporarily or permanently impaired and structural damage may or may not be detectable with current technology.

5382: 3501:

Mohr JP, Weiss GH, Caveness WF, Dillon JD, Kistler JP, Meirowsky AM, Rish BL (December 1980). "Language and motor disorders after penetrating head injury in Viet Nam".

11419: 511:

features. Lesions can be extra-axial, (occurring within the skull but outside of the brain) or intra-axial (occurring within the brain tissue). Damage from TBI can be

456:

outcomes. Because of this, other classification systems such as the one shown in the table are also used to help determine severity. A current model developed by the

4026:

Milders M, Fuchs S, Crawford JR (April 2003). "Neuropsychological impairments and changes in emotional and social behaviour following severe traumatic brain injury".

2011: 1794:

In the US, firearms are the most common cause of fatal TBI, followed by vehicle accidents and then falls. Of deaths from firearms, 75% are considered to be suicides.

1466:. The characteristics of the stiffness of the orthosis shells and the adjustable dynamics in the ankle joint are important elements of the orthosis to be considered. 5582:

Hahn RA, Bilukha O, Crosby A, Fullilove MT, Liberman A, Moscicki E, et al. (February 2005). "Firearms laws and the reduction of violence: a systematic review".

768:

The type, direction, intensity, and duration of forces all contribute to the characteristics and severity of TBI. Forces that may contribute to TBI include angular,

8339:

Draper K, Ponsford J (October 2009). "Long-term outcome following traumatic brain injury: a comparison of subjective reports by those injured and their relatives".

7280: 8012:

Kwasnica C, Brown AW, Elovic EP, Kothari S, Flanagan SR (March 2008). "Congenital and acquired brain injury. 3. Spectrum of the acquired brain injury population".

4317: 1708:, apathy, irritability, problems with social judgment, and impaired conversational skills. TBI appears to predispose survivors to psychiatric disorders including 8882:

Cassidy JD, Carroll LJ, Peloso PM, Borg J, von Holst H, Holm L, et al. (WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury) (February 2004).

10525:

Dengler J, Frenzel C, Vajkoczy P, Wolf S, Horn P (November 2011). "Cerebral tissue oxygenation measured by two different probes: challenges and interpretation".

2060:

Research is also planned to clarify factors correlated to outcome in TBI and to determine in which cases it is best to perform CT scans and surgical procedures.

7393: 6861:

Dunn IF, Ellegala DB (2008). "Decompressive hemicraniectomy in the management of severe traumatic brain injury". In Bhardwaj A, Ellegala DB, Kirsch JR (eds.).

1514:, and longer times spent with high intracranial pressures. Patient characteristics also influence prognosis. Examples of factors thought to worsen it include: 11412: 1138:

saline can improve ICP by reducing the amount of cerebral water (swelling), though it is used with caution to avoid electrolyte imbalances or heart failure.

515:, confined to specific areas or distributed in a more general manner, respectively; however, it is common for both types of injury to exist in a given case. 9491:

Belanger HG, Kretzmer T, Yoash-Gantz R, Pickett T, Tupler LA (January 2009). "Cognitive sequelae of blast-related versus other mechanisms of brain trauma".

10841:

Copplestone S, Welbourne J (February 2018). "A narrative review of the clinical application of pressure reactiviy indices in the neurocritical care unit".

1251:

and may react adversely to some medications. During treatment monitoring continues for signs of deterioration such as a decreasing level of consciousness.

8884:"Incidence, risk factors and prevention of mild traumatic brain injury: results of the WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury" 8821:

León-Carrión J, Domínguez-Morales M, Barroso y Martín JM, Murillo-Cabezas F (2005). "Epidemiology of traumatic brain injury and subarachnoid hemorrhage".

7602:"Stiffness modification of two ankle-foot orthosis types to optimize gait in individuals with non-spastic calf muscle weakness - a proof-of-concept study" 11735: 7741:

Armin SS, Colohan AR, Zhang JH (June 2006). "Traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage: our current understanding and its evolution over the past half century".

1445:

with dynamic functional elements, whose adjustable spring resistances in plantar and dorsiflexion can be separately adapted to the patient's gait. The

308:

Traumatic brain injury is defined as damage to the brain resulting from external mechanical force, such as rapid acceleration or deceleration, impact,

7825:

Murray ED, Buttner N, Price BH (2012). "Depression and Psychosis in Neurological Practice". In Bradley WG, Daroff RB, Fenichel GM, Jankovic J (eds.).

7214:

Rodda J, Graham HK (November 2001). "Classification of gait patterns in spastic hemiplegia and spastic diplegia: a basis for a management algorithm".

2082:

As of 2010, the use of predictive visual tracking measurement to identify mild traumatic brain injury was being studied. In visual tracking tests, a

1286:

may be needed. Craniotomy, in which part of the skull is removed, may be needed to remove pieces of fractured skull or objects embedded in the brain.

9792:"Neuroprotection against traumatic brain injury by xenon, but not argon, is mediated by inhibition at the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor glycine site" 2751:

Hannay HJ, Howieson DB, Loring DW, Fischer JS, Lezak MD (2004). "Neuropathology for neuropsychologists". In Lezak MD, Howieson DB, Loring DW (eds.).

658:

A person with a moderate or severe TBI may have a headache that does not go away, repeated vomiting or nausea, convulsions, an inability to awaken,

1871:

surgeons continued the practice of trepanation for head injury. In the Middle Ages, physicians further described head injury symptoms and the term

1853:, written around 1650–1550 BC, describes various head injuries and symptoms and classifies them based on their presentation and tractability. 1700:

TBI may cause emotional, social, or behavioral problems and changes in personality. These may include emotional instability, depression, anxiety,

8517:

Hawley LA, Newman JK (2010). "Group interactive structured treatment (GIST): a social competence intervention for individuals with brain injury".

3941:"Functional outcome 10 years after traumatic brain injury: its relationship with demographic, injury severity, and cognitive and emotional status" 10478:"Metabolic crisis without brain ischemia is common after traumatic brain injury: a combined microdialysis and positron emission tomography study" 5126:

Wortzel HS, Arciniegas DB (January 1, 2014). "The DSM-5 approach to the evaluation of traumatic brain injury and its neuropsychiatric sequelae".

1012:

Demonstration in 1912 of the Warren Safety Helmet, which was designed to protect pilots but has often been wrongly described as a football helmet

7100:

McMillan TM, Oddy M (2000). "Service provision for social disability and handicap after acquired brain injury". In Wood RL, McMillan TM (eds.).

890:

from their cell bodies as a result of secondary injury, potentially killing those neurons. Other factors in secondary injury are changes in the

7378: 4826:

Morrison AL, King TM, Korell MA, Smialek JE, Troncoso JC (June 1998). "Acceleration-deceleration injuries to the brain in blunt force trauma".

2123:

characterised as by specific timing effects in the patterns of cortical activity in these upper layers in response to regular sensory stimuli.

212:. TBI can result in physical, cognitive, social, emotional and behavioral symptoms, and outcomes can range from complete recovery to permanent 11371: 7125:

Deb S, Crownshaw T (January 2004). "The role of pharmacotherapy in the management of behaviour disorders in traumatic brain injury patients".

5621: 4981:

Xiong Y, Lee CP, Peterson PL (2000). "Mitochondrial dysfunction following traumatic brain injury". In Miller LP, Hayes RL, Newcomb JK (eds.).

3409:

McDonald S, Flanagan S, Rollins J, Kinch J (2003). "TASIT: A new clinical tool for assessing social perception after traumatic brain injury".

11933: 7852:"Trajectories of life satisfaction after traumatic brain injury: Influence of life roles, age, cognitive disability, and depressive symptoms" 5739:

Greenwald BD, Burnett DM, Miller MA (March 2003). "Congenital and acquired brain injury. 1. Brain injury: epidemiology and pathophysiology".

1632:(shock-like contractions of muscles), and loss of movement range and control (in particular with a loss of movement repertoire). The risk of 1581:(in which patients show minimal signs of being aware of self or environment). Lying still for long periods can cause complications including 957:(CT): it is quick, accurate, and widely available. Follow-up CT scans may be performed later to determine whether the injury has progressed. 8609:

Hesdorffer DC, Rauch SL, Tamminga CA (2009). "Long-term psychiatric outcomes following traumatic brain injury: a review of the literature".

1155:, drugs that increase urine output to reduce excessive fluid in the system, may be used to treat high intracranial pressures, but may cause 7966:

Schiff ND, Plum F, Rezai AR (March 2002). "Developing prosthetics to treat cognitive disabilities resulting from acquired brain injuries".

5192: 1565:

than any physiological limitation to further progress. Children recover better in the immediate time frame and improve for longer periods.

982:

can measure cerebral blood flow or metabolism, inferring neuronal activity in specific regions and potentially helping to predict outcome.

5396:

Liu BC, Ivers R, Norton R, Boufous S, Blows S, Lo SK (January 2008). Liu BC (ed.). "Helmets for preventing injury in motorcycle riders".

1266:

or to eliminate objects that have penetrated the brain. Mass lesions such as contusions or hematomas causing a significant mass effect (

1387:, including day centers and leisure facilities for disabled people, offers time off for caregivers, and activities for people with TBI. 9031: 8771:

Kreutzer JS, Kolakowsky-Hayner SA, Demm SR, Meade MA (August 2002). "A structured approach to family intervention after brain injury".

1757:

Europe it is responsible for more years of disability than any other cause. It also plays a significant role in half of trauma deaths.

9376:

Eslinger PJ, Damasio AR (December 1985). "Severe disturbance of higher cognition after bilateral frontal lobe ablation: patient EVR".

7786:"Ability of Functional Independence Measure to accurately predict functional outcome of stroke-specific population: systematic review" 526:. Types of injuries considered diffuse include edema (swelling), concussion and diffuse axonal injury, which is widespread damage to 10015:"PPARgamma agonist rosiglitazone is neuroprotective after traumatic brain injury via anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative mechanisms" 7037: 6894:

Cooper DJ, Rosenfeld JV, Murray L, Arabi YM, Davies AR, D'Urso P, Kossmann T, Ponsford J, Seppelt I, Reilly P, Wolfe R (April 2011).

5660:. NIH Publication No. 02-2478. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health. Archived from 3893:

Busch RM, McBride A, Curtiss G, Vanderploeg RD (November 2005). "The components of executive functioning in traumatic brain injury".

10657:

Bennett MH, Trytko B, Jonker B (December 2012). "Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for the adjunctive treatment of traumatic brain injury".

9662:

Martín-Saborido C, López-Alcalde J, Ciapponi A, Sánchez Martín CE, Garcia Garcia E, Escobar Aguilar G, et al. (November 2019).

11218: 10064:"Neuroprotection against focal ischemic brain injury by the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma agonist rosiglitazone" 6291:"Guidelines for the Acute Medical Management of Severe Traumatic Brain Injury in Infants, Children, and Adolescents-Second Edition" 5819:

Wang F, Wang Y, Sun T, Yu HL (May 2016). "Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for the treatment of traumatic brain injury: a meta-analysis".

5657: 1193: 10437:"Changes in cortical extracellular levels of energy-related metabolites and amino acids following concussive brain injury in rats" 7504:"Ankle foot orthoses in cerebral palsy: Effects of ankle stiffness on trunk kinematics, gait stability and energy cost of walking" 1442: 319:(brain damage that occur after birth); the other subset is non-traumatic brain injury, which does not involve external mechanical 1543: 518:

Diffuse injury manifests with little apparent damage in neuroimaging studies, but lesions can be seen with microscopy techniques

4462:

Comper P, Bisschop SM, Carnide N, Tricco A (October 2005). "A systematic review of treatments for mild traumatic brain injury".

996:. Instruments range from short measures of general mental functioning to complete batteries formed of different domain-specific 11769: 5547:

Crooks CY, Zumsteg JM, Bell KR (November 2007). "Traumatic brain injury: a review of practice management and recent advances".

5033:"Evidence-based emergency medicine/systematic review abstract. Mannitol for traumatic brain injury: searching for the evidence" 11393:

Defense and Veterans Brain Injury Center – U.S. Department of Defense Military Health System center for traumatic brain injury

4624: 1665:

hypopituitarism. Screening should take place 3 to 6 months, and 12 months after injury, but problems may occur more remotely.

1270:) are considered emergencies and are removed surgically. For intracranial hematomas, the collected blood may be removed using 11570: 11202: 11179: 11156: 11135: 9428: 9360: 9331: 9299: 9216: 8986: 8653: 8191: 7834: 7551:"Modifying ankle foot orthosis stiffness in patients with calf muscle weakness: gait responses on group and individual level" 7362: 7335: 7290: 7109: 6878: 6842: 6780: 6691: 5374: 5233: 5015: 4990: 4506: 4400: 4364: 4264: 4184: 3704: 3613: 3253: 3225: 3061: 3032: 2881: 2839: 2760: 2680: 2648: 2407: 2151: 2090:

capability shows an object moving in a regular pattern. People without brain injury are able to track the moving object with

1072:

have been proposed with the aim of guiding decisions in TBI treatment, as defined by an authoritative examination of current

17: 11381:

The Brain Injury Hub – information and practical advice to parents and family members of children with acquired brain injury

10160:

Kelly DF, Lee SM, Pinanong PA, Hovda DA (May 1997). "Paradoxical effects of acute ethanolism in experimental brain injury".

3729: 8868: 8174:

Arlinghaus KA, Shoaib AM, Price TR (2005). "Neuropsychiatric assessment". In Silver JM, McAllister TW, Yudofsky SC (eds.).

7952: 6488: 3687:

Arlinghaus KA, Shoaib AM, Price TR (2005). "Neuropsychiatric assessment". In Silver JM, McAllister TW, Yudofsky SC (eds.).

1327: 8131:

Aimaretti G, Ghigo E (April 2007). "Should every patient with traumatic brain injury be referred to an endocrinologist?".

1955:. The variety of pathological events presents opportunities to find treatments that interfere with the damage processes. 1943:

and EEG, which has no specific patterns in TBI is used in research settings to differentiate between mild TBI and no TBI.

1560:

A CT of the head years after a traumatic brain injury showing an empty space where the damage occurred marked by the arrow

12372: 12263: 1861:

understood the brain to be the center of thought, probably due to their experience observing the effects of head trauma.

1920: 840: 9625:"The neuroprotective potential of low-dose methamphetamine in preclinical models of stroke and traumatic brain injury" 9093: 3274:

Mattson AJ, Levin HS (May 1990). "Frontal lobe dysfunction following closed head injury. A review of the literature".

1962:

has been found effective in preventing secondary injury in animal models but has not yet been investigated in humans.

1849:

knew of head injury and some of its effects, including seizures, paralysis, and loss of sight, hearing or speech. The

1247:

appear to have similar levels of effectiveness for preventing early seizures. People with TBI are more susceptible to

4696:

Thornton KE, Carmody DP (March 2009). "Traumatic brain injury rehabilitation: QEEG biofeedback treatment protocols".

777: 7405: 1390:

Pharmacological treatment can help to manage psychiatric or behavioral problems. Medication is also used to control

545:. Research shows that the most common areas to have focal lesions in non-penetrating traumatic brain injury are the 12357: 12268: 11824: 11670: 6192:"Hypertonic saline versus other intracranial pressure-lowering agents for people with acute traumatic brain injury" 4227:"Traumatic Brain Injury in the United States: Emergency Department Visits, Hospitalizations, and Deaths, 2002–2006" 1897: 1343: 1262:. These conditions must be adequately treated and stabilised as part of the core care. Surgery can be performed on 1108:

Neuroimaging is helpful but not flawless in detecting raised ICP. A more accurate way to measure ICP is to place a

993: 5006:

Scalea TM (2005). "Does it matter how head injured patients are resuscitated?". In Valadka AB, Andrews BT (eds.).

11705: 9456:

Jones E, Fear NT, Wessely S (November 2007). "Shell shock and mild traumatic brain injury: a historical review".

2048: 1492: 8665: 1641:(recurrent seizures occurring more than a week after the initial trauma). People may lose or experience altered 587:

Hematomas, also focal lesions, are collections of blood in or around the brain that can result from hemorrhage.

12319: 11383: 11045:"The acute phase of mild traumatic brain injury is characterized by a distance-dependent neuronal hypoactivity" 10240:"Interventions to reduce body temperature to 35 °C to 37 °C in adults and children with traumatic brain injury" 9624: 1552:

The relative risk of post-traumatic seizures (PTS) increases with the severity of traumatic brain injury (TBI).

964: 512: 461: 5862:

Alarcon JD, Rubiano AM, Okonkwo DO, Alarcón J, Martinez-Zapata MJ, Urrútia G, Bonfill Cosp X (December 2017).

11404: 10312: 7040:"Clinical Practice Guideline for the Rehabilitation of Adults with Modarate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury" 4206:. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. July 7, 2007 2637:"Communication problems resulting from brain injury in children: Special issues of assessment and management" 1709: 1534:

acute injury and this may result with difficulties in day-to-day activities and increased levels of fatigue.

1339: 985: 978:

may be used to detect blood vessel pathology when risk factors such as penetrating head trauma are involved.

812:

can also destroy tissue along the path of a projectile, compounding the damage caused by the missile itself.

717:, a characteristic positioning of the limbs caused by severe diffuse injury or high ICP, is an ominous sign. 576:

in particular, because of bony protrusions on the interior skull ridge above the eyes. In a similar injury,

6651:

Forsyth RJ, Jayamoni B, Paine TC (October 2006). "Monoaminergic agonists for acute traumatic brain injury".

1875:

became more widespread. Concussion symptoms were first described systematically in the 16th century by

1350:

will be essential to assess function and design the rehabilitation activities for each person. Treatment of

12352: 11960: 11928: 6763:

Adams JP (2010). "Non-neurological complications of brain injury". In Adams JP, Bell D, McKinlay J (eds.).

2282: 2091: 1952: 7038:

Ontario Neurotrauma Foundation and Institut national d'excellence en santé et en services sociaux (2015).

3246:

Mild Traumatic Brain Injury and Postconcussion Syndrome: The New Evidence Base for Diagnosis and Treatment

3139:"White matter integrity and cognition in chronic traumatic brain injury: a diffusion tensor imaging study" 2340:"Basic Information about Traumatic Brain Injury | Concussion | Traumatic Brain Injury | CDC Injury Center" 11608: 11603: 9208:

Diagnoses in Assyrian and Babylonian Medicine: Ancient Sources, Translations, and Modern Medical Analyses

8426:

Temkin NR, Corrigan JD, Dikmen SS, Machamer J (2009). "Social functioning after traumatic brain injury".

7465:"The effect of ankle foot orthosis stiffness on trunk movement and walking energy cost in cerebral palsy" 4416:

Bay E, McLean SA (February 2007). "Mild traumatic brain injury: an update for advanced practice nurses".

1574: 1511: 915: 604: 444: 189: 7064:

Soo C, Tate R (July 2007). "Psychological treatment for anxiety in people with traumatic brain injury".

3980:

Williams C, Wood RL (March 2010). "Alexithymia and emotional empathy following traumatic brain injury".

2520:

Maas AI, Stocchetti N, Bullock R (August 2008). "Moderate and severe traumatic brain injury in adults".

1577:(in which patients are unable to achieve a state of alertness to interact with their surroundings), and 11148:

Traumatic Brain Injury: Methods for Clinical & Forensic Neuropsychiatric Assessment, Second Edition

9141: 7503: 1177: 960: 831: 241: 7850:

Juengst SB, Adams LM, Bogner JA, Arenth PM, O'Neil-Pirozzi TM, Dreer LE, et al. (November 2015).

4861:

Poirier MP (2003). "Concussions: Assessment, management, and recommendations for return to activity".

2283:"The American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine Diagnostic Criteria for Mild Traumatic Brain Injury" 2071:

reporting. HBO for TBI is controversial with further evidence required to determine if it has a role.

1059:" following the injury. People with moderate to severe injuries are likely to receive treatment in an 192:(mTBI/concussion) to severe traumatic brain injury. TBI can also be characterized based on mechanism ( 12367: 12283: 12001: 11751: 11563: 11395: 10737:"Non-pharmacological interventions for depression in adults and children with traumatic brain injury" 5864:"Elevation of the head during intensive care management in people with severe traumatic brain injury" 3802:

Stone VE, Baron-Cohen S, Knight RT (September 1998). "Frontal lobe contributions to theory of mind".

2110: 1578: 1287: 1248: 1185: 1101: 815:

Damage may occur directly under the site of impact, or it may occur on the side opposite the impact (

285: 11710: 8689:"Capture by misleading information and its false acceptance in patients with traumatic brain injury" 7312: 5336: 4784: 3816: 1254:

Traumatic brain injury may cause a range of serious coincidental complications that include cardiac

11897: 11889: 11781: 11655: 11300: 10692:

Rockswold SB, Rockswold GL, Defillo A (March 2007). "Hyperbaric oxygen in traumatic brain injury".

4040: 3248:. American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology Workshop Series. New York: Oxford University Press. 2023: 1966: 1894:

was due to a disturbance of the brain tissue or psychological factors. The debate continues today.

1891: 1765: 1674: 1498:

Medical complications are associated with a bad prognosis. Examples of such complications include:

947: 588: 542: 8687:

Dockree PM, O'Keeffe FM, Moloney P, Bishara AJ, Carton S, Jacoby LL, Robertson IH (January 2006).

6895: 3585:

TBI is highest in young adults aged 15 to 24 years and higher in men than women in all age groups.

1235:

needs, potentially depriving it of nutrients. Seizures are common. While they can be treated with

738:, and the death rate is higher among these cases. Although men are twice as likely to have a TBI. 619:. Subarachnoid hemorrhage involves bleeding into the space between the arachnoid membrane and the 591:, with bleeding in the brain tissue itself, is an intra-axial lesion. Extra-axial lesions include 12128: 12123: 11764: 11730: 11687: 11628: 11595: 11537: 9664:"Indomethacin for intracranial hypertension secondary to severe traumatic brain injury in adults" 3858:

Kim E (2002). "Agitation, aggression, and disinhibition syndromes after traumatic brain injury".

2699:

Blissitt PA (September 2006). "Care of the critically ill patient with penetrating head injury".

2172:"Rapid progression of traumatic bifrontal contusions to transtentorial herniation: A case report" 2007: 1638: 1507: 1391: 1319: 1207: 1073: 997: 852: 600: 581: 343: 197: 65: 12324: 11970: 11965: 11786: 11776: 11660: 4392: 4229:. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 4035: 3811: 1678: 1633: 1594: 1590: 1211: 1056: 946:

Diagnosis is suspected based on lesion circumstances and clinical evidence, most prominently a

911: 816: 706: 690: 682: 681:, abbreviated ICP) rises too high, it can be deadly. Signs of increased ICP include decreasing 481: 469: 452: 378: 332: 11340: 9291: 9284: 9206: 8183: 7352: 6870: 6832: 6772: 4352: 4280: 4172: 3696: 3601: 3215: 3020: 2668: 2636: 2226: 12312: 12098: 12058: 11902: 11872: 11720: 11715: 11677: 10884:

Chesnut RM, Temkin N, Carney N, Dikmen S, Rondina C, Videtta W, et al. (December 2012).

9319: 7171:

Agrawal A, Timothy J, Pandit L, Manju M (July 2006). "Post-traumatic epilepsy: an overview".

6037:"Hypotonic vs isotonic saline solutions for intravenous fluid management of acute infections" 5221: 4318:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control

3732:. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. September 15, 2008. Archived from 3049: 2141: 1089: 907: 678: 523: 473: 457: 383: 316: 233: 11167: 11146: 11123: 9279: 9034:(Report). Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. HCUP Statistical Brief. Archived from 8820: 8175: 6862: 6764: 4932:

Narayan RK, Michel ME, Ansell B, Baethmann A, Biegon A, Bracken MB, et al. (May 2002).

4384: 4252: 3688: 2871: 2395: 1020:

Protective sports equipment such as helmets can partially protect athletes from head injury.

12362: 12273: 11912: 11817: 11665: 11556: 11453: 10997: 10797: 4383:

Elovic E, Zafonte R (2005). "Prevention". In Silver JM, McAllister TW, Yudofsky SC (eds.).

3454:"Traumatic aphasia in children and adults: a comparison of clinical features and evolution" 2365: 2083: 1818: 1682: 1660:, occurring immediately or years after injury in 10 to 15% of TBI patients. Development of 1347: 1231:. Body temperature is carefully regulated because increased temperature raises the brain's 1043: 1042:

prevent head injuries. Child abuse prevention is another tactic; programs exist to prevent

801: 792:, are the cause of most focal injuries, and movement of the brain within the skull, termed 735: 573: 546: 331:

are often used interchangeably. Similarly, brain injuries fall under the classification of

289: 277: 256: 10605:"Assessment, investigation, and early management of head injury: summary of NICE guidance" 8: 12108: 12078: 11682: 11645: 11269: 9552: 5317:

Evaluation of the Disability Determination Process for Traumatic Brain Injury in Veterans

4226: 3382: 2063: 1970: 1924: 1876: 1850: 1835: 1218:(low blood pressure), which has a devastating outcome in TBI, can be prevented by giving 1117: 1096:. Other methods to prevent damage include management of other injuries and prevention of 1092:(ICP), since high ICP deprives the brain of badly needed blood flow and can cause deadly 1060: 954: 891: 844: 569: 237: 229: 11215: 11001: 10801: 10476:

Vespa P, Bergsneider M, Hattori N, Wu HM, Huang SC, Martin NA, et al. (June 2005).

9790:

Harris K, Armstrong SP, Campos-Pires R, Kiru L, Franks NP, Dickinson R (November 2013).

9035: 8049:"Interventions for managing skeletal muscle spasticity following traumatic brain injury" 5661: 2957: 2830:

McCaffrey RJ (1997). "Special issues in the evaluation of mild traumatic brain injury".

200:) or other features (e.g., occurring in a specific location or over a widespread area). 12243: 12222: 12181: 12048: 11697: 11640: 11517: 11069: 11044: 11020: 10985: 10961: 10934: 10910: 10885: 10866: 10818: 10785: 10761: 10736: 10717: 10629: 10604: 10550: 10502: 10477: 10412: 10387: 10368: 10325: 10264: 10239: 10220: 10208: 10142: 10093: 10039: 10014: 9990: 9969: 9914: 9889: 9865: 9840: 9821: 9737: 9688: 9663: 9600: 9575: 9516: 9401: 9074: 8954: 8929: 8846: 8796: 8753: 8634: 8586: 8561: 8542: 8499: 8451: 8364: 8316: 8273: 8156: 8073: 8048: 8047:

Synnot A, Chau M, Pitt V, O'Connor D, Gruen RL, Wasiak J, et al. (November 2017).

7991: 7925: 7900: 7876: 7851: 7766: 7723: 7628: 7601: 7577: 7550: 7531: 7372: 7300: 7282:

Assessment and orthotic management of gait dysfunction in individuals with brain injury

7239: 7196: 7150: 7012: 6987: 6968: 6628: 6603: 6579: 6554: 6530: 6505: 6456: 6431: 6412: 6364: 6339: 6265: 6240: 6216: 6191: 6167: 6142: 6120: 6061: 6036: 6017: 5888: 5863: 5844: 5713: 5688: 5519: 5494: 5467: 5442: 5324: 4958: 4933: 4767: 4721: 4678: 4601: 4576: 4507:"Injuries from explosions: physics, biophysics, pathology, and required research focus" 4487: 4441: 4203: 4104: 4061: 4005: 3918: 3837: 3669: 3526: 3483: 3434: 3343: 3318: 3299: 3107: 2930: 2905: 2807: 2782: 2617: 2545: 2339: 2321: 2198: 2171: 1951:

As of 2008, no medication is approved to halt the progression of the initial injury to

1786: 1661: 1598: 1523: 1291: 1271: 1135: 1113: 1069: 979: 809: 714: 694: 648: 639: 624: 577: 448: 373: 339: 273: 224: 220: 193: 156: 97: 61: 11294: 11290: 11286: 11282: 11278: 11274: 9937:

Arango MF, Bainbridge D (October 2008). "Magnesium for acute traumatic brain injury".

9768: 9094:"The prevalence, course and clinical features of post-concussion syndrome in children" 9062: 6988:"Multi-disciplinary rehabilitation for acquired brain injury in adults of working age" 5924: 5049: 5032: 4874: 4755: 3657: 3572: 3470: 3453: 2533: 2066:(HBO) has been evaluated as an add on treatment following TBI. The findings of a 2012 764:

Ricochet of the brain within the skull may account for the coup-contrecoup phenomenon.

615:

surrounding the brain. In subdural hematoma, bleeding occurs between the dura and the

236:. Some of the imaging techniques used for diagnosis of moderate to severe TBI include 12093: 12088: 12043: 11791: 11623: 11618: 11311: 11198: 11175: 11152: 11131: 11074: 11025: 10966: 10915: 10858: 10823: 10809: 10766: 10709: 10674: 10634: 10585: 10542: 10507: 10458: 10417: 10360: 10317: 10269: 10238:

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Perhaps the first reported case of personality change after brain injury is that of

1904:

with the tamping iron that entered his left cheek and emerged at the top of his head

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of TBI varies by age, gender, region and other factors. Findings of incidence and

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caused by an external force. TBI can be classified based on severity ranging from

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is a way to track progress and degree of independence throughout rehabilitation.

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In the 19th century it was noted that TBI is related to the development of

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through the skull and brain, resulting in tissue damage. Shock waves caused by

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is a broader category that may involve damage to other structures such as the

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results. When the pressure within the skull rises too high, it can cause

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commonly manifests as diffuse injury. In impact loading, the force sends

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symptoms such as emotional distress and clinical depression may involve

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Physical, cognitive, sensory, social, emotional, and behavioral symptoms

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for nearly a decade and there is still no plan to treat these soldiers.

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It is important to begin emergency treatment within the so-called "

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Physical therapy will commonly include muscle strength exercise.

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the US. A non invasive model called CerOx is in development.

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Movement disorders that may develop after TBI include tremor,

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and is, therefore, used only in the short term. Giving

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There is also displaced 12256: 12231: 12195: 12144: 12021: 12014: 12002:Resuscitative thoracotomy 11994: 11953: 11946: 11921: 11890:Clinical prediction rules 11888: 11881: 11840: 11782:Injury of accessory nerve 11750: 11696: 11586: 11530: 11505: 11474: 11463: 11444: 11398:October 12, 2019, at the 11326: 11236: 10582:10.3171/2013.12.JNS131089 10539:10.1007/s00134-011-2316-z 10117:Journal of Neurochemistry 10068:Journal of Neurochemistry 9982:10.1002/14651858.CD000565 9505:10.1017/S1355617708090036 9142:"An Unrecognized Problem" 8901:10.1080/16501960410023732 8835:10.1007/s11102-006-6041-5 8742:10.1080/02699050902926291 8488:10.1080/13803390903401302 8353:10.1080/17405620802613935 8226:10.1176/appi.psy.46.3.195 7856:Rehabilitation Psychology 7803:10.1682/JRRD.2009.08.0140 7619:10.1186/s13047-019-0348-8 7568:10.1186/s12984-019-0600-2 7044:braininjuryguidelines.org 6522:10.1002/14651858.CD001527 6356:10.1002/14651858.CD000566 5833:10.1007/s10072-015-2460-2 5561:10.1016/j.pmr.2007.06.005 4710:10.1007/s10484-009-9075-4 4667:10.1007/s10484-008-9056-z 4476:10.1080/02699050400025042 3994:10.1080/13803390902976940 3958:10.1017/S1355617708080272 3907:10.1080/13803390490919263 3232:brain injury biomechanics 2111:Pressure reactivity index 2064:Hyperbaric oxygen therapy 2045:cooling the injured brain 1967:NMDA receptor antagonists 1579:minimally conscious state 1288:Decompressive craniectomy 1102:hyperbaric oxygen therapy 724: 400: 395: 234:pressure within the skull 152: 135: 122: 114: 106: 96: 80: 59: 50: 42: 37: 11898:Abbreviated Injury Scale 11656:Post-concussion syndrome 11386:October 5, 2020, at the 10952:10.3389/fnsys.2016.00047 10706:10.1179/016164107X181798 10494:10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600073 8110:10.33588/rn.3405.2001439 7755:10.1179/016164106X115053 6817:10.1093/bjaceaccp/mkr006 6006:10.1177/1060028016628893 5777:Moppett IK (July 2007). 5511:10.1136/bjsm.2005.018200 5459:10.1136/bmj.327.7411.351 5197:www.hsrd.research.va.gov 5010:. Thieme. pp. 3–4. 4744:Progress in Neurobiology 4314:"Traumatic brain injury" 2449:10.1176/appi.psy.41.2.95 2253:"Traumatic Brain Injury" 2008:calcium channel blockers 1892:post-concussion syndrome 1675:Post-concussion syndrome 948:neurological examination 589:Intracerebral hemorrhage 12358:Intensive care medicine 12129:Penetrating head injury 12124:Intracranial hemorrhage 11765:Peripheral nerve injury 11731:Posterior cord syndrome 11688:Penetrating head injury 11629:Subarachnoid hemorrhage 11596:Intracranial hemorrhage 11538:Penetrating head injury 10570:Journal of Neurosurgery 10527:Intensive Care Medicine 10162:Journal of Neurosurgery 5753:10.1053/apmr.2003.50052 5705:10.17179/excli2020-3161 5623:. Accessed: May 1, 2009 5105:10.1067/mem.2001.113505 3826:10.1162/089892998562942 3335:10.1089/neu.2005.22.845 3021:"Injury to the cranium" 2669:"Acquired brain injury" 2189:10.1186/1757-1626-1-203 1720:, clinical depression, 1693:, memory problems, and 1639:post-traumatic epilepsy 1634:post-traumatic seizures 1508:blood oxygen saturation 1392:post-traumatic epilepsy 1320:rehabilitation hospital 1208:Endotracheal intubation 1047:of deaths or injuries. 892:blood flow to the brain 601:subarachnoid hemorrhage 582:intracranial hemorrhage 344:penetrating head injury 300:and improved outcomes. 198:penetrating head injury 12325:Subcutaneous emphysema 12284:Volkmann's contracture 12134:Traumatic brain injury 11971:Early appropriate care 11966:Damage control surgery 11787:Brachial plexus injury 11777:Wallerian degeneration 11711:Brown-Séquard syndrome 11661:Second-impact syndrome 11588:Traumatic brain injury 11195:Traumatic Brain Injury 11193:. In Marion DW (ed.). 11104:10.26180/5b7166ad13e47 11049:Journal of Neurotrauma 10454:10.1038/jcbfm.1990.115 10345:Critical Care Medicine 10292:Critical Care Medicine 9714:Critical Care Medicine 9592:10.25122/jml-2019-0085 9390:10.1212/wnl.35.12.1731 8020:(3 Suppl 1): S15–S20. 5271:Coles JP (July 2007). 4938:Journal of Neurotrauma 4804:10.1542/peds.108.1.206 4353:"Kinematics of trauma" 3872:10.3233/NRE-2002-17404 3515:10.1212/wnl.30.12.1273 3323:Journal of Neurotrauma 3181:Journal of Neurotrauma 3048:Seidenwurm DI (2007). 2910:Journal of Neurotrauma 2781:Jennett B (May 1998). 2006:(no strong evidence), 1971:neurochemical cascades 1905: 1838: 1753: 1679:second-impact syndrome 1595:deep venous thrombosis 1591:multiple organ failure 1561: 1553: 1502:(low blood pressure), 1450: 1413: 1358:professionals such as 1311: 1212:mechanical ventilation 1114:ventricle of the brain 1021: 1013: 943: 835: 765: 736:pediatric brain trauma 707:respiratory depression 683:level of consciousness 643: 504: 470:post-traumatic amnesia 453:level of consciousness 333:central nervous system 170:traumatic brain injury 38:Traumatic brain injury 12099:Thoracic aorta injury 12059:Diaphragmatic rupture 11903:Injury Severity Score 11873:Trauma triad of death 11721:Central cord syndrome 11716:Cauda equina syndrome 11678:Diffuse axonal injury 11197:. Stuttgart: Thieme. 11170:. In Weber JT (ed.). 11145:Granacher RA (2007). 11061:10.1089/neu.2014.3343 10902:10.1056/NEJMoa1207363 10694:Neurological Research 9546:Bush GH (July 1990). 9349:"Psychotic disorders" 8250:Seminars in Neurology 8145:10.1038/ncpendmet0460 8098:Revista de Neurología 7968:Neurological Research 7743:Neurological Research 6915:10.1056/NEJMoa1102077 5821:Neurological Sciences 5419:10536/DRO/DU:30009360 5222:"Craniofacial trauma" 4894:The Journal of Trauma 4537:on September 23, 2017 4511:The Journal of Trauma 4255:. In Weber JT (ed.). 3371:Archives of Neurology 3193:10.1089/neu.2008.0461 2922:10.1089/neu.2008.0586 2522:The Lancet. Neurology 1900: 1857:physicians including 1833: 1751: 1559: 1551: 1441: 1410: 1309: 1090:intracranial pressure 1019: 1011: 941: 908:intracranial pressure 878:, and dysfunction of 830: 763: 693:or is slow to do so. 679:intracranial pressure 638: 524:diffuse axonal injury 495: 488:Pathological features 474:loss of consciousness 458:Department of Defense 317:acquired brain injury 18:Brain injury medicine 12274:Compartment syndrome 11913:Revised Trauma Score 11666:Dementia pugilistica 9251:10.3171/FOC-07/07/E5 9038:on December 1, 2016. 8981:. DIANE. p. 9. 8706:10.1093/brain/awh664 8652:Fleminger S (2010). 7662:(3 Suppl 1): S3–S8. 5747:(3 Suppl 1): S3–S7. 5664:on December 18, 2016 5590:(2 Suppl 1): 40–71. 4204:"Signs and Symptoms" 3156:10.1093/brain/awm216 3149:(Pt 10): 2508–2519. 2799:10.1136/adc.78.5.403 2227:"TBI: Get the Facts" 2084:head-mounted display 1819:Socioeconomic status 1683:Dementia pugilistica 1348:occupational therapy 1044:shaken baby syndrome 845:biochemical cascades 841:Primary brain injury 810:penetrating injuries 802:shaken baby syndrome 778:translational forces 689:, one that fails to 574:orbitofrontal cortex 547:orbitofrontal cortex 290:supported employment 278:occupational therapy 257:drinking and driving 176:), also known as an 12353:Medical emergencies 12109:Blunt kidney trauma 12079:Pulmonary contusion 11683:Abusive head trauma 11646:Cerebral laceration 11151:. Boca Raton: CRC. 11002:2012PLoSO...752169A 10802:2010NYASA1208...58M 9553:Library of Congress 9238:Neurosurgical Focus 9122:on October 19, 2013 8894:(43 Suppl): 28–60. 8262:10.1055/s-2000-9826 7222:(Suppl 5): 98–108. 6479:Campbell J (2018). 5128:NeuroRehabilitation 4593:10.1503/cmaj.080282 3860:NeuroRehabilitation 3736:on December 3, 2016 3019:Valadka AB (2004). 2106:Monitoring pressure 1931:Research directions 1925:Decade of the Brain 1877:Berengario da Carpi 1851:Edwin Smith Papyrus 1836:Edwin Smith Papyrus 1516:abuse of substances 1443:Ankle-foot orthosis 1118:cerebrospinal fluid 1070:clinical guidelines 1061:intensive care unit 955:computed tomography 853:blood–brain barrier 703:high blood pressure 653:ringing in the ears 570:cerebral laceration 366: 238:computed tomography 230:cerebral blood flow 178:intracranial injury 62:cerebral contusions 12223:Spinal cord injury 12182:Penetrating trauma 12049:Soft tissue injury 11698:Spinal cord injury 11641:Cerebral contusion 11518:Perforated eardrum 11327:External resources 11189:Marion DW (1999). 7868:10.1037/rep0000056 7469:Gait & Posture 7463:Kerkum YL (2016). 7430:Gait & Posture 6504:Roberts I (2000). 5796:10.1093/bja/aem128 5555:(4): 681–710, vi. 5357:. August 23, 2021. 5290:10.1093/bja/aem141 5140:10.3233/NRE-141086 4173:"Prehospital care" 3758:Kushner D (1998). 3567:(2): 175–87, vii. 2118:Sensory processing 1977:showed promise in 1906: 1839: 1787:case fatality rate 1754: 1730:lack of initiative 1662:diabetes insipidus 1599:pulmonary embolism 1597:, which can cause 1562: 1554: 1451: 1414: 1376:cognitive deficits 1372:neuropsychologists 1312: 1292:Glasgow Coma Scale 1220:intravenous fluids 1022: 1014: 990:cognitive sequelae 980:Functional imaging 944: 836: 766: 715:Abnormal posturing 649:motor coordination 644: 640:Unequal pupil size 631:Signs and symptoms 578:cerebral contusion 505: 449:Glasgow Coma Scale 362: 274:recreation therapy 225:vehicle collisions 157:Behavioral therapy 118:Trauma to the head 12338: 12337: 12252: 12251: 12094:Internal bleeding 12089:Cardiac tamponade 12044:Joint dislocation 12010: 12009: 11942: 11941: 11800: 11799: 11792:Traumatic neuroma 11752:Peripheral nerves 11624:Epidural hematoma 11619:Subdural hematoma 11546: 11545: 11526: 11525: 11367: 11366: 11204:978-0-86577-727-9 11181:978-0-444-53017-2 11158:978-0-8493-8138-6 11137:978-0-19-517355-0 11092:Burns TF (2019). 11055:(22): 1881–1895. 10896:(26): 2471–2481. 10615:(7622): 719–720. 10533:(11): 1809–1815. 9894:Neurotherapeutics 9464:(11): 1641–1645. 9430:978-0-19-513764-4 9384:(12): 1731–1741. 9362:978-1-58562-105-7 9333:978-1-57230-078-1 9301:978-0-19-503008-2 9218:978-0-252-02956-1 9057:(9409): 584–585. 8988:978-0-7881-8376-8 8699:(Pt 1): 128–140. 8668:on March 16, 2020 8525:(11): 1292–1297. 8193:978-1-58562-105-7 7836:978-1-4377-0434-1 7364:978-0-323-03931-4 7337:978-3-13-151351-9 7309:|periodical= 7292:978-0-323-03931-4 7111:978-0-86377-889-6 6880:978-1-4200-4794-3 6844:978-1-58255-423-5 6782:978-1-84882-069-2 6693:978-0-7817-8275-3 6251:(7590): 392–394. 5687:Kawada T (2020). 5453:(7411): 351–352. 5235:978-0-7817-6135-2 5017:978-3-13-130781-1 4992:978-0-471-36015-5 4402:978-1-58562-105-7 4366:978-0-07-137069-1 4266:978-0-444-53017-2 4251:Reilly P (2007). 4186:978-0-07-137069-1 4131:(12): 1561–1573. 3770:(15): 1617–1624. 3706:978-1-58562-105-7 3652:(9233): 923–929. 3615:978-1-888799-93-4 3509:(12): 1273–1279. 3255:978-0-19-532829-5 3244:McCrea M (2007). 3227:978-0-387-98820-7 3063:978-0-7817-6135-2 3034:978-0-07-137069-1 2883:978-0-444-53017-2 2841:978-0-306-45256-7 2762:978-0-19-511121-7 2682:978-0-443-06224-7 2650:978-0-86377-724-0 2409:978-0-7923-7532-6 2153:978-0-19-970870-3 2140:Jones DK (2010). 1726:anxiety disorders 1531:Life satisfaction 1324:multidisciplinary 1182:dopamine agonists 1036:American football 740:Domestic violence 597:subdural hematoma 593:epidural hematoma 441: 440: 166: 165: 143:neurological exam 137:Diagnostic method 70:subdural hematoma 32:Medical condition 16:(Redirected from 12380: 12368:Injuries of head 12244:Pediatric trauma 12239:Geriatric trauma 12203:Abdominal trauma 12019: 12018: 11951: 11950: 11886: 11885: 11827: 11820: 11813: 11804: 11803: 11636:Brain herniation 11573: 11566: 11559: 11550: 11549: 11497:Corneal abrasion 11472: 11471: 11429: 11422: 11415: 11406: 11405: 11234: 11233: 11208: 11185: 11162: 11141: 11108: 11107: 11089: 11083: 11082: 11072: 11040: 11034: 11033: 11023: 11013: 10981: 10975: 10974: 10964: 10954: 10930: 10924: 10923: 10913: 10881: 10875: 10874: 10838: 10832: 10831: 10821: 10781: 10775: 10774: 10764: 10747:(12): CD009871. 10732: 10726: 10725: 10689: 10683: 10682: 10654: 10643: 10642: 10632: 10600: 10594: 10593: 10565: 10559: 10558: 10522: 10516: 10515: 10505: 10473: 10467: 10466: 10456: 10432: 10426: 10425: 10415: 10383: 10377: 10376: 10340: 10334: 10333: 10315: 10287: 10278: 10277: 10267: 10250:(10): CD006811. 10235: 10229: 10228: 10203:(4): 1198–1207. 10192: 10186: 10185: 10157: 10151: 10150: 10132: 10123:(4): 1336–1345. 10108: 10102: 10101: 10083: 10059: 10053: 10052: 10042: 10010: 10004: 10003: 9993: 9965: 9959: 9958: 9934: 9928: 9927: 9917: 9885: 9879: 9878: 9868: 9851:(12): CD000033. 9836: 9830: 9829: 9811: 9802:(5): 1137–1148. 9787: 9781: 9780: 9752: 9746: 9745: 9720:(5): 1305–1315. 9708: 9702: 9701: 9691: 9659: 9653: 9652: 9620: 9614: 9613: 9603: 9571: 9565: 9564: 9562: 9560: 9543: 9537: 9534:Boake and Diller 9531: 9525: 9524: 9488: 9482: 9481: 9453: 9447: 9441: 9435: 9434: 9416: 9410: 9409: 9373: 9367: 9366: 9344: 9338: 9337: 9315: 9306: 9305: 9289: 9275: 9264: 9263: 9253: 9229: 9223: 9222: 9202: 9196: 9190: 9177: 9174:Boake and Diller 9171: 9160: 9159: 9157: 9155: 9146: 9138: 9132: 9131: 9129: 9127: 9121: 9115:. Archived from 9098: 9089: 9083: 9082: 9046: 9040: 9039: 9027: 9021: 9020: 9018: 9016: 9007: 8999: 8993: 8992: 8974: 8968: 8967: 8957: 8925: 8914: 8913: 8903: 8879: 8873: 8861: 8855: 8854: 8829:(3–4): 197–202. 8818: 8805: 8804: 8768: 8762: 8761: 8725: 8719: 8718: 8708: 8684: 8678: 8677: 8675: 8673: 8649: 8643: 8642: 8606: 8600: 8599: 8589: 8557: 8551: 8550: 8514: 8508: 8507: 8471: 8460: 8459: 8423: 8414: 8413: 8403: 8379: 8373: 8372: 8336: 8325: 8324: 8288: 8282: 8281: 8245: 8239: 8238: 8228: 8204: 8198: 8197: 8181: 8171: 8165: 8164: 8128: 8122: 8121: 8093: 8087: 8086: 8076: 8059:(11): CD008929. 8044: 8038: 8037: 8009: 8000: 7999: 7963: 7957: 7945: 7939: 7938: 7928: 7911:(12): CD006123. 7896: 7890: 7889: 7879: 7847: 7841: 7840: 7822: 7816: 7815: 7805: 7781: 7775: 7774: 7738: 7732: 7731: 7713: 7692:Frey LC (2003). 7689: 7680: 7679: 7651: 7642: 7641: 7631: 7621: 7597: 7591: 7590: 7580: 7570: 7546: 7540: 7539: 7499: 7493: 7492: 7460: 7454: 7453: 7424: 7418: 7417: 7415: 7413: 7404:. Archived from 7398:The O&P EDGE 7392:Muñoz S (2018). 7389: 7383: 7382: 7376: 7368: 7348: 7342: 7341: 7330:. Renata Horst. 7326:Horst R (2005). 7323: 7317: 7316: 7310: 7306: 7304: 7296: 7276: 7270: 7269: 7257: 7248: 7247: 7211: 7205: 7204: 7168: 7159: 7158: 7122: 7116: 7115: 7097: 7086: 7085: 7061: 7055: 7054: 7052: 7050: 7035: 7026: 7025: 7015: 6998:(12): CD004170. 6983: 6977: 6976: 6958: 6933: 6927: 6926: 6909:(16): 1493–502. 6900: 6891: 6885: 6884: 6868: 6858: 6849: 6848: 6828: 6822: 6821: 6819: 6793: 6787: 6786: 6770: 6760: 6754: 6753: 6743: 6719: 6698: 6697: 6679: 6673: 6672: 6648: 6642: 6641: 6631: 6599: 6593: 6592: 6582: 6550: 6544: 6543: 6533: 6501: 6495: 6494: 6490:978-1292-17084-8 6476: 6470: 6469: 6459: 6427: 6421: 6420: 6384: 6378: 6377: 6367: 6335: 6329: 6328: 6310: 6285: 6279: 6278: 6268: 6236: 6230: 6229: 6219: 6187: 6181: 6180: 6170: 6138: 6129: 6128: 6110: 6081: 6075: 6074: 6064: 6032: 6026: 6025: 5988: 5979: 5978: 5950: 5937: 5936: 5908: 5902: 5901: 5891: 5874:(12): CD009986. 5859: 5853: 5852: 5816: 5810: 5808: 5798: 5774: 5765: 5764: 5736: 5727: 5726: 5716: 5684: 5678: 5677: 5671: 5669: 5653: 5624: 5614: 5608: 5607: 5579: 5573: 5572: 5544: 5533: 5532: 5522: 5490: 5481: 5480: 5470: 5438: 5432: 5431: 5421: 5393: 5387: 5386: 5365: 5359: 5358: 5347: 5341: 5340: 5334: 5330: 5328: 5320: 5309: 5303: 5302: 5292: 5268: 5262: 5261: 5259: 5257: 5246: 5240: 5239: 5217: 5208: 5207: 5205: 5203: 5189: 5183: 5182: 5158: 5152: 5151: 5123: 5117: 5116: 5088: 5063: 5062: 5052: 5028: 5022: 5021: 5003: 4997: 4996: 4978: 4972: 4971: 4961: 4929: 4920: 4919: 4909: 4885: 4879: 4878: 4858: 4852: 4851: 4823: 4817: 4816: 4806: 4782: 4776: 4775: 4739: 4730: 4729: 4693: 4687: 4686: 4650: 4641: 4640: 4634: 4632: 4621: 4615: 4614: 4604: 4587:(9): 1163–1170. 4572: 4547: 4546: 4544: 4542: 4533:. Archived from 4502: 4496: 4495: 4459: 4450: 4449: 4413: 4407: 4406: 4390: 4380: 4371: 4370: 4348: 4342: 4336: 4330: 4329: 4327: 4325: 4310: 4297: 4296: 4294: 4292: 4287:. April 20, 2023 4277: 4271: 4270: 4248: 4239: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4222: 4216: 4215: 4213: 4211: 4200: 4191: 4190: 4168: 4149: 4148: 4119: 4113: 4112: 4076: 4070: 4069: 4043: 4023: 4014: 4013: 3977: 3971: 3970: 3960: 3936: 3927: 3926: 3901:(8): 1022–1032. 3890: 3884: 3883: 3855: 3846: 3845: 3819: 3799: 3790: 3789: 3779: 3755: 3746: 3745: 3743: 3741: 3726: 3711: 3710: 3694: 3684: 3678: 3677: 3641: 3620: 3619: 3597: 3588: 3587: 3556: 3535: 3534: 3498: 3492: 3491: 3473: 3449: 3443: 3442: 3406: 3395: 3394: 3366: 3357: 3356: 3346: 3314: 3308: 3307: 3271: 3260: 3259: 3241: 3235: 3234: 3211: 3205: 3204: 3175: 3169: 3168: 3158: 3134: 3128: 3122: 3116: 3115: 3079: 3068: 3067: 3045: 3039: 3038: 3016: 2979: 2973: 2967: 2966: 2964: 2955: 2944: 2943: 2933: 2901: 2888: 2887: 2867: 2861: 2855: 2846: 2845: 2827: 2821: 2820: 2810: 2778: 2767: 2766: 2748: 2725: 2724: 2696: 2687: 2686: 2664: 2655: 2654: 2632: 2626: 2625: 2589: 2554: 2553: 2517: 2462: 2461: 2451: 2427: 2414: 2413: 2391: 2382: 2381: 2379: 2377: 2362: 2356: 2355: 2353: 2351: 2336: 2330: 2329: 2287: 2277: 2268: 2267: 2265: 2263: 2249: 2243: 2242: 2240: 2238: 2233:. March 11, 2019 2223: 2212: 2211: 2201: 2191: 2167: 2158: 2157: 2137: 2024:NMDA antagonists 1953:secondary injury 1941:Quantitative EEG 1722:bipolar disorder 1352:neuropsychiatric 1296:vegetative state 1202:antifibrinolytic 1161:Hyperventilation 1130:paralytic agents 1094:brain herniation 928:brain herniation 865:neurotransmitter 798:inertial loading 513:focal or diffuse 367: 361: 350:, the outermost 266:Physical therapy 60:CT scan showing 55: 35: 34: 21: 12388: 12387: 12383: 12382: 12381: 12379: 12378: 12377: 12343: 12342: 12339: 12334: 12248: 12227: 12191: 12140: 12015:Pathophysiology 12006: 11990: 11938: 11917: 11877: 11836: 11831: 11801: 11796: 11746: 11692: 11582: 11577: 11547: 11542: 11522: 11501: 11465: 11459: 11440: 11433: 11400:Wayback Machine 11388:Wayback Machine 11368: 11363: 11362: 11322: 11321: 11245: 11231: 11223:Wayback Machine 11211: 11205: 11182: 11159: 11138: 11117: 11112: 11111: 11090: 11086: 11041: 11037: 10982: 10978: 10931: 10927: 10882: 10878: 10839: 10835: 10782: 10778: 10733: 10729: 10690: 10686: 10655: 10646: 10601: 10597: 10566: 10562: 10523: 10519: 10474: 10470: 10433: 10429: 10398:(9): CD001048. 10384: 10380: 10341: 10337: 10288: 10281: 10236: 10232: 10193: 10189: 10158: 10154: 10109: 10105: 10060: 10056: 10011: 10007: 9976:(4): CD000565. 9966: 9962: 9941:(4): CD005400. 9935: 9931: 9886: 9882: 9837: 9833: 9788: 9784: 9753: 9749: 9709: 9705: 9660: 9656: 9621: 9617: 9572: 9568: 9558: 9556: 9544: 9540: 9532: 9528: 9489: 9485: 9454: 9450: 9442: 9438: 9431: 9417: 9413: 9374: 9370: 9363: 9345: 9341: 9334: 9316: 9309: 9302: 9276: 9267: 9230: 9226: 9219: 9203: 9199: 9191: 9180: 9172: 9163: 9153: 9151: 9144: 9140: 9139: 9135: 9125: 9123: 9119: 9096: 9090: 9086: 9047: 9043: 9028: 9024: 9014: 9012: 9000: 8996: 8989: 8975: 8971: 8926: 8917: 8880: 8876: 8862: 8858: 8819: 8808: 8769: 8765: 8726: 8722: 8685: 8681: 8671: 8669: 8658:Psychiatr Times 8650: 8646: 8607: 8603: 8572:(2): CD006341. 8558: 8554: 8515: 8511: 8472: 8463: 8424: 8417: 8380: 8376: 8337: 8328: 8289: 8285: 8246: 8242: 8205: 8201: 8194: 8172: 8168: 8129: 8125: 8094: 8090: 8045: 8041: 8010: 8003: 7964: 7960: 7946: 7942: 7897: 7893: 7848: 7844: 7837: 7823: 7819: 7782: 7778: 7739: 7735: 7690: 7683: 7652: 7645: 7598: 7594: 7547: 7543: 7500: 7496: 7461: 7457: 7425: 7421: 7411: 7409: 7408:on June 6, 2021 7390: 7386: 7370: 7369: 7365: 7349: 7345: 7338: 7324: 7320: 7308: 7307: 7298: 7297: 7293: 7277: 7273: 7258: 7251: 7212: 7208: 7169: 7162: 7123: 7119: 7112: 7098: 7089: 7068:(3): CD005239. 7062: 7058: 7048: 7046: 7036: 7029: 6984: 6980: 6934: 6930: 6898: 6892: 6888: 6881: 6859: 6852: 6845: 6829: 6825: 6794: 6790: 6783: 6761: 6757: 6720: 6701: 6694: 6680: 6676: 6655:(4): CD003984. 6649: 6645: 6614:(1): CD003986. 6600: 6596: 6565:(1): CD006686. 6551: 6547: 6516:(4): CD001527. 6502: 6498: 6491: 6477: 6473: 6442:(1): CD000196. 6428: 6424: 6385: 6381: 6350:(2): CD000566. 6336: 6332: 6286: 6282: 6237: 6233: 6202:(1): CD010904. 6188: 6184: 6153:(8): CD001049. 6139: 6132: 6082: 6078: 6047:(2): CD004169. 6033: 6029: 5989: 5982: 5951: 5940: 5909: 5905: 5860: 5856: 5817: 5813: 5775: 5768: 5737: 5730: 5685: 5681: 5667: 5665: 5654: 5627: 5615: 5611: 5580: 5576: 5545: 5536: 5491: 5484: 5439: 5435: 5404:(1): CD004333. 5394: 5390: 5366: 5362: 5349: 5348: 5344: 5332: 5331: 5322: 5321: 5311: 5310: 5306: 5269: 5265: 5255: 5253: 5248: 5247: 5243: 5236: 5218: 5211: 5201: 5199: 5191: 5190: 5186: 5159: 5155: 5124: 5120: 5089: 5066: 5029: 5025: 5018: 5004: 5000: 4993: 4979: 4975: 4930: 4923: 4886: 4882: 4859: 4855: 4824: 4820: 4783: 4779: 4740: 4733: 4694: 4690: 4651: 4644: 4630: 4628: 4623: 4622: 4618: 4573: 4550: 4540: 4538: 4503: 4499: 4470:(11): 863–880. 4460: 4453: 4414: 4410: 4403: 4381: 4374: 4367: 4349: 4345: 4337: 4333: 4323: 4321: 4312: 4311: 4300: 4290: 4288: 4279: 4278: 4274: 4267: 4249: 4242: 4232: 4230: 4223: 4219: 4209: 4207: 4202: 4201: 4194: 4187: 4169: 4152: 4120: 4116: 4077: 4073: 4024: 4017: 3978: 3974: 3937: 3930: 3891: 3887: 3856: 3849: 3817:10.1.1.330.1488 3800: 3793: 3756: 3749: 3739: 3737: 3728: 3727: 3714: 3707: 3685: 3681: 3642: 3623: 3616: 3598: 3591: 3557: 3538: 3499: 3495: 3450: 3446: 3407: 3398: 3367: 3360: 3315: 3311: 3272: 3263: 3256: 3242: 3238: 3228: 3212: 3208: 3176: 3172: 3135: 3131: 3123: 3119: 3080: 3071: 3064: 3046: 3042: 3035: 3017: 2982: 2974: 2970: 2962: 2956: 2947: 2902: 2891: 2884: 2868: 2864: 2856: 2849: 2842: 2828: 2824: 2779: 2770: 2763: 2749: 2728: 2697: 2690: 2683: 2665: 2658: 2651: 2633: 2629: 2590: 2557: 2518: 2465: 2428: 2417: 2410: 2392: 2385: 2375: 2373: 2372:. March 4, 2019 2364: 2363: 2359: 2349: 2347: 2346:. March 6, 2019 2338: 2337: 2333: 2285: 2278: 2271: 2261: 2259: 2257:medlineplus.gov 2251: 2250: 2246: 2236: 2234: 2225: 2224: 2215: 2168: 2161: 2154: 2138: 2134: 2129: 2120: 2108: 2077: 2040:neuroprotection 2036: 1960:methamphetamine 1949: 1938: 1933: 1828: 1804: 1785:In the US, the 1783: 1774:epidemiological 1746: 1714:substance abuse 1658:hypopituitarism 1546: 1540: 1484: 1476:plantar flexion 1436: 1405: 1304: 1260:pulmonary edema 1258:and neurogenic 1237:benzodiazepines 1169:corticosteroids 1085:Tranexamic acid 1082: 1053: 1006: 936: 825: 758: 756:Physical forces 753: 727: 699:slow heart rate 695:Cushing's triad 633: 617:arachnoid mater 503:(double arrows) 490: 436: 420: 415: 402: 397: 360: 306: 261:fall prevention 219:Causes include 147:medical imaging 33: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 12386: 12376: 12375: 12370: 12365: 12360: 12355: 12336: 12335: 12333: 12332: 12327: 12322: 12317: 12316: 12315: 12310: 12300: 12299: 12298: 12296:Rhabdomyolysis 12291:Crush syndrome 12288: 12287: 12286: 12276: 12271: 12266: 12260: 12258: 12254: 12253: 12250: 12249: 12247: 12246: 12241: 12235: 12233: 12229: 12228: 12226: 12225: 12220: 12215: 12210: 12205: 12199: 12197: 12193: 12192: 12190: 12189: 12184: 12179: 12174: 12169: 12164: 12159: 12154: 12148: 12146: 12142: 12141: 12139: 12138: 12137: 12136: 12131: 12126: 12118: 12117: 12116: 12114:Splenic injury 12111: 12103: 12102: 12101: 12096: 12091: 12083: 12082: 12081: 12076: 12071: 12066: 12061: 12053: 12052: 12051: 12046: 12041: 12036: 12027: 12025: 12016: 12012: 12011: 12008: 12007: 12005: 12004: 11998: 11996: 11992: 11991: 11989: 11988: 11983: 11981:Trauma surgery 11978: 11973: 11968: 11963: 11957: 11955: 11948: 11944: 11943: 11940: 11939: 11937: 11936: 11931: 11925: 11923: 11922:Investigations 11919: 11918: 11916: 11915: 11910: 11905: 11900: 11894: 11892: 11883: 11879: 11878: 11876: 11875: 11870: 11865: 11860: 11855: 11850: 11844: 11842: 11838: 11837: 11830: 11829: 11822: 11815: 11807: 11798: 11797: 11795: 11794: 11789: 11784: 11779: 11774: 11773: 11772: 11770:classification 11767: 11756: 11754: 11748: 11747: 11745: 11744: 11743:(Quadriplegia) 11738: 11733: 11728: 11723: 11718: 11713: 11708: 11702: 11700: 11694: 11693: 11691: 11690: 11685: 11680: 11675: 11674: 11673: 11668: 11663: 11658: 11648: 11643: 11638: 11633: 11632: 11631: 11626: 11621: 11613: 11612: 11611: 11606: 11598: 11592: 11590: 11584: 11583: 11576: 11575: 11568: 11561: 11553: 11544: 11543: 11541: 11540: 11534: 11532: 11528: 11527: 11524: 11523: 11521: 11520: 11514: 11512: 11503: 11502: 11500: 11499: 11494: 11489: 11483: 11481: 11469: 11461: 11460: 11458: 11457: 11448: 11446: 11442: 11441: 11432: 11431: 11424: 11417: 11409: 11403: 11402: 11390: 11378: 11365: 11364: 11361: 11360: 11343: 11331: 11330: 11328: 11324: 11323: 11320: 11319: 11308: 11297: 11262: 11246: 11241: 11240: 11238: 11237:Classification 11230: 11229:External links 11227: 11210: 11209: 11203: 11191:"Introduction" 11186: 11180: 11163: 11157: 11142: 11136: 11118: 11116: 11113: 11110: 11109: 11084: 11035: 10996:(12): e52169. 10976: 10925: 10876: 10833: 10776: 10727: 10700:(2): 162–172. 10684: 10644: 10595: 10576:(4): 901–907. 10560: 10517: 10488:(6): 763–774. 10468: 10447:(5): 631–637. 10427: 10378: 10351:(4): 575–583. 10335: 10298:(6): 972–979. 10279: 10230: 10187: 10168:(5): 876–882. 10152: 10103: 10074:(2): 435–448. 10054: 10019:Brain Research 10005: 9960: 9929: 9880: 9831: 9796:Anesthesiology 9782: 9763:(4): 391–402. 9747: 9703: 9654: 9615: 9566: 9538: 9526: 9483: 9448: 9436: 9429: 9411: 9368: 9361: 9339: 9332: 9307: 9300: 9265: 9224: 9217: 9197: 9178: 9161: 9133: 9107:(6): 457–464. 9084: 9041: 9022: 8994: 8987: 8969: 8940:(6): 731–735. 8915: 8874: 8856: 8806: 8779:(4): 349–367. 8763: 8736:(6): 535–547. 8720: 8679: 8644: 8617:(6): 452–459. 8601: 8552: 8509: 8482:(6): 610–621. 8461: 8434:(6): 460–467. 8415: 8394:(6): 421–423. 8374: 8347:(5): 645–661. 8326: 8299:(3): 249–262. 8283: 8256:(2): 179–185. 8240: 8219:(3): 195–202. 8213:Psychosomatics 8199: 8192: 8166: 8139:(4): 318–319. 8123: 8104:(5): 448–459. 8100:(in Spanish). 8088: 8039: 8001: 7974:(2): 116–124. 7958: 7940: 7891: 7862:(4): 353–364. 7842: 7835: 7817: 7776: 7749:(4): 445–452. 7733: 7704:(s10): 11–17. 7681: 7643: 7592: 7541: 7494: 7455: 7419: 7384: 7363: 7343: 7336: 7318: 7291: 7271: 7249: 7206: 7179:(5): 433–439. 7160: 7117: 7110: 7087: 7056: 7027: 6978: 6928: 6886: 6879: 6850: 6843: 6823: 6788: 6781: 6755: 6734:(3): 546–561. 6699: 6692: 6674: 6643: 6594: 6545: 6496: 6489: 6471: 6422: 6395:(2): 141–146. 6379: 6330: 6280: 6231: 6182: 6130: 6093:(8): 679–683. 6076: 6027: 6000:(4): 291–300. 5980: 5961:(3): 516–524. 5938: 5919:(2): 339–343. 5903: 5854: 5827:(5): 693–701. 5811: 5766: 5728: 5679: 5625: 5618:Time Magazine, 5609: 5574: 5534: 5505:(6): 314–318. 5482: 5433: 5388: 5360: 5342: 5333:|journal= 5304: 5263: 5241: 5234: 5209: 5184: 5173:(2): 159–164. 5153: 5134:(4): 613–623. 5118: 5099:(3): 318–332. 5064: 5043:(3): 298–300. 5023: 5016: 4998: 4991: 4973: 4944:(5): 503–557. 4921: 4900:(2): 185–193. 4880: 4853: 4834:(2): 109–112. 4818: 4797:(1): 206–210. 4777: 4750:(4): 281–344. 4731: 4688: 4642: 4616: 4548: 4497: 4451: 4408: 4401: 4372: 4365: 4343: 4341:(2007). p. 16. 4331: 4298: 4272: 4265: 4240: 4217: 4192: 4185: 4150: 4114: 4087:(4): 315–332. 4071: 4041:10.1.1.510.871 4034:(2): 157–172. 4015: 3988:(3): 259–267. 3972: 3951:(2): 233–242. 3928: 3885: 3866:(4): 297–310. 3847: 3810:(5): 640–656. 3791: 3747: 3712: 3705: 3679: 3621: 3614: 3589: 3536: 3493: 3464:(4): 501–514. 3444: 3417:(3): 219–238. 3396: 3377:(8): 873–880. 3358: 3329:(8): 845–856. 3309: 3282:(5): 282–291. 3261: 3254: 3236: 3226: 3206: 3187:(4): 481–495. 3170: 3129: 3127:(2007). p. 32. 3117: 3090:(4): 307–316. 3069: 3062: 3040: 3033: 2980: 2968: 2945: 2916:(7): 719–738. 2889: 2882: 2862: 2858:LaPlaca et al. 2847: 2840: 2822: 2793:(5): 403–406. 2768: 2761: 2726: 2707:(3): 321–332. 2688: 2681: 2656: 2649: 2627: 2600:(3): 119–135. 2555: 2528:(8): 728–741. 2463: 2436:Psychosomatics 2415: 2408: 2383: 2357: 2331: 2269: 2244: 2213: 2159: 2152: 2131: 2130: 2128: 2125: 2119: 2116: 2107: 2104: 2076: 2073: 2035: 2032: 1975:excitotoxicity 1948: 1945: 1937: 1934: 1932: 1929: 1827: 1824: 1803: 1800: 1782: 1779: 1745: 1742: 1583:pressure sores 1542:Main article: 1539: 1536: 1483: 1480: 1464:cerebral palsy 1435: 1432: 1424:cerebral palsy 1404: 1401: 1303: 1300: 1225:norepinephrine 1081: 1078: 1063:followed by a 1052: 1049: 1005: 1002: 994:rehabilitation 935: 932: 904:cerebral edema 872:excitotoxicity 824: 821: 790:impact loading 757: 754: 752: 749: 726: 723: 632: 629: 551:temporal lobes 489: 486: 468:, duration of 439: 438: 433: 430: 427: 423: 422: 419:>30 min to 417: 414:>1 to <7 412: 409: 405: 404: 399: 394: 391: 387: 386: 381: 376: 371: 359: 356: 305: 304:Classification 302: 282:vision therapy 270:speech therapy 164: 163: 161:speech therapy 154: 150: 149: 139: 133: 132: 126: 120: 119: 116: 112: 111: 110:Mild to severe 108: 104: 103: 100: 94: 93: 84: 78: 77: 74:skull fracture 57: 56: 48: 47: 44: 40: 39: 31: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12385: 12374: 12371: 12369: 12366: 12364: 12361: 12359: 12356: 12354: 12351: 12350: 12348: 12341: 12331: 12330:Wound healing 12328: 12326: 12323: 12321: 12318: 12314: 12311: 12309: 12306: 12305: 12304: 12301: 12297: 12294: 12293: 12292: 12289: 12285: 12282: 12281: 12280: 12277: 12275: 12272: 12270: 12267: 12265: 12262: 12261: 12259: 12257:Complications 12255: 12245: 12242: 12240: 12237: 12236: 12234: 12230: 12224: 12221: 12219: 12216: 12214: 12213:Facial trauma 12211: 12209: 12206: 12204: 12201: 12200: 12198: 12194: 12188: 12185: 12183: 12180: 12178: 12177:Gunshot wound 12175: 12173: 12172:Electrocution 12170: 12168: 12165: 12163: 12160: 12158: 12155: 12153: 12150: 12149: 12147: 12143: 12135: 12132: 12130: 12127: 12125: 12122: 12121: 12119: 12115: 12112: 12110: 12107: 12106: 12104: 12100: 12097: 12095: 12092: 12090: 12087: 12086: 12084: 12080: 12077: 12075: 12072: 12070: 12067: 12065: 12062: 12060: 12057: 12056: 12054: 12050: 12047: 12045: 12042: 12040: 12037: 12035: 12034:Bone fracture 12032: 12031: 12029: 12028: 12026: 12024: 12020: 12017: 12013: 12003: 12000: 11999: 11997: 11993: 11987: 11984: 11982: 11979: 11977: 11976:Trauma center 11974: 11972: 11969: 11967: 11964: 11962: 11959: 11958: 11956: 11952: 11949: 11945: 11935: 11932: 11930: 11927: 11926: 11924: 11920: 11914: 11911: 11909: 11906: 11904: 11901: 11899: 11896: 11895: 11893: 11891: 11887: 11884: 11880: 11874: 11871: 11869: 11868:Resuscitation 11866: 11864: 11861: 11859: 11856: 11854: 11851: 11849: 11846: 11845: 11843: 11839: 11835: 11828: 11823: 11821: 11816: 11814: 11809: 11808: 11805: 11793: 11790: 11788: 11785: 11783: 11780: 11778: 11775: 11771: 11768: 11766: 11763: 11762: 11761: 11758: 11757: 11755: 11753: 11749: 11742: 11739: 11737: 11734: 11732: 11729: 11727: 11724: 11722: 11719: 11717: 11714: 11712: 11709: 11707: 11704: 11703: 11701: 11699: 11695: 11689: 11686: 11684: 11681: 11679: 11676: 11672: 11669: 11667: 11664: 11662: 11659: 11657: 11654: 11653: 11652: 11649: 11647: 11644: 11642: 11639: 11637: 11634: 11630: 11627: 11625: 11622: 11620: 11617: 11616: 11614: 11610: 11607: 11605: 11602: 11601: 11599: 11597: 11594: 11593: 11591: 11589: 11585: 11581: 11574: 11569: 11567: 11562: 11560: 11555: 11554: 11551: 11539: 11536: 11535: 11533: 11529: 11519: 11516: 11515: 11513: 11511: 11509: 11504: 11498: 11495: 11493: 11490: 11488: 11485: 11484: 11482: 11480: 11478: 11473: 11470: 11468: 11467:facial trauma 11464:Extracranial/ 11462: 11456: 11455: 11450: 11449: 11447: 11443: 11438: 11430: 11425: 11423: 11418: 11416: 11411: 11410: 11407: 11401: 11397: 11394: 11391: 11389: 11385: 11382: 11379: 11377: 11373: 11370: 11369: 11359: 11356: 11353: 11349: 11348: 11344: 11342: 11338: 11337: 11333: 11332: 11329: 11325: 11318: 11314: 11313: 11309: 11307: 11303: 11302: 11298: 11296: 11292: 11288: 11284: 11280: 11276: 11272: 11271: 11267: 11263: 11261: 11257: 11256: 11252: 11248: 11247: 11244: 11239: 11235: 11226: 11225: 11224: 11220: 11217: 11206: 11200: 11196: 11192: 11187: 11183: 11177: 11173: 11169: 11164: 11160: 11154: 11150: 11149: 11143: 11139: 11133: 11129: 11125: 11120: 11119: 11105: 11101: 11097: 11096: 11088: 11080: 11076: 11071: 11066: 11062: 11058: 11054: 11050: 11046: 11039: 11031: 11027: 11022: 11017: 11012: 11007: 11003: 10999: 10995: 10991: 10987: 10980: 10972: 10968: 10963: 10958: 10953: 10948: 10944: 10940: 10936: 10929: 10921: 10917: 10912: 10907: 10903: 10899: 10895: 10891: 10887: 10880: 10872: 10868: 10864: 10860: 10856: 10852: 10848: 10844: 10837: 10829: 10825: 10820: 10815: 10811: 10807: 10803: 10799: 10795: 10791: 10787: 10780: 10772: 10768: 10763: 10758: 10754: 10750: 10746: 10742: 10738: 10731: 10723: 10719: 10715: 10711: 10707: 10703: 10699: 10695: 10688: 10680: 10676: 10672: 10668: 10664: 10660: 10653: 10651: 10649: 10640: 10636: 10631: 10626: 10622: 10618: 10614: 10610: 10606: 10599: 10591: 10587: 10583: 10579: 10575: 10571: 10564: 10556: 10552: 10548: 10544: 10540: 10536: 10532: 10528: 10521: 10513: 10509: 10504: 10499: 10495: 10491: 10487: 10483: 10479: 10472: 10464: 10460: 10455: 10450: 10446: 10442: 10438: 10431: 10423: 10419: 10414: 10409: 10405: 10401: 10397: 10393: 10389: 10382: 10374: 10370: 10366: 10362: 10358: 10354: 10350: 10346: 10339: 10331: 10327: 10323: 10319: 10314: 10309: 10305: 10301: 10297: 10293: 10286: 10284: 10275: 10271: 10266: 10261: 10257: 10253: 10249: 10245: 10241: 10234: 10226: 10222: 10218: 10214: 10210: 10206: 10202: 10198: 10191: 10183: 10179: 10175: 10171: 10167: 10163: 10156: 10148: 10144: 10140: 10136: 10131: 10126: 10122: 10118: 10114: 10107: 10099: 10095: 10091: 10087: 10082: 10077: 10073: 10069: 10065: 10058: 10050: 10046: 10041: 10036: 10032: 10028: 10024: 10020: 10016: 10009: 10001: 9997: 9992: 9987: 9983: 9979: 9975: 9971: 9964: 9956: 9952: 9948: 9944: 9940: 9933: 9925: 9921: 9916: 9911: 9907: 9903: 9899: 9895: 9891: 9884: 9876: 9872: 9867: 9862: 9858: 9854: 9850: 9846: 9842: 9835: 9827: 9823: 9819: 9815: 9810: 9805: 9801: 9797: 9793: 9786: 9778: 9774: 9770: 9766: 9762: 9758: 9751: 9743: 9739: 9735: 9731: 9727: 9723: 9719: 9715: 9707: 9699: 9695: 9690: 9685: 9681: 9677: 9673: 9669: 9665: 9658: 9650: 9646: 9642: 9638: 9634: 9630: 9626: 9619: 9611: 9607: 9602: 9597: 9593: 9589: 9585: 9581: 9577: 9570: 9555: 9554: 9549: 9542: 9535: 9530: 9522: 9518: 9514: 9510: 9506: 9502: 9498: 9494: 9487: 9479: 9475: 9471: 9467: 9463: 9459: 9452: 9446:(1999). p. 3. 9445: 9440: 9432: 9426: 9422: 9415: 9407: 9403: 9399: 9395: 9391: 9387: 9383: 9379: 9372: 9364: 9358: 9354: 9350: 9343: 9335: 9329: 9325: 9321: 9314: 9312: 9303: 9297: 9293: 9288: 9287: 9281: 9274: 9272: 9270: 9261: 9257: 9252: 9247: 9243: 9239: 9235: 9228: 9220: 9214: 9210: 9209: 9201: 9195:(2007). p. 1. 9194: 9189: 9187: 9185: 9183: 9175: 9170: 9168: 9166: 9150: 9143: 9137: 9118: 9114: 9110: 9106: 9102: 9095: 9088: 9080: 9076: 9072: 9068: 9064: 9060: 9056: 9052: 9045: 9037: 9033: 9026: 9011: 9006: 8998: 8990: 8984: 8980: 8973: 8965: 8961: 8956: 8951: 8947: 8943: 8939: 8935: 8931: 8924: 8922: 8920: 8911: 8907: 8902: 8897: 8893: 8889: 8885: 8878: 8871: 8870: 8865: 8860: 8852: 8848: 8844: 8840: 8836: 8832: 8828: 8824: 8817: 8815: 8813: 8811: 8802: 8798: 8794: 8790: 8786: 8782: 8778: 8774: 8767: 8759: 8755: 8751: 8747: 8743: 8739: 8735: 8731: 8724: 8716: 8712: 8707: 8702: 8698: 8694: 8690: 8683: 8667: 8663: 8659: 8655: 8648: 8640: 8636: 8632: 8628: 8624: 8620: 8616: 8612: 8605: 8597: 8593: 8588: 8583: 8579: 8575: 8571: 8567: 8563: 8556: 8548: 8544: 8540: 8536: 8532: 8528: 8524: 8520: 8513: 8505: 8501: 8497: 8493: 8489: 8485: 8481: 8477: 8470: 8468: 8466: 8457: 8453: 8449: 8445: 8441: 8437: 8433: 8429: 8422: 8420: 8411: 8407: 8402: 8397: 8393: 8389: 8385: 8378: 8370: 8366: 8362: 8358: 8354: 8350: 8346: 8342: 8335: 8333: 8331: 8322: 8318: 8314: 8310: 8306: 8302: 8298: 8294: 8287: 8279: 8275: 8271: 8267: 8263: 8259: 8255: 8251: 8244: 8236: 8232: 8227: 8222: 8218: 8214: 8210: 8203: 8195: 8189: 8185: 8180: 8179: 8170: 8162: 8158: 8154: 8150: 8146: 8142: 8138: 8134: 8127: 8119: 8115: 8111: 8107: 8103: 8099: 8092: 8084: 8080: 8075: 8070: 8066: 8062: 8058: 8054: 8050: 8043: 8035: 8031: 8027: 8023: 8019: 8015: 8008: 8006: 7997: 7993: 7989: 7985: 7981: 7977: 7973: 7969: 7962: 7955: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7936: 7932: 7927: 7922: 7918: 7914: 7910: 7906: 7902: 7895: 7887: 7883: 7878: 7873: 7869: 7865: 7861: 7857: 7853: 7846: 7838: 7832: 7828: 7821: 7813: 7809: 7804: 7799: 7795: 7791: 7787: 7780: 7772: 7768: 7764: 7760: 7756: 7752: 7748: 7744: 7737: 7729: 7725: 7721: 7717: 7712: 7707: 7703: 7699: 7695: 7688: 7686: 7677: 7673: 7669: 7665: 7661: 7657: 7650: 7648: 7639: 7635: 7630: 7625: 7620: 7615: 7611: 7608:(in German). 7607: 7603: 7596: 7588: 7584: 7579: 7574: 7569: 7564: 7560: 7556: 7552: 7545: 7537: 7533: 7529: 7525: 7521: 7517: 7513: 7509: 7505: 7498: 7490: 7486: 7482: 7478: 7474: 7470: 7466: 7459: 7451: 7447: 7443: 7439: 7435: 7431: 7423: 7407: 7403: 7399: 7395: 7388: 7380: 7374: 7366: 7360: 7356: 7355: 7347: 7339: 7333: 7329: 7322: 7314: 7302: 7294: 7288: 7284: 7283: 7275: 7267: 7263: 7256: 7254: 7245: 7241: 7237: 7233: 7229: 7225: 7221: 7217: 7210: 7202: 7198: 7194: 7190: 7186: 7182: 7178: 7174: 7167: 7165: 7156: 7152: 7148: 7144: 7140: 7136: 7132: 7128: 7121: 7113: 7107: 7103: 7096: 7094: 7092: 7083: 7079: 7075: 7071: 7067: 7060: 7045: 7041: 7034: 7032: 7023: 7019: 7014: 7009: 7005: 7001: 6997: 6993: 6989: 6982: 6974: 6970: 6966: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6948: 6944: 6940: 6932: 6924: 6920: 6916: 6912: 6908: 6904: 6897: 6890: 6882: 6876: 6872: 6867: 6866: 6857: 6855: 6846: 6840: 6836: 6835: 6827: 6818: 6813: 6809: 6805: 6804: 6799: 6792: 6784: 6778: 6774: 6769: 6768: 6759: 6751: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6733: 6729: 6725: 6718: 6716: 6714: 6712: 6710: 6708: 6706: 6704: 6695: 6689: 6685: 6678: 6670: 6666: 6662: 6658: 6654: 6647: 6639: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6621: 6617: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6598: 6590: 6586: 6581: 6576: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6549: 6541: 6537: 6532: 6527: 6523: 6519: 6515: 6511: 6507: 6500: 6492: 6486: 6482: 6475: 6467: 6463: 6458: 6453: 6449: 6445: 6441: 6437: 6433: 6426: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6394: 6390: 6383: 6375: 6371: 6366: 6361: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6334: 6326: 6322: 6318: 6314: 6309: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6284: 6276: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6235: 6227: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6201: 6197: 6193: 6186: 6178: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6160: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6144: 6137: 6135: 6126: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6109: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6080: 6072: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6038: 6031: 6023: 6019: 6015: 6011: 6007: 6003: 5999: 5995: 5987: 5985: 5976: 5972: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5949: 5947: 5945: 5943: 5934: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5907: 5899: 5895: 5890: 5885: 5881: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5858: 5850: 5846: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5822: 5815: 5806: 5802: 5797: 5792: 5788: 5784: 5780: 5773: 5771: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5750: 5746: 5742: 5735: 5733: 5724: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5699:: 1547–1548. 5698: 5694: 5693:EXCLI Journal 5690: 5683: 5676: 5663: 5659: 5652: 5650: 5648: 5646: 5644: 5642: 5640: 5638: 5636: 5634: 5632: 5630: 5622: 5619: 5613: 5605: 5601: 5597: 5593: 5589: 5585: 5578: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5550: 5543: 5541: 5539: 5530: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5489: 5487: 5478: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5437: 5429: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5392: 5384: 5381:(in German). 5380: 5376: 5370: 5364: 5356: 5352: 5346: 5338: 5326: 5318: 5314: 5308: 5300: 5296: 5291: 5286: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5267: 5251: 5245: 5237: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5216: 5214: 5198: 5194: 5188: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5157: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5122: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5087: 5085: 5083: 5081: 5079: 5077: 5075: 5073: 5071: 5069: 5060: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5027: 5019: 5013: 5009: 5002: 4994: 4988: 4984: 4977: 4969: 4965: 4960: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4928: 4926: 4917: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4884: 4876: 4872: 4869:(3): 179–85. 4868: 4864: 4857: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4822: 4814: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4781: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4738: 4736: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4692: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4661:(2): 101–24. 4660: 4656: 4649: 4647: 4639: 4626: 4620: 4612: 4608: 4603: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4571: 4569: 4567: 4565: 4563: 4561: 4559: 4557: 4555: 4553: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4501: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4458: 4456: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4412: 4404: 4398: 4394: 4389: 4388: 4379: 4377: 4368: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4347: 4340: 4335: 4319: 4315: 4309: 4307: 4305: 4303: 4286: 4282: 4276: 4268: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4247: 4245: 4228: 4221: 4205: 4199: 4197: 4188: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4167: 4165: 4163: 4161: 4159: 4157: 4155: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4118: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4075: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4022: 4020: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3976: 3968: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3935: 3933: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3889: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3854: 3852: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3818: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3798: 3796: 3787: 3783: 3778: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3754: 3752: 3735: 3731: 3725: 3723: 3721: 3719: 3717: 3708: 3702: 3698: 3693: 3692: 3683: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3640: 3638: 3636: 3634: 3632: 3630: 3628: 3626: 3617: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3596: 3594: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3555: 3553: 3551: 3549: 3547: 3545: 3543: 3541: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3497: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3472: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3448: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3405: 3403: 3401: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3365: 3363: 3354: 3350: 3345: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3313: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3270: 3268: 3266: 3257: 3251: 3247: 3240: 3233: 3229: 3223: 3219: 3218: 3210: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3174: 3166: 3162: 3157: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3133: 3126: 3121: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3078: 3076: 3074: 3065: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3044: 3036: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3015: 3013: 3011: 3009: 3007: 3005: 3003: 3001: 2999: 2997: 2995: 2993: 2991: 2989: 2987: 2985: 2978:(1999). p. 4. 2977: 2972: 2961: 2954: 2952: 2950: 2941: 2937: 2932: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2900: 2898: 2896: 2894: 2885: 2879: 2875: 2874: 2866: 2860:(2007). p. 16 2859: 2854: 2852: 2843: 2837: 2833: 2826: 2818: 2814: 2809: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2777: 2775: 2773: 2764: 2758: 2754: 2747: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2739: 2737: 2735: 2733: 2731: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2695: 2693: 2684: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2663: 2661: 2652: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2631: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2588: 2586: 2584: 2582: 2580: 2578: 2576: 2574: 2572: 2570: 2568: 2566: 2564: 2562: 2560: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2516: 2514: 2512: 2510: 2508: 2506: 2504: 2502: 2500: 2498: 2496: 2494: 2492: 2490: 2488: 2486: 2484: 2482: 2480: 2478: 2476: 2474: 2472: 2470: 2468: 2459: 2455: 2450: 2445: 2442:(2): 95–103. 2441: 2437: 2433: 2426: 2424: 2422: 2420: 2411: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2390: 2388: 2371: 2367: 2361: 2345: 2341: 2335: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2284: 2276: 2274: 2258: 2254: 2248: 2232: 2228: 2222: 2220: 2218: 2209: 2205: 2200: 2195: 2190: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2176:Cases Journal 2173: 2166: 2164: 2155: 2149: 2145: 2144: 2143:Diffusion MRI 2136: 2132: 2124: 2115: 2112: 2103: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2080: 2075:Psychological 2072: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2058: 2055: 2054:Microdialysis 2050: 2046: 2041: 2031: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1988:dexamethasone 1985: 1980: 1979:animal trials 1976: 1972: 1968: 1963: 1961: 1956: 1954: 1944: 1942: 1928: 1926: 1922: 1917: 1913: 1911: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1893: 1889: 1884: 1880: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1860: 1856: 1855:Ancient Greek 1852: 1848: 1847:Mesopotamians 1844: 1837: 1832: 1823: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1810: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1788: 1778: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1762: 1758: 1750: 1741: 1737: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1698: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1666: 1663: 1659: 1654: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1618: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1566: 1558: 1550: 1545: 1538:Complications 1535: 1532: 1528: 1525: 1521: 1520:illicit drugs 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1496: 1494: 1488: 1479: 1477: 1473: 1467: 1465: 1460: 1456: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1431: 1427: 1425: 1420: 1409: 1400: 1397: 1393: 1388: 1386: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1368:psychiatrists 1365: 1364:psychologists 1361: 1357: 1356:mental health 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1336:physiotherapy 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1308: 1302:Chronic stage 1299: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1252: 1250: 1246: 1245:leviteracetam 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1190:aminosteroids 1187: 1183: 1179: 1178:monoaminergic 1175: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1148: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1106: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1086: 1077: 1075: 1071: 1066: 1065:neurosurgical 1062: 1058: 1048: 1045: 1039: 1037: 1031: 1028: 1018: 1010: 1001: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 981: 977: 973: 968: 966: 962: 958: 956: 951: 949: 940: 931: 929: 925: 921: 917: 913: 909: 905: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 866: 862: 858: 854: 849: 846: 842: 833: 829: 820: 818: 813: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 781: 779: 775: 771: 762: 748: 746: 745:Bill Pascrell 741: 737: 733: 722: 718: 716: 712: 708: 704: 700: 696: 692: 688: 684: 680: 675: 673: 669: 665: 661: 656: 654: 650: 641: 637: 628: 626: 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 585: 583: 579: 575: 571: 566: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 544: 539: 537: 533: 529: 525: 521: 516: 514: 510: 502: 501:midline shift 498: 494: 485: 483: 479: 475: 471: 467: 466:resuscitation 463: 459: 454: 450: 446: 434: 431: 428: 425: 424: 421:<24 hours 418: 413: 410: 407: 406: 389: 388: 385: 382: 380: 377: 375: 372: 369: 368: 365: 355: 353: 349: 345: 341: 336: 334: 330: 326: 322: 318: 313: 311: 301: 299: 293: 291: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 262: 258: 254: 250: 245: 243: 239: 235: 231: 226: 222: 217: 215: 211: 207: 203: 199: 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 175: 171: 162: 158: 155: 151: 148: 144: 140: 138: 134: 131: 127: 125: 121: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 99: 95: 92: 88: 85: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 58: 54: 49: 45: 41: 36: 30: 19: 12340: 12208:Chest injury 12167:Crush injury 12157:Blunt trauma 12152:Blast injury 12133: 12074:Pneumothorax 11858:Traumatology 11853:Major trauma 11760:Nerve injury 11615:Extra-axial 11600:Intra-axial 11587: 11506: 11475: 11451: 11445:Intracranial 11372:Brain injury 11345: 11334: 11310: 11299: 11264: 11249: 11213: 11212: 11194: 11171: 11147: 11127: 11094: 11087: 11052: 11048: 11038: 10993: 10989: 10979: 10942: 10938: 10928: 10893: 10889: 10879: 10846: 10842: 10836: 10796:(1): 58–66. 10793: 10789: 10779: 10744: 10740: 10730: 10697: 10693: 10687: 10665:: CD004609. 10662: 10658: 10612: 10608: 10598: 10573: 10569: 10563: 10530: 10526: 10520: 10485: 10481: 10471: 10444: 10440: 10430: 10395: 10391: 10381: 10348: 10344: 10338: 10295: 10291: 10247: 10243: 10233: 10200: 10197:Neuroscience 10196: 10190: 10165: 10161: 10155: 10120: 10116: 10106: 10071: 10067: 10057: 10022: 10018: 10008: 9973: 9963: 9938: 9932: 9900:(1): 91–99. 9897: 9893: 9883: 9848: 9844: 9834: 9799: 9795: 9785: 9760: 9756: 9750: 9717: 9713: 9706: 9671: 9667: 9657: 9632: 9628: 9618: 9583: 9579: 9569: 9557:. Retrieved 9551: 9541: 9536:(2005). p. 8 9529: 9496: 9492: 9486: 9461: 9457: 9451: 9439: 9420: 9414: 9381: 9377: 9371: 9352: 9342: 9323: 9285: 9241: 9237: 9227: 9207: 9200: 9176:(2005). p. 3 9152:. Retrieved 9148: 9136: 9124:. Retrieved 9117:the original 9104: 9100: 9087: 9054: 9050: 9044: 9036:the original 9025: 9015:December 16, 9013:. Retrieved 9009: 8997: 8978: 8972: 8937: 8933: 8891: 8887: 8877: 8867: 8859: 8826: 8822: 8776: 8772: 8766: 8733: 8730:Brain Injury 8729: 8723: 8696: 8692: 8682: 8670:. Retrieved 8666:the original 8661: 8657: 8647: 8614: 8610: 8604: 8569: 8565: 8555: 8522: 8519:Brain Injury 8518: 8512: 8479: 8475: 8431: 8427: 8391: 8387: 8377: 8344: 8340: 8296: 8292: 8286: 8253: 8249: 8243: 8216: 8212: 8202: 8177: 8169: 8136: 8132: 8126: 8101: 8097: 8091: 8056: 8052: 8042: 8017: 8013: 7971: 7967: 7961: 7951: 7943: 7908: 7904: 7894: 7859: 7855: 7845: 7826: 7820: 7796:(1): 17–29. 7793: 7789: 7779: 7746: 7742: 7736: 7701: 7697: 7659: 7655: 7609: 7605: 7595: 7558: 7554: 7544: 7511: 7507: 7497: 7472: 7468: 7458: 7433: 7429: 7422: 7410:. Retrieved 7406:the original 7401: 7397: 7387: 7353: 7346: 7327: 7321: 7281: 7274: 7265: 7261: 7219: 7215: 7209: 7176: 7172: 7130: 7127:Brain Injury 7126: 7120: 7101: 7065: 7059: 7047:. 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Retrieved 2230: 2179: 2175: 2142: 2135: 2121: 2109: 2094:and correct 2088:eye-tracking 2081: 2078: 2062: 2059: 2037: 2016:curcuminoids 2000:barbiturates 1992:progesterone 1964: 1957: 1950: 1939: 1918: 1914: 1910:Phineas Gage 1907: 1902:Phineas Gage 1885: 1881: 1872: 1863: 1840: 1817: 1813: 1805: 1802:Demographics 1796: 1792: 1784: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1744:Epidemiology 1738: 1699: 1695:parkinsonism 1667: 1655: 1619: 1567: 1563: 1529: 1497: 1489: 1485: 1472:dorsiflexion 1468: 1452: 1428: 1415: 1389: 1385:Respite care 1332:neurologists 1328:Physiatrists 1313: 1264:mass lesions 1253: 1249:side effects 1206: 1186:progesterone 1151: 1134: 1107: 1083: 1054: 1040: 1032: 1023: 984: 969: 959: 952: 945: 884:white matter 880:mitochondria 861:free radical 857:inflammation 850: 837: 814: 797: 793: 789: 785: 782: 767: 728: 719: 676: 657: 645: 586: 567: 540: 532:white matter 517: 509:pathological 506: 478:neuroimaging 442: 363: 337: 329:brain injury 328: 324: 314: 307: 294: 246: 218: 177: 173: 169: 167: 124:Risk factors 87:Neurosurgery 29: 12363:Neurotrauma 12279:Contracture 12232:Demographic 12218:Head injury 12064:Flail chest 11986:Trauma team 11741:Tetraplegia 11580:Neurotrauma 11531:Either/both 11454:neurotrauma 11437:head injury 11336:MedlinePlus 11115:Cited texts 10849:(1): 4–12. 10025:: 164–172. 9635:: 231–236. 9586:(1): 8–15. 9559:October 22, 9154:October 13, 9126:January 26, 7436:: 104–111. 7412:October 25, 7133:(1): 1–31. 6949:(1): 6–15. 5379:Der Spiegel 5202:November 5, 4631:January 23, 4324:October 28, 4285:www.cdc.gov 4233:October 22, 4210:October 27, 3740:October 27, 2344:www.cdc.gov 1947:Medications 1869:Renaissance 1859:Hippocrates 1843:trepanation 1671:Memory loss 1571:brain death 1500:hypotension 1412:orthotists. 1256:arrhythmias 1216:Hypotension 1198:haemostatic 1157:hypovolemia 1080:Acute stage 1057:golden hour 976:Angiography 924:brain death 912:mass effect 806:shock waves 732:child abuse 687:blown pupil 672:Alexithymia 555:hemiparesis 520:post-mortem 472:(PTA), and 325:head injury 298:death rates 202:Head injury 43:Other names 12347:Categories 12187:Stab wound 12069:Hemothorax 11995:Procedures 11954:Principles 11947:Management 11908:NACA score 11882:Assessment 11848:Polytrauma 11841:Principles 11726:Paraplegia 11651:Concussion 11492:Eye injury 11439:) and neck 11312:DiseasesDB 9580:J Med Life 9499:(1): 1–8. 7561:(1): 120. 7262:Pediatrica 5668:August 17, 4791:Pediatrics 2182:(1): 203. 2127:References 2096:trajectory 2086:unit with 2034:Procedures 2014:agonists, 1873:concussion 1770:prevalence 1734:asociality 1626:spasticity 1603:meningitis 1396:caregiving 1380:outpatient 1360:therapists 1284:craniotomy 1136:Hypertonic 1126:analgesics 1004:Prevention 794:noncontact 770:rotational 711:Anisocoria 668:dysarthria 625:ventricles 609:dura mater 530:including 480:, such as 432:>7 days 348:dura mater 286:Counseling 249:seat belts 216:or death. 214:disability 91:pediatrics 66:hemorrhage 12145:Mechanism 12039:Degloving 11487:Black eye 11355:neuro/153 11347:eMedicine 9649:0278-5846 9378:Neurology 9244:(1): E5. 9193:Granacher 8823:Pituitary 8672:April 23, 8639:205643570 8547:207447494 8369:205907369 7698:Epilepsia 7536:212641072 7514:: 68–74. 7489:0966-6362 7373:cite book 7311:ignored ( 7301:cite book 7049:April 27, 6317:1529-7535 6301:: S1–S2. 5335:ignored ( 5325:cite book 4339:Granacher 4036:CiteSeerX 3842:207724498 3812:CiteSeerX 3503:Neurology 3125:Granacher 2326:258821806 2310:1532-821X 2038:Although 2004:magnesium 1958:Low-dose 1936:Diagnosis 1888:psychosis 1781:Mortality 1766:incidence 1718:dysthymia 1702:hypomania 1630:myoclonus 1615:aneurysms 1611:vasospasm 1607:abscesses 1587:pneumonia 1510:), lower 1482:Prognosis 1455:orthotics 1434:Orthotics 1241:Phenytoin 1233:metabolic 1229:perfusion 1174:magnesium 1153:Diuretics 1122:Sedatives 1051:Treatment 1027:roll bars 934:Diagnosis 868:glutamate 751:Mechanism 621:pia mater 613:membranes 408:Moderate 240:(CT) and 153:Treatment 141:Based on 128:Old age, 82:Specialty 12303:Embolism 11396:Archived 11384:Archived 11352:med/2820 11219:Archived 11079:24927383 11030:23284921 10990:PLOS ONE 10971:27313514 10920:23234472 10871:26020481 10863:29298527 10828:20955326 10771:26663136 10722:35914918 10714:17439701 10679:23235612 10639:17916856 10590:24484228 10555:23154956 10547:21809108 10512:15716852 10422:28933514 10373:19064475 10365:27941370 10322:29601315 10274:33126293 10225:29276898 10217:18207647 10147:13345179 10139:18208543 10098:37759164 10090:16539667 10049:18948087 10000:14583925 9955:18843689 9924:20129501 9875:23235573 9818:23867231 9777:17011666 9742:23399305 9734:23474678 9698:31752052 9610:32341694 9521:21648436 9513:19128523 9478:17974926 9406:22373825 9260:17961064 9113:15998982 9101:Medicina 9079:28381295 9071:14987880 9010:Medscape 8964:15542983 8910:15083870 8851:23713764 8843:16508717 8801:20918911 8793:12106003 8758:12428952 8750:19484627 8715:16280354 8631:19940678 8596:19370632 8539:20735320 8504:21067999 8496:20029697 8456:43384334 8448:19940679 8410:19940674 8361:19629849 8321:20238578 8278:41087553 8270:10946737 8235:15883140 8161:26338743 8153:17377615 8118:12040514 8083:29165784 8034:18295644 7988:11877893 7935:29286534 7886:26618215 7812:20437324 7771:23726077 7763:16759448 7728:34749005 7720:14511389 7676:18295647 7638:31406508 7587:31623670 7528:32147412 7450:27131186 7268:: 30–34. 7244:45860264 7236:11851738 7193:16225987 7155:24775120 7147:14660233 7082:17636792 7022:26694853 6965:27654000 6923:21434843 6750:10981741 6669:17054192 6638:14974051 6589:18254109 6540:11034722 6466:15674869 6409:18477926 6374:10796728 6325:22217782 6275:17322250 6226:31978260 6177:23918314 6125:24947684 6117:23811861 6071:15106241 6022:23859003 6014:26825644 5975:26589595 5933:12391640 5898:29283434 5849:10548255 5841:26746238 5809:Moppet07 5805:17545555 5761:12708551 5723:33343272 5604:15698747 5569:17967360 5529:15911597 5477:12919964 5428:18254047 5383:Archived 5299:17573394 5179:24986342 5148:24820171 5113:11223769 5059:18763356 4968:12042091 4813:11433079 4772:46514293 4764:12207973 4718:19199027 4675:18551365 4611:18427091 4531:19430256 4492:34912966 4484:16296570 4446:44600297 4438:17396538 4291:April 1, 4145:18047870 4109:41271134 4101:16030439 4058:12754675 4010:34126700 4002:19548166 3967:18282321 3915:16207623 3880:12547978 3674:45288155 3666:11036909 3581:12391630 3531:25106246 3439:22361889 3431:12802165 3353:16083352 3304:27836314 3201:19196176 3165:17872928 3104:16222127 2940:18627252 2721:16962454 2622:46012183 2614:17622833 2550:14071224 2542:18635021 2458:10749946 2350:July 21, 2318:37211140 2208:18831756 2028:caffeine 1984:mannitol 1973:such as 1969:to halt 1865:Medieval 1691:dementia 1518:such as 1459:Orthosis 1447:orthosis 1370:, while 1316:subacute 1280:debrided 1165:ischemia 1147:diuretic 1140:Mannitol 1110:catheter 1098:seizures 1074:evidence 967:(HDFT). 920:ischemia 896:ischemia 888:separate 832:MRI scan 660:dilation 482:swelling 403:minutes 358:Severity 244:(MRIs). 180:, is an 98:Symptoms 12085:Cardio 11358:ped/929 11306:D001930 11070:4224042 11021:3528746 10998:Bibcode 10962:4889613 10911:3565432 10819:3021720 10798:Bibcode 10762:8761477 10630:2001047 10503:4347944 10463:2384536 10413:6483736 10330:4495428 10265:8094748 10182:9126906 10040:2603294 9991:7032539 9915:5084116 9866:7061245 9826:9756580 9689:6872435 9601:7175442 9398:4069365 8955:2672045 8587:7390354 8313:8567192 8074:6486165 7926:6486048 7877:4667543 7629:6686412 7578:6798503 7201:2650670 7013:8629646 6973:3616546 6629:6984678 6580:7387850 6531:8406780 6457:7043302 6417:9927553 6365:7061354 6266:1804156 6217:6984412 6168:7050611 6062:6986696 5889:6486002 5714:7744966 5520:1725244 5468:1126775 5355:Fda.gov 4959:1462953 4916:7869433 4848:9662103 4726:7928780 4683:7262160 4602:2292762 4541:May 16, 4066:2264964 3923:8840941 3834:9802997 3786:9701095 3523:7192808 3488:4477808 3480:1706973 3391:8352676 3344:2377024 3296:2187053 3112:1527912 2931:2721779 2817:9659083 2808:1717568 2376:May 28, 2262:May 28, 2237:May 28, 2199:2566562 2020:ethanol 1826:History 1647:hearing 1524:alcohol 1504:hypoxia 1276:forceps 1272:suction 1204:drugs. 1144:osmotic 1112:into a 900:hypoxia 876:neurons 786:contact 664:aphasia 559:aphasia 497:CT scan 435:>24 426:Severe 253:helmets 184:to the 130:alcohol 12196:Region 12120:Neuro 12023:Injury 11863:Triage 11834:Trauma 11376:Curlie 11341:000028 11201: 11178: 11155: 11134: 11077: 11067: 11028: 11018: 10969: 10959: 10945:: 47. 10918: 10908: 10869: 10861: 10826: 10816: 10769: 10759: 10720: 10712: 10677: 10637: 10627: 10588: 10553: 10545: 10510: 10500: 10461: 10420: 10410: 10371: 10363: 10328: 10320: 10272: 10262: 10223: 10215: 10180: 10145: 10137: 10096: 10088: 10047: 10037: 9998: 9988: 9953: 9922: 9912: 9873: 9863: 9824: 9816: 9775: 9740: 9732: 9696: 9686: 9674:(11). 9647: 9608: 9598: 9519: 9511: 9476: 9444:Marion 9427: 9404: 9396: 9359: 9330: 9298: 9258: 9215: 9111: 9077: 9069: 9051:Lancet 8985: 8962: 8952: 8908: 8864:"Coma" 8849: 8841: 8799: 8791: 8756: 8748: 8713: 8637: 8629: 8594: 8584: 8545: 8537: 8502: 8494: 8454: 8446: 8408: 8367: 8359: 8319: 8311: 8276: 8268: 8233: 8190: 8159: 8151: 8116: 8081: 8071: 8032: 7996:347998 7994: 7986: 7933: 7923: 7884: 7874: 7833: 7810: 7769: 7761: 7726: 7718: 7674: 7636: 7626: 7612:: 41. 7585: 7575: 7534: 7526: 7487: 7448: 7361: 7334: 7289: 7242: 7234: 7199: 7191: 7153: 7145: 7108: 7080: 7020: 7010: 6971: 6963: 6921: 6877: 6841: 6779: 6748: 6690: 6667: 6636: 6626: 6587: 6577: 6538: 6528: 6487: 6464: 6454: 6415: 6407: 6372: 6362: 6323: 6315: 6273: 6263: 6224: 6214: 6175: 6165: 6123: 6115: 6069: 6059: 6020: 6012: 5973: 5955:Injury 5931: 5896: 5886: 5847: 5839: 5803: 5759: 5721: 5711: 5602: 5567: 5527: 5517: 5475: 5465: 5426: 5369:Flight 5297: 5232: 5177: 5146: 5111: 5057: 5014: 4989: 4966: 4956: 4914: 4846: 4811: 4770: 4762: 4724: 4716: 4681: 4673: 4609: 4599: 4529: 4490: 4482: 4444: 4436: 4399: 4363: 4357:Trauma 4320:. 2007 4263: 4183: 4177:Trauma 4143: 4107: 4099: 4064: 4056: 4038: 4008: 4000: 3965: 3921: 3913: 3878: 3840: 3832: 3814: 3784: 3703: 3672: 3664: 3646:Lancet 3612: 3579: 3529: 3521: 3486: 3478: 3437: 3429: 3389: 3351: 3341: 3302: 3294: 3252: 3224: 3199: 3163: 3110: 3102: 3060: 3031: 3025:Trauma 2976:Marion 2938: 2928: 2880: 2838: 2815: 2805: 2759: 2719: 2679: 2647: 2620: 2612: 2548: 2540: 2456: 2406: 2324: 2316: 2308: 2206: 2196: 2150: 2012:PPAR-γ 1809:median 1724:, and 1687:boxers 1643:vision 1622:ataxia 1593:, and 1569:coma, 1366:, and 1346:, and 1282:, and 972:X-rays 776:, and 725:Causes 603:, and 536:cortex 437:hours 370: 340:closed 255:, not 194:closed 182:injury 115:Causes 12055:Resp 11295:854.1 11291:850.0 11287:804.9 11283:803.0 11279:801.9 11275:800.0 10867:S2CID 10718:S2CID 10551:S2CID 10369:S2CID 10326:S2CID 10221:S2CID 10143:S2CID 10094:S2CID 9822:S2CID 9738:S2CID 9517:S2CID 9402:S2CID 9145:(PDF) 9120:(PDF) 9097:(PDF) 9075:S2CID 8847:S2CID 8797:S2CID 8754:S2CID 8693:Brain 8635:S2CID 8543:S2CID 8500:S2CID 8452:S2CID 8365:S2CID 8317:S2CID 8274:S2CID 8186:–62. 8157:S2CID 7992:S2CID 7767:S2CID 7724:S2CID 7532:S2CID 7475:: 2. 7240:S2CID 7197:S2CID 7151:S2CID 6969:S2CID 6899:(PDF) 6775:–88. 6413:S2CID 6121:S2CID 6018:S2CID 5845:S2CID 5367:From 4768:S2CID 4722:S2CID 4679:S2CID 4488:S2CID 4442:S2CID 4105:S2CID 4062:S2CID 4006:S2CID 3919:S2CID 3838:S2CID 3699:–65. 3670:S2CID 3527:S2CID 3484:S2CID 3435:S2CID 3300:S2CID 3143:Brain 3108:S2CID 2963:(PDF) 2618:S2CID 2546:S2CID 2322:S2CID 2286:(PDF) 1996:xenon 1706:mania 1651:smell 1649:, or 1506:(low 1243:and 1142:, an 998:tests 774:shear 701:with 563:motor 528:axons 396:<1 393:13–15 390:Mild 321:force 310:blast 221:falls 210:skull 206:scalp 186:brain 107:Types 12162:Burn 12030:MSK 11452:see 11317:5671 11301:MeSH 11270:9-CM 11199:ISBN 11176:ISBN 11153:ISBN 11132:ISBN 11075:PMID 11026:PMID 10967:PMID 10916:PMID 10859:PMID 10824:PMID 10794:1208 10767:PMID 10745:2015 10710:PMID 10675:PMID 10635:PMID 10586:PMID 10543:PMID 10508:PMID 10459:PMID 10418:PMID 10396:2017 10361:PMID 10318:PMID 10270:PMID 10248:2020 10213:PMID 10178:PMID 10135:PMID 10086:PMID 10045:PMID 10023:1244 9996:PMID 9951:PMID 9920:PMID 9871:PMID 9849:2012 9814:PMID 9773:PMID 9730:PMID 9694:PMID 9672:2019 9645:ISSN 9606:PMID 9561:2013 9509:PMID 9474:PMID 9425:ISBN 9394:PMID 9357:ISBN 9328:ISBN 9296:ISBN 9256:PMID 9213:ISBN 9156:2019 9128:2007 9109:PMID 9067:PMID 9017:2007 8983:ISBN 8960:PMID 8906:PMID 8839:PMID 8789:PMID 8746:PMID 8711:PMID 8674:2010 8627:PMID 8592:PMID 8570:2009 8535:PMID 8492:PMID 8444:PMID 8406:PMID 8357:PMID 8309:PMID 8266:PMID 8231:PMID 8188:ISBN 8149:PMID 8114:PMID 8079:PMID 8057:2017 8030:PMID 7984:PMID 7931:PMID 7909:2017 7882:PMID 7831:ISBN 7808:PMID 7759:PMID 7716:PMID 7672:PMID 7634:PMID 7583:PMID 7524:PMID 7485:ISSN 7446:PMID 7414:2021 7379:link 7359:ISBN 7332:ISBN 7313:help 7287:ISBN 7232:PMID 7189:PMID 7143:PMID 7106:ISBN 7078:PMID 7051:2020 7018:PMID 6996:2015 6961:PMID 6919:PMID 6875:ISBN 6873:–2. 6839:ISBN 6777:ISBN 6746:PMID 6688:ISBN 6665:PMID 6634:PMID 6612:2003 6585:PMID 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