6951:
1476:
1626:. Jackson showed that a few of the dialect distinctions between West and Southwest Brittonic go back a long way. New divergencies began around AD 500 but other changes that were shared occurred in the 6th century. Other common changes occurred in the 7th century onward and are possibly due to inherent tendencies. Thus the concept of a Common Brittonic language ends by AD 600. Substantial numbers of Britons certainly remained in the expanding area controlled by
174:
5196:
4196:
4210:
3098:, though Scottish and Irish Gaelic, with their wider range of preposition-based periphrastic constructions, suggest that such constructions descend from their common Celtic heritage. Scottish Gaelic contains several P-Celtic loanwords, but, as there is a far greater overlap in terms of Celtic vocabulary than with English, it is not always possible to disentangle P- and Q-Celtic words. However, some common words such as
3000:, is traceable to Brittonic influence. Others, however, find this unlikely since many of these forms are only attested in the later Middle English period; these scholars claim a native English development rather than Celtic influence. Ian G. Roberts postulates Northern Germanic influence, despite such constructions not existing in Norse. Literary Welsh has the simple present
2688:(names of rivers and other bodies of water). There are many Brittonic place names in lowland Scotland and in the parts of England where it is agreed that substantial Brittonic speakers remained (Brittonic names, apart from those of the former Romano-British towns, are scarce over most of England). Names derived (sometimes indirectly) from Brittonic include
1548:. During 1,000–875 BC, their genetic markers swiftly spread through southern Britain, but not northern Britain. The authors describe this as a "plausible vector for the spread of early Celtic languages into Britain". There was much less inward migration during the Iron Age, so it is likely that Celtic reached Britain before then.
1617:
It is probable that at the start of the Post-Roman period, Common
Brittonic was differentiated into at least two major dialect groups – Southwestern and Western. (Additional dialects have also been posited, but have left little or no evidence, such as an Eastern Brittonic spoken in what is now the
573:
Knowledge of the
Brittonic languages comes from a variety of sources. The early language's information is obtained from coins, inscriptions, and comments by classical writers as well as place names and personal names recorded by them. For later languages, there is information from medieval writers
1622:.) Between the end of the Roman occupation and the mid-6th century, the two dialects began to diverge into recognizably separate varieties, the Western into Cumbric and Welsh, and the Southwestern into Cornish and its closely related sister language Breton, which was carried to continental
1590:
words, both for concepts unfamiliar in the pre-urban society of Celtic
Britain such as urbanization and new tactics of warfare, as well as for rather more mundane words which displaced native terms (most notably, the word for 'fish' in all the Brittonic languages derives from the Latin
2897:, have argued that Celtic has acted as a substrate to English for both the lexicon and syntax. It is generally accepted that Brittonic effects on English are lexically few, aside from toponyms, consisting of a small number of domestic and geographical words, which "may" include
1721:
from Proto-Celtic to Welsh, Cornish, and Breton are summarised in the following table. Where the graphemes have a different value from the corresponding IPA symbols, the IPA equivalent is indicated between slashes. V represents a vowel; C represents a consonant.
1451:. Welsh and Breton have been spoken continuously since they formed. For all practical purposes Cornish died out during the 18th or 19th century, but a revival movement has more recently created small numbers of new speakers. Also notable are the extinct language
3055:, lit. 'I sit to working'). These parallel developments suggest that the English progressive is not necessarily due to Celtic influence; moreover, the native English development of the structure can be traced over 1000 years and more of English literature.
2780:
The number of Celtic river names in
England generally increases from east to west, a map showing these being given by Jackson. These include Avon, Chew, Frome, Axe, Brue and Exe, but also river names containing the elements
609:. Such nomenclature usually implies acceptance of the P-Celtic and Q-Celtic hypothesis rather than the Insular Celtic hypothesis because the term includes certain Continental Celtic languages as well. (For a discussion, see
3086:, by contrast, are fixed forms which can be used with almost any main statement. It has been claimed that the English system has been borrowed from Brittonic, since Welsh tag questions vary in almost exactly the same way.
406:. Jackson noted by that time that "Brythonic" had become a dated term: "of late there has been an increasing tendency to use Brittonic instead." Today, "Brittonic" often replaces "Brythonic" in the literature.
2946:
Those who argue against the theory of a more significant
Brittonic influence than is widely accepted point out that many toponyms have no semantic continuation from the Brittonic language. A notable example is
3036:
usage in some German dialects, a progressive aspect form has evolved which is formally similar to those found in Celtic languages, and somewhat less similar to the Modern
English form, e.g. 'I am working' is
1614:). Approximately 800 of these Latin loan-words have survived in the three modern Brittonic languages. Pictish may have resisted Latin influence to a greater extent than the other Brittonic languages.
352:
may also have originally spoken a
Brittonic language, but this was later supplanted by Goidelic on the Isle of Man and Norse on Orkney. There is also a community of Brittonic language speakers in
3139:
whose meaning is slightly different. The effect on Irish has been the loan from
British of many Latin-derived words. This has been associated with the Christianisation of Ireland from Britain.
384:
originating in
Ireland. Both were created in the 19th century to avoid the ambiguity of earlier terms such as "British" and "Cymric". "Brythonic" was coined in 1879 by the Celticist
441:. Some writers use "British" for the language and its descendants, although, due to the risk of confusion, others avoid it or use it only in a restricted sense. Jackson, and later
6402:
5156:
398:" and also earlier spelled "Britonic" and "Britonnic", emerged later in the 19th century. "Brittonic" became more prominent through the 20th century, and was used in
3767:
2973:
which merely means 'water' and the name of the river Trent simply comes from the Welsh word for a 'trespasser' (figuratively suggesting 'overflowing river').
3356:
Chadwick, Hector Munro, Early
Scotland: The Picts, the Scots and the Welsh of Southern Scotland, Cambridge University Press, 1949 (2013 reprint), p. 68
3914:
3673:
4174:
Driscoll, S. T. (2011). "Pictish archaeology: pPersistent problems and structural solutions". In Driscoll, S. T.; Geddes, J.; Hall, M. A. (eds.).
1556:
branch of Celtic may already have been spoken in Britain, but that this middle Bronze Age migration would have introduced the Brittonic branch.
3058:
Some researchers (Filppula, et al., 2001) argue that other elements of English syntax reflect Brittonic influences. For instance, in English
2750:
for 'hill, rocky headland' are examples of Brittonic words that were borrowed into English. Others reflect the presence of Britons such as
4243:
2675:
6887:
4854:
4825:
2888:
3571:
4014:(in Italian). Vol. 2: Continuità dal Mesolitico all'età del Ferro nelle principali aree etnolinguistiche. Bologna: Il Mulino.
6907:
6897:
6927:
6912:
6902:
1467:
language. This view, while attracting broad popular appeal, has virtually no following in contemporary linguistic scholarship.
6917:
5301:
4164:
3747:
3479:
3429:
574:
and modern native speakers, together with place names. The names recorded in the Roman period are given in Rivet and Smith.
3640:
6922:
3959:. NATO ASI Series C, Mathematical and Physical Science: Studies in Natural Language and Linguistic Theory. Vol. 28.
3402:
2789:
e.g. Derwent, Darwen, Deer, Adur, Dour, Darent, and Went. These names exhibit multiple different Celtic roots. One is *
1643:
301:
6385:
6198:
4141:
4107:
4081:
4062:
4019:
4000:
3419:
1480:
292:. In the 5th and 6th centuries emigrating Britons also took Brittonic speech to the continent, most significantly in
4736:
4391:
3777:
3026:'I am in the process of loving'). In the Germanic sister languages of English, there is only one form, for example
2680:
The principal legacy left behind in those territories from which the Brittonic languages were displaced is that of
1683:
1544:, during the 500-year period 1,300–800 BC. The newcomers were genetically most similar to ancient individuals from
1418:
141:
341:
5377:
4787:
449:
4236:
3320:
3283:
1513:
The modern Brittonic languages are generally considered to all derive from a common ancestral language termed
336:
has led to an increase in speakers of that language. Cumbric and Pictish are extinct, having been replaced by
6368:
3838:
4096:
Language and history in Early Britain: A Chronological Survey of the Brittonic Languages, 1st to 12th c. A.D
3772:. "Publications of the Manchester Centre for Anglo-Saxon Studies" series. Vol. 7. Woodbridge, Suffolk:
6972:
6641:
4279:
453:
3682:
3343:
2652:
2648:
2642:
2636:
2588:
2584:
2578:
2572:
2524:
2518:
2512:
2492:
2438:
2367:
2347:
2248:
2238:
2133:
2068:
2064:
2058:
2052:
2032:
2017:
2011:
2005:
1974:
1970:
1964:
1958:
1858:
1852:
1846:
1792:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
847:
843:
839:
638:
465:
461:
312:, with the remaining Common Brittonic language splitting into regional dialects, eventually evolving into
5841:
5101:
4588:
4414:
3133:
as "strath") is a native Goidelic word, but its usage appears to have been modified by the Welsh cognate
1401:
136:
3703:
6412:
6287:
5892:
5861:
5241:
3801:
3856:
1533:, which is thought to have developed from Proto-Celtic or early Insular Celtic by the 6th century BC.
6977:
6373:
6208:
5836:
4229:
3198:
3193:
589:
565:
being a Celtic word that might mean 'painted ones' or 'tattooed folk', referring to body decoration.
36:
6173:
6982:
6713:
6147:
6123:
5449:
4625:
4568:
4353:
4312:
4041:
2882:
468:. However, subsequent writers have tended to follow Jackson's scheme, rendering this use obsolete.
333:
222:
103:
6424:
6072:
5618:
5332:
5151:
5041:
3820:
3374:
3123:
usage, which is not likely to have been influenced so much by Brittonic. In particular, the word
2931:. Several words of Cornish origin are still in use in English as mining-related terms, including
1464:
395:
93:
519:
An early written reference to the British Isles may derive from the works of the Greek explorer
6892:
6811:
6774:
5846:
5131:
5126:
4741:
3766:
Coates, Richard (2007). "Invisible Britons: The view from linguistics". In Higham, Nick (ed.).
3630:"Approaching the Pictish language: historiography, early evidence and the question of Pritenic"
3310:
3273:
6658:
6473:
6218:
6118:
5489:
5327:
5306:
4718:
4267:
4054:
3714:
3012:= 'I am loving', where the Brittonic syntax is partly mirrored in English. (However, English
2964:
457:
6801:
6673:
6407:
6057:
5454:
5372:
5181:
5106:
4319:
3781:
3519:
2746:
495:
4151:
Willis, David (2009). "-Old and Middle Welsh". In Ball, Martin J.; Müller, Nicole (eds.).
3597:
8:
6950:
6688:
6487:
6468:
6447:
6380:
6203:
6077:
5897:
5882:
5877:
5831:
5806:
5479:
5367:
5352:
5166:
4985:
4780:
4730:
4620:
4613:
4596:
4326:
3773:
1669:
6087:
3523:
3160:
2873:(modern Winchester, Caerwent, and Caistor St Edmunds), whose meaning was 'place, town'.
6854:
6585:
6478:
6442:
6363:
6318:
6213:
6039:
5930:
5887:
5816:
5623:
5398:
5161:
5146:
5141:
5136:
5046:
4903:
4859:
4683:
4519:
4477:
4117:
4091:
3842:
3575:
3553:
3540:
3505:
2997:
2709:
1553:
1541:
1505:
528:
399:
381:
337:
226:
3043:, literally: 'I am on the working'. The same structure is also found in modern Dutch (
1559:
Brittonic languages were probably spoken before the Roman invasion throughout most of
164:
6718:
6693:
6683:
6419:
6392:
6273:
6128:
6113:
6108:
6067:
6062:
5967:
5856:
5811:
5801:
5793:
5464:
5418:
5408:
5249:
5076:
5056:
5015:
4335:
4303:
4289:
4160:
4137:
4103:
4099:
4077:
4058:
4015:
3996:
3743:
3557:
3545:
3475:
3425:
3398:
3316:
3279:
2855:; this is the origin of Derwent, Darent, and Darwen (attested in the Roman period as
407:
69:
3421:
The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature: From Columba to the Union (until 1707)
1702:
continued to speak Welsh until the late nineteenth century, and isolated pockets of
6747:
6708:
6663:
6650:
6570:
6549:
6452:
6397:
6082:
5902:
5821:
5633:
5413:
5347:
5237:
5116:
5111:
5081:
5051:
5005:
4967:
4833:
4601:
4576:
4544:
4525:
4486:
4462:
4404:
4380:
4252:
4179:
4033:
3535:
3527:
3510:
3174:
2894:
1739:
1665:
1495:
1456:
1452:
1444:
1423:
1396:
610:
377:
373:
317:
285:
277:
234:
206:
146:
124:
98:
20:
4689:
3672:
Tristram, H. (2007). "Why Don't the English Speak Welsh?". In Higham, Nick (ed.).
3162:
History of English: A Sketch of the Origin and Development of the English Language
1660:
began to be displaced in the 5th century through the settlement of Irish-speaking
6790:
6728:
6668:
6631:
6603:
6565:
6530:
6510:
6293:
6283:
6268:
6155:
5962:
5826:
5589:
5444:
5403:
5393:
5232:
5171:
5091:
5086:
5071:
5066:
4979:
4644:
4538:
4498:
4399:
4201:
4129:
3796:
Kastovsky, Dieter (1992). "Semantics and Vocabulary". In Hogg, Richard M. (ed.).
3629:
3095:
2923:
2755:
2697:
2671:
1744:
1619:
1537:
1448:
1428:
372:
The names "Brittonic" and "Brythonic" are scholarly conventions referring to the
321:
309:
230:
214:
88:
81:
6829:
6819:
6795:
6742:
6698:
6613:
6593:
6575:
6520:
6515:
6483:
6328:
6308:
6133:
6034:
6013:
6008:
5645:
5579:
5574:
5563:
5544:
5538:
5534:
5342:
5337:
5296:
5223:
5209:
5121:
5096:
5061:
5020:
5010:
4946:
4933:
4873:
4817:
4809:
4800:
4773:
4756:
4712:
4665:
4636:
4492:
4429:
4342:
3531:
3394:
3366:
3120:
2981:
2739:
1734:
1549:
1440:
1411:
472:
448:
Before Jackson's work, "Brittonic" and "Brythonic" were often used for all the
433:
418:
313:
256:
249:
238:
198:
4074:
The First Great Civilizations: Life in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley and Egypt
6966:
6626:
6598:
6505:
6497:
6239:
6191:
5977:
5925:
5654:
5594:
5584:
5484:
5459:
5245:
4695:
4533:
3130:
1699:
1568:
1560:
289:
281:
61:
6944:
6737:
6525:
6049:
6003:
5942:
5851:
5628:
5606:
5599:
5036:
4961:
4951:
4883:
4512:
4442:
4215:
4029:
3995:(in Italian). Vol. 1: La teoria della continuità. Bologna: Il Mulino.
3898:
Hickey, Raymond. "Early Contact and Parallels Between English and Celtic".
3549:
3306:
3269:
3059:
2977:
2976:
Scholars supporting a Brittonic substrate in English argue that the use of
1718:
1627:
1475:
445:, use "British" only for the early phase of the Common Brittonic language.
442:
266:
5228:
4176:
Pictish Progress: New Studies on Northern Britain in the Early Middle Ages
3572:"Ancient DNA study reveals large scale migrations into Bronze Age Britain"
3119:
The Brittonic influence on Scots Gaelic is often indicated by considering
376:
of Britain and to the ancestral language they originated from, designated
6859:
6844:
6245:
6164:
5972:
5957:
5947:
5920:
5746:
5699:
5611:
5357:
4974:
4878:
4765:
3506:"Large-scale migration into Britain during the Middle to Late Bronze Age"
1653:
1631:
1564:
1459:. One view, advanced in the 1950s and based on apparently unintelligible
345:
305:
65:
5514:
5280:
3957:
Verbs and Diachronic Syntax: A Comparative History of English and French
3915:"Diglossia in Anglo-Saxon England, or what was spoken Old English like?"
3713:. Vol. IV: The Interface Between English and the Celtic Languages.
3704:"On the Areal Pattern of 'Brittonicity' in English and Its Implications"
6782:
6770:
6223:
6187:
5987:
5952:
5912:
5504:
5266:
5257:
3941:
3241:
3236:
2813:), also found in the place-name Dover (attested in the Roman period as
2717:
1703:
480:
73:
3817:
External Influences on English: From Its Beginnings to the Renaissance
3062:, the form of the tag depends on the verb form in the main statement (
19:
For the individual language ancestral to the Brittonic languages, see
6182:
5289:
4724:
4677:
4505:
4435:
4156:
2763:
meaning 'Fort of the Britons', and Walton meaning (in Anglo-Saxon) a
2751:
1715:
1605:
1095:
became soft spirants in an intervocalic position and before liquids:
524:
385:
361:
252:
173:
158:
5494:
5195:
1035:
Voiceless plosives become voiced plosives in intervocalic position.
332:. Welsh and Breton continue to be spoken as native languages, while
6839:
6303:
5756:
5711:
5675:
5663:
5509:
5469:
5284:
5276:
5271:
5253:
5176:
4913:
4908:
4893:
4671:
4221:
3602:
3094:
Far more notable, but less well known, are Brittonic influences on
2927:
in the north, in the traditionally Celtic areas of England such as
2701:
2693:
2685:
2681:
1687:
1649:
1623:
634:, which mostly result from the Proto-Indo-European syllabic nasals.
603:
584:
355:
297:
293:
77:
57:
53:
5524:
1479:
Britain & Ireland in the early–mid 1st millennium, before the
6849:
6824:
6703:
6678:
6313:
6278:
6251:
6178:
6160:
5751:
5687:
5311:
4941:
4918:
4608:
4581:
4423:
4296:
2936:
2932:
2928:
1657:
1630:, but over the fifth and sixth centuries they mostly adopted the
1572:
1406:
520:
329:
325:
3021:
3006:= 'I love' and the present stative (al. continuous/progressive)
2770:
2764:
498:
489:
414:, although this never became popular among subsequent scholars.
6834:
6621:
6403:
Constitutional status of Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles
6323:
6298:
6262:
6256:
6169:
6092:
6018:
5937:
5439:
4923:
4868:
4649:
3761:
3759:
2963:, but was used by the English as a personal name. Likewise the
2772:
2689:
532:
483:
349:
509:, ultimately an adaptation of the native word for the island,
5723:
5529:
5474:
5362:
4956:
4898:
4888:
4846:
4796:
4076:. "The History of Human Society" series. London: Hutchinson.
3089:
2713:
1695:
1691:
1661:
1587:
1576:
1460:
718:
554:
548:
542:
536:
270:
246:
49:
16:
Celtic subfamily including Welsh, Cornish, Breton and Cumbric
4120:(1955). "The Pictish Language". In Wainwright, F. T. (ed.).
3756:
2660:
592:
of the Brittonic reflex of the Proto-Indo-European phoneme *
5982:
5519:
5499:
5434:
5262:
2993:
2867:. In Roman Britain, there were three tribal capitals named
2705:
1571:. During the period of the Roman occupation of what is now
1545:
1463:
inscriptions, was that the Picts may have also used a non-
1391:
The family tree of the Brittonic languages is as follows:
2940:
1694:, and the English counties bordering these areas such as
1540:
study uncovered a migration into southern Britain in the
178:
The Brittonic-speaking community around the sixth century
2968:
2952:
1312:
1171:
Geminated voiceless plosives transformed into spirants;
1021:
956:
452:, including not just the varieties in Britain but those
4048:
3938:
Kulturelle Integration und Personnenamen in Mittelalter
2819:); this is the source of rivers named Dour. Another is
1604:– which may survive, however, in the Welsh name of the
711:'servant, young man' became Welsh, Cornish, and Breton
2862:
2850:
2844:
2820:
2790:
2727:
2721:
560:
5715:
4155:. "Language Family" series (2nd ed.). New York:
3124:
3099:
2758:
6101:
4191:
3503:
593:
427:
421:
149:
1326:
Voiced stops were assimilated to a preceding nasal:
2921:. Another legacy may be the sheep-counting system
1684:displacement of the languages of Brittonic descent
1598:
1293:
1261:
1229:
1202:
996:
964:
931:
886:
853:
705:
665:
628:
621:
510:
3936:Insley, John (2018). "Britons and Anglo-Saxons".
3598:"Ancient mass migration transformed Britons' DNA"
6964:
4049:Filppula, M.; Klemola, J.; Pitkänen, H. (2001).
3835:Dictionary of Mining, Mineral, and Related Terms
456:that similarly experienced the evolution of the
4053:. "Studies in Languages" series. Vol. 37.
1686:was probably complete in all of Britain except
1648:The Brittonic languages spoken in what are now
1290:Voiceless stops become spirants after liquids:
661:in initial position and disappears internally:
4134:Studies in British Celtic Historical Phonology
4028:
3231:
3229:
3188:
3186:
3184:
2992:in the continuous/progressive) of the English
2720:. Brittonic elements found in England include
2665:
1586:), Common Brittonic borrowed a large stock of
1083:, then lost in Welsh and Cornish; remained as
402:'s highly influential 1953 work on the topic,
5679:
4781:
4592:? (possibly independent or pre-Indo-European)
4237:
3798:The Cambridge History of the English Language
3504:Patterson, N.; Isakov, M.; Booth, T. (2021).
3111:
2996:, which is more widespread than in the other
2832:
2802:
1300:
1274:
1242:
1215:
1119:
1113:
1009:
977:
944:
899:
866:
782:
776:
770:
684:
5667:
3499:
3497:
3495:
3493:
3491:
3081:
3075:
3038:
3027:
2826:
2796:
1369:
1357:
1306:
1268:
1236:
1209:
1139:
1133:
1127:
1015:
983:
950:
905:
872:
803:
797:
791:
712:
690:
620:The retention of the Proto-Celtic sequences
582:The Brittonic branch is also referred to as
5727:
5691:
3968:
3966:
3226:
3181:
3134:
3105:
3050:
3044:
3007:
3001:
2958:
2951:which comes from the Celtic term for river
2876:
2868:
2856:
2838:
2814:
2808:
2737:
1609:
1592:
1375:
1363:
1280:
1254:
1248:
1221:
1105:
1099:
1003:
989:
971:
938:
911:
893:
878:
860:
824:
818:
812:
761:
755:
749:
696:
678:
672:
535:who quote Pytheas' use of variants such as
504:
436:
389:
353:
265:, meaning Ancient Britons as opposed to an
260:
5703:
4795:
4788:
4774:
4244:
4230:
3424:. Edinburgh University Press. p. 57.
3388:
3090:Brittonic effect on the Goidelic languages
2676:Toponymy in the United Kingdom and Ireland
4128:
3795:
3737:
3539:
3488:
3312:Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia
3275:Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia
3264:
3262:
3260:
3219:
3217:
2889:List of English words of Brittonic origin
2661:Remnants in England, Scotland and Ireland
1329:Brittonic retains original nasals before
302:much of Britain the language was replaced
4173:
3972:
3963:
3912:
3697:
3695:
3671:
3623:
3621:
3365:
1474:
417:Comparable historical terms include the
276:The Brittonic languages derive from the
4116:
4090:
3948:
3906:
3893:
3891:
3889:
3800:. Vol. 1: The Beginnings to 1066.
3742:. Leiden / Boston: Brill. p. 413.
3740:Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic
3656:
3564:
6965:
5644:
4150:
4124:. Edinburgh: Nelson. pp. 129–166.
4071:
4009:
3990:
3935:
3814:
3765:
3257:
3214:
1470:
221:) form one of the two branches of the
74:Northern England and Southern Scotland
6876:
6768:
6547:
6349:
5781:
5561:
5207:
4844:
4769:
4225:
3701:
3692:
3618:
3417:
1679:that Pictish was "no longer spoken".
1439:Brittonic languages in use today are
616:Other major characteristics include:
471:The name "Britain" itself comes from
404:Language and History in Early Britain
39:Brittonikā, Brythonic, British Celtic
4251:
3886:
3882:. Oxford: Helicon. pp. 396–397.
3877:
3646:from the original on 9 October 2022.
3469:
3305:
3268:
3245:. Oxford University Press. June 2013
3202:. Oxford University Press. June 2013
3049:), alongside other structures (e.g.
2861:). The final root to be examined is
2843:), coupled with two agent suffixes,
657:internally, whereas in Gaelic it is
410:used "Britannic" in his influential
300:. During the next few centuries, in
229:. It comprises the extant languages
76:and other western parts of Britain,
6769:
4674:(Chubut Province, Argentina; Welsh)
4098:. "Celtic Studies" series. Dublin:
3954:
741:followed by a vowel was changed to
13:
3897:
3786:URL is to a 2004 prepress version.
3776:. pp. 172–191. Archived from
3681:. pp. 192–214. Archived from
1644:Celtic language decline in England
1199:(th/zh) before a vowel or liquid:
577:
14:
6994:
6199:Festival Interceltique de Lorient
4187:
3975:A History of the English Language
1386:
6949:
5562:
5194:
4737:Scottish Gaelic-medium education
4208:
4194:
3709:. In Tristram, Hildegard (ed.).
3627:
1709:
1481:founding of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms
172:
3929:
3871:
3849:
3827:
3808:
3789:
3731:
3722:
3665:
3650:
3590:
3463:
3454:
3445:
3411:
3391:The Placenames of Roman Britain
3381:
2732:for 'hill', while some such as
1698:, by the 11th century. Western
1567:later had a Goidelic language,
203:ieithoedd Brythonaidd/Prydeinig
4686:(Nova Scotia; Scottish Gaelic)
3769:Britons in Anglo-Saxon England
3675:Britons in Anglo-Saxon England
3359:
3350:
3346:. Online Etymology Dictionary.
3336:
3299:
3153:
2744:) for 'small deep valley' and
949:'shank, lower leg' and Breton
527:; later Greek writers such as
1:
6918:Celtic place names in Galicia
6548:
4757:extinct or ancestor languages
4012:Origini delle lingue d'Europa
3993:Origini delle lingue d'Europa
3900:Vienna English Working Papers
3857:"Online Etymology Dictionary"
3839:American Geological Institute
3780:on 14 March 2016 – via
3389:Rivet, A.; Smith, C. (1979).
3142:
2957:or the Welsh term for river,
1673:
1580:
1488: Mainly Brittonic areas.
559:), "Britannic islands", with
394:. "Brittonic", derived from "
6350:
4855:Ancient Celtic ethnic groups
3913:Tristram, Hildegard (2004).
3880:Brewer's Dictionary of Names
1002:'you' (plural) became Welsh
955:'ankle'. Contrast Old Irish
555:
543:
454:Continental Celtic languages
280:language, spoken throughout
7:
5842:Welsh literature in English
5782:
5208:
4934:Modern Celtic ethnic groups
4845:
4051:The Celtic Roots of English
3919:Studia Anglica Posnaniensia
3472:An Atlas for Celtic Studies
2967:, contains the Celtic word
2666:Place names and river names
1455:, and possibly the extinct
671:'white, fair' became Welsh
568:
503:, probably also from Latin
10:
6999:
5862:Scottish Gaelic literature
5242:Brigantia (ancient region)
3984:
3802:Cambridge University Press
3532:10.1038/s41586-021-04287-4
3116:are particularly evident.
2886:
2880:
2669:
1641:
1637:
1337:, whereas Goidelic alters
1299:'bear' > Welsh/Cornish
594:
549:
537:
211:yethow brythonek/predennek
18:
6940:
6883:
6877:
6872:
6810:
6781:
6764:
6727:
6649:
6640:
6612:
6584:
6556:
6543:
6496:
6461:
6435:
6356:
6345:
6232:
6209:Hebridean Celtic Festival
6146:
6048:
6027:
5996:
5911:
5870:
5837:Welsh-language literature
5792:
5788:
5777:
5739:
5653:
5570:
5557:
5427:
5386:
5320:
5216:
5203:
5192:
5029:
4998:
4932:
4853:
4840:
4807:
4750:
4705:
4658:
4635:
4572:? (possibly hypothetical)
4560:
4476:
4454:
4413:
4390:
4372:
4361:
4352:
4277:
4259:
4057:, Faculty of Humanities.
4042:Weidenfeld & Nicolson
3845:. pp. 128, 249, 613.
3738:Matasović, Ranko (2009).
3315:. ABC-CLIO. p. 306.
3278:. ABC-CLIO. p. 305.
3199:Oxford English Dictionary
1542:middle to late Bronze Age
910:'marrow'. Contrast Irish
877:'smooth'. Contrast Irish
590:linguistic reconstruction
547:), "The Britannic ", and
494:, possibly influenced by
360:(the Welsh settlement in
171:
157:
130:
120:
89:Linguistic classification
87:
43:
35:
30:
6642:Ancient Celtic languages
4122:The Problem of the Picts
3815:Miller, D. Gary (2012).
3702:White, David L. (2010).
3237:"Brittonic, adj. and n."
3194:"Brythonic, adj. and n."
3147:
2883:Brittonicisms in English
2877:Brittonicisms in English
717:. Contrast Middle Irish
225:languages; the other is
6913:Gaulish words in French
6898:Celtic words in English
5152:Scottish New Zealanders
5042:Anglo-Celtic Australian
4580:? (possibly related to
3821:Oxford University Press
3474:. Oxford: Oxbow Books.
3375:Oxford University Press
3112:
3022:
2969:
2953:
2863:
2851:
2845:
2833:
2825:'oak' or 'true' (Bret.
2821:
2803:
2791:
2777:'Britons' still lived.
2771:
2769:'settlement' where the
2765:
2728:
2722:
2598:*ˠw- > ɣw- > gw-
1600:
1597:rather than the native
1313:
1295:
1263:
1231:
1204:
1022:
998:
970:'nostril' became Welsh
966:
957:
933:
888:
855:
719:
707:
667:
630:
623:
561:
512:
499:
490:
484:
367:
5847:Early Irish literature
5728:
5716:
5704:
5692:
5680:
5668:
5132:Scotch-Irish Canadians
5127:Scotch-Irish Americans
4742:Welsh-medium education
4392:Southwestern Brittonic
4010:Alinei, Mario (2000).
3991:Alinei, Mario (1996).
3878:Room, A., ed. (1992).
3470:Koch, John T. (2007).
3135:
3125:
3106:
3100:
3082:
3076:
3051:
3045:
3039:
3028:
3008:
3002:
2959:
2869:
2857:
2839:
2827:
2815:
2809:
2797:
2759:
2738:
1634:language and culture.
1610:
1593:
1510:
1419:Southwestern Brittonic
1376:
1370:
1364:
1358:
1307:
1301:
1281:
1275:
1269:
1255:
1249:
1243:
1237:
1222:
1216:
1210:
1140:
1134:
1128:
1120:
1114:
1106:
1100:
1016:
1010:
1004:
990:
984:
978:
972:
951:
945:
939:
912:
906:
900:
894:
879:
873:
867:
861:
825:
819:
813:
804:
798:
792:
783:
777:
771:
762:
756:
750:
713:
697:
691:
685:
679:
673:
505:
476:
437:
428:
422:
412:A Grammar of Old Irish
390:
354:
261:
218:
210:
202:
142:Southwestern Brittonic
60:, in antiquity all of
6474:Scottish independence
6219:Celtic Media Festival
6102:National music scenes
5328:Proto-Celtic religion
5030:Related ethnic groups
4719:Skol Veythrin Karenza
4659:Celtic-speaking areas
4584:or pre-Indo-European)
4136:. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
4055:University of Joensuu
3715:University of Potsdam
3637:University of Glasgow
3032:in German, though in
2980:constructions (using
2965:River Ouse, Yorkshire
2887:Further information:
2670:Further information:
1478:
1020:. Contrast Old Irish
920:The initial clusters
653:in initial position,
458:Proto-Celtic language
380:, in contrast to the
6798:(Medieval Welsh law)
6408:Scottish nationalism
6058:Ancient Celtic music
5373:Romano-Celtic temple
5182:Welsh New Zealanders
5107:Irish New Zealanders
4159:. pp. 117–160.
4153:The Celtic Languages
3973:van Gelderen, Elly.
3782:University of Sussex
3774:Boydell & Brewer
3711:The Celtic Englishes
3657:Fleming, R. (2011).
3074:, etc.). The German
1362:'hundred' vs. Irish
1322:Nasal assimilation:
1311:, compare Old Irish
1167:Voiceless spirants:
683:(feminine), Cornish
388:from the Welsh word
334:a revival in Cornish
6973:Brittonic languages
6488:Irish republicanism
6469:Breton independence
6448:Scottish devolution
6381:Cornish nationalism
6204:Pan Celtic Festival
6078:Scottish folk music
5832:Scottish literature
5353:Celtic Christianity
5157:Scottish Travellers
5142:Scottish Argentines
4986:Scottish Travellers
4731:Bunscoill Ghaelgagh
4706:Immersive education
4182:. pp. 245–279.
4178:. Leiden / Boston:
4118:Jackson, Kenneth H.
4092:Jackson, Kenneth H.
4072:Hawkes, J. (1973).
3804:. pp. 318–319.
3524:2022Natur.601..588P
3418:Brown, Ian (2007).
3046:Ik ben aan het werk
3040:Ich bin am Arbeiten
3020:, from still older
1706:speak Welsh today.
1670:Henry of Huntingdon
1471:History and origins
645:in Latin texts and
488:and Middle English
477:Britannia~Brittania
187:Brittonic languages
6479:Welsh independence
6443:Cornish devolution
6364:Breton nationalism
6214:Celtic Connections
5817:Cornish literature
5162:Ulster Protestants
5147:Scottish Canadians
5137:Scottish Americans
5047:Anglo-Irish people
4684:Cape Breton Island
4520:Early Modern Irish
4280:Continental Celtic
3843:US Bureau of Mines
3661:. pp. 45–119.
3659:Britain After Rome
3606:. 22 December 2021
3578:. 22 December 2021
3576:University of York
2998:Germanic languages
2684:(place names) and
1903:*-VɣV- > -VjV-
1788:*-VβV- > -VvV-
1511:
1253:, 'cat' vs. Irish
529:Diodorus of Sicily
450:P-Celtic languages
400:Kenneth H. Jackson
382:Goidelic languages
6960:
6959:
6936:
6935:
6868:
6867:
6760:
6759:
6756:
6755:
6719:Cisalpine Gaulish
6539:
6538:
6425:national identity
6420:Welsh nationalism
6413:national identity
6393:Irish nationalism
6341:
6340:
6337:
6336:
6274:Cornish wrestling
6142:
6141:
6063:Breton Folk music
6028:Regional cultures
5871:National cultures
5857:Gaelic literature
5812:Breton literature
5773:
5772:
5769:
5768:
5765:
5764:
5553:
5552:
5465:Chief of the Name
5333:Celtic polytheism
5250:Sub-Roman Britain
5190:
5189:
5077:Irish Australians
5057:Cornish Americans
5016:Scottish diaspora
4763:
4762:
4556:
4555:
4472:
4471:
4415:Western Brittonic
4304:Cisalpine Gaulish
4166:978-0-203-88248-1
4100:Four Courts Press
4034:Chadwick, Nora K.
3823:. pp. 19–20.
3749:978-90-04-17336-1
3518:(7894): 588–594.
3481:978-1-84217-309-1
3431:978-0-7486-1615-2
3165:. Macmillan. 1893
3023:ich am on luvende
3016:comes from older
2658:
2657:
1954:*-xθ- > -(i)θ
1402:Western Brittonic
1067:Voiced plosives
988:. Contrast Irish
943:'ankle', Cornish
695:. Contrast Irish
649:in Greek) became
429:sermo Britannicus
423:lingua Britannica
408:Rudolf Thurneysen
183:
182:
137:Western Brittonic
70:Early Middle Ages
6990:
6978:Iron Age Britain
6953:
6874:
6873:
6766:
6765:
6748:Galwegian Gaelic
6647:
6646:
6545:
6544:
6453:Welsh devolution
6347:
6346:
6099:
6098:
6088:Sean-nós singing
6083:Welsh folk music
6073:Irish folk music
6040:Highland culture
5822:Irish literature
5802:Arthurian Legend
5790:
5789:
5779:
5778:
5731:
5719:
5707:
5695:
5683:
5671:
5651:
5650:
5642:
5641:
5619:Neo-Christianity
5559:
5558:
5490:Gaelic astrology
5450:Celtic festivals
5348:Celtic mythology
5321:Ancient religion
5238:Iron Age Britain
5205:
5204:
5198:
5177:Welsh Argentines
5117:Irish Uruguayans
5112:Irish Travellers
5082:Irish Brazilians
5072:Irish Argentines
5052:Breton Americans
5006:Cornish diaspora
4968:Irish Travellers
4842:
4841:
4834:Celtic languages
4790:
4783:
4776:
4767:
4766:
4545:Galwegian Gaelic
4526:Classical Gaelic
4487:Classical Gaelic
4381:Common Brittonic
4370:
4369:
4359:
4358:
4253:Celtic languages
4246:
4239:
4232:
4223:
4222:
4218:
4213:
4212:
4211:
4204:
4199:
4198:
4197:
4183:
4170:
4147:
4130:Schrijver, Peter
4125:
4113:
4087:
4068:
4045:
4025:
4006:
3979:
3978:
3970:
3961:
3960:
3955:Roberts, Ian G.
3952:
3946:
3945:
3933:
3927:
3926:
3910:
3904:
3903:
3895:
3884:
3883:
3875:
3869:
3868:
3866:
3864:
3859:. Etymonline.com
3853:
3847:
3846:
3831:
3825:
3824:
3812:
3806:
3805:
3793:
3787:
3785:
3763:
3754:
3753:
3735:
3729:
3726:
3720:
3718:
3708:
3699:
3690:
3689:
3688:on 19 July 2011.
3687:
3680:
3669:
3663:
3662:
3654:
3648:
3647:
3645:
3634:
3625:
3616:
3615:
3613:
3611:
3594:
3588:
3587:
3585:
3583:
3568:
3562:
3561:
3543:
3501:
3486:
3485:
3467:
3461:
3458:
3452:
3449:
3443:
3442:
3440:
3438:
3415:
3409:
3408:
3385:
3379:
3378:
3363:
3357:
3354:
3348:
3347:
3340:
3334:
3333:
3331:
3329:
3303:
3297:
3296:
3294:
3292:
3266:
3255:
3254:
3252:
3250:
3233:
3224:
3221:
3212:
3211:
3209:
3207:
3190:
3179:
3178:
3175:Internet Archive
3172:
3170:
3157:
3138:
3128:
3115:
3109:
3103:
3085:
3079:
3054:
3052:Ik zit te werken
3048:
3042:
3031:
3025:
3011:
3005:
2972:
2962:
2956:
2895:J. R. R. Tolkien
2893:Some, including
2872:
2866:
2860:
2854:
2848:
2842:
2836:
2830:
2824:
2818:
2812:
2806:
2800:
2795:'water' (Breton
2794:
2776:
2768:
2762:
2743:
2731:
2725:
2654:
2650:
2644:
2638:
2590:
2586:
2580:
2574:
2526:
2520:
2514:
2494:
2440:
2369:
2349:
2250:
2240:
2135:
2070:
2066:
2060:
2054:
2034:
2019:
2013:
2007:
1976:
1972:
1966:
1960:
1860:
1854:
1848:
1794:
1725:
1724:
1678:
1675:
1666:Germanic peoples
1613:
1603:
1596:
1585:
1582:
1552:suggests that a
1523:Common Brittonic
1503:
1493:
1487:
1397:Common Brittonic
1379:
1374:' Death', Irish
1373:
1367:
1361:
1316:
1310:
1304:
1298:
1284:
1278:
1272:
1266:
1258:
1252:
1246:
1240:
1234:
1225:
1219:
1213:
1207:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1143:
1137:
1131:
1123:
1117:
1109:
1103:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1025:
1019:
1013:
1007:
1001:
993:
987:
981:
975:
969:
960:
954:
948:
942:
936:
915:
909:
903:
897:
891:
882:
876:
870:
864:
858:
849:
845:
841:
838:was lost before
828:
822:
816:
807:
801:
795:
786:
780:
774:
765:
759:
753:
722:
716:
710:
700:
694:
688:
682:
676:
670:
640:
633:
626:
611:Celtic languages
597:
596:
564:
558:
556:nēsoi brettaniai
552:
551:
550:νησοι βρεττανιαι
546:
540:
539:
515:
508:
502:
493:
487:
467:
463:
440:
431:
425:
393:
378:Common Brittonic
374:Celtic languages
359:
278:Common Brittonic
264:
176:
167:
151:
125:Common Brittonic
28:
27:
21:Common Brittonic
6998:
6997:
6993:
6992:
6991:
6989:
6988:
6987:
6983:Ancient Britain
6963:
6962:
6961:
6956:
6932:
6879:
6864:
6806:
6802:Early Scots law
6791:Early Irish law
6777:
6752:
6729:Scottish Gaelic
6723:
6664:Proto-Brittonic
6636:
6632:Beurla Reagaird
6608:
6604:Scottish Gaelic
6580:
6552:
6535:
6531:Columba Project
6511:Celtic Congress
6492:
6457:
6431:
6352:
6333:
6294:Gaelic handball
6284:Gaelic football
6269:Cornish hurling
6228:
6138:
6097:
6044:
6023:
6009:Gaelic clothing
5992:
5907:
5866:
5827:Manx literature
5784:
5761:
5740:Other claimants
5735:
5640:
5590:Celtic Congress
5566:
5549:
5445:Celtic calendar
5423:
5382:
5316:
5212:
5199:
5186:
5172:Welsh Americans
5092:Irish Catholics
5087:Irish Canadians
5067:Irish Americans
5025:
4999:Celtic diaspora
4994:
4928:
4857:
4849:
4836:
4803:
4794:
4764:
4759:
4746:
4701:
4654:
4645:Beurla Reagaird
4631:
4569:Ancient Belgian
4552:
4539:Scottish Gaelic
4499:Primitive Irish
4468:
4450:
4409:
4386:
4365:
4348:
4273:
4255:
4250:
4214:
4209:
4207:
4202:Cornwall portal
4200:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4167:
4144:
4110:
4084:
4065:
4022:
4003:
3987:
3982:
3971:
3964:
3953:
3949:
3934:
3930:
3911:
3907:
3896:
3887:
3876:
3872:
3862:
3860:
3855:
3854:
3850:
3833:
3832:
3828:
3813:
3809:
3794:
3790:
3764:
3757:
3750:
3736:
3732:
3727:
3723:
3706:
3700:
3693:
3685:
3678:
3670:
3666:
3655:
3651:
3643:
3632:
3626:
3619:
3609:
3607:
3596:
3595:
3591:
3581:
3579:
3570:
3569:
3565:
3502:
3489:
3482:
3468:
3464:
3459:
3455:
3450:
3446:
3436:
3434:
3432:
3416:
3412:
3405:
3386:
3382:
3367:Cunliffe, Barry
3364:
3360:
3355:
3351:
3342:
3341:
3337:
3327:
3325:
3323:
3304:
3300:
3290:
3288:
3286:
3267:
3258:
3248:
3246:
3235:
3234:
3227:
3222:
3215:
3205:
3203:
3192:
3191:
3182:
3168:
3166:
3159:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3145:
3096:Scottish Gaelic
3092:
3080:and the French
2982:auxiliary verbs
2924:yan tan tethera
2891:
2885:
2879:
2756:Scottish Gaelic
2678:
2672:Celtic toponymy
2668:
2663:
1731:Late Brittonic
1712:
1676:
1646:
1640:
1620:East of England
1583:
1538:archaeogenetics
1531:Proto-Brittonic
1509:
1501:
1499:
1491:
1489:
1485:
1473:
1437:
1389:
1146:Contrast Irish
1051:Contrast Irish
883:'smooth, slimy'
811:Contrast Irish
580:
578:Characteristics
571:
370:
328:, and probably
310:Scottish Gaelic
245:was derived by
219:yezhoù predenek
179:
163:
45:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6996:
6986:
6985:
6980:
6975:
6958:
6957:
6955:
6954:
6947:
6941:
6938:
6937:
6934:
6933:
6931:
6930:
6925:
6920:
6915:
6910:
6905:
6900:
6895:
6890:
6884:
6881:
6880:
6870:
6869:
6866:
6865:
6863:
6862:
6857:
6852:
6847:
6842:
6837:
6832:
6827:
6822:
6820:Gaelic warfare
6816:
6814:
6808:
6807:
6805:
6804:
6799:
6796:Cyfraith Hywel
6793:
6787:
6785:
6779:
6778:
6762:
6761:
6758:
6757:
6754:
6753:
6751:
6750:
6745:
6743:Deeside Gaelic
6740:
6734:
6732:
6725:
6724:
6722:
6721:
6716:
6714:Hispano-Celtic
6711:
6706:
6701:
6696:
6691:
6686:
6681:
6676:
6671:
6669:Proto-Goidelic
6666:
6661:
6655:
6653:
6644:
6638:
6637:
6635:
6634:
6629:
6624:
6618:
6616:
6610:
6609:
6607:
6606:
6601:
6596:
6590:
6588:
6582:
6581:
6579:
6578:
6573:
6568:
6562:
6560:
6554:
6553:
6541:
6540:
6537:
6536:
6534:
6533:
6528:
6523:
6521:Celtic society
6518:
6516:Celtic Revival
6513:
6508:
6502:
6500:
6494:
6493:
6491:
6490:
6484:United Ireland
6481:
6476:
6471:
6465:
6463:
6459:
6458:
6456:
6455:
6450:
6445:
6439:
6437:
6433:
6432:
6430:
6429:
6428:
6427:
6417:
6416:
6415:
6405:
6400:
6395:
6390:
6389:
6388:
6378:
6377:
6376:
6371:
6360:
6358:
6354:
6353:
6343:
6342:
6339:
6338:
6335:
6334:
6332:
6331:
6329:Welsh handball
6326:
6321:
6316:
6311:
6309:Highland games
6306:
6301:
6296:
6291:
6281:
6276:
6271:
6266:
6259:
6254:
6249:
6242:
6236:
6234:
6230:
6229:
6227:
6226:
6221:
6216:
6211:
6206:
6201:
6196:
6195:
6194:
6185:
6176:
6167:
6152:
6150:
6144:
6143:
6140:
6139:
6137:
6136:
6131:
6126:
6121:
6116:
6111:
6105:
6103:
6096:
6095:
6090:
6085:
6080:
6075:
6070:
6065:
6060:
6054:
6052:
6046:
6045:
6043:
6042:
6037:
6035:Gaelic culture
6031:
6029:
6025:
6024:
6022:
6021:
6016:
6014:Highland dress
6011:
6006:
6000:
5998:
5994:
5993:
5991:
5990:
5985:
5980:
5978:Pictish stones
5975:
5970:
5965:
5960:
5955:
5950:
5945:
5940:
5935:
5934:
5933:
5923:
5917:
5915:
5909:
5908:
5906:
5905:
5900:
5895:
5890:
5885:
5880:
5874:
5872:
5868:
5867:
5865:
5864:
5859:
5854:
5849:
5844:
5839:
5834:
5829:
5824:
5819:
5814:
5809:
5804:
5798:
5796:
5786:
5785:
5775:
5774:
5771:
5770:
5767:
5766:
5763:
5762:
5760:
5759:
5754:
5749:
5743:
5741:
5737:
5736:
5734:
5733:
5721:
5709:
5697:
5685:
5673:
5660:
5658:
5648:
5639:
5638:
5637:
5636:
5631:
5621:
5616:
5615:
5614:
5604:
5603:
5602:
5597:
5592:
5582:
5580:Celtic nations
5577:
5575:Celtic Revival
5571:
5568:
5567:
5555:
5554:
5551:
5550:
5548:
5547:
5542:
5532:
5527:
5522:
5517:
5512:
5507:
5502:
5497:
5492:
5487:
5482:
5477:
5472:
5467:
5462:
5457:
5452:
5447:
5442:
5437:
5431:
5429:
5425:
5424:
5422:
5421:
5416:
5411:
5406:
5401:
5396:
5390:
5388:
5384:
5383:
5381:
5380:
5375:
5370:
5365:
5360:
5355:
5350:
5345:
5343:Celtic Animism
5340:
5338:Celtic deities
5335:
5330:
5324:
5322:
5318:
5317:
5315:
5314:
5309:
5304:
5299:
5297:Cisalpine Gaul
5294:
5293:
5292:
5287:
5269:
5260:
5235:
5226:
5224:Gaelic Ireland
5220:
5218:
5214:
5213:
5201:
5200:
5193:
5191:
5188:
5187:
5185:
5184:
5179:
5174:
5169:
5164:
5159:
5154:
5149:
5144:
5139:
5134:
5129:
5124:
5122:Manx Americans
5119:
5114:
5109:
5104:
5099:
5097:Irish Chileans
5094:
5089:
5084:
5079:
5074:
5069:
5064:
5062:English people
5059:
5054:
5049:
5044:
5039:
5033:
5031:
5027:
5026:
5024:
5023:
5021:Welsh diaspora
5018:
5013:
5011:Irish diaspora
5008:
5002:
5000:
4996:
4995:
4993:
4992:
4991:
4990:
4989:
4988:
4977:
4972:
4971:
4970:
4954:
4949:
4944:
4938:
4936:
4930:
4929:
4927:
4926:
4921:
4916:
4911:
4906:
4901:
4896:
4891:
4886:
4881:
4876:
4871:
4865:
4863:
4851:
4850:
4838:
4837:
4818:Celtic studies
4810:Celtic nations
4808:
4805:
4804:
4793:
4792:
4785:
4778:
4770:
4761:
4760:
4751:
4748:
4747:
4745:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4728:
4722:
4716:
4709:
4707:
4703:
4702:
4700:
4699:
4693:
4687:
4681:
4675:
4669:
4666:Lower Brittany
4662:
4660:
4656:
4655:
4653:
4652:
4647:
4641:
4639:
4633:
4632:
4630:
4629:
4626:Paleo-Hispanic
4617:
4605:
4593:
4585:
4573:
4564:
4562:
4558:
4557:
4554:
4553:
4551:
4550:
4549:
4548:
4536:
4531:
4530:
4529:
4516:
4509:
4502:
4490:
4482:
4480:
4474:
4473:
4470:
4469:
4467:
4466:
4458:
4456:
4452:
4451:
4449:
4448:
4447:
4446:
4439:
4427:
4419:
4417:
4411:
4410:
4408:
4407:
4402:
4396:
4394:
4388:
4387:
4385:
4384:
4376:
4374:
4367:
4356:
4354:Insular Celtic
4350:
4349:
4347:
4346:
4339:
4332:
4331:
4330:
4323:
4313:Hispano-Celtic
4309:
4308:
4307:
4293:
4285:
4283:
4275:
4274:
4272:
4271:
4263:
4261:
4257:
4256:
4249:
4248:
4241:
4234:
4226:
4220:
4219:
4205:
4189:
4188:External links
4186:
4185:
4184:
4171:
4165:
4148:
4142:
4126:
4114:
4108:
4088:
4082:
4069:
4063:
4046:
4026:
4020:
4007:
4001:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3980:
3962:
3947:
3928:
3905:
3885:
3870:
3848:
3826:
3807:
3788:
3755:
3748:
3730:
3721:
3691:
3664:
3649:
3617:
3589:
3563:
3487:
3480:
3462:
3460:Driscoll, 2011
3453:
3444:
3430:
3410:
3404:978-0713420777
3403:
3395:B. T. Batsford
3380:
3371:Britain Begins
3358:
3349:
3335:
3321:
3298:
3284:
3256:
3225:
3223:Jackson, p. 3.
3213:
3180:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3121:Irish language
3091:
3088:
3009:Yr wyf yn caru
2881:Main article:
2878:
2875:
2783:der-/dar-/dur-
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2656:
2655:
2645:
2639:
2633:
2630:
2626:
2625:
2622:
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2609:
2608:
2605:
2602:
2599:
2596:
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2562:
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2544:
2541:
2538:
2535:
2532:
2528:
2527:
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2515:
2509:
2506:
2502:
2501:
2498:
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2464:
2461:
2458:
2455:
2452:
2448:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2435:
2432:
2428:
2427:
2424:
2421:
2418:
2415:
2411:
2410:
2407:
2404:
2401:
2398:
2394:
2393:
2390:
2387:
2384:
2381:
2377:
2376:
2373:
2370:
2364:
2361:
2357:
2356:
2353:
2350:
2344:
2341:
2337:
2336:
2333:
2330:
2327:
2326:*-ɸ- > -f-
2324:
2320:
2319:
2316:
2313:
2310:
2307:
2303:
2302:
2299:
2296:
2293:
2290:
2286:
2285:
2282:
2279:
2276:
2273:
2269:
2268:
2265:
2262:
2259:
2256:
2252:
2251:
2245:
2242:
2235:
2232:
2228:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2215:
2211:
2210:
2207:
2204:
2201:
2198:
2194:
2193:
2190:
2187:
2184:
2181:
2177:
2176:
2173:
2170:
2167:
2164:
2160:
2159:
2156:
2153:
2150:
2147:
2143:
2142:
2139:
2136:
2130:
2127:
2123:
2122:
2119:
2116:
2113:
2110:
2106:
2105:
2102:
2099:
2096:
2093:
2089:
2088:
2085:
2082:
2079:
2076:
2072:
2071:
2061:
2055:
2049:
2046:
2042:
2041:
2038:
2035:
2029:
2026:
2022:
2021:
2014:
2008:
2002:
1999:
1995:
1994:
1991:
1988:
1985:
1982:
1978:
1977:
1967:
1961:
1955:
1952:
1948:
1947:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1935:
1931:
1930:
1927:
1924:
1921:
1918:
1914:
1913:
1910:
1907:
1904:
1901:
1897:
1896:
1893:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1880:
1879:
1876:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1863:
1862:
1855:
1849:
1843:
1840:
1836:
1835:
1832:
1829:
1826:
1823:
1819:
1818:
1815:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1802:
1801:
1798:
1795:
1789:
1786:
1782:
1781:
1778:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1765:
1764:
1761:
1758:
1755:
1752:
1748:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1729:
1711:
1708:
1642:Main article:
1639:
1636:
1550:Barry Cunliffe
1500:
1490:
1484:
1472:
1469:
1436:
1435:
1434:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1426:
1416:
1415:
1414:
1409:
1393:
1388:
1387:Classification
1385:
1384:
1383:
1382:
1381:
1327:
1320:
1319:
1318:
1317:
1288:
1287:
1286:
1259:
1227:
1226:, 'tree trunk'
1165:
1164:
1163:
1162:
1144:
1124:
1110:
1065:
1064:
1063:
1049:
1029:
1028:
1027:
1026:
994:
962:
918:
917:
916:
884:
832:
831:
830:
809:
788:
767:
727:
726:
725:
724:
702:
635:
602:as opposed to
579:
576:
570:
567:
419:Medieval Latin
369:
366:
223:Insular Celtic
195:British Celtic
181:
180:
177:
169:
168:
161:
155:
154:
153:
152:
144:
139:
132:
128:
127:
122:
121:Proto-language
118:
117:
116:
115:
114:
113:
112:
111:
104:Insular Celtic
91:
85:
84:
47:
41:
40:
33:
32:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6995:
6984:
6981:
6979:
6976:
6974:
6971:
6970:
6968:
6952:
6948:
6946:
6943:
6942:
6939:
6929:
6928:– in Portugal
6926:
6924:
6921:
6919:
6916:
6914:
6911:
6909:
6908:– in Galician
6906:
6904:
6901:
6899:
6896:
6894:
6891:
6889:
6886:
6885:
6882:
6875:
6871:
6861:
6858:
6856:
6853:
6851:
6848:
6846:
6843:
6841:
6838:
6836:
6833:
6831:
6828:
6826:
6823:
6821:
6818:
6817:
6815:
6813:
6809:
6803:
6800:
6797:
6794:
6792:
6789:
6788:
6786:
6784:
6780:
6776:
6772:
6767:
6763:
6749:
6746:
6744:
6741:
6739:
6736:
6735:
6733:
6730:
6726:
6720:
6717:
6715:
6712:
6710:
6707:
6705:
6702:
6700:
6697:
6695:
6692:
6690:
6687:
6685:
6682:
6680:
6677:
6675:
6672:
6670:
6667:
6665:
6662:
6660:
6657:
6656:
6654:
6652:
6648:
6645:
6643:
6639:
6633:
6630:
6628:
6625:
6623:
6620:
6619:
6617:
6615:
6611:
6605:
6602:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6592:
6591:
6589:
6587:
6583:
6577:
6574:
6572:
6569:
6567:
6564:
6563:
6561:
6559:
6555:
6551:
6546:
6542:
6532:
6529:
6527:
6524:
6522:
6519:
6517:
6514:
6512:
6509:
6507:
6506:Celtic League
6504:
6503:
6501:
6499:
6498:Pan-Celticism
6495:
6489:
6485:
6482:
6480:
6477:
6475:
6472:
6470:
6467:
6466:
6464:
6460:
6454:
6451:
6449:
6446:
6444:
6441:
6440:
6438:
6434:
6426:
6423:
6422:
6421:
6418:
6414:
6411:
6410:
6409:
6406:
6404:
6401:
6399:
6396:
6394:
6391:
6387:
6384:
6383:
6382:
6379:
6375:
6374:reunification
6372:
6370:
6367:
6366:
6365:
6362:
6361:
6359:
6355:
6348:
6344:
6330:
6327:
6325:
6322:
6320:
6317:
6315:
6312:
6310:
6307:
6305:
6302:
6300:
6297:
6295:
6292:
6289:
6285:
6282:
6280:
6277:
6275:
6272:
6270:
6267:
6265:
6264:
6260:
6258:
6255:
6253:
6250:
6248:
6247:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6237:
6235:
6231:
6225:
6222:
6220:
6217:
6215:
6212:
6210:
6207:
6205:
6202:
6200:
6197:
6193:
6189:
6186:
6184:
6180:
6177:
6175:
6171:
6168:
6166:
6162:
6159:
6158:
6157:
6154:
6153:
6151:
6149:
6145:
6135:
6132:
6130:
6127:
6125:
6122:
6120:
6117:
6115:
6112:
6110:
6107:
6106:
6104:
6100:
6094:
6091:
6089:
6086:
6084:
6081:
6079:
6076:
6074:
6071:
6069:
6066:
6064:
6061:
6059:
6056:
6055:
6053:
6051:
6047:
6041:
6038:
6036:
6033:
6032:
6030:
6026:
6020:
6017:
6015:
6012:
6010:
6007:
6005:
6002:
6001:
5999:
5995:
5989:
5988:Triple spiral
5986:
5984:
5981:
5979:
5976:
5974:
5971:
5969:
5966:
5964:
5961:
5959:
5956:
5954:
5951:
5949:
5946:
5944:
5941:
5939:
5936:
5932:
5929:
5928:
5927:
5924:
5922:
5919:
5918:
5916:
5914:
5910:
5904:
5901:
5899:
5896:
5894:
5891:
5889:
5886:
5884:
5881:
5879:
5876:
5875:
5873:
5869:
5863:
5860:
5858:
5855:
5853:
5850:
5848:
5845:
5843:
5840:
5838:
5835:
5833:
5830:
5828:
5825:
5823:
5820:
5818:
5815:
5813:
5810:
5808:
5807:Bardic Poetry
5805:
5803:
5800:
5799:
5797:
5795:
5791:
5787:
5780:
5776:
5758:
5755:
5753:
5750:
5748:
5745:
5744:
5742:
5738:
5730:
5725:
5722:
5718:
5713:
5710:
5706:
5701:
5698:
5694:
5689:
5686:
5682:
5677:
5674:
5670:
5665:
5662:
5661:
5659:
5656:
5655:Celtic League
5652:
5649:
5647:
5643:
5635:
5632:
5630:
5627:
5626:
5625:
5622:
5620:
5617:
5613:
5610:
5609:
5608:
5605:
5601:
5598:
5596:
5595:Celtic League
5593:
5591:
5588:
5587:
5586:
5585:Pan-Celticism
5583:
5581:
5578:
5576:
5573:
5572:
5569:
5565:
5560:
5556:
5546:
5543:
5540:
5536:
5533:
5531:
5528:
5526:
5523:
5521:
5518:
5516:
5513:
5511:
5508:
5506:
5503:
5501:
5498:
5496:
5493:
5491:
5488:
5486:
5485:Gaelicisation
5483:
5481:
5478:
5476:
5473:
5471:
5468:
5466:
5463:
5461:
5460:Celticisation
5458:
5456:
5453:
5451:
5448:
5446:
5443:
5441:
5438:
5436:
5433:
5432:
5430:
5426:
5420:
5417:
5415:
5412:
5410:
5407:
5405:
5402:
5400:
5397:
5395:
5392:
5391:
5389:
5385:
5379:
5376:
5374:
5371:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5359:
5356:
5354:
5351:
5349:
5346:
5344:
5341:
5339:
5336:
5334:
5331:
5329:
5326:
5325:
5323:
5319:
5313:
5310:
5308:
5305:
5303:
5300:
5298:
5295:
5291:
5288:
5286:
5282:
5278:
5275:
5274:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5264:
5263:Iron Age Gaul
5261:
5259:
5255:
5251:
5247:
5246:Roman Britain
5243:
5239:
5236:
5234:
5230:
5227:
5225:
5222:
5221:
5219:
5215:
5211:
5206:
5202:
5197:
5183:
5180:
5178:
5175:
5173:
5170:
5168:
5165:
5163:
5160:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5150:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5140:
5138:
5135:
5133:
5130:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5102:Irish Mexican
5100:
5098:
5095:
5093:
5090:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5075:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5034:
5032:
5028:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5003:
5001:
4997:
4987:
4983:
4982:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4969:
4965:
4964:
4963:
4960:
4959:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4939:
4937:
4935:
4931:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4915:
4912:
4910:
4907:
4905:
4902:
4900:
4897:
4895:
4892:
4890:
4887:
4885:
4882:
4880:
4877:
4875:
4872:
4870:
4867:
4866:
4864:
4861:
4856:
4852:
4848:
4843:
4839:
4835:
4831:
4827:
4826:Celtic tribes
4823:
4819:
4815:
4811:
4806:
4802:
4798:
4791:
4786:
4784:
4779:
4777:
4772:
4771:
4768:
4758:
4754:
4749:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4735:
4732:
4729:
4726:
4723:
4720:
4717:
4714:
4711:
4710:
4708:
4704:
4697:
4696:Y Fro Gymraeg
4694:
4691:
4690:Gàidhealtachd
4688:
4685:
4682:
4679:
4676:
4673:
4670:
4667:
4664:
4663:
4661:
4657:
4651:
4648:
4646:
4643:
4642:
4640:
4638:
4634:
4627:
4623:
4622:
4618:
4615:
4611:
4610:
4606:
4603:
4599:
4598:
4594:
4591:
4590:
4586:
4583:
4579:
4578:
4574:
4571:
4570:
4566:
4565:
4563:
4559:
4547:
4546:
4542:
4541:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4528:
4527:
4522:
4521:
4517:
4515:
4514:
4510:
4508:
4507:
4503:
4501:
4500:
4496:
4495:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4488:
4484:
4483:
4481:
4479:
4475:
4465:
4464:
4460:
4459:
4457:
4453:
4445:
4444:
4440:
4438:
4437:
4433:
4432:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4425:
4421:
4420:
4418:
4416:
4412:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4397:
4395:
4393:
4389:
4383:
4382:
4378:
4377:
4375:
4373:Reconstructed
4371:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4351:
4345:
4344:
4340:
4338:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4328:
4324:
4322:
4321:
4317:
4316:
4315:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4305:
4301:
4300:
4299:
4298:
4294:
4292:
4291:
4287:
4286:
4284:
4282:
4281:
4276:
4270:
4269:
4265:
4264:
4262:
4260:Reconstructed
4258:
4254:
4247:
4242:
4240:
4235:
4233:
4228:
4227:
4224:
4217:
4206:
4203:
4192:
4181:
4177:
4172:
4168:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4149:
4145:
4143:90-5183-820-4
4139:
4135:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4109:1-85182-140-6
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4083:0-09-116580-6
4079:
4075:
4070:
4066:
4064:952-458-164-7
4060:
4056:
4052:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4038:Celtic Realms
4035:
4031:
4030:Dillon, Myles
4027:
4023:
4021:9788815073860
4017:
4013:
4008:
4004:
4002:9788815077158
3998:
3994:
3989:
3988:
3976:
3969:
3967:
3958:
3951:
3943:
3939:
3932:
3924:
3920:
3916:
3909:
3901:
3894:
3892:
3890:
3881:
3874:
3858:
3852:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3830:
3822:
3818:
3811:
3803:
3799:
3792:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3770:
3762:
3760:
3751:
3745:
3741:
3734:
3725:
3716:
3712:
3705:
3698:
3696:
3684:
3677:
3676:
3668:
3660:
3653:
3642:
3638:
3631:
3624:
3622:
3605:
3604:
3599:
3593:
3577:
3573:
3567:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3512:
3507:
3500:
3498:
3496:
3494:
3492:
3483:
3477:
3473:
3466:
3457:
3451:Jackson, 1955
3448:
3433:
3427:
3423:
3422:
3414:
3406:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3384:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3362:
3353:
3345:
3339:
3324:
3318:
3314:
3313:
3308:
3307:Koch, John T.
3302:
3287:
3281:
3277:
3276:
3271:
3270:Koch, John T.
3265:
3263:
3261:
3244:
3243:
3238:
3232:
3230:
3220:
3218:
3201:
3200:
3195:
3189:
3187:
3185:
3176:
3164:
3163:
3156:
3152:
3140:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3114:
3108:
3102:
3097:
3087:
3084:
3083:n'est-ce pas?
3078:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3060:tag questions
3056:
3053:
3047:
3041:
3035:
3030:
3024:
3019:
3018:I am a-loving
3015:
3010:
3004:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2974:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2955:
2950:
2944:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2925:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2890:
2884:
2874:
2871:
2865:
2859:
2853:
2847:
2841:
2835:
2829:
2823:
2817:
2811:
2805:
2799:
2793:
2788:
2784:
2778:
2775:
2774:
2767:
2761:
2760:Dùn Breatainn
2757:
2753:
2749:
2748:
2742:
2741:
2735:
2730:
2724:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2677:
2673:
2646:
2640:
2634:
2631:
2628:
2627:
2623:
2620:
2617:
2614:
2611:
2610:
2606:
2603:
2600:
2597:
2594:
2593:
2582:
2576:
2570:
2567:
2564:
2563:
2559:
2556:
2553:
2550:
2547:
2546:
2542:
2539:
2536:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2522:
2516:
2510:
2507:
2504:
2503:
2499:
2496:
2490:
2487:
2484:
2483:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2462:
2459:
2456:
2453:
2450:
2449:
2445:
2442:
2436:
2433:
2430:
2429:
2425:
2422:
2419:
2416:
2413:
2412:
2409:h or lost, s
2408:
2405:
2402:
2399:
2396:
2395:
2391:
2388:
2385:
2382:
2379:
2378:
2374:
2371:
2365:
2362:
2359:
2358:
2354:
2351:
2345:
2342:
2339:
2338:
2334:
2331:
2328:
2325:
2322:
2321:
2317:
2314:
2311:
2308:
2305:
2304:
2300:
2297:
2294:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2283:
2280:
2277:
2274:
2271:
2270:
2266:
2263:
2260:
2257:
2254:
2253:
2246:
2243:
2236:
2233:
2230:
2229:
2225:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2212:
2208:
2205:
2202:
2199:
2196:
2195:
2191:
2188:
2185:
2182:
2179:
2178:
2174:
2171:
2168:
2165:
2162:
2161:
2157:
2154:
2151:
2148:
2145:
2144:
2140:
2137:
2131:
2128:
2125:
2124:
2120:
2117:
2114:
2111:
2108:
2107:
2103:
2100:
2097:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2086:
2083:
2080:
2077:
2074:
2073:
2062:
2056:
2050:
2047:
2044:
2043:
2039:
2036:
2030:
2027:
2024:
2023:
2015:
2009:
2003:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1992:
1989:
1986:
1983:
1980:
1979:
1968:
1962:
1956:
1953:
1950:
1949:
1945:
1942:
1939:
1936:
1933:
1932:
1928:
1925:
1922:
1919:
1916:
1915:
1911:
1908:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1898:
1894:
1891:
1888:
1885:
1882:
1881:
1877:
1874:
1871:
1868:
1865:
1864:
1856:
1850:
1844:
1841:
1838:
1837:
1833:
1830:
1827:
1824:
1821:
1820:
1816:
1813:
1810:
1807:
1804:
1803:
1799:
1796:
1790:
1787:
1784:
1783:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1753:
1750:
1749:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1730:
1728:Proto-Celtic
1727:
1726:
1723:
1720:
1719:sound changes
1717:
1710:Sound changes
1707:
1705:
1701:
1700:Herefordshire
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1680:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1645:
1635:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1615:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1595:
1589:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1563:, though the
1562:
1561:Great Britain
1557:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1534:
1532:
1528:
1527:Old Brittonic
1524:
1520:
1516:
1507:
1504: Mainly
1497:
1494: Mainly
1482:
1477:
1468:
1466:
1465:Indo-European
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1421:
1420:
1417:
1413:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1404:
1403:
1400:
1399:
1398:
1395:
1394:
1392:
1378:
1372:
1366:
1360:
1355:
1354:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1325:
1324:
1323:
1315:
1309:
1303:
1297:
1292:
1291:
1289:
1283:
1277:
1271:
1265:
1260:
1257:
1251:
1245:
1239:
1233:
1228:
1224:
1218:
1212:
1206:
1201:
1200:
1170:
1169:
1168:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1142:
1136:
1130:
1125:
1122:
1116:
1111:
1108:
1102:
1097:
1096:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1037:
1036:
1034:
1033:
1032:
1024:
1018:
1012:
1006:
1000:
995:
992:
986:
980:
974:
968:
963:
961:'heel, ankle'
959:
953:
947:
941:
937:became Welsh
935:
930:
929:
927:
926:f-, fr-, chw-
923:
922:sp-, sr-, sw-
919:
914:
908:
904:, and Breton
902:
896:
892:became Welsh
890:
885:
881:
875:
869:
863:
859:became Welsh
857:
852:
851:
837:
833:
827:
821:
815:
810:
806:
800:
794:
789:
785:
779:
773:
768:
764:
758:
752:
747:
746:
744:
740:
736:
735:
734:
732:
721:
715:
709:
704:Proto-Celtic
703:
699:
693:
687:
681:
677:(masculine),
675:
669:
664:Proto-Celtic
663:
662:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
636:
632:
625:
619:
618:
617:
614:
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311:
307:
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299:
295:
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287:
283:
282:Great Britain
279:
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263:
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107:
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102:
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100:
97:
96:
95:
94:Indo-European
92:
90:
86:
83:
79:
75:
71:
68:, during the
67:
63:
62:Great Britain
59:
55:
51:
48:
42:
38:
34:
29:
26:
22:
6945:Celts portal
6903:– in Spanish
6738:Arran Gaelic
6659:Proto-Celtic
6627:Bungi Creole
6557:
6526:Celtic unity
6462:Independence
6261:
6244:
6068:Gaelic music
6004:Celtic Dress
5953:High crosses
5943:Celtic cross
5921:Bell shrines
5852:Irish annals
5634:Neo-Druidism
5629:Celtic Wicca
5600:Celtic union
5564:Modern Celts
5455:Celtic women
5358:Celtic Rites
5307:Transylvania
5167:Ulster Scots
5037:Anglo-Celtic
4884:Celtiberians
4829:
4821:
4813:
4801:modern Celts
4752:
4624:? (possibly
4619:
4612:? (possibly
4607:
4600:? (possibly
4595:
4587:
4575:
4567:
4543:
4524:
4518:
4513:Middle Irish
4511:
4504:
4497:
4485:
4461:
4443:Middle Welsh
4441:
4434:
4422:
4379:
4362:
4341:
4334:
4325:
4318:
4311:
4302:
4295:
4288:
4278:
4268:Proto-Celtic
4266:
4216:Wales portal
4175:
4152:
4133:
4121:
4095:
4073:
4050:
4037:
4011:
3992:
3974:
3956:
3950:
3937:
3931:
3922:
3918:
3908:
3899:
3879:
3873:
3861:. Retrieved
3851:
3834:
3829:
3816:
3810:
3797:
3791:
3778:the original
3768:
3739:
3733:
3724:
3710:
3683:the original
3674:
3667:
3658:
3652:
3636:
3628:Rhys, Guto.
3608:. Retrieved
3601:
3592:
3580:. Retrieved
3566:
3515:
3509:
3471:
3465:
3456:
3447:
3435:. Retrieved
3420:
3413:
3390:
3383:
3377:. p. 4.
3370:
3361:
3352:
3338:
3326:. Retrieved
3311:
3301:
3289:. Retrieved
3274:
3247:. Retrieved
3240:
3204:. Retrieved
3197:
3173:– via
3167:. Retrieved
3161:
3155:
3118:
3093:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3057:
3033:
3017:
3013:
2989:
2985:
2978:periphrastic
2975:
2948:
2945:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2892:
2786:
2782:
2779:
2745:
2733:
2679:
2312:nt, nh /n̥/
1714:The regular
1713:
1681:
1647:
1628:Anglo-Saxons
1616:
1558:
1535:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1512:
1438:
1390:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1321:
1267:> Breton
1235:> Breton
1208:> Breton
1183:(tt) became
1166:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1087:in Breton),
1060:
1056:
1052:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1030:
925:
921:
835:
829:'similarity'
742:
738:
730:
728:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
615:
606:
599:
583:
581:
572:
518:
470:
447:
443:John T. Koch
416:
411:
403:
371:
344:speech. The
290:Roman period
275:
242:
194:
190:
186:
184:
131:Subdivisions
108:
46:distribution
25:
6860:Trimarcisia
6845:Gallóglaigh
6674:Celtiberian
6398:Isle of Man
6357:Nationalism
6246:Bataireacht
6165:Calan Gaeaf
6124:Isle of Man
5968:Leaf-crowns
5958:Insular art
5931:Dragonesque
5893:Isle of Man
5747:Nova Scotia
5700:Isle of Man
5624:Neopaganism
5368:Monasticism
4879:Caledonians
4366:(Brythonic)
4320:Celtiberian
3077:nicht wahr?
3014:I am loving
2754:– from the
1716:consonantal
1677: 1129
1654:Isle of Man
1632:Old English
1565:Isle of Man
1014:and Breton
982:and Breton
871:and Breton
796:'ancient',
775:'ancient',
496:Old English
346:Isle of Man
306:Old English
284:during the
267:Anglo-Saxon
241:. The name
66:Isle of Man
6967:Categories
6923:– in Italy
6825:Ceathairne
6689:Gallaecian
6319:Road bowls
6224:Eisteddfod
6192:Calan Awst
6188:Lughnasadh
5794:Literature
5657:definition
5480:Clan chief
5267:Roman Gaul
5258:Hen Ogledd
4984:including
4966:including
4692:(Scotland)
4668:(Brittany)
4621:Tartessian
4597:Lusitanian
4327:Gallaecian
4040:. London:
3942:De Gruyter
3610:21 January
3582:21 January
3322:1851094407
3285:1851094407
3242:OED Online
3143:References
3131:anglicised
3110:, Cumbric
3034:colloquial
2858:Deru̯entiō
2801:, Cumbric
2718:Colchester
2710:Dorchester
1704:Shropshire
1584: 410
1579:(AD 43 to
1273:, Cornish
1241:, Cornish
1214:, Cornish
1195:(ch/c'h),
1031:Lenition:
1008:, Cornish
976:, Cornish
898:, Cornish
865:, Cornish
544:Prettanikē
538:πρεττανική
481:Old French
44:Geographic
6855:Redshanks
6830:Ceithearn
6558:Brittonic
6550:Languages
6183:Calan Mai
6174:Gŵyl Fair
6148:Festivals
5963:Interlace
5387:Mythology
5378:Practices
5290:Gallaecia
4904:Galatians
4755:indicate
4725:Gaelscoil
4721:(Cornish)
4680:(Ireland)
4678:Gaeltacht
4614:Tyrsenian
4506:Old Irish
4436:Old Welsh
4363:Brittonic
4157:Routledge
3925:: 87–110.
3558:245509501
3437:5 January
3344:"Britain"
3072:won't we?
3068:isn't he?
3064:aren't I?
3029:Ich liebe
2864:went/uent
2752:Dumbarton
2686:hydronyms
1606:River Usk
1515:Brittonic
1368:; Breton
1305:, Breton
1285:, 'cheek'
880:sleamhain
808:'similar'
787:'similar'
766:'similar'
689:, Breton
641:(written
506:Brittania
485:Bretaigne
438:Brythoneg
386:John Rhys
362:Patagonia
255:from the
253:John Rhys
250:Celticist
243:Brythonic
191:Brythonic
159:Glottolog
109:Brittonic
31:Brittonic
6840:Gaesatae
6731:dialects
6694:Lepontic
6684:Galatian
6586:Goidelic
6436:Autonomy
6351:Politics
6304:Rounders
6156:Calendar
6129:Scotland
6114:Cornwall
6109:Brittany
5997:Clothing
5948:Knotwork
5926:Brooches
5898:Scotland
5883:Cornwall
5878:Brittany
5757:Y Wladfa
5712:Scotland
5676:Cornwall
5664:Brittany
5515:Seanchaí
5510:Tanistry
5470:Derbfine
5399:Scottish
5285:Brittany
5281:Domnonée
5277:Armorica
5272:Britonia
5254:Dumnonia
5229:Dálriata
4914:Lepontii
4909:Helvetii
4894:Gallaeci
4715:(Breton)
4672:Y Wladfa
4589:Ligurian
4478:Goidelic
4336:Lepontic
4290:Galatian
4132:(1995).
4094:(1994).
4036:(1967).
3728:op. cit.
3641:Archived
3603:BBC News
3550:34937049
3369:(2012).
3309:(2006).
3272:(2006).
3104:= Welsh
2984:such as
2831:, Cumb.
2807:, Welsh
2702:Aberdeen
2694:Penicuik
2682:toponyms
2020:or lost
1861:or lost
1688:Cornwall
1650:Scotland
1624:Armorica
1554:Goidelic
1536:A major
1506:Goidelic
1279:, Welsh
1247:, Welsh
1220:, Welsh
1112:Cornish
834:Initial
823:'long',
802:'long',
781:'long',
769:Cornish
760:'long',
737:Initial
729:Initial
604:Goidelic
588:because
585:P-Celtic
569:Evidence
525:Massalia
491:Breteyne
460:element
432:and the
356:Y Wladfa
338:Goidelic
298:Britonia
294:Brittany
286:Iron Age
227:Goidelic
165:bryt1239
78:Pictland
64:and the
58:Brittany
54:Cornwall
6893:Deities
6850:Hobelar
6812:Warfare
6775:Warfare
6709:Pictish
6704:Cumbric
6679:Gaulish
6651:Extinct
6571:Cornish
6369:history
6314:Hurling
6288:Ladies'
6279:Curling
6252:Camogie
6179:Beltane
6161:Samhain
6119:Ireland
5888:Ireland
5783:Culture
5752:England
5688:Ireland
5646:Nations
5545:Coinage
5535:Warfare
5428:Society
5419:Cornish
5409:British
5312:Galatia
5302:Balkans
5210:Studies
4947:Cornish
4942:Bretons
4919:Noricum
4874:Britons
4847:Peoples
4753:Italics
4727:(Irish)
4698:(Wales)
4609:Rhaetic
4582:Rhaetic
4577:Camunic
4561:Unknown
4463:Pictish
4455:Pictish
4424:Cumbric
4405:Cornish
4297:Gaulish
3985:Sources
3541:8889665
3520:Bibcode
3328:18 July
3291:18 July
3249:17 July
3206:17 July
2937:gunnies
2933:costean
2929:Cumbria
2822:deru̯o-
2612:*-VwV-
2400:*h-, s
2329:ff /f/
2163:*-VlV-
2075:*-VkV-
1946:(lost)
1943:(lost)
1940:(lost)
1937:(lost)
1929:(lost)
1926:(lost)
1923:(lost)
1920:(lost)
1912:(lost)
1909:(lost)
1906:(lost)
1900:*-VgV-
1842:*-VðV-
1839:*-VdV-
1785:*-VbV-
1740:Cornish
1658:England
1638:Decline
1573:England
1519:British
1496:Pictish
1457:Pictish
1453:Cumbric
1445:Cornish
1424:Cornish
1407:Cumbric
1356:Breton
1187:(later
1126:Breton
1075:(later
924:became
826:samhail
817:'old',
790:Breton
754:'old',
701:'fair'.
637:Celtic
562:Pretani
521:Pytheas
513:Pritanī
391:Brython
330:Pictish
326:Cumbric
318:Cornish
262:Brython
235:Cornish
207:Cornish
147:Pictish
82:Galicia
6888:Tribes
6835:Fianna
6622:Shelta
6566:Breton
6386:status
6324:Shinty
6299:Gouren
6263:Cnapan
6257:Cammag
6170:Imbolc
6093:Carnyx
6019:Tartan
5938:Carnyx
5705:Mannin
5681:Kernow
5669:Breizh
5539:Gaelic
5495:Fáinne
5440:Brehon
5414:Breton
5363:Druids
5217:Places
4924:Volcae
4869:Belgae
4830:·
4828:
4822:·
4820:
4814:·
4812:
4733:(Manx)
4650:Shelta
4602:Italic
4400:Breton
4163:
4140:
4106:
4080:
4061:
4018:
3999:
3863:7 July
3746:
3717:Press.
3556:
3548:
3538:
3511:Nature
3478:
3428:
3401:
3319:
3282:
3169:7 July
3136:ystrad
3113:monidh
3107:mynydd
3101:monadh
2939:, and
2870:U̯entā
2816:Dubrīs
2792:dubri-
2736:(from
2716:, and
2690:London
2565:*-tt-
2323:*-pp-
2309:*-nt-
2306:*-nt-
2301:n, nn
2298:n, nn
2295:n, nn
2292:*-nn-
2289:*-nd-
2234:*-β̃-
2214:*-Cm-
2200:*-mm-
2197:*-mb-
2146:*-ll-
2109:*-kʷ-
2045:*-kk-
1951:*-xt-
1883:*-gg-
1822:*-dd-
1768:*-bb-
1745:Breton
1672:wrote
1656:, and
1652:, the
1594:piscis
1508:areas.
1502:
1498:areas.
1492:
1486:
1449:Breton
1429:Breton
1345:, and
1232:cattos
1205:cippus
1179:(cc),
1175:(pp),
1098:Welsh
1091:, and
973:ffroen
967:srogna
856:slemon
805:hañval
748:Welsh
708:wassos
668:windos
533:Strabo
500:Bryten
479:, via
396:Briton
350:Orkney
342:Anglic
322:Breton
237:, and
231:Breton
215:Breton
213:; and
189:(also
99:Celtic
6878:Lists
6699:Noric
6614:Mixed
6594:Irish
6576:Welsh
6240:Bando
6233:Sport
6134:Wales
6050:Music
5983:Torcs
5973:Mazes
5903:Wales
5729:Cymru
5724:Wales
5607:Music
5530:Vates
5525:Túath
5475:Druid
5404:Welsh
5394:Irish
4980:Scots
4962:Irish
4957:Gaels
4952:Welsh
4899:Gauls
4889:Gaels
4860:Names
4832:
4824:
4816:
4797:Celts
4713:Diwan
4637:Mixed
4493:Irish
4430:Welsh
4343:Noric
4180:Brill
3707:(PDF)
3686:(PDF)
3679:(PDF)
3644:(PDF)
3633:(PDF)
3554:S2CID
3148:Notes
3126:srath
3003:Caraf
2954:abona
2903:brock
2837:, W.
2834:derow
2787:-went
2773:Wealh
2714:Dover
2698:Perth
2647:Vc'h
2632:*-Vh
2615:*-w-
2568:*-θ-
2551:*-d-
2548:*-t-
2523:c'ho
2508:*hw-
2505:*sw-
2485:*sɸ-
2468:*sn-
2451:*sm-
2431:*sl-
2417:*-s-
2414:*-s-
2406:h, s
2403:h, s
2383:*-r-
2380:*-r-
2363:*fr-
2360:*sr-
2275:*-n-
2272:*-n-
2249:/-̃v/
2231:*-m-
2217:*-m-
2166:*-l-
2149:*-l-
2112:*-b-
2092:*kʷ-
2078:*-g-
2048:*-x-
1934:*-ɸ-
1886:*-g-
1825:*-d-
1771:*-b-
1735:Welsh
1696:Devon
1692:Wales
1662:Gaels
1601:ēskos
1599:*
1588:Latin
1577:Wales
1461:ogham
1441:Welsh
1412:Welsh
1380:'die'
1371:Ankou
1296:artos
1294:*
1270:boc'h
1264:bucca
1262:*
1230:*
1203:*
1017:c'hwi
997:*
985:froen
965:*
934:sɸera
932:*
913:sméar
889:smeru
887:*
868:leven
862:llyfn
854:*
784:haval
763:hafal
706:*
698:fionn
692:gwenn
686:gwynn
666:*
629:*
622:*
511:*
473:Latin
434:Welsh
314:Welsh
259:word
257:Welsh
247:Welsh
239:Welsh
199:Welsh
50:Wales
6773:and
6599:Manx
6486:and
5717:Alba
5693:Éire
5612:Rock
5520:Sept
5500:Fili
5435:Bard
5233:Alba
4975:Manx
4799:and
4534:Manx
4161:ISBN
4138:ISBN
4104:ISBN
4078:ISBN
4059:ISBN
4016:ISBN
3997:ISBN
3865:2013
3744:ISBN
3612:2022
3584:2022
3546:PMID
3476:ISBN
3439:2011
3426:ISBN
3399:ISBN
3330:2013
3317:ISBN
3293:2013
3280:ISBN
3251:2013
3208:2013
3171:2013
2994:verb
2988:and
2960:afon
2949:Avon
2917:and
2915:crag
2911:comb
2907:carr
2849:and
2846:-ent
2840:derw
2828:derv
2804:dowr
2798:dour
2785:and
2734:comb
2729:bal-
2726:and
2723:bre-
2706:York
2674:and
2653:/Vh/
2649:/Vx/
2643:/Vh/
2641:Vgh
2637:/Vx/
2635:Vch
2629:*-V
2595:*w-
2525:/xw/
2513:/xw/
2511:chw
2488:*f-
2471:*n-
2454:*m-
2434:*l-
2397:*s-
2368:/fr/
2366:ffr
2348:/r̥/
2343:*r-
2340:*r-
2258:*n-
2255:*n-
2241:, w
2183:*m-
2180:*m-
2129:*l-
2126:*l-
2095:*p-
2063:c'h
2028:*k-
2025:*k-
2010:-dh
2004:-dd
2001:*-ð
1998:*-j
1984:*i-
1981:*j-
1917:*ɸ-
1869:*g-
1866:*g-
1808:*d-
1805:*d-
1754:*b-
1751:*b-
1682:The
1664:and
1611:Wysg
1575:and
1569:Manx
1546:Gaul
1447:and
1365:céad
1359:kant
1333:and
1308:arzh
1302:arth
1282:boch
1276:bogh
1250:cath
1244:kath
1238:kazh
1223:cyff
1181:/tt/
1177:/kk/
1173:/pp/
1005:chwi
999:swīs
991:srón
979:frig
958:seir
940:ffêr
874:levn
846:and
820:síor
814:sean
720:foss
714:gwas
680:gwen
674:gwyn
627:and
531:and
462:/kʷ/
426:and
368:Name
348:and
340:and
308:and
296:and
288:and
271:Gael
185:The
6783:Law
6771:Law
5913:Art
5505:Law
3536:PMC
3528:doi
3516:601
2970:usa
2941:vug
2919:tor
2899:bin
2852:-iū
2810:dŵr
2766:tun
2747:tor
2740:cwm
2651:or
2607:gw
2604:gw
2601:gw
2589:/h/
2587:or
2585:/z/
2583:zh
2579:/θ/
2577:th
2573:/θ/
2571:th
2534:*t
2531:*t
2519:/ʍ/
2517:hw
2493:/f/
2491:ff
2439:/ɬ/
2437:ll
2375:fr
2372:fr
2346:rh
2318:nt
2315:nt
2247:ñv
2239:/v/
2134:/ɬ/
2132:ll
2069:/h/
2067:or
2065:/x/
2059:/h/
2057:gh
2053:/x/
2051:ch
2033:/k/
2018:/z/
2016:-z
2012:/ð/
2006:/ð/
1975:/h/
1973:or
1971:/z/
1969:zh
1965:/θ/
1963:th
1959:/θ/
1957:th
1859:/z/
1853:/ð/
1851:dh
1847:/ð/
1845:dd
1793:/v/
1529:or
1377:éag
1349:to
1347:-nk
1341:to
1339:-nt
1314:art
1256:cat
1217:kyf
1211:kef
1197:/θ/
1193:/x/
1191:),
1189:/f/
1185:/ɸ/
1135:c'h
1093:/m/
1089:/b/
1085:/ɣ/
1081:/j/
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