1585:
1120:
split from PALIPEHUTU-FNL, and from then on simply called themselves "National Forces of
Liberation" (FNL). For Kossan and his men the only option was to continue to fight until all Tutsi in Burundi were dead, removed or fully disempowered. Nevertheless, Ndadaye's government was more threatened by Tutsi extremists than by radical Hutu groups: The latter were still rather weak, whereas the former controlled much of Burundi's military. The political situation escalated when Tutsi extremist army officers launched a coup on 21 October. Supported by about half of the armed forces, the putschists murdered Ndadaye alongside other leading FRODEBU members, and declared a new regime. However, the military government was destabilized from the beginning, as it faced internal chaos and opposition by foreign powers.
301:
609:. Buyoya attempted to institute a number of reforms to ease state control over media and attempted to facilitate a national dialogue. Instead of helping the problem, these reforms instead served to inflame ethnic tensions as hope grew among the Hutu population that the Tutsi monopoly was at an end. Local revolts subsequently took place by Hutu peasants against several Tutsi leaders in northern Burundi; these Hutu militias killed hundreds of Tutsi families in the process. When the army came to quell the uprising, they in turn killed thousands of Hutu, leading to an estimated death toll of between 5,000 and 50,000. A low-level insurgency developed, and the first Hutu rebel groups were formed. Most notable among these were
1530:
1124:
local militias to defend themselves, but these groups quickly became proactive as well, carrying out attacks and mass killings against each other. Urban street gangs, many of which had been biethnic before 1993, split along ethnic lines and began to work for extremist politicians. They received money and guns, and in return demonstrated, and murdered on the orders of the Tutsi and Hutu parties. An estimated 50,000 to 100,000 people died within a year about as many Hutu as Tutsi. As result of this chaos and international pressure, the putschists' regime collapsed, and power was returned to a FRODEBU-dominated civilian government.
602:, who had led a successful coup in 1966 and replaced the monarchy with a presidential republic. Under the Micombero regime, the minority Tutsi generally dominated governance. In 1972, Hutu militants organized and carried out systematic attacks on ethnic Tutsi, with the declared intent of annihilating the whole group. The military regime responded with large-scale reprisals targeting Hutus. The total number of casualties was never established, but estimates for the Tutsi genocide and the reprisals on the Hutus together are said to exceed 100,000. As many refugees and asylum-seekers left the country for Tanzania and Rwanda.
1143:
56:
1310:
276:
1373:
volunteers, civilians were generally coerced with threats of violence or fines. Most of the civilian militiamen were also poor Hutu, while Tutsi and wealthy or well connected Hutu were generally exempted of the patrol duties. As a result of demands by Tutsi extremist politicians, the military also set up a special, armed training program for Tutsi militiamen; Hutu were not allowed to join this training. As these initiatives failed to halt the growth of the rebel movements, the
Burundian military eventually decided to set up a new militia in
1593:
over their sons to the army, and the child soldiers themselves were often beaten during training. Thousands of child soldiers fought for the government in the civil war, though the exact number is not known. Hundreds were killed in combat. The Hutu rebels were also known to deploy large numbers of child soldiers; hundreds of child soldiers were in the FNL by 2004. As the
Guardians of the Peace recruited ex-rebels into their ranks, some rebel child soldiers also fought for the government after their surrender or capture.
206:
1405:
194:
1337:
negotiations with the insurgents. Despite this, the coup also strengthened the Hutu rebel groups, as Buyoya's regime was regarded as illegitimate, and neighboring countries imposed an embargo on
Burundi to protest against the coup. The civil war consequently escalated in intensity. Hutu rebels grew in power and killed about 300 Tutsi in a major attack on 20 July 1996. The increasing activity of the Hutu rebels in Burundi worried the Rwandan government, and influenced its decision to launch the
553:
688:
1487:. As the Arusha Accords were implemented, the peace process made substantial progress. The reform of the military proved remarkably successful, and the integration of CNDD-FDD fighters went well. In contrast to earlier attempts to ensure peace which had been sabotaged by army extremists, most of the military had become wary of the constant civil war by the early 2000s. Its Tutsi and Hutu troops proved to be willing to stay loyal to the new government. The
289:
3170:
3767:
147:
665:
1264:("those-who-never-sleep") respectively, while the Hutu street gang "Chicago Bulls" from Bujumbura managed to expand into a small army. These militias undermined attempts by the government to restore peace. The Tutsi militias were often trained and armed by extremist factions in the Burundian military. With aid by the army, they defeated a number of Hutu militias, but also terrorized as well as displaced many Hutu civilians at
1301:
Hutu insurgents. The
Rwandan government thus began providing aid to the Burundian government from 1995. Rwandan troops would repeatedly cross the border, and attack Hutu refugee camps which harbored rebel forces in coordination with the Burundian military and local Tutsi militias. This development, according to Reyntjens, gave rise to the “conviction that transnational Hutu and Tutsi alliances fight each other.”
1128:
being, they continued to undermine the civilian government in hopes of regaining full power in the future. The Hutu rebels believed that the coup had proven the impossibility of negotiations, and regarded the new Hutu-dominated civilian government as mere "stooges" of the old regime. They consequently fully resumed their insurgency. Furthermore, radicals among the Tutsi civil society regarded FRODEBU as
1163:, CNDD-FDD). Nyangoma's group consequently became the most important Hutu rebel group, though PALIPEHUTU-FNL and FROLINA continued to be active. PALIPEHUTU-FNL was weakened by further rifts, and would fracture into numerous smaller factions over disagreements on negotiations and leadership during the civil war. With the exception of the notably moderate CNDD-FDD, all Hutu militias embraced the radical
1592:
Children were recruited and used extensively by both sides during the civil war of 1993–2005. The
Burundian military regularly conscripted children between the ages of 7 and 16 for its militias, most importantly the Guardians of the Peace. It would threaten the parents with violence or fines to hand
1416:
In 1998, Buyoya and the opposition-led Hutu parliament reached an agreement to sign a transitional constitution, and Buyoya was sworn in as president. Formal peace talks with the rebels began at Arusha on 15 June 1998. The talks proved to be extremely difficult. Tanzanian ex-President Julius
Nyerere
1300:
This situation, and the decline of state authority in
Burundi, greatly alarmed the RPF-led government of Rwanda. The RPF feared that the collapse of the Burundian government would lead not only to the influx of possibly 500,000 Tutsi refugees into Rwanda, but also provide a new haven to the Rwandan
1219:
At the same time, the power of non-state actors increased. Though many self-defense groups had been disbanded after 1993, others transformed into larger ethnic militias. These groups included unofficial paramilitary wings of Hutu and Tutsi parties, independent extremist militias, and militant youth
1482:
was gradually integrated into the transitional government. A power-sharing deal was signed on 8 October 2003, and
Nkurunziza was appointed Minister of State in charge of good governance and the general inspection of the state. On 18 October 2003, it was announced that the African Union Mission had
1456:
peacekeepers arrived in
Burundi. Despite this, the main Hutu rebel groups, CNDD-FDD and FNL, still refused to sign a ceasefire agreement. Instead, fighting intensified, as the FNL launched numerous attacks around Bujumbura. Some 300 boys were kidnapped from Museuma College on November 9, 2001. The
1439:
As the Arusha Accords were gradually implemented, severe challenges remained. Several times, the peace process almost broke down. Even though some moderate Tutsi parties had signed the peace deal, they remained opposed to some of its provisitions. Many Tutsi extremists refused to accept the Arusha
1372:
In response to the deteriorating security situation, the government opted to organize a new paramilitary initiative. The military forced civilians to organize unarmed patrols to guard their communities against rebels. Though the state authorities claimed that these self-defense groups consisted of
1150:
A succession of bi-ethnic governments attempted to stabilize the country from early 1994 to July 1996, but all failed. Tutsi extremists in the army continued to undermine any attempt of FRODEBU to consolidate power, and parts of FRODEBU decided in early 1994 that compromise was no longer possible.
1596:
The recruitment of child soldiers by the military had been reduced by 2000. After the peace agreements brought the conflict to an end in 2005, the new constitution committed to not using children in direct combat. The parties to the conflict no longer recruited children in large numbers, but many
1426:
of insurgents. Though killing many rebel fighters, the operation was a failure, and the Tenga forest remained an insurgent stronghold. After bitter negotiations, an agreement was finally reached which established a transitional government, where the presidency and vice-presidency would be rotated
1123:
As a result of President Ndadaye's murder, violence and chaos broke out all over Burundi. Hutu attacked and killed many UPRONA supporters, most of them Tutsi but also some Hutu, while the putschists and allied Tutsi groups assaulted Hutu and FRODEBU sympathizers. Many civilians banded together in
1444:
failed. The putschists had wanted to prevent the power-sharing deal from coming into effect. A group of extremist Tutsis also attempted to revive the "Puissance Auto-défense-Amasekanya" (PA-Amasekanya) ethnic militia in mid-2000 to resist the peace agreement, but the leaders of this faction were
1336:
military control by this point, the coup mostly cemented the status quo. Upon assuming power, Buyoya took action to solve the war peacefully. He brought the radical Tutsi mostly under control, forcing their militias to integrate into the military or to be disbanded. Buyoya also attempted to open
1291:
and Interahamwe) subsequently fled across the border into Zaire. There, they rebuilt their strength and launched an insurgency against the RPF. The Burundian CNDD-FDD and PALIPEHUTU-FNL soon allied themselves with the Rwandan Hutu factions which consequently aided them in attacking the Burundian
1119:
became Burundi's first democratically elected Hutu president. His tenure was wrought with problems from the beginning. Though PALIPEHUTU's leadership decided to cooperate with Ndadaye's new government, its military chief commander Kabora Kossan refused to end the insurgency. He and his followers
1421:
assumed responsibility for the peace talks. He and other heads of states in the region increased the pressure on Burundi's political leadership, pressuring them to accept a government with participation of the rebel groups. Meanwhile, the civil war continued unabated, despite the efforts of the
1127:
The mass killings consequently abated, and the country was somewhat restabilized by the end of 1993. The coup and subsequent ethnic violence had however deeply affected the country. The Tutsi extremists in the military were still present, and though they had given up outright power for the time
1215:
was installed to a four-year presidency on April 8, but the security situation further declined. The influx of hundreds of thousands of Rwandan refugees and the activities of armed Hutu and Tutsi groups further destabilized the government. A coalition government, formed by the peaceful FRODEBU
1503:
for the country, was murdered. Confronted by the newly unified Burundian military and the international peacekeepers, as well as a war-wary population, the abilities of the FNL to wage an insurgency gradually whittled down. By late 2004, it had just about 1,000 fighters left, and its area of
1540:
In 2005, many developments were made in the peace process. The president signed a law in January 2005 to initiate a new national army, consisting of Tutsi military forces and all but one of the Hutu rebel groups. The Constitution was approved by voters in a referendum—marking the first time
1520:
militants, but the Gatumba massacre proved to be a propaganda disaster. The group was consequently labelled as "terrorist" both internationally and in Burundi, weakening it politically. Confronted with its declining fortunes, the FNL signalled that it was willing to negotiate an end of its
1187:
wanted the region to be stabilized and pacified, and believed that the existence of Burundi and Rwanda as independent states posed a security problem by itself. Ultimately, he desired for these states to be annexed into Tanzania, therefore unifying all territory that had formerly comprised
1422:
international community to facilitate the peace process. Though 1999 saw a reduction of fighting, the war again grew in intensity during the following two years. The Burundian military conducted a major offensive between October and December 2000, attempting to clear the Tenga forest near
1494:
In spite of these successes, the war had not yet ended. The FNL remained the only active rebel group, but it was still a capable fighting force and continued its attacks. In July 2003, a rebel raid on Bujumbura left 300 dead and 15,000 displaced. On December 29, 2003, Archbishop
1560:
After 12 years of living with a midnight-to-dawn curfew, Burundians were free to stay out late when the curfew was lifted on April 15, 2006, for the first time since 1993. This signified the most stable point in Burundian civil affairs since the assassination of Hutu President
1296:
assessed how northern Burundi’s situation made Rwandan and Burundian Hutu rebel groups “objective allies” for geopolitical convenience, given an interest “in effectively controlling this area which could become a major base for an invasion of Rwanda by Rwandan exiles.”
1609:
The majority of those who took part in the program returned to farm and fish in their local communities, but nearly 600 returned to school. Some 1,800 former child soldiers received occupational training. Health care was provided for those with special needs and
1464:
After being promised to be included in the new government, two wings of CNDD-FDD finally agreed to a ceasefire and joined the Arusha agreement on 3 December 2002. The PALIPEHUTU-FNL refused to enter negotiations with the government and continued its struggle.
1178:
believed that he could gain political leverage by harboring Rwandan and Burundian Hutu militants and refugees. They would suppress anti-Mobutu groups in Zaire, and give him something to bargain with the international community which sought to resolve the
1431:
ceasefire accord in August 2000, two leading Hutu rebel groups refused to participate, and the fighting continued. The Arusha talks closed on November 30, 2000. Twenty Tutsis and one British woman were killed on 28 December 2000, in the
1516:, which issued a statement of outrage at the fact that "most of the victims were women, children and babies who were shot dead and burned in their shelters. The FNL attempted to deflect criticism by claiming that the victims had been
1216:
faction and UPRONA in September 1994, proved to be too weak and fractured to actually govern the country. With the civil authorities factually defunct, the military effectively held control of "what little state power remained".
226:
1550:
1156:
1643:
The PALIPEHUTU-FNL split into several factions in course of the civil war. The political and militant wings of the party separated in 1999, while the militant wing subsequently divided into FNL-Kabura, FNL-Rwasa, and
1477:
was established in Bujumbura under South African Maj. Gen. Sipho Binda. As previously agreed, Buyoya stepped down, and Ndayizeye became President on 30 April 2003. In the following months, the CNDD-FDD faction of
1572:, "solidifying the end of a 12-year civil war." As part of the agreement, members of the FNL were to be assembled, demobilized, and integrated into the national army. Dissident parts of the FNL, most notably the
1174:, both of which allowed the rebels to set up bases on their territories from where they could launch raids into Burundi. The reasons for which they supported the insurgents differed greatly: Zairean President
2751:
1134:, believing that the party had initiated the anti-Tutsi mass killings following the 1993 coup. They thus organized demonstrations and strikes to bring down what they considered a criminal regime.
1389:
were both armed as well as mostly Hutu. They consisted of ex-rebels and former civilian patrolmen who had proven themselves to be trustworthy. Trained, armed and supplied by the military, the
1341:
in late 1996 to overthrow President Mobutu of Zaire. By doing so, Rwanda hoped to eliminate Zaire as haven for various Hutu rebel groups; the CNDD-FDD had for example set up major bases at
637:, FRODEBU) party and to peacefully participate in politics. Radical members of PALIPEHUTU-FNL disagreed with this decision. In contrast, FROLINA was firmly unified under the command of
1576:(FNL–Icanzo), continued their insurgency, however, and only surrendered later on. In mid-April 2008, FNL rebels shelled the then-capital, Bujumbura, while fighting killed at least 33.
5189:
587:
who were short, the Hutu who were of medium height and the Tutsi who were tallest among them. Those individuals who owned more than ten cows were normally described as Tutsi.
1449:, a Hutu and FRODEBU leader. Furthermore, a reform of the Burundian military would be implemented as soon as possible; the latter was especially contentious among the Tutsi.
1200:
1192:. In the short term however, Nyerere believed that peace and order could only be achieved in Burundi through the inclusion of Hutus in the Burundian government and military.
1815:
3124:
Africa's World War : Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe
5278:
1256:("those-who-do-not-wear-condoms") which acted as forces for hire for various extremist Tutsi parties. Hutu parties like FRODEBU and FDD also raised supportive militias,
4131:
1401:". Numbering 3,000 fighters by late 1997, they were decisive in keeping the insurgents at bay. Nevertheless, the number of war casualties further increased in 1998.
625:, FROLINA) which had been active from the 1980s. Of the two, PALIPEHUTU-FNL much more powerful than FROLINA, but also suffered from more internal divisions. When a
5258:
2064:
1648:. Most of the FNL signed a peace agreement with the Burundian government in May 2005, but several dissident elements of the FNL continued to fight until 2009.
1457:
army responded by launching an offensive against the rebel bases in Tenga forest in December, claiming to have killed 500 insurgents. The September 9, 2002
1365:, Buyoya's home town and center of Burundi's Tutsi elite at the time. In fact, at least elements of the new Congolese government under Laurent-Désiré's son
2748:
1452:
The transitional government was implemented in October 2001. Buyoya was sworn in as internationally recognized president in November, while the first
1349:
in eastern Zaire from where it launched raids into Burundi. Although Rwanda successfully overthrew Mobutu in a matter of months and replaced him with
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3798:
3793:
3788:
1584:
638:
4655:
4650:
3510:
2483:
2384:
3733:
1627:(TRC) was established to investigate crimes committed during ethnic violence since independence in 1962, overseen by Pierre Claver Ndayicariye.
1842:
1598:
261:
2890:
4662:
4124:
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2600:
1624:
4280:
2679:
1086:
4823:
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4222:
4502:
4256:
3755:
3183:
3096:
Ngaruko, Floribert; Nkurunziza, Janvier D. (2005). "Civil War and Its Duration in Burundi". In Paul Collier; Nicholas Sambanis (eds.).
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promptly jailed. On 23 July 2001, it was agreed that the transitional government would be led by Buyoya for 18 months, followed by
1821:
1441:
1417:
acted as chief negotiator, and attempted to use caution and patience to achieve a solution. Upon Nyerere's natural death in 1999,
1014:
955:
912:
834:
655:
5102:
1645:
1573:
4810:
4321:
3417:
2829:
629:
began in Burundi in the early 1990s, the historical core leadership of PALIPEHUTU decided to cooperate with the Hutu-dominated
583:
majority. The Belgians generally identified the ethnic distinctions in Burundi and Rwanda with the following observations: the
1427:
every 18 months, sharing power between the Hutus and Tutsis. While the Burundian government and three Tutsi groups signed the
5030:
3285:
3133:
3107:
595:
844:
5047:
4750:
3483:
2575:
1542:
1104:
5053:
4882:
4568:
1762:
1488:
1211:, while in Burundi, the death of Ntaryamira exacerbated the violence and unrest, although there was no general massacre.
1195:
While the country further descended into civil war, the political situation in Burundi deteriorated. Ndadaye's successor
1100:
779:
618:
236:
210:
1107:
of June and July 1993 were the first ones in Burundi to be free and fair. FRODEBU decisively defeated the largely Tutsi
598:
were held in June 1993. These elections were immediately preceded by 25 years of Tutsi military regimes, beginning with
4693:
4352:
1605:
had led to the release of 3,000 children from the military and armed groups. According to Child Soldiers International:
2075:
1508:. In August 2004, the FNL claimed responsibility for killing 160 Congolese Tutsi refugees in a United Nations camp at
5152:
5024:
4716:
4687:
3713:
3232:
3004:
2917:
2836:
1288:
257:
17:
1880:
1735:
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4887:
4615:
4377:
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4227:
4212:
3456:
3329:
1474:
1233:
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1050:
1003:
322:
305:
198:
159:
123:
91:
1329:
1318:
934:
884:
874:
4894:
4866:
4167:
3763:
3536:
3305:
3188:
2866:
923:
659:
5273:
4978:
4967:
4877:
3748:
3461:
3258:
705:
630:
1813:
5195:
4328:
4315:
3612:
3561:
3493:
3248:
1060:
610:
231:
5253:
4727:
3657:
3652:
3429:
3212:
2946:
Eriksson, Mikael; Wallensteen, Peter; Sollenberg, Margareta (September 2003). "Armed Conflict, 1989–2002".
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771:
519:
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Matters continued to look promising after Burundi's last rebel group, the FNL, signed a ceasefire deal in
1529:
1161:
Conseil national pour la dĂ©fense de la dĂ©mocratie – Forces pour la dĂ©fense de la dĂ©mocratie
4927:
4721:
4339:
4144:
3476:
3322:
1324:
The power-sharing political system of Hutu presidency and Tutsi military operated until 1996, when Tutsi
1221:
1108:
1072:
1045:
5174:
5157:
5006:
4962:
4915:
4833:
4816:
4509:
3682:
3556:
3451:
1350:
1180:
789:
2491:
2392:
5268:
5263:
4994:
4910:
4838:
4435:
4345:
3741:
3607:
3505:
3500:
3376:
3351:
2948:
2530:
Helmoed-Romer Heitman, 'Burundi mission at full strength,' Jane's Defence Weekly, 29 October 2003, 16
2445:
3088:
1385:). In contrast to previous self-defense groups which were either unarmed or dominated by Tutsi, the
5097:
4972:
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4430:
4173:
3771:
3632:
3366:
3356:
3268:
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1433:
1428:
1369:
came to support the Burundian insurgents by the early 2000s just as Mobutu had done it previously.
1212:
945:
531:
384:
103:
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3150:
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from the Hutu FDD group was elected as president by the two Hutu-dominated houses of parliament.
1549:
conducted a technically-sound election, carried out in an atmosphere of peace and security." The
1272:
351:
177:
55:
4804:
4622:
4411:
3662:
3551:
3439:
2219:
1398:
1353:, CNDD-FDD rebels still managed to significantly expand their operations in 1997. Infiltrating
164:
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4756:
4333:
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3075:
1513:
5146:
5086:
4798:
3627:
3571:
3488:
3446:
3424:
3371:
3339:
3052:
1740:
1309:
1284:
687:
611:
Party for the Liberation of the Hutu People – National Forces of Liberation
8:
4485:
4285:
4207:
3687:
3642:
3602:
3395:
3381:
3361:
1204:
1152:
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Parti pour la libĂ©ration du peuple Hutu – Forces nationales de libĂ©ration
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4274:
4251:
3706:
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3566:
3524:
3275:
3263:
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3122:
3067:
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2969:
2709:
2605:
1836:
1814:
Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (now Child Soldiers International) (2008).
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679:
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372:
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4539:
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3617:
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3129:
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3000:
2981:
1554:
1533:
1479:
1374:
1280:
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594:
with Rwanda. The independent country initially preserved its monarchy. The country's
572:
527:
409:
114:
4921:
4109:
3117:
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reached full strength: 1,483 South Africans, 820 Ethiopians, and 232 personnel from
5180:
5080:
4872:
4574:
4178:
3722:
3672:
3667:
3471:
3312:
3053:"To Protect the People: the Government-sponsored "self-defense" program in Burundi"
3032:
3017:(January 2006). "Briefing: Burundi: A Peaceful Transition after a Decade of War?".
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1496:
1358:
1208:
1175:
1116:
991:
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376:
47:
39:
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and genocide. The military and paramilitary forces of old Rwandan Hutu regime (Ex-
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National Council for the Defense of Democracy–Forces for the Defense of Democracy
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43:
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1440:
Accords at all and refused any deal with the Hutu rebels. On 18 April 2001, an
1418:
1404:
1184:
1170:
The Hutu insurgents received support by the neighboring countries of Zaire and
1055:
965:
561:
60:
People fleeing during 1993 Burundian genocide that marked the civil war's start
2965:
800:
567:
Before becoming subject to European colonial rule, Burundi was governed by an
5247:
5217:
5018:
5000:
4956:
4848:
4610:
4586:
3280:
3063:
2840:
1597:
remained active in the FNL, which had denounced the peace accord. By 2006, a
1366:
1325:
1314:
736:
606:
591:
576:
423:
396:
388:
368:
2506:
2247:
1545:, postponed from November 2004, in which "the Government of Burundi and the
4152:
3036:
1611:
1517:
1512:
near the Congo border in Burundi. The attack was strongly condemned by the
1500:
1453:
575:. German, and subsequently Belgian, colonial rulers found it convenient to
1553:(FDD) ended up winning the parliamentary elections. Several months later,
526:
in 1962, and is seen as formally ending with the swearing-in of President
5227:
5222:
4771:
4545:
4300:
1393:
were a success. The program was thus expanded to the entire country; the
1588:
Burundian government soldiers in 2006, shortly after the conflict's end.
1332:, ostensibly to restore order. As the government had already been under
552:
502:
lasting from 1993 to 2005. The civil war was the result of longstanding
4843:
3044:
2973:
1484:
1164:
534:
by both sides in the war. The estimated death toll stands at 300,000.
2891:"Burundi's Truth and Reconciliation commission presents new findings"
1541:
Burundians had voted since 1994. They voted again in July during the
1423:
1409:
1265:
1167:
ideology that desired for the extermination of all Burundian Tutsi.
495:
4668:
4389:
4141:
3197:
2996:
2811:
2801:
2799:
2735:
2656:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2024:
1569:
1279:, RPF) defeated the Hutu regime of Rwanda in July 1994, ending the
1171:
664:
294:
3151:
Home, Again: Refugee Return and Post-Conflict Violence in Burundi.
2772:
2022:
2020:
2018:
2016:
2014:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2004:
119:
Ongoing sporadic violence, with notable incidents in 2006 and 2008
3228:
2337:
2313:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1682:
1509:
820:
557:
523:
499:
265:
152:
83:
2796:
2784:
2601:"U.N. Demands Justice After Massacre of 150 Refugees in Burundi"
2119:
2846:
2760:
2464:
2325:
2001:
1602:
1362:
1346:
355:
181:
2749:
Burundi rebels shell capital : Mail & Guardian Online
1679:
605:
The last of the coups was in 1987 and installed Tutsi officer
3300:
3253:
2945:
2515:
2258:
2131:
2092:
1342:
864:
700:
568:
547:
511:
315:
281:
87:
2620:
2533:
2202:
2167:
1703:
1701:
1292:
military. And despite the CNDD-FDD’s denial of these links,
579:, perpetuating the dominance of the Tutsi minority over the
74:(11 years, 6 months, 3 weeks and 3 days)
2830:
Child soldiers global report 2004: Africa Regional overview
2558:
2556:
2554:
2552:
2550:
2548:
2200:
2198:
2196:
2194:
2192:
2190:
2188:
2186:
2184:
2182:
1962:
1960:
1958:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1944:
580:
507:
218:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1925:
1412:(center of the map) from the forested mountains around it
1881:"Michel Micombero, 43, Dies; Former President of Burundi"
1698:
1669:
1667:
1665:
1155:
led a FRODEBU faction into armed rebellion, creating the
2632:
2545:
2284:"MAR | Data | Chronology for Hutus in Burundi"
2264:
2179:
2155:
2143:
2109:
2107:
2047:
2045:
2043:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1941:
1718:
1716:
1137:
641:, but always remained a rather weak and marginal group.
1922:
1377:, which was initially simply known as "the young men" (
672:(pictured 1993) was one of the civil war's main causes
3099:
Understanding Civil War: Africa. Evidence and Analysis
1662:
1618:
1207:
on 6 April 1994. This act marked the beginning of the
649:
514:
ethnic groups. The conflict began following the first
27:
Inter-ethnic conflict within Burundi from 1993 to 2005
4139:
2301:
2226:
2104:
2040:
1972:
1713:
3165:
1115:, UPRONA) of President Buyoya. Thus, FRODEBU leader
590:
Burundi became independent in 1962, breaking from a
5279:
Wars involving the Democratic Republic of the Congo
2992:
Political Handbook of the World 2016-2017. Volume 1
1614:
was provided through individual and group meetings.
1244:("the unfailing ones"), and urban youth gangs like
3121:
3051:
2852:
2817:
2805:
2790:
2778:
2766:
2470:
2379:
2377:
2375:
2373:
2343:
2331:
2319:
2034:
3095:
1692:
122:Unresolved issues of the civil war contribute to
5245:
3102:. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. pp. 35–62.
2385:"Burundi peace talks close with little progress"
1473:On April 9, 2003, the force headquarters of the
5259:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa
2370:
2072:International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi
1906:"MAR | Data | Chronology for Tutsis in Burundi"
1772:
1770:
1397:in southern Burundi soon became known as the "
4125:
3749:
3213:
2867:"Burundi: Why the Arusha Accords are Central"
2516:Eriksson, Wallensteen & Sollenberg (2003)
2414:
2412:
2410:
2259:Eriksson, Wallensteen & Sollenberg (2003)
1099:After decades of military dictatorships, the
1080:
110:Peace agreement and political reforms in 2005
2918:"Burundi: the commission of divided truths"
2909:
1817:Child Soldiers Global Report 2008 (Burundi)
1767:
1232:("those-who-will-bring-Burundi-back"), the
1220:gangs. Notable Tutsi factions included the
1183:. In contrast, leading Tanzanian statesman
577:govern through the existing power structure
4132:
4118:
3756:
3742:
3220:
3206:
2883:
2407:
2220:"Breaking the cycle of violence - Burundi"
1841:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1468:
1317:took over the Burundian government in the
1087:
1073:
571:monarchy, similar to that of its neighbor
54:
3013:
2915:
2638:
2626:
2562:
2539:
2446:"Burundi coup attempt falters, army says"
2206:
2173:
1966:
1547:Independent National Electoral Commission
1461:left hundreds of unarmed civilians dead.
1146:Building torched during the 1993 genocide
4281:Insurgency in the Maghreb (2002–present)
2988:
2864:
2823:
2705:"Burundi Rebel Group Expected to Disarm"
2357:"IRIN Update 437 for 13–15 June 98.6.15"
2065:"Part V: Recommendations - II. Genocide"
1935:
1820:. London. pp. 77–81. Archived from
1673:
1583:
1579:
1528:
1403:
1308:
1238:Parti de la réconciliation des personnes
1141:
663:
551:
4824:Ethiopian civil conflict (2018–present)
4498:2016–2017 Gambian constitutional crisis
3116:
2739:. 2006-09-11. URL retrieved 2006-12-26.
2680:"Burundi: Curfew Lifted After 13 Years"
2526:
2524:
2307:
2270:
2232:
2161:
2149:
2137:
2125:
2113:
2098:
2051:
1995:
1736:"Buyoya meets FRODEBU, FROLINA leaders"
1722:
1707:
1361:in Burundi's south, they even attacked
14:
5246:
2916:Rugiririz, Ephrem (25 November 2019).
1524:
1491:also helped to stabilize the country.
1304:
5013:South Kordofan and Blue Nile conflict
4934:2012–2013 Tana River District clashes
4113:
3737:
3201:
2677:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1801:
1799:
1138:Decline of state authority, 1994–1996
3227:
3189:A Heroine of the Burundian Civil War
2521:
1565:and the beginning of the civil war.
1504:operations had been reduced to just
1201:assassinated in the same plane crash
596:first multi-party national elections
436:Committee of Public Salvation (1993)
5103:Djiboutian–Eritrean border conflict
5054:Allied Democratic Forces insurgency
4569:Allied Democratic Forces insurgency
3128:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2871:Africa Center for Strategic Studies
2391:. November 30, 2000. Archived from
1778:"Heavy shelling in Burundi capital"
1625:Truth and Reconciliation Commission
1619:Truth and Reconciliation Commission
1574:National Liberation Forces – Icanzo
1551:Forces for the Defense of Democracy
1489:United Nations Operation in Burundi
1226:Parti pour le redressement national
650:1993 coup and start of the conflict
635:Front pour la démocratie au Burundi
24:
4811:Eritrean–Ethiopian border conflict
4353:Insurgency in Southeastern Nigeria
3143:
2490:. November 9, 2001. Archived from
1796:
686:
656:1993 Burundian coup d'Ă©tat attempt
438:Diomède Rutamucero (PA-Amasekanya)
25:
5290:
5048:Lord's Resistance Army insurgency
4751:Lord's Resistance Army insurgency
3161:
2420:"Burundi army 'kills 500 rebels'"
1328:replaced the Hutu president in a
1260:("those-who-did-not-betray") and
4878:2006–2009 Ethiopian intervention
3765:
3168:
2956:(5). Thousand Oaks, California:
1475:African Union Mission in Burundi
299:
287:
274:
204:
192:
145:
4895:Piracy off the coast of Somalia
3184:Chronology for Hutus in Burundi
2858:
2742:
2731:Burundi rebels to lay down arms
2724:
2697:
2671:
2644:
2593:
2568:
2484:"300 boys kidnapped in Burundi"
2476:
2438:
2349:
2276:
2238:
2212:
2057:
1898:
1873:
1849:
1693:Ngaruko & Nkurunziza (2005)
1408:Hutu rebels regularly attacked
660:1993 ethnic violence in Burundi
518:elections in the country since
3259:Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa
2939:
2678:Lacey, Marc (April 15, 2006).
2652:"Burundi peace poll postponed"
1756:
1728:
1637:
1113:Union pour le progrès national
790:Prince Rwagasore assassination
631:Front for Democracy in Burundi
243:Hutu militias and youth gangs:
13:
1:
5196:2014 Lesotho political crisis
5153:RENAMO insurgency (2013–2021)
4316:Communal conflicts in Nigeria
1655:
1536:was elected president in 2005
1442:attempted coup against Buyoya
1268:and other cities in 1995/96.
1234:People's Reconciliation Party
623:Front de libération nationale
537:
481:
463:
72:21 October 1993 – 15 May 2005
38:Part of the spillover of the
5190:SADC intervention in Lesotho
4792:OLA insurgency, 2018–present
4746:Anglophone Crisis (Cameroon)
4503:ECOWAS military intervention
4223:2011–2014 factional violence
3511:Current provincial governors
3330:Burundian unrest (2015–2018)
2834:Child Soldiers International
924:Genocidal killings of Tutsis
468:2,000–3,000 (PALIPEHUTU-FNL)
7:
4867:Puntland–Somaliland dispute
4722:Insurgency in Northern Chad
3418:Constitution of the Kingdom
3149:Stephanie Schwartz. 2019. "
1222:Party for National Recovery
1109:Union for National Progress
706:Hutu, Tutsi and Twa origins
407:Jean-Bosco Ndayikengurukiye
188:International peacekeepers:
10:
5295:
5158:Insurgency in Cabo Delgado
4979:Abyei conflict (2022–2023)
4834:Benishangul-Gumuz conflict
4699:Djotodia period, 2013–2014
4510:Western Togoland Rebellion
2865:Nantulya, P (2015-08-05).
1277:Front Patriotique Rwandais
1181:Great Lakes refugee crisis
653:
541:
5210:
5167:
5139:
5130:
5069:
5040:
4995:Second Sudanese Civil War
4987:
4949:
4903:
4859:
4779:
4770:
4738:
4709:
4678:
4638:
4555:
4532:
4523:
4472:
4446:
4420:
4399:
4362:
4308:
4299:
4267:
4238:
4200:
4160:
4151:
3779:
3700:
3598:
3589:
3532:
3523:
3403:
3394:
3347:
3338:
3239:
2966:10.1177/00223433030405006
2949:Journal of Peace Research
2853:Human Rights Watch (2001)
2818:Human Rights Watch (2001)
2806:Human Rights Watch (2001)
2791:Human Rights Watch (2001)
2779:Human Rights Watch (2001)
2767:Human Rights Watch (2001)
2471:Human Rights Watch (2001)
2344:Human Rights Watch (2001)
2332:Human Rights Watch (2001)
2320:Human Rights Watch (2001)
2128:, pp. 24–29, 51, 56.
2035:Human Rights Watch (2001)
619:National Liberation Front
532:Children were widely used
480:
475:
442:
362:
136:
64:
53:
37:
32:
5098:2008 invasion of Anjouan
4694:Civil War (2012–present)
4663:Pool Department conflict
3772:List of years in Burundi
3408:Administrative divisions
1885:timesmachine.nytimes.com
1630:
1506:Bujumbura Rural Province
1434:Titanic Express massacre
1213:Sylvestre Ntibantunganya
946:Titanic Express massacre
385:Sylvestre Ntibantunganya
5093:Hanish Islands conflict
4629:Kamwina Nsapu rebellion
4480:Guinea-Bissau Civil War
4322:Herder–farmer conflicts
4246:Western Sahara conflict
3029:Oxford University Press
1543:parliamentary elections
1469:Presidency of Ndayizeye
1273:Rwandan Patriotic Front
1271:Furthermore, the Tutsi
1252:("the pitiless ones"),
1203:with Rwandan President
668:The death of President
484:300,000 killed in total
4916:Somali–Kenyan conflict
4805:Second Afar insurgency
4412:Sierra Leone Civil War
3155:International Security
3083:Cite journal requires
2989:Lansford, Tom (2017).
2140:, pp. 65–68, 199.
2101:, pp. 65, 68, 74.
1616:
1589:
1537:
1413:
1399:Guardians of the Peace
1321:
1147:
1105:presidential elections
780:Parliamentary election
692:
673:
644:
617:, PALIPEHUTU-FNL) and
564:
363:Commanders and leaders
165:Guardians of the Peace
5274:Wars involving Rwanda
5175:Bophuthatswana crisis
4839:Oromia–Somali clashes
4757:Boko Haram insurgency
4717:Civil War (2005–2010)
4334:Boko Haram insurgency
4257:Clashes, 2020–present
2754:May 23, 2012, at the
1607:
1599:reintegration program
1587:
1580:Use of child soldiers
1532:
1514:U.N. Security Council
1407:
1351:Laurent-Désiré Kabila
1312:
1151:Minister of Interior
1145:
690:
667:
654:Further information:
627:democratic transition
555:
542:Further information:
476:Casualties and losses
414:Évariste Ndayishimiye
5147:Mozambican Civil War
5107:Burundian conflicts
5087:Djiboutian Civil War
4799:Insurgency in Ogaden
4427:Liberian Civil Wars
4340:Niger Delta conflict
3537:Bank of the Republic
3462:Council of Ministers
3297:Burundian genocides
3037:10.1093/afraf/adi092
2494:on September 2, 2007
1612:psychosocial support
1248:("the undefeated"),
772:Road to independence
5254:Burundian Civil War
5186:Lesothan conflicts
5111:1993–2005 Civil War
4829:Afar–Somali clashes
4616:2022–2024 offensive
4611:2012–2013 rebellion
4453:Ivorian Civil Wars
4286:Tunisian revolution
4228:2014–2020 civil war
4208:2008 Kufra conflict
4145:conflicts in Africa
3318:Burundian Civil War
2629:, pp. 119–120.
2542:, pp. 118–119.
2426:. December 25, 2001
2176:, pp. 117–118.
1710:, pp. 298–299.
1525:Final peace process
1305:Buyoya's presidency
1205:Juvenal Habyarimana
905:Burundian Civil War
592:colonial federation
492:Burundian Civil War
33:Burundian Civil War
5233:Colour revolutions
5031:Sudanese civil war
4883:2009–present phase
4623:Batwa–Luba clashes
4492:Casamance conflict
4369:Tuareg rebellions
4329:Religious violence
4275:Algerian Civil War
4191:Terrorism in Egypt
3562:Telecommunications
3286:Colonial residents
3276:German East Africa
3264:Kingdom of Burundi
3068:Human Rights Watch
2710:The New York Times
2684:The New York Times
2606:The New York Times
1763:UN Missions | ONUB
1744:. 6 September 2001
1590:
1538:
1447:Domitien Ndayizeye
1414:
1322:
1197:Cyprien Ntaryamira
1190:German East Africa
1148:
725:German East Africa
717:Kingdom of Burundi
701:Urewe civilisation
693:
680:History of Burundi
674:
565:
544:Kingdom of Burundi
427:Alain Mugabarabona
393:Domitien Ndayizeye
373:Cyprien Ntaryamira
323:Burundian military
5241:
5240:
5206:
5205:
5126:
5125:
5077:Rwandan Civil War
5025:Blue Nile clashes
5007:Nomadic conflicts
4963:Nomadic conflicts
4766:
4765:
4605:March 23 Movement
4540:Angolan Civil War
4519:
4518:
4295:
4294:
4107:
4106:
3731:
3730:
3696:
3695:
3653:Human trafficking
3585:
3584:
3519:
3518:
3484:Political parties
3477:National Assembly
3430:Foreign relations
3390:
3389:
3323:1993 coup attempt
3291:Ruzagayura famine
3193:BBC World Service
3135:978-0-19-970583-2
3109:978-0-8213-6047-7
2820:, pp. 2, 13.
2273:, pp. 66–67.
2164:, pp. 65–66.
2152:, pp. 65–68.
1555:Pierre Nkurunziza
1534:Pierre Nkurunziza
1480:Pierre Nkurunziza
1375:Cibitoke Province
1281:Rwandan Civil War
1097:
1096:
1026:COVID-19 pandemic
1015:Army coup attempt
956:Army coup attempt
913:Army coup attempt
835:Army coup attempt
749:Ruzagayura famine
691:Emblem of Burundi
528:Pierre Nkurunziza
488:
487:
466:11,000 (CNDD-FDD)
410:Pierre Nkurunziza
132:
131:
126:from 2015 to 2018
115:Pierre Nkurunziza
18:Burundi Civil War
16:(Redirected from
5286:
5269:2000s in Burundi
5264:1990s in Burundi
5181:Caprivi conflict
5137:
5136:
5116:2015–2018 unrest
4922:Likoni massacres
4911:Ethnic conflicts
4873:Somali Civil War
4777:
4776:
4575:Second Congo War
4530:
4529:
4306:
4305:
4185:Post-coup unrest
4179:Sinai insurgency
4158:
4157:
4134:
4127:
4120:
4111:
4110:
3770:
3769:
3768:
3758:
3751:
3744:
3735:
3734:
3716:
3709:
3596:
3595:
3545:
3530:
3529:
3401:
3400:
3345:
3344:
3313:Second Congo War
3222:
3215:
3208:
3199:
3198:
3178:
3173:
3172:
3171:
3139:
3127:
3113:
3092:
3086:
3081:
3079:
3071:
3070:. December 2001.
3057:
3048:
3015:Reyntjens, Filip
3010:
2985:
2933:
2932:
2930:
2928:
2913:
2907:
2906:
2904:
2902:
2887:
2881:
2880:
2878:
2877:
2862:
2856:
2850:
2844:
2827:
2821:
2815:
2809:
2803:
2794:
2788:
2782:
2781:, pp. 2, 7.
2776:
2770:
2764:
2758:
2746:
2740:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2719:
2718:
2701:
2695:
2694:
2692:
2690:
2675:
2669:
2668:
2666:
2665:
2648:
2642:
2639:Reyntjens (2006)
2636:
2630:
2627:Reyntjens (2006)
2624:
2618:
2617:
2615:
2614:
2597:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2587:
2578:. Archived from
2572:
2566:
2563:Reyntjens (2006)
2560:
2543:
2540:Reyntjens (2006)
2537:
2531:
2528:
2519:
2513:
2504:
2503:
2501:
2499:
2480:
2474:
2468:
2462:
2461:
2459:
2457:
2452:. April 18, 2001
2442:
2436:
2435:
2433:
2431:
2416:
2405:
2404:
2402:
2400:
2395:on June 22, 2011
2381:
2368:
2367:
2365:
2363:
2353:
2347:
2341:
2335:
2329:
2323:
2317:
2311:
2305:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2295:
2286:. Archived from
2280:
2274:
2268:
2262:
2256:
2245:
2242:
2236:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2216:
2210:
2207:Reyntjens (2006)
2204:
2177:
2174:Reyntjens (2006)
2171:
2165:
2159:
2153:
2147:
2141:
2135:
2129:
2123:
2117:
2111:
2102:
2096:
2090:
2089:
2087:
2086:
2080:
2074:. Archived from
2069:
2061:
2055:
2049:
2038:
2032:
1999:
1993:
1970:
1967:Reyntjens (2006)
1964:
1939:
1933:
1920:
1919:
1917:
1916:
1902:
1896:
1895:
1893:
1892:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1868:
1867:
1853:
1847:
1846:
1840:
1832:
1830:
1829:
1811:
1794:
1793:
1791:
1789:
1784:. April 18, 2008
1774:
1765:
1760:
1754:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1732:
1726:
1720:
1711:
1705:
1696:
1690:
1677:
1671:
1649:
1641:
1563:Melchior Ndadaye
1497:Michael Courtney
1359:Makamba Province
1209:Rwandan genocide
1176:Mobutu Sese Seko
1153:LĂ©onard Nyangoma
1117:Melchior Ndadaye
1089:
1082:
1075:
1032:
1020:
1010:
1004:Burundian unrest
998:
992:Second Congo War
971:
961:
951:
941:
930:
918:
891:
880:
870:
860:
850:
840:
828:
807:
795:
785:
754:
743:
730:
676:
675:
670:Melchior Ndadaye
600:Michel Micombero
530:in August 2005.
520:its independence
504:ethnic divisions
483:
465:
405:Leonard Nyangoma
381:
304:
303:
302:
293:
291:
290:
280:
278:
277:
209:
208:
207:
197:
196:
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151:
149:
148:
66:
65:
58:
48:Second Congo War
40:Rwandan genocide
30:
29:
21:
5294:
5293:
5289:
5288:
5287:
5285:
5284:
5283:
5244:
5243:
5242:
5237:
5202:
5163:
5132:Southern Africa
5122:
5065:
5036:
4983:
4968:Ethnic violence
4945:
4940:Baragoi clashes
4899:
4855:
4762:
4734:
4724:(2016–present)
4705:
4680:
4679:Central African
4674:
4640:
4634:
4563:First Congo War
4551:
4515:
4468:
4442:
4416:
4407:Ndogboyosoi War
4395:
4358:
4342:(2003–present)
4318:(1998–present)
4291:
4263:
4248:(1970–present)
4234:
4196:
4174:2011 revolution
4168:Egyptian Crisis
4147:
4138:
4108:
4103:
3775:
3766:
3764:
3762:
3732:
3727:
3719:
3712:
3705:
3692:
3683:Public holidays
3581:
3543:
3515:
3452:Law enforcement
3386:
3334:
3235:
3226:
3174:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3146:
3144:Further reading
3136:
3118:Prunier, GĂ©rard
3110:
3084:
3082:
3073:
3072:
3055:
3027:(418). Oxford:
3020:African Affairs
3007:
2958:SAGE Publishing
2942:
2937:
2936:
2926:
2924:
2922:JusticeInfo.net
2914:
2910:
2900:
2898:
2897:. 20 March 2021
2889:
2888:
2884:
2875:
2873:
2863:
2859:
2851:
2847:
2839:3 July 2007 at
2828:
2824:
2816:
2812:
2804:
2797:
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2765:
2761:
2756:Wayback Machine
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2408:
2398:
2396:
2383:
2382:
2371:
2361:
2359:
2355:
2354:
2350:
2346:, pp. 5–9.
2342:
2338:
2330:
2326:
2322:, pp. 4–5.
2318:
2314:
2306:
2302:
2293:
2291:
2282:
2281:
2277:
2269:
2265:
2257:
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2244:Reyntjens, 1996
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2002:
1994:
1973:
1965:
1942:
1936:Lansford (2017)
1934:
1923:
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1912:
1910:www.mar.umd.edu
1904:
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1674:Lansford (2017)
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1663:
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1653:
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1642:
1638:
1633:
1621:
1582:
1527:
1471:
1355:Bururi Province
1339:First Congo War
1307:
1294:Filip Reyntjens
1230:Imbogaraburundi
1140:
1093:
1038:
1037:
1036:
1033:
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418:PALIPEHUTU-FNL:
416:
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395:
391:
387:
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377:
371:
350:
346:
340:Imbogaraburundi
300:
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288:
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275:
273:
272:
268:
264:
260:
254:"Chicago Bulls"
205:
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176:
146:
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113:Swearing in of
94:
73:
59:
44:First Congo War
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5292:
5282:
5281:
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5211:Related topics
5208:
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5198:
5193:
5184:
5178:
5171:
5169:
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5160:(2017–present)
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5134:
5128:
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5119:
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5113:
5105:
5100:
5095:
5090:
5084:
5073:
5071:
5067:
5066:
5064:
5063:
5060:Kasese clashes
5057:
5056:(1996–present)
5051:
5050:(1987–present)
5044:
5042:
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5034:
5033:(2023–present)
5028:
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5016:
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5009:(2009–present)
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4998:
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4918:(1963–present)
4913:
4907:
4905:
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4891:
4890:
4885:
4880:
4870:
4869:(1998–present)
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4856:
4854:
4853:
4852:
4851:
4846:
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4836:
4831:
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4820:
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4817:War, 1998–2000
4808:
4802:
4796:
4795:
4794:
4787:Oromo conflict
4783:
4781:
4774:
4768:
4767:
4764:
4763:
4761:
4760:
4759:(2009–present)
4754:
4753:(1987–present)
4748:
4742:
4740:
4736:
4735:
4733:
4732:
4731:
4730:
4728:2021 offensive
4719:
4713:
4711:
4707:
4706:
4704:
4703:
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4682:
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4602:
4601:(2009–present)
4599:Ituri conflict
4596:
4593:Dongo conflict
4590:
4589:(2004–present)
4584:
4581:Ituri conflict
4578:
4572:
4571:(1996–present)
4566:
4559:
4557:
4553:
4552:
4550:
4549:
4548:(1975–present)
4543:
4536:
4534:
4527:
4525:Central Africa
4521:
4520:
4517:
4516:
4514:
4513:
4512:(2020–present)
4507:
4506:
4505:
4495:
4494:(1982–present)
4489:
4486:Guinea clashes
4483:
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4474:
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4465:
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4459:
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4409:
4403:
4401:
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4393:
4392:(2012–present)
4387:
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4366:
4364:
4360:
4359:
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4356:
4355:(2021–present)
4350:
4349:
4348:
4337:
4336:(2009–present)
4331:
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4325:
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4303:
4297:
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4252:War, 1975–1991
4242:
4240:
4239:Western Sahara
4236:
4235:
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4230:
4225:
4220:
4218:2011 civil war
4210:
4204:
4202:
4198:
4197:
4195:
4194:
4193:(2013–present)
4188:
4182:
4181:(2011–present)
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3774:(1962–present)
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3613:Communications
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3608:Child marriage
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3506:Prime Minister
3503:
3501:Vice-President
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3176:Burundi portal
3163:
3162:External links
3160:
3159:
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3141:
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3108:
3093:
3085:|journal=
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2670:
2643:
2641:, p. 120.
2631:
2619:
2592:
2567:
2565:, p. 119.
2544:
2532:
2520:
2518:, p. 596.
2505:
2475:
2463:
2437:
2406:
2369:
2348:
2336:
2324:
2312:
2308:Prunier (2009)
2300:
2275:
2271:Prunier (2009)
2263:
2261:, p. 604.
2246:
2237:
2233:Prunier (2009)
2225:
2211:
2209:, p. 118.
2178:
2166:
2162:Prunier (2009)
2154:
2150:Prunier (2009)
2142:
2138:Prunier (2009)
2130:
2126:Prunier (2009)
2118:
2114:Prunier (2009)
2103:
2099:Prunier (2009)
2091:
2056:
2052:Prunier (2009)
2039:
2000:
1996:Prunier (2009)
1971:
1969:, p. 117.
1940:
1938:, p. 227.
1921:
1897:
1887:. 18 July 1983
1872:
1848:
1795:
1766:
1755:
1727:
1725:, p. 288.
1723:Prunier (2009)
1712:
1708:Prunier (2009)
1697:
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1676:, p. 225.
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1459:Itaba massacre
1429:Arusha Accords
1419:Nelson Mandela
1306:
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1258:Inziraguhemuka
1185:Julius Nyerere
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966:Itaba massacre
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855:Micombero coup
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639:Joseph Karumba
562:Central Africa
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469:
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433:Joseph Karumba
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232:PALIPEHUTU-FNL
229:
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5218:War on terror
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5019:Heglig Crisis
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5001:War in Darfur
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4743:
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4729:
4726:
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4708:
4700:
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4614:
4612:
4609:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4600:
4597:
4594:
4591:
4588:
4587:Kivu conflict
4585:
4582:
4579:
4576:
4573:
4570:
4567:
4564:
4561:
4560:
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4460:
4458:
4455:
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4452:
4451:
4449:
4447:CĂ´te d'Ivoire
4445:
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4428:
4426:
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4413:
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4408:
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4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
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4368:
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4365:
4361:
4354:
4351:
4347:
4346:2016 conflict
4344:
4343:
4341:
4338:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4323:
4320:
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4314:
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4243:
4241:
4237:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4215:
4214:
4213:Libyan crisis
4211:
4209:
4206:
4205:
4203:
4199:
4192:
4189:
4186:
4183:
4180:
4177:
4175:
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4017:
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4005:
4002:
4000:
3997:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3987:
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3982:
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3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3633:Ethnic groups
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
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3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3298:
3296:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3283:
3282:
3281:Ruanda-Urundi
3279:
3277:
3274:
3270:
3267:
3266:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3254:Urewe culture
3252:
3250:
3247:
3246:
3244:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3223:
3218:
3216:
3211:
3209:
3204:
3203:
3200:
3194:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3181:
3177:
3166:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3147:
3137:
3131:
3126:
3125:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3105:
3101:
3100:
3094:
3090:
3077:
3069:
3065:
3064:New York City
3061:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3021:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3006:9781506327150
3002:
2998:
2994:
2993:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2950:
2944:
2943:
2923:
2919:
2912:
2896:
2892:
2886:
2872:
2868:
2861:
2854:
2849:
2842:
2841:archive.today
2838:
2835:
2831:
2826:
2819:
2814:
2808:, p. 13.
2807:
2802:
2800:
2793:, p. 17.
2792:
2787:
2780:
2775:
2768:
2763:
2757:
2753:
2750:
2745:
2738:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2712:
2711:
2706:
2700:
2685:
2681:
2674:
2659:
2658:
2653:
2647:
2640:
2635:
2628:
2623:
2608:
2607:
2602:
2596:
2582:on 2005-11-15
2581:
2577:
2571:
2564:
2559:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2551:
2549:
2541:
2536:
2527:
2525:
2517:
2512:
2510:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2479:
2472:
2467:
2451:
2447:
2441:
2425:
2421:
2415:
2413:
2411:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2380:
2378:
2376:
2374:
2358:
2352:
2345:
2340:
2333:
2328:
2321:
2316:
2310:, p. 68.
2309:
2304:
2290:on 2010-06-02
2289:
2285:
2279:
2272:
2267:
2260:
2255:
2253:
2251:
2241:
2235:, p. 66.
2234:
2229:
2221:
2215:
2208:
2203:
2201:
2199:
2197:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2187:
2185:
2183:
2175:
2170:
2163:
2158:
2151:
2146:
2139:
2134:
2127:
2122:
2116:, p. 74.
2115:
2110:
2108:
2100:
2095:
2081:on 2009-07-16
2077:
2073:
2066:
2060:
2054:, p. 60.
2053:
2048:
2046:
2044:
2036:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2007:
2005:
1998:, p. 59.
1997:
1992:
1990:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1980:
1978:
1976:
1968:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1937:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1911:
1907:
1901:
1886:
1882:
1876:
1862:
1858:
1852:
1844:
1838:
1824:on 2018-10-10
1823:
1819:
1818:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1800:
1783:
1779:
1773:
1771:
1764:
1759:
1743:
1742:
1737:
1731:
1724:
1719:
1717:
1709:
1704:
1702:
1695:, p. 49.
1694:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1675:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1661:
1647:
1640:
1636:
1628:
1626:
1615:
1613:
1606:
1604:
1601:organized by
1600:
1594:
1586:
1577:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1564:
1558:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1535:
1531:
1522:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1498:
1492:
1490:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1466:
1462:
1460:
1455:
1454:South African
1450:
1448:
1443:
1437:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1411:
1406:
1402:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1370:
1368:
1367:Joseph Kabila
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1326:Pierre Buyoya
1320:
1316:
1315:Pierre Buyoya
1313:Ex-President
1311:
1302:
1298:
1295:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1217:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1193:
1191:
1186:
1182:
1177:
1173:
1168:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1144:
1135:
1133:
1132:
1125:
1121:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1101:parliamentary
1090:
1085:
1083:
1078:
1076:
1071:
1070:
1068:
1067:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1043:
1042:
1041:
1028:
1027:
1023:
1016:
1013:
1006:
1005:
1001:
994:
993:
989:
988:
981:
980:
967:
964:
957:
954:
947:
944:
936:
933:
926:
925:
921:
914:
911:
910:
906:
901:
900:
886:
883:
876:
873:
866:
863:
856:
853:
846:
843:
836:
833:
832:
827:
822:
817:
816:
803:
802:
798:
791:
788:
781:
778:
777:
773:
768:
767:
750:
747:
746:
739:
738:
737:Ruanda-Urundi
733:
726:
723:
722:
718:
713:
712:
707:
704:
702:
699:
698:
697:
696:
689:
685:
684:
681:
678:
677:
671:
666:
661:
657:
642:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
607:Pierre Buyoya
603:
601:
597:
593:
588:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
563:
559:
554:
549:
545:
535:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
479:
474:
470:
462:
456:40,000 (2000)
455:
452:
451:
450:
449:Gov. forces:
447:
446:
441:
435:
431:
425:
424:Agathon Rwasa
421:Kabora Kossan
419:
415:
411:
403:
400:
398:
397:Jean Bikomagu
394:
390:
389:Pierre Buyoya
386:
382:
380:
374:
370:
369:Sylvie Kinigi
367:
366:
361:
357:
353:
349:
348:Supported by:
343:PA-Amasekanya
342:
339:
336:
333:
330:
327:
324:
321:
319:
317:
313:
312:
310:
307:
296:
283:
271:
270:Supported by:
267:
263:
259:
253:
250:
247:
246:
245:
244:
238:
235:
233:
230:
228:
225:
224:
223:
222:
220:
215:
212:
200:
189:
185:
183:
179:
175:
174:Supported by:
168:
166:
163:
161:
158:
157:
156:
155:
154:
141:
140:
135:
125:
121:
118:
116:
112:
109:
108:
107:
105:
101:
98:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
78:
77:
71:
68:
67:
63:
57:
52:
49:
45:
41:
36:
31:
19:
5110:
5079: /
4813:(2000–2018)
4641:of the Congo
4400:Sierra Leone
4153:North Africa
3678:Prostitution
3623:Demographics
3577:Trade unions
3435:Human rights
3413:Constitution
3317:
3154:
3123:
3098:
3076:cite journal
3059:
3024:
3018:
2991:
2953:
2947:
2925:. Retrieved
2921:
2911:
2899:. Retrieved
2894:
2885:
2874:. Retrieved
2870:
2860:
2855:, p. 7.
2848:
2825:
2813:
2786:
2774:
2769:, p. 2.
2762:
2744:
2734:
2726:
2715:. Retrieved
2713:. 2004-08-16
2708:
2699:
2687:. Retrieved
2683:
2673:
2662:. Retrieved
2660:. 2004-10-15
2655:
2646:
2634:
2622:
2611:. Retrieved
2609:. 2004-08-16
2604:
2595:
2584:. Retrieved
2580:the original
2570:
2535:
2496:. Retrieved
2492:the original
2487:
2478:
2473:, p. 1.
2466:
2454:. Retrieved
2449:
2440:
2428:. Retrieved
2423:
2397:. Retrieved
2393:the original
2388:
2360:. Retrieved
2351:
2339:
2334:, p. 5.
2327:
2315:
2303:
2292:. Retrieved
2288:the original
2278:
2266:
2240:
2228:
2222:. July 1996.
2214:
2169:
2157:
2145:
2133:
2121:
2094:
2083:. Retrieved
2076:the original
2071:
2059:
2037:, p. 4.
1913:. Retrieved
1909:
1900:
1889:. Retrieved
1884:
1875:
1864:. Retrieved
1860:
1851:
1826:. Retrieved
1822:the original
1816:
1786:. Retrieved
1781:
1758:
1746:. Retrieved
1739:
1730:
1639:
1623:In 2014 the
1622:
1608:
1595:
1591:
1567:
1559:
1539:
1521:insurgency.
1518:Banyamulenge
1501:papal nuncio
1493:
1472:
1463:
1451:
1438:
1415:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1371:
1333:
1323:
1299:
1276:
1270:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1246:Sans DĂ©faite
1245:
1241:
1237:
1229:
1225:
1218:
1194:
1169:
1160:
1149:
1131:génocidaires
1129:
1126:
1122:
1112:
1098:
1031:2020–present
1024:
1002:
990:
922:
904:
845:Ndizeye coup
825:
801:Independence
799:
735:
634:
622:
614:
604:
589:
569:ethnic Tutsi
566:
556:Location of
506:between the
491:
489:
453:6,000 (1993)
448:
429:
417:
401:
378:
347:
331:Sans DĂ©faite
314:
284:(until 1996)
269:
242:
241:
217:
216:
187:
173:
172:
160:Armed forces
143:
142:
137:Belligerents
102:
5228:Arab Winter
5223:Arab Spring
5192:(1998–1999)
5183:(1994–1999)
5149:(1977–1992)
5089:(1991–1994)
5083:(1990–1994)
5027:(2022–2023)
5015:(2011–2020)
5003:(2003–2020)
4997:(1983–2005)
4975:(2013–2020)
4950:South Sudan
4936:(2012–2013)
4930:(2007–2008)
4807:(1995–2018)
4801:(1994–2018)
4772:East Africa
4690:(2004–2007)
4671:(2016–2017)
4665:(2002–2003)
4647:Civil wars
4631:(2016–2019)
4625:(2013–2018)
4583:(1999–2007)
4577:(1998–2003)
4565:(1996–1997)
4546:Cabinda War
4542:(1975–2002)
4482:(1998–1999)
4301:West Africa
4288:(2010–2011)
4277:(1991–2002)
4187:(2013–2014)
4170:(2011–2014)
3663:LGBT rights
3552:Agriculture
3440:LGBT rights
3031:: 117–135.
2960:: 593–607.
2940:Works cited
1861:www.hrw.org
1254:Sans Capote
1242:Sans Echecs
935:Buyoya coup
885:Buyoya coup
875:Bagaza coup
581:ethnic Hutu
516:multi-party
460:ONUB: 6,095
337:Sans Capote
219:Ethnic Hutu
213:(from 2004)
169:"Abajeunes"
5248:Categories
5140:Mozambique
4844:Tigray war
3544:(currency)
3467:Parliament
2995:. London:
2927:12 October
2901:12 October
2895:Africanews
2876:2018-02-15
2717:2006-09-10
2664:2009-06-29
2613:2009-06-29
2586:2009-01-02
2362:1 November
2294:2009-01-02
2085:2009-06-29
1915:2019-10-09
1891:2021-02-10
1866:2021-02-10
1828:2018-05-22
1748:4 December
1656:References
1646:FNL-Icanzo
1485:Mozambique
1379:les jeunes
1262:Intagoheka
1250:Sans Pitié
1228:, PARENA)
1165:Hutu Power
538:Background
334:Sans Pitié
328:Sans Echec
318:militants:
251:Intagoheka
124:new unrest
46:, and the
4973:Civil War
4656:1997–1999
4651:1993–1994
4607:conflict
4462:2010–2011
4457:2002–2007
4436:1999–2003
4431:1989–1996
4378:2007–2009
4373:1990–1995
3658:Languages
3628:Education
3572:Transport
3489:President
3447:Judiciary
3425:Elections
3372:Provinces
3340:Geography
2982:110338545
2689:April 27,
2498:April 27,
2456:April 27,
2430:April 27,
2399:April 27,
1837:cite book
1788:April 27,
1424:Bujumbura
1410:Bujumbura
1395:abajeunes
1391:abajeunes
1387:abajeunes
1383:abajeunes
1319:1996 coup
1266:Bujumbura
1009:2015–2018
997:1998–2003
753:1943–1944
742:1922–1962
729:1891–1919
496:civil war
402:CNDD-FDD:
201:(2003–04)
5081:genocide
4780:Ethiopia
4688:Bush War
4681:Republic
4669:Pool War
4639:Republic
4556:DR Congo
4390:Mali War
4142:Cold War
3784:Pre-1962
3723:Category
3688:Religion
3643:Football
3603:Abortion
3457:Military
3396:Politics
3382:Wildlife
3362:Communes
3249:Timeline
3233:articles
3120:(2009).
3062:(7(A)).
2997:CQ Press
2837:Archived
2752:Archived
2736:BBC News
2657:BBC News
2424:BBC News
1857:"AFRICA"
1782:BBC News
1570:Tanzania
1334:de facto
1172:Tanzania
1061:Timeline
1046:Category
859:Nov 1966
849:Jul 1966
510:and the
443:Strength
430:FROLINA:
325:factions
306:DR Congo
295:Tanzania
227:CNDD-FDD
92:DR Congo
79:Location
4860:Somalia
4421:Liberia
4309:Nigeria
3707:Outline
3618:Cuisine
3591:Culture
3567:Tourism
3525:Economy
3357:Climate
3241:History
3229:Burundi
3045:3518791
2974:3648363
2576:"USCRI"
1510:Gatumba
1240:, PRP)
1051:Commons
984:Current
826:present
821:Burundi
558:Burundi
524:Belgium
500:Burundi
471:Unknown
379:†
308:(2000s)
266:Mai-Mai
237:FROLINA
221:rebels:
153:Burundi
106:(2000)
84:Burundi
5177:(1994)
5168:Others
5070:Others
5062:(2016)
5041:Uganda
5021:(2012)
4959:(2012)
4942:(2012)
4924:(1997)
4888:AMISOM
4739:Others
4595:(2009)
4533:Angola
4488:(2013)
4473:Others
4268:Others
3648:Health
3557:Mining
3542:Franc
3472:Senate
3377:Rivers
3352:Cities
3231:
3132:
3106:
3043:
3003:
2980:
2972:
1603:UNICEF
1499:, the
1363:Rutovu
1347:Bukavu
1056:Portal
573:Rwanda
494:was a
375:
356:Rwanda
292:
279:
182:Rwanda
150:
99:Result
4988:Sudan
4904:Kenya
4201:Libya
4161:Egypt
4140:Post–
3714:Index
3673:Music
3668:Media
3367:Lakes
3269:kings
3056:(PDF)
3041:JSTOR
2978:S2CID
2970:JSTOR
2079:(PDF)
2068:(PDF)
1631:Notes
1343:Uvira
937:, 2nd
887:, 1st
865:Ikiza
824:1962–
548:Ikiza
522:from
512:Tutsi
316:Tutsi
282:Zaire
88:Zaire
4710:Chad
4383:2012
4363:Mali
4099:2024
4094:2023
4089:2022
4084:2021
4079:2020
4074:2019
4069:2018
4064:2017
4059:2016
4054:2015
4049:2014
4044:2013
4039:2012
4034:2011
4029:2010
4024:2009
4019:2008
4014:2007
4009:2006
4004:2005
3999:2004
3994:2003
3989:2002
3984:2001
3979:2000
3974:1999
3969:1998
3964:1997
3959:1996
3954:1995
3949:1994
3944:1993
3939:1992
3934:1991
3929:1990
3924:1989
3919:1988
3914:1987
3909:1986
3904:1985
3899:1984
3894:1983
3889:1982
3884:1981
3879:1980
3874:1979
3869:1978
3864:1977
3859:1976
3854:1975
3849:1974
3844:1973
3839:1972
3834:1971
3829:1970
3824:1969
3819:1968
3814:1967
3809:1966
3804:1965
3799:1964
3794:1963
3789:1962
3638:Flag
3494:list
3306:1993
3301:1972
3130:ISBN
3104:ISBN
3089:help
3001:ISBN
2929:2021
2903:2021
2691:2010
2500:2010
2458:2010
2432:2010
2401:2010
2364:2014
1843:link
1790:2010
1750:2018
1741:IRIN
1357:and
1345:and
1330:coup
1289:ALiR
1236:'s (
1224:'s (
1199:was
1103:and
1019:2015
970:2002
960:2001
950:2000
940:1996
929:1993
917:1993
890:1987
879:1976
869:1972
839:1965
806:1962
794:1961
784:1961
658:and
546:and
508:Hutu
490:The
262:FDLR
258:ALiR
211:ONUB
199:AMIB
69:Date
3191:at
3033:doi
3025:105
2962:doi
2488:CNN
2450:CNN
2389:CNN
1381:or
1285:FAR
645:War
585:Twa
560:in
498:in
352:RPF
178:RPF
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3078:}}
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