612:, army troops opened fire on a group of people, killing twenty. Following the crackdown by authorities, gunfights between radical groups and the army began on 1 March, with the former believing that they were responding to armed political repression of their neighborhoods. Ensuing firefights resulted in many bystanders being killed by "bullets from army troops and from sniping protesters". Photojournalist Douglas Blanco questioned the presence of sharpshooters, saying "I was in the parts of El Valle and the 23 de Enero where supposedly there were sharpshooters, but that business sounds strange to me. You can't justify the shape in which those buildings in the 23 de Enero were left with the machine gunning by military and police. Do you have to destroy a building to eliminate a supposed sharpshooter?" Velasco states that gunfights between radical militants and army troops did occur, though that engagements were not equal in intensity. López Maya says that troops who entered 23 de Enero were young, inexperienced soldiers who fired automatic firearms indiscriminately at apartment blocks, killing unarmed residents inside.
297:
894:
elites and the impoverished masses had become so wide that the authorities never saw it coming." Lower class citizens were affected by shortages at the time, with many basic good missing from store shelves while people had to wait in lines outside of stores. Economist Héctor Silva
Michelena, who had described Venezuela's democracy in the 1970s as an "illusion" based on oil dependency, warned shortly after Pérez's announcement that social conditions for a "grave social explosion" were likely. López Maya writes that Pérez performed "a serious political miscalculation", saying that this is supported by his continuous denial of his policies being responsible for the unrest.
2670:
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Venezuela to enjoy its oil income ... Fidel stole the show with his
Bolivarian allusions of the Latin American Union and a call to fight against Yankee imperialism ... the Cubans and their materials arrived at Caracas on a bus and the buses and trucks to the Eurobuilding hotel ... they were delivered three days before the arrival of Fidel to Cuban G2 officers who paid their rent in advance and made strange demands. ... After the "coronation", part of the Cuban contingent left the country ... sources reported from Maiquetía that fewer Cubans had left than those who had entered
206:
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538:(right to peaceful protest). According to army lieutenant Jesús Manuel Zambrano, he received instructions that day, saying "The order was: 'Go and neutralize that looting, how you do it is not my problem, but neutralize it'." Some groups of troops allowed organized thefts to occur, letting people enter shops and take only essential items. In public statements, Pérez spoke of defending the property of the wealthy while making
546:", resulting with the government rationalizing a violent response to demonstrations. Despite the government blaming radical political groups for the rioting, such groups themselves were surprised by the escalation of unrest and some attempted to prevent looting. Middle-class citizens responded to the protests by creating their own self-defense groups while some upper-class fled the situation in
646:, who offered Pérez a US$ 450 million emergency loan. Pérez thanked Bush and asked him to support a change in debt policy toward Latin America, saying "I want to tell you if there is no change in debt policy then whatever we may do here may be useless". Pérez told Bush that he had sent him a letter several days earlier and that he would appreciate it if he would read it.
720:
food distribution centers since markets were destroyed by rioters. Constitutional rights were not completely restored until March 22, and in the interim, there was no official decree or resolution to define how government authority would be exercised in the absence of such rights. Insurance estimates of damage caused during the rioting were $ 90 million
351:(IMF) staff as "genocide workers in the pay of economic totalitarianism" and its policies as a "bomb that only kills people." Receiving 53% of the vote, Pérez demanded that Latin American debt be devalued by fifty percent and said that the region was a victim of international exploitation during celebrations after his inauguration.
741:." Strønen makes a similar assessment, saying "El Caracazo made it clear that the illusion of a social contract between the poor and the rest of society was irrevocably compromised. From that moment on, the popular sectors become increasingly radicalized, which explains the massive support for the attempted coup led by Chávez."
397:
controversial part of the economic reform package was the reduction of the gasoline subsidies, which had long maintained domestic gasoline prices far beneath international levels and even the production costs. Pérez's package was rejected by all political parties, including his own, though he ignored their declinations.
268:. The weeklong clashes resulted in the deaths of hundreds, thousands by some accounts, mostly at the hands of security forces and the military. The riots and the protests began mainly in response to the government's economic reforms and the resulting increase in the price of gasoline and transportation
893:
a month after the rioting, Judith Ewell said that "foreign bankers ... forced on
Venezuela the most stringent debt-repayment terms in Latin America." Strønen wrote that Pérez's reforms were the "last straw" for disenchanted groups and that, regarding the Caracazo, "The distance between the governing
513:
Groups of hundreds of protesters began to spread throughout
Caracas, writing messages on walls that said "The people are hungry" and "No more deception." There were reports of particularly vicious attacks on stores owned by foreigners, namely Chinese, Lebanese and Portuguese immigrants, accusing them
400:
On the weekend of 25–26 February 1989, gasoline prices rose 100 per cent and the fuel price increase in turn needed an increase in public transportation fares of 30 per cent officially, and more in practice as some carriers refused to limit their prices to the official rate. The increase was supposed
625:
with the protection of a second attack helicopter to observe scenes of the
Caracazo and upon his return to the palace, he publicly declared "There's normalcy in the city. I return very satisfied with the flyover I have made. All of the city, all the barrios are in complete normalcy." Reporters noted
396:
unveiled were the reduction of fuel subsidies and the increase of public transportation fares by thirty percent. He also took measures to decentralize and modernize the
Venezuelan political system by the direct election of state governors, who had previously been appointed by the president. The most
354:
At the time his election, Venezuela's international reserves were at $ 300 million USD ($ 708 million USD in 2022), its national debt stood at $ 34 billion USD ($ 80 billion USD in 2022) and the poverty rate was at 70%. Pérez reversed from his campaign rhetoric condemning the IMF and decided to
719:
During the protests, citizens in poor areas destroyed their own local commercial facilities, with food markets so damaged that their food distribution system was ruined. Rioters destroyed properties indiscriminately, with no motives related to initial protests, and many had to line up at government
711:
The initial official pronouncements stated that 276 people had died, though the Pérez administration attempted to block investigations. Of the deaths, two soldiers and one police officer were reported dead. After hundreds of unmarked graves were found in the following months, many estimates put the
694:
No one gave me a direct order to shoot to kill, but they did tell us that constitutional rights were suspended and that, if we needed to use our weapons to repress a looting, we were authorized to do so because nothing was going to happen to us. In other words, maybe they didn't explicitly order us
620:
On 2 March, reporter
Fabricio Ojeda wrote "In the morning, following the second night of curfew, those who descended from the barrios to go to work tripped over bodies shot up during the curfew." Before curfew, José Calixto Blanco was shot in the face by troops at 2:00pm. That day, President Pérez
481:
began to organize large protests against Pérez's new policies. Branches, empty bottle crates and other obstacles were placed at each of the highway intersections to block traffic. Lorries thought to be transporting food were stopped by the crowd, the driver was non-violently detained and the cargo
504:
delivered a televised message in which the government attempted to announce that the situation was under control, but he was unable to conclude his speech, saying "I can't" and going off screen. Through the night, some working class areas participated in parties with alcohol looted earlier in the
537:
were imposed. On
February 28, a number of articles of the Constitution were suspended, including Article 60 (right to individual liberty and security), Article 62 (inviolability of the home), Article 66 (freedom of expression), Article 71 (right to gather publicly and privately), and Article 115
2132:
On
February 5, 1989, the transmission of Lusinchi's command to Pérez was effected with a lavish ceremony unprecedented in a democracy. Fidel ... was pressured by the "perestroika" that threatened the existence of the Cuban communist regime. The Soviet economic problems made it urgent to control
1836:, p. 10: "As in similar urban uprisings elsewhere, cases were reported of particularly vicious attacks on shops owned by foreigners, in this case Chinese, Lebanese and Portuguese immigrants, on the grounds that they were responsible for the shortages because they had been hoarding supplies"
654:
In the morning, troops entered homes to search for armed individuals. As tensions eased, troops began to sweep through neighborhoods collecting appliances and cash registers and informing citizens that if they provided a certificate of purchase, the items would be returned. Citizens began to be
465:
for a meeting of the
Venezuelan Executives Association. According to Pérez's executive secretary, Ignacio Betancourt, he dismissed the warnings from ministers and other officials throughout the day. After being shown footage of lootings and demonstrations, Pérez dismissed it saying that events
736:
The clearest consequence of the Caracazo was political instability. According to Velasco, the Caracazo is "idely held as a turning point in Venezuelan history" and that it "exposed a deep fissure in the social pact between political elites and the electorate established in the wake of the
634:
During his first appearance among the foreign press, Pérez described the Caracazo as actions "against the rich" as a result of inequality. Protests in other large cities besides Caracas had largely subsided. At 3:00pm, army reservist Carlos H. Cuñar was shot by troops while leaving the
452:
also started with students demonstrating against the increase of student fares and continued with public transport users in general. With no apparent authority presence or action, the crowd turned violent, the protest spread and turned into looting throughout the city. At midday
699:
The IACHR said that a "disproportionate use of force" was especially used in impoverished areas. Poor areas faced increased violence during the riots, with authorities firing indiscriminately throughout neighborhoods and dragging some individuals out of their homes for
466:
happened at noon and that the situation had calmed down. While meeting with the business executives, Pérez told his audience, "There is nothing to be alarmed about (...) We are going to take advantage of the crisis to generate well-being." Pérez ordered to commence
2302:
704:. It was common to see bodies spread throughout the streets for hours during the protests. Estimates from the Comité de Familiares de Víctimas del Caracazo state that 97% people who died during the Caracazo were killed in their homes. In
712:
number at above 2,000 and up to 5,000. Shortages of coffins were reported and morgues were so overfilled with dead that workers had to explain to family members searching for loved ones that bodies were simply discarded in trash bags. A
655:
observed in the streets participating in daily life and some businesses reopened. At this time, cemeteries began to grow crowded as individuals gathered to bury their loved ones who were killed earlier in the week.
879:
and Dámaso Jiménez, as well as Carlos Julio Peñaloza (a general at the time of the Caracazo), Cuban agents might have entered Venezuela during Carlos Andrés Pérez's inauguration ceremony, which was attended by
2340:
In this regard, the Caracazo was not such a spontaneous outburst as is commonly believed. We have found that anti-neoliberal student protest had been building in the previous days in Merida as well as other
851:
In August 2009, Defense Minister Italo del Valle Alliegro was charged in relation to the Caracazo. In July 2010, the Supreme Court overturned an appeal court ruling, which had declared the case covered by a
482:
was unloaded and distributed, after which the driver was asked to park the vehicle across the carriageway. When the Metropolitan Police arrived later, they said that they had orders to not interfere.
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leader as he promised that Venezuela would continue to modernize even though it was facing economic difficulties. During his campaign, he heavily rejected liberalization policies, describing the
2543:
328:
was able to restructure the country's debt repayments and offset an economic crisis but allow for the continuation of the government's policies of social spending and state-sponsored subsidies.
841:, including extrajudicial killings. The Venezuelan government, by then headed by Chávez, did not contest the findings of the case and accepted full responsibility for the government's actions.
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neighborhood to buy groceries, later dying after he drove himself to a hospital. By nightfall, militants in Zona Central who had been clashing with troops, began to run out of ammunition.
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of hoarding supplies and of being responsible for the shortages. The demonstrations grew into an open revolt where nearly all social groups participated in the rioting. At this time,
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about 30 kilometres (19 mi) east of Caracas, due to the increase in public transportation prices. A lack of timely intervention by authorities, as the rank and file of the
422:
and later spread to Caracas, where other social groups then began to protest against Pérez's policies. Larger protests and rioting began on the morning of 27 February 1989 in
1751:, p. 195: "By noon, a truck carrying groceries lay lootes, while demonstrators stopped traffic in the nearby Francisco Fajardo highway connecting east and west Caracas"
431:
288:, recognized as having a crucial role in Colombia's history. "Caracazo" is technically defined as the "Caracas smash" or "the big one in Caracas" based on Spanish dialect.
684:
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1613:, p. 289: "An ongoing strike among the rank and file of the Metropolitan Police, regarding the body's leadership structure, had delayed intervention on 27 February"
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The final documented death of the Caracazo was Napoleón Soto Vilera after being shot in the head from by an individual at the Naval Observatory near Sierra Maestra.
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caused an economic crisis to take hold in Venezuela, and the country had accrued significant levels of debt. Nevertheless, the administration of President
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to investigate the events during the Caracazo and voted for a report that concluded that 277 people were killed as well. The votes included that of
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Minster, Christopher. “Colombia's Legendary Riot of 1948.” ThoughtCo, ThoughtCo, 24 July 2019, www.thoughtco.com/the-bogotazo-april-9-1948-2136619.
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774:. The MBR-200, which in 1982 had promised to depose the bipartisanship governments, repudiated the Caracazo and accelerated its preparation for a
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477:, which connected east to west Caracas. Students began to build barricades, which blocked the main thoroughfares in Caracas, and students of the
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against the Perez government. Throughout the 1990s, MBR-200 participated in anti-austerity protests. In 1992, there were two attempted coups in
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president Pedro Tinoco, Minister of Economy Eglée Iturbe de Blanco and Minister of Planning Miguel Rodríguez were at the IMF headquarters in
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339:, which saw Carlos Andrés Pérez return for his second tenure as president. Pérez based his campaign in his legacy of abundance during his
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782:. Pérez was later accused of corruption and removed from the presidency. Chávez, an organiser of one of the coups, was found guilty of
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to disperse protests in Barquisimeto due to the president's presence, resulting with limited demonstrations in the area. Pérez flew to
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to be implemented on 1 March 1989, but bus drivers decided to apply the price rise on 27 February, a day before payday in Venezuela.
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ordered Pérez's extradition from the United States in 2009 as a result of his government's violent response during the Caracazo.
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from 1973 to 1979, the political elite in Venezuela believed that the nation faced a near-unlimited supply of cashflow due to
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Despite initial debate within the government over how to manage the situation, a heavy-handed approach was implemented as a
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340:
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980:"Riots leave Venezuela short of coffins; Up to 700 reported dead while hospitals say most of the injured were shot: B1".
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statements that poor individuals protesting–who were the majority in the nation–were "committed to violence" and were "
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687:(DISIP) were reported to have beaten protesters with baseball bats and pipes while they performed interrogations.
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UN, Venezuela: Wound Still Gaping 20 Years after ‘Caracazo’, By Humberto Márquez, Caracas, Feb 27 2009 (IPS),
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http://www.cidob.org/es/documentacion/biografias_lideres_politicos/america_del_sur/venezuela/jaime_lusinchi#2
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UN, Venezuela: Wound Still Gaping 20 Years after ‘Caracazo’, By Humberto Márquez, Caracas, Feb 27 2009 (IPS,
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was discovered a year later at El Cementerio de Sur where 68 bodies alone were found placed in plastic bags.
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332:
109:: Venezuelans cheering during the rioting; the looting of stores in Caracas; and police responding to a scene
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By noon, one delivery truck was reported to have been looted in central Caracas and protesters blocked the
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708:, heavy repression was reported and bullet holes from the crackdowns were visible decades later in 2014.
556:
348:
2434:
The President's Telephone Conversation with President Carlos Andres Perez of Venezuela on March 3, 1989.
1198:"Between Multitude and Pueblo: Venezuela's Bolivarian Revolution and the Government of Un-governability"
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1280:, March 1990, Reports of Arbitrary Killings and Torture:, February/March 1989, AI Index: AMR 53/02/90,
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to kill, but they did insinuate that if we needed to, it was within the rules of engagement to do so.
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497:. 65 civilians were reported dead by 6:00 pm, with no severe casualties reported among authorities.
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is the name given to the wave of protests, riots and looting that started on 27 February 1989 in the
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884:, and may have waited for unrest to occur in Venezuela so they could exacerbate political tensions.
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that he made this statement as gunfire could be heard within the palace from nearby neighborhoods.
445:, led the protests and rioting quickly spread to the capital and other towns across the country.
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by liberalizing the economy upon taking office on 2 February 1989. He announced on 16 February a
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Massacres in Venezuela: Los Maniceros Massacre, Caracazo, Massacre of El Amparo, Yumare Massacre
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http://www.ipsnews.net/2009/02/venezuela-wound-still-gaping-20-years-after-lsquocaracazorsquo/
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http://www.ipsnews.net/2009/02/venezuela-wound-still-gaping-20-years-after-lsquocaracazorsquo/
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837:. In 1999, the Court heard the case and found that the government had committed violations of
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R. Guy, Emerson (2011). "A Bolivarian People: Identity politics in Hugo Chávez's Venezuela".
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One army lieutenant, Francisco Espinoza Guyón, said of orders received during the Caracazo:
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http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=167®ionSelect=5-Southern_Americas#
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Conflict Encyclopedia, Venezuela, One-sided Violence, Government of Venezuela – civilians,
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The silence and the scorpion: the coup against Chávez and the making of modern Venezuela
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Strønen, Iselin Åsedotter (2017), "Understanding the Bolivarian Revolution from Below",
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https://bush41library.tamu.edu/files/Press--Meetings%20with%20Foreigners%201989.pdf
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1804:"Muere Alejandro Izaguirre, ministro de Interior venezolano durante el 'Caracazo'"
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economic policies recommended by the IMF to fix macroeconomic imbalances known as
2232:"Venezuela after the Caracazo: Forms of Protest in a Deinstitutionalized context"
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At 1:00 pm, police fired upon an increasingly large and agitated crowd near the
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2303:"The Venezuelan "Caracazo" of 1989: Popular Protest and Institutional Weakness"
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allegedly participated in the crackdown; Chávez himself was sick that day with
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and incarcerated, though he was subsequently pardoned by Pérez's successor,
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said that 277 individuals were killed. A commission was established in the
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In the days prior to more intense protests, student demonstrations against
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and again in June, when rising of transportation costs ended in riots in
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2397:
Barrio Rising: Urban Popular Politics and the Making of Modern Venezuela
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2393:"7. Killing Democracy's Promise: A Massacre of People and Expectations"
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766:. As part of the government's security forces, members of Chávez's
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In February 1990, the army was called to contain similar riots in
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and surrounding towns following austerity measures from President
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489:, killing student Yulimar Reyes, shooting her in the face with a
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Venezuela’s Ex-Defense Chief May Face Charges for ‘89 Repression
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respond to the debt, public spending, economic restrictions and
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condemned the government's action and referred the case to the
609:
2173:
Ewell, Judith (March 1989). "Debt and Politics in Venezuela".
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Bush Presidential Library, 3 March 1989, Memcons and Telcons,
1495:"The Impact of Neoliberal Adjustment in Venezuela, 1989-1993"
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the caracazo—an anti-neoliberal uprising and massacre in 1989
2350:; Sanabria, Eduardo (2018). "La democracia pierde energía".
2211:"Dozens of Venezuelans Killed In Riots Over Price Increases"
2120:. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. p. 185.
1852:", in John M. Carey and Matthew Soberg Shugart (eds, 1998),
1084:", in John M. Carey and Matthew Soberg Shugart (eds, 1998),
685:
National Directorate of Intelligence and Prevention Services
2118:
El Delfín de Fidel: La historia oculta tras el golpe del 4F
1601:, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, accessed 1 May 2007
280:, and "-azo", which stems from another historic event, the
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day, including whisky, champagne and other food supplies.
45:
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2012:
Comparative Politics of Latin America: Democracy at Last?
1967:
Hugo Chávez: Oil, Politics, and the Challenge to the U.S.
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and his administration racked on large amounts of debt.
1943:(online ed.). New York: Nation Books. p. 24.
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https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/amr53/002/1991/en/
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to abide by the organization's economic prescriptions.
2048:"Extradition of Former Venezuelan President Requested"
1925:'Caracazo', the massacre of hundreds of people in 1989
1907:"Hugo Chavez death reports wrong, says vice-president"
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Sangre y asfalto: 135 días en las calles de Venezuela
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1710:"Del plan Ávila al plan Zamora, por Beltrán Vallejo"
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Venezuela exhumes unnamed dead in riot investigation
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1958 democratic revolution that ousted Pérez Jiménez
1630:. Caracas, Venezuela: Editorial Alfa. p. 109.
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679:The Pérez government's response was described as a
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2436:" George H.W. Bush Presidential Library Archives,
798:consolidated their political objectives into the
276:The term "Caracazo", stems from the city's name,
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2621:United States–Venezuela Maritime Boundary Treaty
1460:Grassroots Politics and Oil Culture in Venezuela
762:recognized the Caracazo as the beginning of his
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1994:
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550:due to fears of their property being destroyed.
1599:El Caracazo Case, Judgment of 11 November 1999
1493:Lander, Edgardo; Fierro, Luis A. (July 1996).
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756:and other cities. The reforms were modified.
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586:Smoke billowing from fires throughout Caracas
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1121:Almeida, Paul; Pérez Martín, Amalia (2022).
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1850:Presidential Decree Authority in Venezuela
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500:That afternoon, Interior Affairs Minister
48:. Please do not remove this message until
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1195:
1038:
990:
831:Inter-American Commission on Human Rights
728:) in 1989, or $ 212 million USD in 2022.
68:Learn how and when to remove this message
2115:
1844:
1842:
1076:
1074:
731:
670:
295:
44:Relevant discussion may be found on the
2516:
2390:
2301:López Maya, Margarita (February 2003).
1963:
1790:
1748:
1736:
1707:
1674:
1610:
1581:
1457:
1358:
2954:
2368:
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1936:
1930:
1829:
1827:
1786:
1784:
1686:
1622:
1587:
1557:
1453:
1239:
1123:Collective Resistance to Neoliberalism
1017:
975:
973:
971:
969:
967:
965:
963:
2997:February 1989 events in South America
2962:Riots and civil disorder in Venezuela
2616:Netherlands–Venezuela Boundary Treaty
2490:
2267:
2265:
2172:
1839:
1771:
1769:
1708:TalCual, Opinión (15 November 2021).
1488:
1486:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1433:
1071:
897:
804:1998 Venezuelan presidential election
562:Rioters attempting to push over a bus
322:A fall in oil prices in the mid-1980s
2450:
2230:López-Maya, Margarita (April 2002).
1116:
1114:
1112:
1110:
835:Inter-American Court of Human Rights
18:
2561:Petróleos de Venezuela subsidiaries
2544:Fundación Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho
2354:(1st ed.). Gráficas Pedrazas.
2236:Bulletin of Latin American Research
1824:
1781:
1401:Fastenberg, Dan (10 January 2011).
1394:
1196:Kingsbury, Donald (December 2013).
960:
912:features an account of the events.
308:meeting a month before the Caracazo
13:
3007:March 1989 events in South America
2638:Killing of Jorge Antonio Rodríguez
2453:"The Annotated 1989 PROVEA Report"
2426:
2262:
1899:
1875:
1766:
1483:
1430:
598:Crowds gathered during the rioting
343:, creating perceptions of being a
14:
3028:
2987:Political repression in Venezuela
2451:Toro, Francisco (7 August 2016).
2444:
2311:Journal of Latin American Studies
2116:Peñaloza, General Carlos (2014).
2081:Former Venezuela minister charged
1464:Springer International Publishing
1189:
1141:Caracazo anti-neoliberal uprising
1107:
809:
574:Looters running with stolen goods
2935:
2934:
2668:
2660:1978 Venezuelan general election
2650:Simón Bolívar Symphony Orchestra
2273:"What was El Caracazo? Part III"
1478:the el Caracazo massacre in 1989
814:Shortly after the Caracazo, the
675:Military response to the rioting
642:Pérez spoke with U.S. President
591:
579:
567:
555:
405:Timeline of protests and rioting
331:Lusinchi's political party, the
204:
100:
23:
2294:
2223:
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2166:
2138:
2085:
2068:
2040:
1957:
1796:
1754:
1742:
1730:
1701:
1680:
1668:
1656:
1644:
1616:
1604:
1575:
1563:
1364:
1286:
1259:
919:also sings about the Caracazo.
479:Central University of Venezuela
118:27 February 1989 – 5 March 1989
2401:University of California Press
1687:Nelson, Brian A. (Fall 2007).
1095:
1032:Australian National University
508:
409:
232:2,000–5,000 (independent est.)
16:1989 civil unrest in Venezuela
1:
2626:Kidnapping of William Niehous
2529:(1974–1979) & (1989-1993)
2093:Latin American Herald Tribune
1970:Palgrave Macmillan. pp.
1056:Uppsala Conflict Data Program
954:
864:According to writers such as
291:
171:$ 212 million of damage
3012:20th-century political riots
2860:La rebelión de los náufragos
2440:. Accessed October 26, 2011.
2374:La rebelión de los náufragos
2189:10.1525/curh.1989.88.536.121
1628:La Rebelión de los Náufragos
1373:, Jaime Lusinchi, (Spanish)
1254:, Reuters, 22 September 2009
1214:10.1080/07393148.2013.848702
844:Venezuelan attorney general
271:
7:
2808:1998 parliamentary election
2391:Velasco, Alejandro (2015).
1995:Márquez & Sanabria 2018
1543:Márquez & Sanabria 2018
1499:Latin American Perspectives
1389:Márquez & Sanabria 2018
922:
859:
457:'s governor called for the
432:Caracas Metropolitan Police
384:), called by detractors as
349:International Monetary Fund
318:high oil prices at the time
50:conditions to do so are met
10:
3033:
2867:Paper Tigers and Minotaurs
2714:November 1992 coup attempt
2709:February 1992 coup attempt
2320:Cambridge University Press
2010:Hellinger, Daniel (2014).
1858:Cambridge University Press
1854:Executive decree authority
1511:10.1177/0094582X9602300304
1127:Cambridge University Press
1090:Cambridge University Press
1086:Executive decree authority
802:, with Chávez winning the
796:Movement Towards Socialism
667:Aftermath and consequences
658:
649:
629:
621:flew in a helicopter from
615:
603:
2897:
2876:
2837:
2820:
2800:
2779:
2753:
2746:
2677:
2666:
2534:
2524:
2328:10.1017/S0022216X02006673
2183:(536): 121–124, 147–149.
1964:Kozloff, Nikolas (2007).
1937:Nelson, Brian A. (2009).
1848:Crisp, Brian F. (1998), "
1694:Virginia Quarterly Review
1080:Crisp, Brian F. (1998), "
915:The Venezuelan rock band
905:'s 2005 homonymous film,
516:Central Bank of Venezuela
475:Francisco Fajardo Highway
389:
381:
341:first presidential period
312:During the presidency of
236:
226:
221:
192:
187:
162:
144:
136:
124:
114:
99:
91:
84:
2992:Looting in South America
2467:"La sangre & el eco"
2152:(in Spanish). Kalathos.
284:, was a massive riot in
2248:10.1111/1470-9856.00040
800:Fifth Republic Movement
363:cabinet and a group of
210:Government of Venezuela
3017:1980s political events
2910:Luis Herrera Campins →
2527:President of Venezuela
2376:(9th ed.). Alfa.
854:statute of limitations
697:
676:
487:Parque Central Complex
386:El Paquetazo Económico
309:
2967:Protests in Venezuela
2792:1988 general election
2787:1973 general election
2771:1963 general election
2766:1958 general election
2761:1947 general election
2409:10.1525/9780520959187
1403:"Carlos Andrés Pérez"
1278:Amnesty International
1202:New Political Science
780:February and November
764:Bolivarian Revolution
732:Political instability
692:
674:
299:
181:Political instability
94:Protests in Venezuela
2655:Sierra Nevada affair
2438:Memcons and Telecons
724:($ 120 million
390:The Economic Package
306:World Economic Forum
2982:Carlos Andrés Pérez
2754:Chamber of Deputies
2556:Oil nationalization
2518:Carlos Andrés Pérez
2056:. 30 September 2009
1020:Humanities Research
824:José Vicente Rangel
820:Venezuelan Congress
816:Minister of Defense
502:Alejandro Izaguirre
314:Carlos Andrés Pérez
302:Carlos Andrés Pérez
266:Carlos Andrés Pérez
168:Civilian casualties
37:of this article is
2458:Caracas Chronicles
2277:Caracas Chronicles
2216:The New York Times
2103:2011-07-13 at the
2053:Americas Quarterly
1915:. 28 February 2013
1689:"One Crowded Hour"
1466:, pp. 57–83,
1065:2014-01-15 at the
898:In popular culture
702:summary executions
677:
531:state of emergency
310:
140:Austerity measures
2972:1989 in Venezuela
2949:
2948:
2816:
2815:
2747:Electoral history
2679:Second presidency
2418:978-0-520-95918-7
2383:978-980-354-295-5
2361:978-1-7328777-1-9
2348:Márquez, Laureano
2096:, 2 August 2010,
1637:978-980-354-295-5
1473:978-3-319-59506-1
870:Milagros Socorros
846:Luisa Ortega Díaz
683:. Members of the
644:George H. W. Bush
623:Miraflores Palace
495:point-blank range
394:austerity reforms
333:Democratic Action
244:
243:
230:277 (government)
217:
216:
178:
78:
77:
70:
3024:
2938:
2937:
2926:Rafael Caldera →
2919:← Jaime Lusinchi
2903:← Rafael Caldera
2828:Blanca Rodríguez
2751:
2750:
2739:
2727:
2719:Operation Orchid
2700:
2672:
2646:
2634:
2610:
2598:
2586:
2574:
2552:
2536:First presidency
2511:
2504:
2497:
2488:
2487:
2480:
2479:. 4 August 2016.
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2146:Prunhuber, Carol
2142:
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2107:
2089:
2083:
2079:, 18 July 2009,
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988:
987:
977:
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866:Elizabeth Burgos
595:
583:
571:
559:
524:letter of intent
520:Washington, D.C.
448:Protests in the
440:
391:
383:
378:
300:President-elect
212:
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194:
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107:Top, left, right
104:
82:
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27:
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19:
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2893:
2889:Twelve Apostles
2872:
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2796:
2775:
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2447:
2429:
2427:Further reading
2419:
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2305:
2297:
2292:
2282:
2280:
2279:. 5 August 2016
2271:
2270:
2263:
2228:
2224:
2219:. 1 March 1989.
2209:
2208:
2204:
2176:Current History
2171:
2167:
2160:
2143:
2139:
2128:
2114:
2110:
2105:Wayback Machine
2090:
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1834:López Maya 2003
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1797:
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1776:López Maya 2003
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1761:López Maya 2003
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1663:López Maya 2003
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1651:López Maya 2003
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1570:López Maya 2003
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1184:López Maya 2003
1182:
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1100:
1096:
1079:
1072:
1067:Wayback Machine
1054:
1039:
1016:
991:
986:. 5 March 1989.
979:
978:
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925:
900:
890:Current History
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2846:CAP 2 Intentos
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2692:El Gran Viraje
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2477:La Vida Bohème
2463:
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2445:External links
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2370:Rivero, Mirtha
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2242:(2): 199–218.
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2127:978-1505750331
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1624:Rivero, Mirtha
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917:La Vida Bohème
903:Román Chalbaud
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810:Investigations
808:
788:Rafael Caldera
746:Puerto La Cruz
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2017:
2014:. Routledge.
2013:
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1997:, p. 124
1996:
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1981:9781403984098
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2780:Presidential
2703:
2687:Inauguration
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2295:Bibliography
2281:. Retrieved
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2058:. Retrieved
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2011:
1990:
1966:
1959:
1939:
1932:
1924:
1917:. Retrieved
1910:
1901:
1882:
1877:
1865:
1853:
1814:. Retrieved
1812:(in Spanish)
1807:
1798:
1791:Velasco 2015
1756:
1749:Velasco 2015
1744:
1737:Velasco 2015
1732:
1720:. Retrieved
1718:(in Spanish)
1713:
1703:
1692:
1682:
1675:Velasco 2015
1670:
1658:
1646:
1627:
1618:
1611:Velasco 2015
1606:
1582:Velasco 2015
1577:
1572:, p. 20
1565:
1505:(3): 50–73.
1502:
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1420:. Retrieved
1406:
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1359:Velasco 2015
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882:Fidel Castro
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839:human rights
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548:private jets
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463:Barquisimeto
447:
426:, a town in
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361:technocratic
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248:
247:
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106:
85:
79:
64:
58:January 2024
55:
33:
2853:CAP Inédito
2734: [
2731:Impeachment
2722: [
2695: [
2641: [
2629: [
2605: [
2593: [
2581: [
2569: [
2547: [
2322:: 117–137.
2060:15 November
2035:Rivero 2011
1816:19 February
1778:, p. 8
1763:, p. 7
1722:15 November
1665:, p. 9
1653:, p. 8
1558:Rivero 2011
983:The Gazette
908:El Caracazo
873: [
790:. MBR-200,
776:coup d'état
760:Hugo Chávez
706:23 de Enero
637:23 de Enero
544:subversives
535:martial law
509:28 February
435: [
410:27 February
373: [
163:Resulted in
2977:1989 riots
2956:Categories
1919:21 January
955:References
714:mass grave
522:signing a
468:Plan Ávila
450:Lara state
441:were on a
388:(English:
380:(English:
292:Background
254:Venezuelan
222:Casualties
198:Protesters
35:neutrality
2336:145292996
2256:0261-3050
2197:249702131
1527:143947955
1519:0094-582X
1417:0040-781X
1230:144593260
1222:0739-3148
1034:: 87–111.
939:Rosariazo
934:Cordobazo
754:Maracaibo
750:Barcelona
540:polarized
418:began in
272:Etymology
137:Caused by
46:talk page
2940:Category
2704:Caracazo
2578:Deltaven
2566:Corpoven
2372:(2011).
2283:12 April
2148:(2018).
2101:Archived
1885:. 2010.
1809:El Mundo
1715:Tal Cual
1462:, Cham:
1063:Archived
1028:Canberra
929:Bogotazo
923:See also
860:Analysis
784:sedition
681:massacre
424:Guarenas
345:populist
282:Bogotazo
258:Guarenas
256:city of
249:Caracazo
237:Injuries
227:Death(s)
150:Protests
125:Location
120:(6 days)
92:Part of
86:Caracazo
39:disputed
2877:Related
2602:Maraven
2590:Lagoven
2472:YouTube
2341:cities.
1422:9 April
772:measles
768:MBR-200
659:5 March
650:4 March
630:3 March
616:2 March
604:1 March
491:shotgun
278:Caracas
262:Caracas
188:Parties
156:Looting
145:Methods
130:Caracas
2830:(wife)
2821:Family
2801:Senate
2415:
2380:
2358:
2334:
2254:
2195:
2156:
2124:
2018:
1978:
1947:
1889:
1860:. p150
1634:
1525:
1517:
1470:
1415:
1228:
1220:
1133:
1092:. p157
944:Dakazo
610:Petare
420:Mérida
286:Bogotá
240:2,000+
173:(2022
2838:Image
2738:]
2726:]
2699:]
2645:]
2633:]
2609:]
2597:]
2585:]
2573:]
2551:]
2332:S2CID
2318:(1).
2306:(PDF)
2193:S2CID
1523:S2CID
1226:S2CID
1026:(1).
877:]
439:]
377:]
304:at a
153:Riots
2413:ISBN
2378:ISBN
2356:ISBN
2285:2019
2252:ISSN
2154:ISBN
2122:ISBN
2062:2023
2016:ISBN
1976:ISBN
1945:ISBN
1921:2024
1887:ISBN
1818:2024
1724:2023
1632:ISBN
1515:ISSN
1468:ISBN
1424:2021
1413:ISSN
1408:Time
1218:ISSN
1131:ISBN
794:and
748:and
533:and
455:Lara
246:The
115:Date
32:The
2405:doi
2324:doi
2244:doi
2185:doi
2076:BBC
1507:doi
1210:doi
887:In
726:CAD
722:USD
608:In
493:at
175:USD
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