313:
material, although it usually involves using a standard mould shape and measuring the distance the material flows. Fluidity is affected by the composition of the material, freezing temperature or range, surface tension of oxide films, and, most importantly, the pouring temperature. The higher the pouring temperature, the greater the fluidity; however, excessive temperatures can be detrimental, leading to a reaction between the material and the mould; in casting processes that use a porous mould material the material may even penetrate the mould material.
224:
289:. A misrun occurs when the liquid metal does not completely fill the mould cavity, leaving an unfilled portion. Cold shuts occur when two fronts of liquid metal do not fuse properly in the mould cavity, leaving a weak spot. Both are caused by either a lack of fluidity in the molten metal or cross-sections that are too narrow. The fluidity can be increased by changing the chemical composition of the metal or by increasing the pouring temperature. Another possible cause is
68:" refer to two specific and separate things in castings. Defects are defined as conditions in a casting that must be corrected or removed, or the casting must be rejected. Discontinuities, also known as "imperfections", are defined as "interruptions in the physical continuity of the casting". Therefore, if the casting is less than perfect, but still useful and in tolerance, the imperfections should be deemed "discontinuities".
247:, or other gasses from the melt or mould. (Vacuum holes caused by metal shrinkage (see above) may also be loosely referred to as 'blowholes'). Proper foundry practices, including melt preparation and mould design, can reduce the occurrence of these defects. Because they are often surrounded by a skin of sound metal, blowholes may be difficult to detect, requiring harmonic,
425:. These defects can be caused by cold dies, low metal temperature, dirty metal, lack of venting, or excessive lubricant. Other possible defects are gas porosity, shrinkage porosity, hot tears, and flow marks. Flow marks are marks left on the surface of the casting due to poor gating, sharp corners or excessive lubricant.
312:
of the material can be important factors with these problems. Fluidity affects the minimum section thickness that can be cast, the maximum length of thin sections, fineness of feasibly cast details, and the accuracy of filling mould extremities. There are various ways of measuring the fluidity of a
219:
Gas porosity can sometimes be difficult to distinguish from micro shrinkage because microshrinkage cavities can contain gases as well. In general, microporosities will form if the casting is not properly risered or if a material with a wide solidification range is cast. If neither of these are the
404:
Hot spots are sections of casting which have cooled down more slowly than the surrounding material due to higher volume than its surrounding. This causes abnormal shrinkage in this region, which can lead to porosity and cracks. This type of defect can be avoided by proper cooling practices or by
157:
is the formation of bubbles within the casting after it has cooled. This occurs because most liquid materials can hold a large amount of dissolved gas, but the solid form of the same material cannot, so the gas forms bubbles within the material as it cools. Gas porosity may present itself on the
370:. Other ingredients can be added to the mixture to cause the dross to float to the top where it can be skimmed off before the metal is poured into the mould. If this is not practical, then a special ladle that pours the metal from the bottom can be used. Another option is to install
374:
filters into the gating system. Otherwise swirl gates can be formed which swirl the liquid metal as it is poured in, forcing the lighter inclusions to the center and keeping them out of the casting. If some of the dross or slag is folded into the molten metal then it becomes an
599:
occurs when metallic oxides interact with impurities in silica sands. The result is sand particles embedded in the surface of the finished casting. This defect can be avoided by reducing the temperature of the liquid metal, by using a mould wash, and by using various
499:
of the casting. This can be caused by a sand with too little strength or a pouring velocity that is too fast. The pouring velocity can be reduced by redesigning the gating system to use larger runners or multiple gates. A related source of defects are
401:, are failures in the casting that occur as the casting cools. This happens because the metal is weak when it is hot and the residual stresses in the material can cause the casting to fail as it cools. Proper mould design prevents this type of defect.
578:, which are buckles that occur in the cope of sand castings. All of these defects are visual in nature and are no reason to scrap the workpiece. These defects are caused by overly high pouring temperatures or deficiencies of
303:
are closely related and both involve the material freezing before it completely fills the mould cavity. These types of defects are serious because the area surrounding the defect is significantly weaker than intended. The
174:. For casting that are a few kilograms in weight the pores are usually 0.01 to 0.5 mm (0.00039 to 0.01969 in) in size. In larger casting, they can be up to a millimetre (0.040 in) in diameter.
99:. Shrinkage defects will have jagged or linear appearance. Shrinkage defects usually occur in either the cope or drag portion of the casting. Shrinkage defects can be split into two different types:
189:
temperatures can be kept low. Turbulence from pouring the liquid metal into the mould can introduce gases, so the moulds are often streamlined to minimize such turbulence. Other methods include
519:. This is caused by sand particles which are too coarse, lack of mould wash, or pouring temperatures that are too high. An alternative form of metal penetration into the mould known as
351:), material that is eroded from furnace or ladle linings, or contaminates from the mould. In the specific case of aluminium alloys, it is important to control the concentration of
405:
changing the chemical composition of the metal. Additional methods of minimising hot tears are not overheating the casting material and increasing the temperature of the mould.
464:
Sand casting has many defects that can occur due to the mould failing. The mould usually fails because of one of two reasons: the wrong material is used or it is improperly
216:
Hydrogen is produced by the reaction of the metal with humidity or residual moisture in the mould. Drying the mould can eliminate this source of hydrogen formation.
170:
are the most encountered gases in cases of gas porosity. In aluminium castings, hydrogen is the only gas that dissolves in significant quantity, which can result in
476:
197:, or precipitation. Precipitation involves reacting the gas with another element to form a compound that will form a dross that floats to the top. For instance,
119:. Pipes form at the surface of the casting and burrow into the casting, while caved surfaces are shallow cavities that form across the surface of the casting.
76:
There are many types of defects which result from many different causes. Some of the solutions to certain defects can be the cause for another type of defect.
320:. The point is difficult to predict in mould design because it is dependent on the solid fraction, the structure of the solidified particles, and the local
34:
process. Some defects can be tolerated while others can be repaired, otherwise they must be eliminated. They are broken down into five main categories:
1342:
484:
1304:
213:
can be added to steel to remove oxygen. A third source consists of reactions of the molten metal with grease or other residues in the mould.
358:
There are a number of ways to reduce the concentration of inclusions. In order to reduce oxide formation the metal can be melted with a
530:
is used then the sand can fuse to the casting. When this happens the surface of the casting produced has a brittle, glassy appearance.
445:, and includes molten steel qualities, such as the chemical composition being out of specification, cleanliness of the material, and
1335:
483:
because most other casting processes have more robust moulds. The castings produced have rough spots and excess material. The
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1228:
1186:
1164:
1110:
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674:
158:
surface of the casting as porosity or the pore may be trapped inside the metal, which reduces strength in that vicinity.
569:
are similar to buckles, except they are thin line indentations and not associated with scabs. Another similar defect is
707:
1328:
1297:
1206:
918:
879:
840:
813:
996:
126:, are defects that form within the casting. Isolated pools of liquid form inside solidified metal, which are called
1607:
1365:
177:
To prevent gas porosity the material may be melted in a vacuum, in an environment of low-solubility gases, such as
1524:
982:
618:
352:
446:
442:
1290:
508:
drops into the casting while it is still a liquid. This also occurs when the mould is not properly rammed.
252:
134:
point, so impurities and dissolved gas can induce closed shrinkage defects. The defects are broken up into
1380:
1150:
660:
1422:
589:
occurs when the mould wall gives way across a whole face, and is caused by an improperly rammed mould.
552:
are a thin layer of metal that sits proud of the casting. They are easy to remove and always reveal a
111:, therefore as the shrinkage cavity forms, air compensates. There are two types of open air defects:
272:
1417:
1581:
623:
355:
by measuring them in the liquid aluminium and taking actions to keep them to the required level.
1402:
260:
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31:
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515:, which occurs when the liquid metal penetrates into the moulding sand. This causes a rough
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1407:
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8:
1612:
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92:
91:
Shrinkage defects can occur when standard feed metal is not available to compensate for
457:"Scabbing" redirects here. For the act of working despite an ongoing strike action, see
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185:, or under a flux that prevents contact with the air. To minimize gas solubility the
19:"Scabbing" redirects here. For the practice of working during an ongoing strike, see
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367:
243:. Such defects can be caused by air entrained in the melt, steam or smoke from the
190:
1478:
1448:
1240:
1218:
1154:
538:
537:
occurs when the liquid metal leaks out of the mould because of a faulty mould or
130:. The shrinkage defect usually forms at the top of the hot spots. They require a
479:
as the liquid metal fills the mould. This type of defect usually only occurs in
516:
182:
96:
146:), where macroporosity can be seen by the naked eye and microporosity cannot.
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Tiny gas bubbles are called porosities, but larger gas bubbles are called
223:
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305:
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335:, if liquid. These usually are impurities in the pour metal (generally
206:
131:
108:
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780:
Gas
Porosity in Aluminum Casting, Compiled AFS Literature, March 2002
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becomes incorporated into the casting metal and decreases the
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rate of the fluid. Usually this value ranges from 0.4 to 0.8.
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178:
983:"Casting Defects: Hot Tearing :: Total Materia Article"
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underneath, which is an indentation in the casting surface.
220:
case then most likely the porosity is due to gas formation.
1529:
332:
316:
The point at which the material cannot flow is called the
1197:
Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003).
441:
processes. This defect is caused by uneven cooling, both
526:
If the pouring temperature is too high or a sand of low
83:. Most of these also occur in other casting processes.
1220:
Manufacturing technology: foundry, forming and welding
708:"What's the Difference in Gas and Shrinkage Porosity?"
437:
is a specialized type of defect that only occurs in
805:
Lost-wax
Casting: Old, New, and Inexpensive Methods
1264:Modeling for casting and solidification processing
1196:
997:"5 Common Casting Defects and How to Prevent Them"
957:
933:
753:
1242:Science and Engineering of Casting Solidification
659:
1599:
1078:(2nd ed.). ASM International. p. 331.
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717:
504:, in which part of the moulding sand from the
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1298:
1010:Avedesian, Baker & ASM International 1999
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762:
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874:. Constable & Company. pp. 30–32.
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327:An inclusion is a metal contamination of
107:. Open shrinkage defects are open to the
1199:Materials and Processes in Manufacturing
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906:
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688:
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387:There are two defects in this category:
382:
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122:Closed shrinkage defects, also known as
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293:from improperly vented mould cavities.
16:Irregularity in a metal casting process
1600:
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1324:
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443:primary cooling and secondary cooling
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273:Inclusion (mineral) § Metallurgy
910:High Integrity Die Casting Processes
801:
729:
86:
1217:Rao, Posinasetti Nageswara (1999).
1216:
1159:(2nd ed.). ASM International.
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1024:
894:
694:
647:
523:is caused by cracking of the sand.
475:, which is the wearing away of the
79:The following defects can occur in
13:
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1223:(2nd ed.). Tata McGraw-Hill.
1102:Casting Technology and Cast Alloys
1036:
969:
945:
855:
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30:is an undesired irregularity in a
14:
1624:
1239:Stefanescu, Doru Michael (2008).
907:Vinarcik, Edward J (2002-10-16).
669:. ASM International. p. 34.
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958:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
934:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
754:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
1149:Avedesian, M. M.; Baker, Hugh;
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1525:Semi-finished casting products
1156:Magnesium and magnesium alloys
1105:. Prentice-Hall. p. 242.
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666:Casting Design and Performance
653:
641:
619:Inclusions in aluminium alloys
408:
277:Pouring metal defects include
57:
1:
635:
511:The second type of defect is
832:Foseco Foundryman's Handbook
417:the most common defects are
7:
1350:
607:
395:. Hot tears, also known as
10:
1629:
1245:(2nd ed.). Springer.
868:Roxburgh, William (1919).
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18:
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1441:
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1181:. Butterworth-Heinemann.
1072:Davis, Joseph R. (1996).
435:longitudinal facial crack
1261:Yu, Kuang-Oscar (2002).
871:General Foundry Practice
105:closed shrinkage defects
71:
62:The terms "defect" and "
1608:Casting (manufacturing)
1201:(9th ed.). Wiley.
1175:Campbell, John (2003).
1099:Author, Author (2005).
626:for inclusions in steel
624:Non-metallic inclusions
829:Brown, John R (1994).
261:industrial CT scanning
232:
101:open shrinkage defects
44:mould material defects
1582:Tools and terminology
1398:Investment (Lost wax)
802:Sias, Fred R (2005).
614:Hydrogen gas porosity
604:in the sand mixture.
383:Metallurgical defects
267:Pouring metal defects
227:Blowhole defect in a
226:
172:hydrogen gas porosity
52:metallurgical defects
48:pouring metal defects
201:can be removed from
1381:Evaporative-pattern
95:as the thick metal
1131:has generic name (
972:, pp. 310–311
948:, pp. 306–307
897:, pp. 197–198
756:, pp. 283–284
497:fracture toughness
471:The first type is
439:continuous casting
429:Continuous casting
377:entrainment defect
339:, less frequently
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124:shrinkage porosity
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1594:
1538:
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1274:978-0-8247-8881-0
1252:978-0-387-74609-8
1230:978-0-07-463180-5
1188:978-0-7506-4790-8
1166:978-0-87170-657-7
1151:ASM International
1112:978-81-203-2779-5
1085:978-0-87170-564-8
676:978-0-87170-724-6
661:ASM International
513:metal penetration
87:Shrinkage defects
40:shrinkage defects
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791:
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769:Campbell 2003
765:
763:
755:
750:
748:
741:, p. 305
740:
735:
733:
725:
720:
718:
709:
703:
697:, p. 198
696:
691:
689:
687:
678:
672:
668:
667:
662:
656:
650:, p. 195
649:
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631:
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622:
620:
617:
615:
612:
611:
605:
603:
598:
590:
588:
583:
581:
577:
568:
559:
551:
542:
540:
536:
531:
529:
528:melting point
524:
522:
518:
514:
509:
507:
503:
498:
494:
490:
486:
485:moulding sand
482:
481:sand castings
478:
474:
473:mould erosion
469:
467:
460:
459:Strikebreaker
450:
448:
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436:
426:
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402:
394:
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380:
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291:back pressure
288:
284:
280:
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262:
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196:
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180:
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165:
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147:
145:
141:
140:microporosity
137:
136:macroporosity
133:
129:
125:
120:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
84:
82:
81:sand castings
77:
69:
65:discontinuity
55:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
32:metal casting
29:
22:
21:Strikebreaker
1499:
1469:Molding sand
1423:Shaw process
1408:Plaster mold
1314:Metalworking
1263:
1241:
1219:
1198:
1177:
1155:
1143:Bibliography
1101:
1094:
1074:
1067:
1032:
1012:, p. 76
1005:
991:
977:
965:
953:
941:
929:
909:
902:
890:
870:
863:
851:
831:
824:
804:
797:
785:
776:
726:, p. 69
702:
665:
655:
643:
592:
591:
586:
584:
580:carbonaceous
570:
561:
553:
544:
543:
534:
532:
525:
512:
510:
501:
472:
470:
463:
453:Sand casting
434:
432:
412:
403:
398:hot cracking
392:
388:
386:
357:
326:
322:shear strain
317:
315:
300:
296:
295:
286:
282:
278:
276:
263:) analysis.
245:casting sand
240:
236:
234:
218:
215:
195:gas flushing
176:
155:Gas porosity
154:
153:
150:Gas porosity
143:
139:
135:
127:
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116:
112:
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100:
90:
78:
75:
61:
51:
47:
43:
39:
36:gas porosity
35:
27:
25:
1552:Fabrication
1493:Terminology
1366:Centrifugal
1129:|last=
447:homogeneity
415:die casting
409:Die casting
366:, or in an
306:castability
58:Terminology
1613:Metallurgy
1602:Categories
1572:Metallurgy
1442:Components
1371:Continuous
1075:Cast irons
636:References
582:material.
423:cold shuts
353:inclusions
301:cold shuts
287:inclusions
283:cold shuts
271:See also:
249:ultrasonic
207:phosphorus
205:by adding
132:nucleation
109:atmosphere
97:solidifies
1567:Machining
1562:Jewellery
1391:Lost foam
1386:Full mold
1359:Processes
1121:cite book
602:additives
489:ductility
393:hot spots
389:hot tears
310:viscosity
237:blowholes
229:cast iron
187:superheat
128:hot spots
93:shrinkage
1577:Smithing
1178:Castings
1153:(1999).
1060:Rao 1999
1025:Rao 1999
895:Rao 1999
695:Rao 1999
663:(2008).
648:Rao 1999
608:See also
573:pulldown
349:sulfides
345:carbides
341:nitrides
253:magnetic
241:blisters
168:hydrogen
160:Nitrogen
1587:Welding
1557:Forming
1547:Casting
1515:Foundry
1474:Pattern
1352:Casting
1037:Yu 2002
970:Yu 2002
946:Yu 2002
856:Yu 2002
739:Yu 2002
595:Burn-on
564:Rattail
535:run out
521:veining
419:misruns
372:ceramic
362:, in a
297:Misruns
279:misruns
259:(e.g.,
211:silicon
1271:
1249:
1227:
1205:
1185:
1163:
1109:
1082:
917:
878:
839:
812:
673:
556:buckle
495:, and
466:rammed
364:vacuum
337:oxides
285:, and
203:copper
199:oxygen
164:oxygen
50:, and
1520:Ingot
1510:Dross
1505:Draft
1484:Sprue
1479:Riser
1464:Flask
1449:Chill
587:swell
539:flask
502:drops
477:mould
347:, or
329:dross
257:X-ray
255:, or
231:part.
179:argon
113:pipes
72:Types
1530:Slag
1459:Core
1433:Spin
1413:Sand
1269:ISBN
1247:ISBN
1225:ISBN
1203:ISBN
1183:ISBN
1161:ISBN
1133:help
1107:ISBN
1080:ISBN
915:ISBN
876:ISBN
837:ISBN
810:ISBN
671:ISBN
547:Scab
506:cope
421:and
391:and
360:flux
333:slag
308:and
299:and
166:and
142:(or
138:and
115:and
103:and
1376:Die
413:In
239:or
181:or
1604::
1125::
1123:}}
1119:{{
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343:,
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1171:.
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1115:.
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818:.
710:.
679:.
576:s
567:s
550:s
461:.
23:.
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