154:
place foraging application for the processing of mussels and acorns, Bettinger et al. (1997) make several predictions for archaeological expectations. The study shows that procurement with field processing is more costly compared to foraging and processing resources residentially. These results imply that highly mobile foragers will establish a home base in close proximity to staple resources, and all processing of those resources will be done residentially. Less residentially mobile populations would in turn be mapped only onto a few resources, and would be expected to field process non-local resources on logistical procurement forays at greater distances from their central place. Processing debris from archaeological sites should reflect changes in mobility.
129:) procurement and processing. This model assumes foragers are gathering resources at a distance from their central place with the goal of efficiently returning the resource home. Travel time is expected to determine the degree to which foragers will process a resource in order to increase its utility prior to returning from a foraging location to their central place. Transport capabilities in aboriginal California were established by measuring the volume of burden
1747:
445:
was weighed and recorded before proceeding to the next stage. Stages consisted of: gathering, drying, and a variety of processes (parching, hulling, winnowing, etc.) to remove inedible constituents. Caloric values of the samples were then determined via laboratory analysis. These values, as well as assumed load sizes from 3 to 15 kg (based on ethnographic burden basket sizes) were then used to generate field processing model predictions.
1738:. In addition to a resource with multiple components, this same model generalizes to a resource with multiple stages, each of which is composed of multiple resources, each of which can be removed independently of each other (i.e., with no additional cost). This model can be further generalized to the case where multiple components with additional costs can be removed in multiple stages of processing through recursion.
472:
973:. The right hand side of the equation is the proportion of relative utility*time to utility. Two conditions must be satisfied. First, the processed load must have higher utility than the unprocessed load. Second, the return rate of the unprocessed load must be at least as good as the return rate for the processed load. Formally,
352:= 74.6 and 137 respectively), and no shell is returned to camp at distances beyond 150 meters. Women’s fit nears 100%, but children and men made the optimal choice less frequently because they usually forage for shellfish opportunistically, and therefore do not always carry the appropriate processing technology.
395:= 278.7), the model accurately predicts processing only 58-59% of the time. This could in part be due to a preference for cooking some species inside of their shells (i.e. the shell has some utility), or also because some prey items are prepared at “dinner-time camps” rather than the residential camp.
192:
to determine the most energetically efficient load size. Newspaper articles were used to determine the hourly wage that a miner could be making if they worked in town instead. Newspapers were also used to estimate the value of silver at that time, and estimates of the amount of silver per kilogram of
166:
Mussels: Interpretation of archaeological mussel shell is complicated because it is reliant on the condition of the mussel beds, distance to the mussel beds and the type of harvest method being employed. In general, however, sites closer to mussel beds should have larger mussel shell due to plucking
444:
Samples were obtained for experimental processing from extant piñon groves and pickleweed patches in the vicinity as the cave sites. Piñon and pickleweed were harvested and processed in carefully timed and controlled stages. After each stage the useful, i.e. edible, portion of the remaining material
415:
Barlow and
Metcalfe (1996) address the issues of field processing of plant materials. Decisions of central place foragers may confound archaeological interpretations about the contribution plant material to the diet. Two interrelated issues are pertinent: the location of the central place, and field
601:
The goal of the field processing model is for a forager to maximize its return rate per roundtrip from home base to patch. The model typically solves for some amount of travel time that makes it worthwhile to process a resource to a certain stage. To determine this, we need to relate the benefit of
225:
composition may incorrectly estimate the importance of some species and their relative contribution to prehistoric diets. Using foraging data from the Meriam of
Australia, Bird and Bliege Bird (1997) compare observed shellfish field acquisition to shell deposition at residential sites, and test the
457:
will be incorporated into site deposits. However, the opposite is true for piñon, which is largely processed in the field. Thus, most sites will contain little macrofossil evidence of the inedible portions of piñon that could later be recovered by archaeologists. As such, the relative abundance of
162:
remains are dominated by acorn can be assumed to be seasonal sites of highly mobile foragers that have mapped on to acorns for seasonal processing. Sites that have a mix of archaeobotanical remains with a decreased abundance in acorn remains and plant material that would be lost in early stages of
153:
An understanding of central place foraging has implications for studying archaeological site formation. Variability of remains at sites can tell us about mobility – whether or not groups are central place foragers, what resource they’re mapping on to, and their degree of mobility. Based on central
406:
Overall, prey types that were difficult or inefficient to process and/or were collected near the residential or temporary camp were not field processed. Species that required little processing time to increase returns and/or were collected far from camp were field processed. The field processing
2049:
Central place foraging predicts that foragers will optimize their routes and resource collection strategies based on the distance and profitability of resources relative to their central location, aiming to maximize their energy gain while minimizing travel costs. Puzzle - another hmmmm could be
1187:
Many resources have multiple components that can be removed during processing to increase utility. Multistage field processing models provide a way to calculate travel thresholds for each stage when a resource has more than one component. As one increases the utility per load, the time needed to
237:
of
Australia, are of Melanesian descent, and have strong cultural and historical ties to New Guinea. They continue to harvest marine resources such as sea turtles, fishes, squid, and shellfish. Bird and Bliege Bird conducted “focal individual foraging follows” of 33 children, 16 men and 42 women
144:
Acorn: Most stages of acorn processing are extremely time consuming but only marginally increase utility, therefore the central place foraging model predicts that acorns should only be dried prior to transporting to central place. Further processing of acorns (cracking, shucking, and winnowing)
448:
At a distance of 15 kilometers from the central place, the estimated net return rates for field processing loads of piñon and pickleweed are 3,000 and 190 calories per hour, respectively. Since piñon has higher overall return rates, field processing produces a higher rate of return. Because
148:
Mussels: When foragers employ the plucking harvesting method, field processing is expected even with short travel distances, as the shell to meat ratio allows forager to increase efficiency by removing shell. Stripping will almost always result in central place processing, rather than field
31:
rates while traveling through a patch (a discrete resource concentration), but maintains the key distinction of a forager traveling from a home base to a distant foraging location rather than simply passing through an area or travelling at random. CPF was initially developed to explain how
220:
Shellfish exemplify the resources targeted by the CPF model – those with a heavy, bulky, low utility component (e.g. shell) surrounding a smaller, lighter high utility component (e.g. meat). If foragers differentially field process and transport shellfish prey items, analyses of
207:
Miners were choosing locations that were much farther away than feasible given the value of silver and its actual abundance. However, the mines were within the distance predicted using the optimistic newspaper estimates. Glover suggested that miners, being new to the area, used
449:
pickleweed has a lower rate of return, it is not worthwhile to spend the additional effort required for field processing. Therefore, the central place will be situated closer to pickleweed patches than to piñon in order to more effectively exploit the lower-ranked resource.
1778:
represents the travel time at which processing to the next stage will provide higher return rates, which is indicated by the intersection of the decay curves for two sequential stages of processing. The shaded areas represent the optimal extent of processing as travel time
452:
These results imply that the archaeological evidence for pickleweed at the cave may over estimate its actual contribution to the diet. If foragers choose to reside closer to pickleweed patches and bring back largely unprocessed plants, a high density of pickleweed
1553:
167:
and residential consumption. Sites far from mussel procurement beds would be expected to have a mix of mussel shell sizes due to stripping. The presence of higher amounts of small mussel shell could also indicate an increase in resource intensification.
193:
ore were obtained through records from area silver mills, as well as through newspapers. These differed, with the newspapers optimistically claiming that silver deposits were far more productive than the more accurate mill records demonstrated.
1998:
Field processing can increase the amount of time that an individual is willing to pursue a prey. If processing a prey item results in a big enough benefit, you will spend longer capturing it. We can see this by looking at where
1306:
596:
is reduced, we should expect an increase in the transport time atwhich processing will occur. A forager should process items when transport time from a central place exceeds this threshold. (Adapted from
Metcalfe and Barlow
145:
increases efficiency only when foragers’ one way travel time reaches 25 hours. This corresponds to approximately 124.75 km, which exceeds the territory size of native groups in
California dependent on acorns.
265:) collected on the reef flat constitute over half of the edible weight collected, but since they are almost always field processed their shells make up only 10% of the residential site deposition. In contrast,
1176:
1750:
Transport decay curves demonstrate the reduction in return rates (cal/hour) experienced by a central place forager as a function of round trip travel time. The travel threshold from field processing models,
1995:. So that part of the equation will be negative. Therefore, if we hold everything else the same and increase the benefit due to processing, the travel time required to make processing viable will decrease.
856:
200:. These data were used to calculate least cost paths from the mines to Gothic, which provided the distances to the central place. The results were compared to two different CPF models based on newspaper
1891:
is the amount of time it takes an individual to process something to an additional stage, and this is independent of the amount of time it takes one to initially procure the resources, and since
284:
Since reef flat and rocky shore foraging occurs at multiple sites at variable distances from the residential camp, the authors calculated the mean one-way travel distance processing threshold (
2197:
Bird, D. W. Bliege Bird, R. 1997. Contemporary
Shellfish Gathering Strategies among the Meriam of the Torres Strait Islands, Australia: Testing Predictions of a Central Place Foraging Model.
212:
strategies and based their decisions on newspaper propaganda and rumors, rather than individual experience. Therefore, they chose locations that were too far away to be economically viable.
2050:
whytreesaregreat - and perhaps LXX8tH6g. Processing efficiency may vary based on environmental conditions, such as resource abundance or scarcity, influencing the overall foraging strategy.
407:
predictions of the CPF model might be incorrect where shellfish are transported whole in order to maintain freshness for later consumption or trade, or where the shell itself is valuable.
2184:
Glover, S. M. 2009. Propaganda, Public
Information, and Prospecting: Explaining the Irrational Exuberance of Central Place Foragers During a Late Nineteenth Century Colorado Silver Rush.
1426:
250:. Foraging technology includes 10- liter plastic buckets, long-blade knives, and hammers. Foragers are constrained by time (2–4 hours at low tide) and load size (10-liter bucket).
1941:
If processing results in a greater benefit, then one will not need to travel as far to make processing worthwhile. This is clear to see because, as long as condition 2 holds,
1108:
1059:
1019:
951:
905:
594:
548:
1698:
1588:
1412:
1376:
1341:
753:
721:
689:
657:
393:
350:
312:
2024:
1993:
1966:
1916:
1889:
1862:
1835:
1776:
1732:
502:
281:) are usually processed residentially. Large clams were, therefore, underrepresented while small clams and nerites were overrepresented in the reconstructed diet.
188:
to the mill, the value of silver, and the amount of silver per kilogram of ore. Estimates of the costs associated with transport were obtained using research from
1666:
1641:
1616:
625:
2044:
1936:
971:
32:
red-winged blackbirds might maximize energy returns when traveling to and from a nest. The model has been further refined and used by anthropologists studying
2124:
Kacelnik, A., Houston, A. I., & Schmid-Hempel, P. 1986. Central-place foraging in honey bees: the effect of travel time and nectar flow on crop filling.
2054:
Transport decay curves demonstrate the reduction in return rates (cal/hour) experienced by a central place forager as a function of round trip travel time.
1197:
65:, which brought back large, single insects. Foraging specialization by Costa Rican blackbirds was attributed to increased search and handling costs of
140:
and procurement methods, the central place foraging model was used to predict the conditions in which field processing of the two species will occur.
2111:
Costa DP. 1991. Reproductive and foraging energetics of high-latitude penguins, albatrosses, and pinnipeds- Implications for life-history patterns.
81:
have also found that load size tends to increase with foraging distance from the nest, as predicted by CPF. Other central place foragers, such as
458:
macrofossils in most cases does not directly translate into the relative contribution of those resources to the diet of central place foragers.
314:, in meters) for each species. The CPF model accurately predicts field processing for the majority of reef flat foraging events for bivalves.
1113:
1787:
Individuals attempt to maximize their rate of delivery per round trip * Packages have at least two components with different utilities
149:
processing, as this harvesting method results in the procurement of a high percentage of small mussels with high shell to meat ratios.
764:
113:, Bettinger et al. (1997) simplify the Barlow and Metcalf (1996) central place model to explore the archaeological implications of
2085:
Orians, G.H., Pearson, N.E., 1979. On the theory of central place foraging. In: Horn, D.J., Mitchell, R.D., Stairs, G.R. (Eds.),
196:
These estimates were used to determine the optimal placement of mines. A number of historic mining locations were recorded using
403:
are never field processed, consistent with their large processing threshold distances (2418.5 and 5355.7 respectively).
2098:
Metcalfe, D., Barlow, K.R., 1992. A model for exploring the optimal tradeoff between field processing and transport.
110:
163:
field processing are interpreted as less residentially mobile settlements characterized by logistical procurement.
1548:{\displaystyle x_{j}=\left({\frac {L}{P\sum _{i\in s_{j}}B_{i}}}\right)\left(M+\sum _{i\notin s_{j}}D_{i}\right)}
136:
Ethnographic and experimental data was used to estimate utility at each possible stage of processing. Examining
2026:
is in this model. Since it interacts with the benefit due to processing, a change in either of those can alter
2227:
130:
2222:
2153:
Bettinger, R.L, Malhi, R., & McCarthy, H. 1997. Central Place Models of Acorn and Mussel
Processing.
93:
have been found to preferentially collect larger diameter trees as distance from their lodge increases.
61:
tend to capture a larger number of single species prey items per trip compared to the same species in
1810:
The amount an individual is willing to process is proportional to traveling time. This is evident in
1073:
1024:
984:
2137:
Fryxell, J. M., & Doucet, C. M. 1991. Provisioning time and central-place foraging in beavers.
910:
864:
553:
507:
437:
106:
33:
2063:
209:
2217:
234:
90:
1673:
1563:
1387:
1351:
1316:
728:
696:
664:
632:
368:
325:
287:
2002:
1971:
1944:
1894:
1867:
1840:
1813:
1754:
1710:
54:
24:
478:
176:
Glover (2009) used a CPF model to determine if late nineteenth century silver miners near
8:
2171:
Barlow, K. R. & Metcalfe, D. 1996. Plant
Utility Indices: Two Great Basin Examples.
1648:
1623:
1598:
607:
2029:
1921:
956:
171:
1301:{\displaystyle y_{j}={\frac {\sum _{i\in s_{j}}A_{i}B_{i}}{\sum _{i\in s_{j}}B_{i}}}}
255:
86:
1794:
177:
58:
1783:
This model rests on a number of assumptions. The most important are listed here.
424:
89:
increase their nectar load as travel time to nectar sites from a hive increases.
243:
82:
215:
96:
2211:
1797:, but time spent in camp does not. So there is no cost to processing in camp.
361:
230:
159:
550:. When the difference between field processing and transporting whole items
428:
133:
and extrapolating the load weight based on ethnographic data on basket use.
266:
102:
454:
420:
247:
184:
were choosing mine locations efficiently given the costs of transporting
37:
1746:
1182:
410:
356:
239:
201:
189:
185:
70:
62:
1790:
The optimal load size is less than or equal to the resources available
627:
point on transport-time axis where field processing become profitable
74:
66:
602:
processing and the time spent processing to the travel time. We let
419:
Barlow and
Metcalfe study archaeological materials from two sites,
261:
181:
172:
Archaeological case study: silver miners and propaganda in Colorado
78:
28:
1806:
There are three key predictions from the field processing model.
1171:{\displaystyle {\frac {y_{0}}{x_{0}}}\geq {\frac {y_{1}}{x_{1}}}}
274:
137:
1700:
total handling and processing time required to reach each stage
471:
222:
122:
1918:
is positive, then increasing it will result in an increase in
851:{\displaystyle z={\frac {y_{0}x_{1}-y_{1}x_{0}}{y_{1}-y_{0}}}}
48:
114:
73:
for prey with lower search and handling costs. Studies with
1420:
The cost in terms of time for each stage of processing is:
216:
Ethnographic case study: shellfish in Torres Strait Islands
97:
Archaeological case study: acorns and mussels in California
2089:. The Ohio State University Press, Columbus, pp. 154–177.
466:
197:
1734:, which is the travel threshold for processing to stage
504:
whilekeeping constant procurement and processing times
2032:
2005:
1974:
1947:
1924:
1897:
1870:
1843:
1816:
1757:
1713:
1676:
1651:
1626:
1601:
1566:
1429:
1390:
1378:
proportion of package composed of resource component
1354:
1319:
1200:
1183:
Multiple components and multiple stages of processing
1116:
1076:
1027:
987:
959:
913:
867:
767:
731:
699:
667:
635:
610:
556:
510:
481:
371:
328:
290:
69:
foraging, whereas birds in Eastern Washington forage
411:
Ethnoarchaeological case study: pickleweed and piñon
204:and the more realistic mill records, respectively.
2038:
2018:
1987:
1960:
1930:
1910:
1883:
1856:
1829:
1770:
1726:
1692:
1660:
1635:
1610:
1582:
1547:
1406:
1370:
1335:
1300:
1170:
1102:
1053:
1013:
965:
945:
899:
861:With values for the utility and time of processed
850:
747:
715:
683:
651:
619:
588:
542:
496:
387:
344:
306:
27:model for analyzing how an organism can maximize
2209:
691:time to procure and process a load of resources
1668:time required to handle each resource package
427:. These sites contain evidence for the use of
101:To apply the central place foraging model to
1191:The benefit of each stage of processing is:
475:The effect of flattening the utility curve,
2149:
2147:
1590:time required to remove resource component
322:have small processing threshold distances (
49:Central place foraging in non-human animals
1707:Now these values can be used to calculate
1618:weight of optimal load size for transport
1414:utility of load at field-processing stage
723:utility of load without field processing
2167:
2165:
2163:
2144:
2081:
2079:
1793:Time spent away from camp comes with an
1745:
470:
2118:
2092:
758:The relationship is then specified by:
2210:
2131:
1643:weight of unmodified resource package
755:utility of load with field processing
659:time to procure unprocessed resources
467:Basic math: single stage of processing
2178:
2160:
2076:
53:Orians and Pearson (1979) found that
2105:
85:, also show support for CPF theory.
2191:
2126:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
1188:procure a complete load increases.
423:and Hogup Cave, in the area of the
13:
14:
2239:
2199:Journal of Archaeological Science
2173:Journal of Archaeological Science
2155:Journal of Archaeological Science
43:
2087:Analysis of Ecological Systems
1801:
1741:
1343:utility of resource component
1103:{\displaystyle y_{0}<y_{1}}
1054:{\displaystyle y_{1}>y_{0}}
1014:{\displaystyle x_{1}>x_{0}}
940:
914:
894:
868:
583:
557:
537:
511:
491:
485:
1:
2069:
1864:in the equation above. Since
946:{\displaystyle (y_{0},x_{0})}
900:{\displaystyle (y_{1},x_{1})}
589:{\displaystyle (y_{1},y_{0})}
543:{\displaystyle (x_{0},x_{1})}
226:hypotheses of the CPF model.
461:
7:
2139:Canadian Journal of Zoology
2057:
107:experimental archaeological
10:
2244:
438:Allenrolfea occidentalis
158:Acorns: Sites where the
34:human behavioral ecology
2100:American Anthropologist
2064:Optimal foraging theory
2040:
2020:
1989:
1962:
1932:
1912:
1885:
1858:
1831:
1780:
1772:
1728:
1694:
1693:{\displaystyle x_{j}=}
1662:
1637:
1612:
1584:
1583:{\displaystyle D_{j}=}
1549:
1408:
1407:{\displaystyle y_{j}=}
1372:
1371:{\displaystyle B_{j}=}
1337:
1336:{\displaystyle A_{j}=}
1302:
1172:
1104:
1055:
1015:
967:
947:
907:and unprocessed loads
901:
852:
749:
748:{\displaystyle y_{1}=}
717:
716:{\displaystyle y_{0}=}
685:
684:{\displaystyle x_{1}=}
653:
652:{\displaystyle x_{0}=}
621:
598:
590:
544:
498:
389:
388:{\displaystyle z_{d1}}
346:
345:{\displaystyle z_{d1}}
308:
307:{\displaystyle z_{d1}}
17:Central place foraging
2041:
2021:
2019:{\displaystyle x_{0}}
1990:
1988:{\displaystyle y_{0}}
1963:
1961:{\displaystyle y_{1}}
1933:
1913:
1911:{\displaystyle x_{1}}
1886:
1884:{\displaystyle x_{1}}
1859:
1857:{\displaystyle x_{1}}
1832:
1830:{\displaystyle x_{0}}
1773:
1771:{\displaystyle z_{j}}
1749:
1729:
1727:{\displaystyle z_{j}}
1695:
1663:
1638:
1613:
1585:
1550:
1409:
1373:
1338:
1303:
1173:
1105:
1056:
1016:
968:
948:
902:
853:
750:
718:
686:
654:
622:
591:
545:
499:
474:
390:
347:
309:
235:Torres Strait Islands
127:Mytilus californianus
55:red-winged blackbirds
2228:Evolutionary ecology
2030:
2003:
1972:
1945:
1922:
1895:
1868:
1841:
1814:
1755:
1711:
1674:
1649:
1624:
1599:
1564:
1427:
1388:
1382:prior to processing
1352:
1317:
1198:
1114:
1074:
1025:
985:
957:
911:
865:
765:
729:
697:
665:
633:
608:
554:
508:
497:{\displaystyle U(t)}
479:
369:
326:
288:
25:evolutionary ecology
2141:. 69(5), 1308-1313.
953:, we can solve for
111:middle range theory
2223:Behavioral ecology
2113:American Zoologist
2036:
2016:
1985:
1958:
1928:
1908:
1881:
1854:
1827:
1781:
1768:
1724:
1690:
1661:{\displaystyle M=}
1658:
1636:{\displaystyle P=}
1633:
1611:{\displaystyle L=}
1608:
1580:
1545:
1529:
1478:
1404:
1368:
1333:
1298:
1284:
1239:
1168:
1100:
1051:
1011:
963:
943:
897:
848:
745:
713:
681:
649:
620:{\displaystyle z=}
617:
599:
586:
540:
494:
435:) and pickleweed (
385:
342:
304:
271:Asaphis violascens
242:foraging bouts on
87:European honeybees
2115:, 31(1), 111–130.
2039:{\displaystyle z}
1931:{\displaystyle z}
1507:
1490:
1456:
1296:
1262:
1217:
1166:
1139:
966:{\displaystyle z}
846:
256:Hippopus hippopus
119:Quercus kelloggii
2235:
2202:
2195:
2189:
2182:
2176:
2169:
2158:
2151:
2142:
2135:
2129:
2122:
2116:
2109:
2103:
2096:
2090:
2083:
2045:
2043:
2042:
2037:
2025:
2023:
2022:
2017:
2015:
2014:
1994:
1992:
1991:
1986:
1984:
1983:
1967:
1965:
1964:
1959:
1957:
1956:
1937:
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1934:
1929:
1917:
1915:
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1907:
1906:
1890:
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1879:
1863:
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1860:
1855:
1853:
1852:
1836:
1834:
1833:
1828:
1826:
1825:
1795:opportunity cost
1777:
1775:
1774:
1769:
1767:
1766:
1733:
1731:
1730:
1725:
1723:
1722:
1699:
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1667:
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1659:
1642:
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1639:
1634:
1617:
1615:
1614:
1609:
1589:
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1576:
1575:
1554:
1552:
1551:
1546:
1544:
1540:
1539:
1538:
1528:
1527:
1526:
1495:
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1487:
1477:
1476:
1475:
1448:
1439:
1438:
1413:
1411:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1399:
1377:
1375:
1374:
1369:
1364:
1363:
1342:
1340:
1339:
1334:
1329:
1328:
1307:
1305:
1304:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1294:
1293:
1283:
1282:
1281:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1249:
1248:
1238:
1237:
1236:
1215:
1210:
1209:
1177:
1175:
1174:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1164:
1155:
1154:
1145:
1140:
1138:
1137:
1128:
1127:
1118:
1109:
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1099:
1098:
1086:
1085:
1060:
1058:
1057:
1052:
1050:
1049:
1037:
1036:
1020:
1018:
1017:
1012:
1010:
1009:
997:
996:
972:
970:
969:
964:
952:
950:
949:
944:
939:
938:
926:
925:
906:
904:
903:
898:
893:
892:
880:
879:
857:
855:
854:
849:
847:
845:
844:
843:
831:
830:
820:
819:
818:
809:
808:
796:
795:
786:
785:
775:
754:
752:
751:
746:
741:
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722:
720:
719:
714:
709:
708:
690:
688:
687:
682:
677:
676:
658:
656:
655:
650:
645:
644:
626:
624:
623:
618:
595:
593:
592:
587:
582:
581:
569:
568:
549:
547:
546:
541:
536:
535:
523:
522:
503:
501:
500:
495:
433:Pinus monophylla
394:
392:
391:
386:
384:
383:
351:
349:
348:
343:
341:
340:
313:
311:
310:
305:
303:
302:
160:archaeobotanical
59:Washington State
2243:
2242:
2238:
2237:
2236:
2234:
2233:
2232:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2205:
2196:
2192:
2183:
2179:
2170:
2161:
2152:
2145:
2136:
2132:
2128:, 19(1), 19–24.
2123:
2119:
2110:
2106:
2097:
2093:
2084:
2077:
2072:
2060:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2010:
2006:
2004:
2001:
2000:
1979:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1969:
1968:is larger than
1952:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1942:
1923:
1920:
1919:
1902:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1892:
1875:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1865:
1848:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1838:
1821:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1811:
1804:
1762:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1752:
1744:
1718:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1708:
1681:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1671:
1650:
1647:
1646:
1625:
1622:
1621:
1600:
1597:
1596:
1571:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1561:
1556:
1534:
1530:
1522:
1518:
1511:
1500:
1496:
1483:
1479:
1471:
1467:
1460:
1452:
1447:
1443:
1434:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1424:
1395:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1385:
1359:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1349:
1324:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1314:
1309:
1289:
1285:
1277:
1273:
1266:
1261:
1254:
1250:
1244:
1240:
1232:
1228:
1221:
1216:
1214:
1205:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1195:
1185:
1180:
1160:
1156:
1150:
1146:
1144:
1133:
1129:
1123:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1112:
1111:
1094:
1090:
1081:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1071:
1063:
1045:
1041:
1032:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1022:
1005:
1001:
992:
988:
986:
983:
982:
958:
955:
954:
934:
930:
921:
917:
912:
909:
908:
888:
884:
875:
871:
866:
863:
862:
859:
839:
835:
826:
822:
821:
814:
810:
804:
800:
791:
787:
781:
777:
776:
774:
766:
763:
762:
736:
732:
730:
727:
726:
704:
700:
698:
695:
694:
672:
668:
666:
663:
662:
640:
636:
634:
631:
630:
609:
606:
605:
577:
573:
564:
560:
555:
552:
551:
531:
527:
518:
514:
509:
506:
505:
480:
477:
476:
469:
464:
425:Great Salt Lake
413:
376:
372:
370:
367:
366:
333:
329:
327:
324:
323:
295:
291:
289:
286:
285:
218:
210:social learning
174:
109:data driven by
99:
51:
46:
23:) theory is an
12:
11:
5:
2241:
2231:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2204:
2203:
2190:
2177:
2175:. 23, 351-371.
2159:
2157:. 24, 887-899.
2143:
2130:
2117:
2104:
2102:. 94, 340–356.
2091:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2067:
2066:
2059:
2056:
2052:
2051:
2047:
2035:
2013:
2009:
1996:
1982:
1978:
1955:
1951:
1939:
1927:
1905:
1901:
1878:
1874:
1851:
1847:
1824:
1820:
1803:
1800:
1799:
1798:
1791:
1788:
1765:
1761:
1743:
1740:
1721:
1717:
1704:of processing
1689:
1684:
1680:
1657:
1654:
1632:
1629:
1607:
1604:
1579:
1574:
1570:
1543:
1537:
1533:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1503:
1499:
1494:
1486:
1482:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1446:
1442:
1437:
1433:
1422:
1403:
1398:
1394:
1367:
1362:
1358:
1332:
1327:
1323:
1292:
1288:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1269:
1265:
1257:
1253:
1247:
1243:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1224:
1220:
1213:
1208:
1204:
1193:
1184:
1181:
1163:
1159:
1153:
1149:
1143:
1136:
1132:
1126:
1122:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1080:
1068:
1067:
1066:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1035:
1031:
1008:
1004:
1000:
995:
991:
979:
978:
977:
962:
942:
937:
933:
929:
924:
920:
916:
896:
891:
887:
883:
878:
874:
870:
842:
838:
834:
829:
825:
817:
813:
807:
803:
799:
794:
790:
784:
780:
773:
770:
760:
744:
739:
735:
712:
707:
703:
680:
675:
671:
648:
643:
639:
616:
613:
585:
580:
576:
572:
567:
563:
559:
539:
534:
530:
526:
521:
517:
513:
493:
490:
487:
484:
468:
465:
463:
460:
412:
409:
382:
379:
375:
339:
336:
332:
301:
298:
294:
217:
214:
173:
170:
169:
168:
164:
151:
150:
146:
98:
95:
83:social insects
50:
47:
45:
42:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2240:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2200:
2194:
2187:
2186:Human Ecology
2181:
2174:
2168:
2166:
2164:
2156:
2150:
2148:
2140:
2134:
2127:
2121:
2114:
2108:
2101:
2095:
2088:
2082:
2080:
2075:
2065:
2062:
2061:
2055:
2048:
2033:
2011:
2007:
1997:
1980:
1976:
1953:
1949:
1940:
1925:
1903:
1899:
1876:
1872:
1849:
1845:
1822:
1818:
1809:
1808:
1807:
1796:
1792:
1789:
1786:
1785:
1784:
1763:
1759:
1748:
1739:
1737:
1719:
1715:
1705:
1703:
1687:
1682:
1678:
1669:
1655:
1652:
1644:
1630:
1627:
1619:
1605:
1602:
1594:
1593:
1577:
1572:
1568:
1559:
1555:
1541:
1535:
1531:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1501:
1497:
1492:
1484:
1480:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1444:
1440:
1435:
1431:
1421:
1418:
1417:
1401:
1396:
1392:
1383:
1381:
1365:
1360:
1356:
1347:
1346:
1330:
1325:
1321:
1312:
1308:
1290:
1286:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1267:
1263:
1255:
1251:
1245:
1241:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1222:
1218:
1211:
1206:
1202:
1192:
1189:
1179:
1161:
1157:
1151:
1147:
1141:
1134:
1130:
1124:
1120:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1082:
1078:
1065:
1064:
1062:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1033:
1029:
1006:
1002:
998:
993:
989:
976:
975:
974:
960:
935:
931:
927:
922:
918:
889:
885:
881:
876:
872:
858:
840:
836:
832:
827:
823:
815:
811:
805:
801:
797:
792:
788:
782:
778:
771:
768:
759:
756:
742:
737:
733:
724:
710:
705:
701:
692:
678:
673:
669:
660:
646:
641:
637:
628:
614:
611:
603:
578:
574:
570:
565:
561:
532:
528:
524:
519:
515:
488:
482:
473:
459:
456:
450:
446:
442:
440:
439:
434:
430:
426:
422:
417:
408:
404:
402:
398:
397:A. violascens
380:
377:
373:
364:
363:
362:Lambis lambis
358:
353:
337:
334:
330:
321:
317:
299:
296:
292:
282:
280:
279:Nerita undata
276:
272:
268:
264:
263:
262:Tridacna spp.
258:
257:
253:Large clams (
251:
249:
245:
241:
236:
232:
227:
224:
213:
211:
205:
203:
199:
194:
191:
187:
183:
179:
165:
161:
157:
156:
155:
147:
143:
142:
141:
139:
134:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
94:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
41:
39:
35:
30:
26:
22:
18:
2218:Anthropology
2198:
2193:
2188:37, 519-531.
2185:
2180:
2172:
2154:
2138:
2133:
2125:
2120:
2112:
2107:
2099:
2094:
2086:
2053:
1805:
1782:
1735:
1706:
1701:
1670:
1645:
1620:
1595:
1591:
1560:
1557:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1384:
1379:
1348:
1344:
1313:
1310:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1069:
980:
860:
761:
757:
725:
693:
661:
629:
604:
600:
455:macrofossils
451:
447:
443:
436:
432:
418:
416:processing.
414:
405:
400:
396:
360:
354:
319:
315:
283:
278:
270:
267:sunset clams
260:
254:
252:
228:
219:
206:
195:
175:
152:
135:
126:
118:
103:ethnographic
100:
52:
44:Case studies
20:
16:
15:
1802:Predictions
1742:Assumptions
421:Danger Cave
248:rock shores
57:in eastern
38:archaeology
2212:Categories
2070:References
1779:increases.
429:piñon pine
357:gastropods
244:reef flats
240:intertidal
202:propaganda
190:physiology
186:silver ore
63:Costa Rica
2201:24:39-63.
1516:∉
1509:∑
1465:∈
1458:∑
1271:∈
1264:∑
1226:∈
1219:∑
1142:≥
833:−
798:−
462:The model
401:N. undata
75:sea birds
71:diurnally
67:nocturnal
2058:See also
320:Tridacna
316:Hippopus
233:inhabit
182:Colorado
29:foraging
1110:, then
275:nerites
238:during
138:ecology
131:baskets
91:Beavers
1558:where
1311:where
597:1992.)
273:) and
231:Meriam
223:midden
178:Gothic
123:mussel
121:) and
1021:then
115:acorn
79:seals
1837:and
1088:<
1039:>
999:>
399:and
355:For
318:and
259:and
246:and
229:The
105:and
77:and
36:and
1070:If
981:If
441:).
198:GPS
21:CPF
2214::
2162:^
2146:^
2078:^
1178:.
1061:.
365:,
180:,
40:.
2046:.
2034:z
2012:0
2008:x
1981:0
1977:y
1954:1
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1938:.
1926:z
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1900:x
1877:1
1873:x
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1764:j
1760:z
1736:j
1720:j
1716:z
1702:j
1688:=
1683:j
1679:x
1656:=
1653:M
1631:=
1628:P
1606:=
1603:L
1592:j
1578:=
1573:j
1569:D
1542:)
1536:i
1532:D
1524:j
1520:s
1513:i
1505:+
1502:M
1498:(
1493:)
1485:i
1481:B
1473:j
1469:s
1462:i
1454:P
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1445:(
1441:=
1436:j
1432:x
1416:j
1402:=
1397:j
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1380:j
1366:=
1361:j
1357:B
1345:j
1331:=
1326:j
1322:A
1291:i
1287:B
1279:j
1275:s
1268:i
1256:i
1252:B
1246:i
1242:A
1234:j
1230:s
1223:i
1212:=
1207:j
1203:y
1162:1
1158:x
1152:1
1148:y
1135:0
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1125:0
1121:y
1096:1
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1083:0
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1034:1
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936:0
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928:,
923:0
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915:(
895:)
890:1
886:x
882:,
877:1
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869:(
841:0
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806:1
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793:1
789:x
783:0
779:y
772:=
769:z
743:=
738:1
734:y
711:=
706:0
702:y
679:=
674:1
670:x
647:=
642:0
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615:=
612:z
584:)
579:0
575:y
571:,
566:1
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558:(
538:)
533:1
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512:(
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489:t
486:(
483:U
431:(
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374:z
359:(
338:1
335:d
331:z
300:1
297:d
293:z
277:(
269:(
125:(
117:(
19:(
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